essay on causes and effects of road accidents

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Essay on A Road Accident [ Causes, Effects, Solutions ]

This essay talks about a road accident of car and coach, Causes of increase in Road accidents and what efforts can be taken to minimize the threat of Road Accident. This essay is written in simple English and in easy to understand words. It is very helpful for children and students.

Essay on a Road Accident | Causes & Effects of Road Accidents, Ways how to Control Accidents

Road accidents are one of the most common problems that everyone is facing everywhere. So, here we will discuss the causes of road accidents and what efforts can be taken to minimize the threat of road accident.

A road accident is an unpleasant incident that happens due to the careless driving of a vehicle. It often results in damage to public property, vehicles and sometimes even human lives. There are many factors that contribute to such accidents.

A Road Accide nt

I was traveling from Manchester to London by car. It was a pleasant journey as the weather was fine. On the way, I saw a road accident. A car had collided with a coach. The coach was overturned and many passengers were lying on the road injured. Some of them were shouting for help. People had gathered there. The police had also arrived there. They were trying to help the injured passengers. An ambulance was coming. The accident had caused a big traffic jam. The vehicles were stranded on the road for a long time. It was a shocking and disturbing sight.

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The Causes of Road Accidents:

There are many causes of road accidents. They are as follow;

1. Over-speeding : The most common cause of road accidents is over-speeding. Many drivers do not follow the speed limit and drive at a very high speed. This increases the chances of accidents as they cannot apply brakes on time in case of an emergency.

2. Drunken Driving: Drunken driving is another major cause of road accidents. Many drivers drive under the influence of alcohol and this reduces their ability to concentrate on the road. This increases the chances of accidents.

3. Distraction: Another cause of road accidents is distraction. Many drivers use mobile phones while driving which distracts their attention from the road. This increases the chances of accidents.

4. Lack of sleep: Another cause of road accidents is lack of sleep. Many drivers drive for long hours without taking a break. This makes them tired and increases the chances of accidents.

5. Bad weather: Bad weather is also a cause of road accidents. In bad weather conditions, visibility is reduced and this increases the chances of accidents.

Efforts to reduce Road Accidents

There are many efforts that can be taken to reduce road accidents. They are as follows;

Speed limit: The speed limit should be enforced strictly and drivers should be fined for driving over the speed limit. This will help to reduce the number of accidents.

Education and Awareness: There should be awareness campaigns to educate people about the causes of road accidents and how to avoid them.

Punishment to careless drivers: Careless drivers should be punished severely to set an example for others. This will help to reduce the number of accidents.

Better road infrastructure: There should be better road infrastructure with wider roads and better signage. This will help to reduce the number of accidents.

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Road accidents are a major problem and they need to be addressed urgently. There are many measures that can be taken to reduce road accidents. If these measures are implemented, the number of road accidents will decrease significantly.

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10 Effects Of Road Accidents | Devastating Consequences

The effects of road accidents are profound and far-reaching, spanning from immediate physical harm to lingering emotional scars. These tragedies not only affect the victims but also send ripples throughout communities, inflicting broader social and economic consequences. Beyond the evident distress and damage, road accidents impose a weighty burden on families, often leading to financial strain and relationship challenges.

In this blog, we will explore the 10 primary consequences of road accidents, from immediate and financial to emotional and psychological. We will also look at the long-term effects of accidents and the legal and social implications they can have. By understanding the full scope of the consequences of road accidents, we can take steps to prevent them and mitigate their impact when they occur. Let’s dive in and explore the ripple effect of road accidents.

10 Effects Of Road Accidents

Road accidents can have devastating effects on individuals, families, and communities. Some of the common effects of road accidents include:

1. Physical Injuries

Road accidents can result in a wide range of physical injuries, from minor cuts and bruises to severe injuries such as broken bones, spinal cord injuries, traumatic brain injuries, and amputations. These injuries can impact a person’s health and well-being, leading to long-term disabilities and reduced mobility.

Victims may require extensive medical treatment and rehabilitation, which can be costly and time-consuming. They may also experience chronic pain and discomfort, affecting their ability to work, socialize, and enjoy life as they once did. Physical injuries can also have a psychological impact, leading to anxiety, depression, and other mental health conditions.

2. Emotional Trauma

The emotional trauma of a road accident can be just as devastating as physical injuries. Survivors may experience shock, anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and struggle with guilt, anger, and fear. These emotional reactions can be long-lasting, affecting a person’s ability to function normally and enjoy life.

The emotional trauma of a road accident can also impact a person’s relationships and social interactions, leading to isolation and further mental health problems. Survivors need professional help to manage their emotional reactions and prevent long-term psychological damage.

3. Loss of Life

Road accidents can result in the tragic loss of life, leaving families and communities devastated. Losing a loved one in a road accident can profoundly impact family members, friends, and communities.

The emotional and psychological toll can be significant, and grieving can take a long time. For some, it may take years to come to terms with losing a loved one. Families and communities need to support each other during these difficult times and seek professional help if needed.

4. Financial Burden

Road accidents can also have a significant financial impact. Victims may face medical bills, property damage, and lost wages, which can add up quickly. In some cases, victims may also face legal fees and other expenses related to their accident.

The financial burden of a road accident can be overwhelming, particularly for those who cannot work due to their injuries. This can lead to financial instability, debt, and even bankruptcy.

5. Disability and Reduced Mobility

Severe injuries sustained in road accidents can result in disabilities and reduced mobility, affecting a person’s ability to work, socialize, and enjoy life as they once did. Disabilities can be temporary or permanent and require ongoing medical treatment and rehabilitation. This can be costly, time-consuming, and impact a person’s mental health and well-being.

6. Impact on Families and Relationships

Road accidents can strain families and relationships, with loved ones having to provide physical and emotional support to those affected. The stress and strain can sometimes lead to marital problems, divorce, or family breakdowns. Families need to seek support and counseling to manage the impact of a road accident on their relationships.

7. Impact on Mental Health

The emotional trauma of a road accident can also impact mental health, leading to anxiety, depression, and other mental health conditions. Survivors may struggle to cope with the psychological impact of their accident for years to come. Survivors need professional help to manage their emotional reactions and prevent long-term psychological damage.

8. Loss of Confidence

Road accidents can be traumatic, and survivors may struggle with various psychological effects, including losing confidence. After an accident, a person may feel hesitant or fearful about driving or leaving home. They may worry about being involved in another accident and feel vulnerable and unsafe on the road. These fears can be particularly challenging for those who rely on driving for work or daily activities, such as running errands or caring for family members.

Losing confidence following a road accident can also lead to social isolation and mental health problems. If a person feels too fearful or anxious to leave their home, they may become socially isolated, exacerbating loneliness, depression, and anxiety. They may also struggle with losing independence and a sense of helplessness, leading to hopelessness and despair.

Therefore, it is important for those who have experienced a road accident to seek support and guidance from mental health professionals or support groups to help them rebuild their confidence and regain control of their lives.

9. Reduced Quality of Life

Road accidents can profoundly impact a person’s quality of life. Survivors may experience physical injuries, emotional trauma, and financial stress that can limit their ability to perform daily tasks and participate in activities they once enjoyed. Seeking support and rehabilitation is crucial to improving their quality of life and regaining independence.

Through counseling, medical treatment, and support groups, survivors can manage pain, address emotional trauma, and rebuild confidence to resume normal activities. By doing so, survivors can improve their overall well-being and regain control over their lives.

10. Social and Economic Impact

Road accidents can also have a broader social and economic impact, affecting communities and entire countries. The cost of medical care lost productivity.

Property damage can be staggering, and the impact on families and individuals can lead to increased reliance on social services and support programs. Governments and communities need to invest in road safety initiatives and support programs for those affected by road accidents.

In conclusion, road accidents have devastating consequences that affect individuals, families, and communities. A road accident’s physical, emotional, and financial impact can be overwhelming and long-lasting, leading to disabilities, emotional trauma, and financial stress. However, by understanding the effects of road accidents, we can take steps to prevent them and support those affected.

Through better road safety measures, education, and awareness, we can reduce the number of road accidents and prevent the devastating consequences they bring. For those who have experienced a road accident, seeking support and rehabilitation services is essential to improve their quality of life and regain their independence.

In addition, governments and organizations need to provide resources and support programs to those affected by road accidents, including counseling, medical treatment, and financial assistance. By working together, we can make our roads safer and help those affected by road accidents rebuild their lives.

Road Accident Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on road accident.

Essay on Road Accident: Road accidents have become very common nowadays. As more and people are buying automobiles, the incidences of road accidents are just increasing day by day. Furthermore, people have also become more careless now. Not many people follow the traffic rules. Especially in big cities, there are various modes of transports. Moreover, the roads are becoming narrower and the cities have become more populated.

Thus, road accidents are bound to happen. You pick up a newspaper and you will find at least one or two news about road accidents daily. They cause loss of life as well as material. People need to be more careful when on the road, no matter which mode of transport you are from. Even the ones on foot are not safe because of the rise in these incidences. Every day people witness accidents in the news, from relatives and even with their own eyes.

Road Accident Incident

Once I was on my way back home from festive shopping when I witnessed a road accident. I was with my sister and it was around 6 o’ clock in the evening. In the middle of the road, we saw a crowd surrounding something. We weren’t quite sure what was happening as the first thought that came to our mind was that it was probably a quarrel between two men. However, when we reached the spot, we found out an accident had taken place.

Subsequently, the police arrived as the people had caught the driver and were beating him up. After the police came, they caught hold of the driver and asked about the incident. Later, we came to know that the driver was drunk. The police detained him and went to the hospital for a statement. Fortunately, the driver was declared out of danger. The doctors dressed his wounds and informed that he was still in shock.

That incident made me realize how precious our lives are. In addition, as to how we take it for granted. We must all be very careful when on road, on foot or by a car that does not matter. We can adopt measures that will prevent road accidents.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Road Accident Prevention

We need to prevent road accidents to decrease the death rate. Every year thousands of people lose their lives to road accidents. Children must be taught from an early age about traffic rules. They must be taught the value of life and how they can safeguard it.

Moreover, the government must pass more stringent laws for people who disobey traffic rules. They must fine people heavily or take strict action when found guilty of breaking these laws irrespective of gender.

Similarly, parents must set an example for the younger ones by not using phones while driving. Also, they must always wear their helmets and seatbelts to avoid the chances of an accident.

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Essay on Road Accident

Students are often asked to write an essay on Road Accident in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Road Accident

Introduction.

Road accidents are unfortunate incidents that occur on our streets. They involve vehicles, pedestrians, animals, or obstacles and can result in injury or loss of life.

Major causes include reckless driving, speeding, and ignoring traffic rules. Bad weather and poor road conditions also contribute to accidents.

Road accidents can cause severe injuries, disabilities, or death. They also lead to property damage and emotional trauma for the victims and their families.

Following traffic rules, driving responsibly, and maintaining vehicles properly can prevent road accidents. Public awareness is also crucial.

Also check:

• Paragraph on Road Accident

250 Words Essay on Road Accident

Road accidents have become a pressing issue in the contemporary world, causing significant loss of life and property. They are often the result of human errors, mechanical failures, or environmental factors, with the consequences ranging from minor damage to catastrophic loss.

Causes of Road Accidents

The primary cause of road accidents is human error, which includes reckless driving, speeding, and driving under the influence. Distractions, such as the use of mobile phones while driving, also play a significant role in increasing road accidents. Additionally, poor road conditions and mechanical failures, like brake failure or tire bursts, contribute to this problem.

Impact and Consequences

Road accidents have far-reaching impacts. They lead to loss of life, inflict physical injuries, and cause psychological trauma. They also result in substantial economic loss due to property damage and medical expenses.

Preventive Measures

Preventing road accidents requires a multi-faceted approach. Strict enforcement of traffic rules, regular vehicle maintenance, and improving road conditions can significantly reduce accidents. Additionally, raising public awareness about safe driving practices and the dangers of distracted driving can play a crucial role in prevention.

Road accidents pose a significant threat to public safety and economic stability. It is crucial to adopt comprehensive preventive measures and foster a culture of responsible driving to mitigate this issue. By doing so, we can ensure safer roads and a more secure society.

500 Words Essay on Road Accident

Road accidents are an unfortunate but prevalent occurrence in our society, causing a significant number of fatalities and injuries globally each year. They result from a variety of factors, including human error, mechanical failure, and environmental conditions, and their impact extends beyond the immediate victims to their families, communities, and the economy.

The primary cause of road accidents is human error, which accounts for more than 90% of all accidents. This category includes reckless driving, speeding, drunk driving, and distractions such as mobile phone use. Speeding is particularly dangerous as it reduces the driver’s ability to steer safely around curves or objects in the roadway, extends the distance necessary to stop a vehicle, and increases the distance a vehicle travels while the driver reacts to a dangerous situation.

Mechanical failures, such as brake failure, tire blowouts, or steering failure, can also lead to accidents. Regular vehicle maintenance can prevent many of these issues, but not all drivers adhere to recommended service schedules.

Environmental factors like poor road conditions, adverse weather, and inadequate signage can contribute to accidents. Poor visibility due to fog, rain, or snow can make it difficult for drivers to see other vehicles, pedestrians, or road hazards.

Impact of Road Accidents

The immediate impact of road accidents is the loss of life and severe physical injuries, which can lead to long-term disability. However, the ripple effects extend much further. Families may lose their primary income earners, resulting in financial hardship. The emotional trauma can lead to mental health issues such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and anxiety.

Road accidents also have a significant economic impact. According to the World Health Organization, road traffic crashes cost most countries 3% of their gross domestic product. Costs include the immediate medical costs, long-term rehabilitation, loss of productivity, and property damage.

Preventing Road Accidents

Preventing road accidents requires a multi-pronged approach. Stricter enforcement of traffic laws, including speed limits and drunk driving laws, can deter dangerous behavior. Education campaigns can raise awareness about the risks of distracted driving and the importance of vehicle maintenance.

Infrastructure improvements can also reduce accidents. Better road design, improved signage, and the use of technology such as traffic cameras and speed sensors can make roads safer.

Road accidents are a significant issue with far-reaching impacts. While it is impossible to prevent all accidents, a combination of law enforcement, education, and infrastructure improvements can significantly reduce their occurrence and severity. As responsible road users, we must all do our part to make our roads safer and reduce the tragic toll of road accidents.

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• Road Accident Essay

Essay on Road Accident

Road accidents are an unfortunate reality of our lives. The daily news reports generally contain at least one incident of a road accident. Depending on the severity of the accident, the number of casualties and the damage done can be concerning. Road accidents cost a lot of lives and property damage. To avoid accidents, everyone should be more careful and vigilant on the streets. As a driver, one must be extra cautious because one mistake from the driver can cost the lives of innocent others. 

  The Road Accident That I Experienced

I remember the first road accident I witnessed. It had changed my perspective on life. I still remember the date and the day very intricately. It was the 20th of September 2016. I was returning home from tuition. My mother had come to pick me up. It was around 6 o'clock in the evening. When we reached the bus stand, we saw a huge crowd of people at a few feet of distance from the bus stop. There were men in the crowd who were screaming in the regional language. 

At first, we couldn't understand what was going on. After a while of careful overhearing of the conversation of everyone near us, we could understand that there was an accident. So to get to the bottom of it we asked a shopkeeper what had  happened. He told us that indeed an accident took place a while ago. He then went on to give us a detailed event of what happened. According to him, a pedestrian was crossing the road. A passenger's bus had hit him. The man was left bleeding on the street. The people in the area then cornered the bus and assaulted the bus driver. The police were called to the scene. As for the pedestrian, when the police came over, they declared the man dead. However, as a formality, they sent him to the hospital but according to the shopkeeper, there is not much hope for a miracle. 

This incident made me realize how fragile life is. It could very well have been me or my loved one instead of that man.  The man was not at fault as he was following the rules, but because of the ignorance of another careless man, he had to lose his life. This incident has left a scar on my mind which still bothers me at times. 

Road accidents are a fairly tragic event that has dangerously increased in numbers nowadays. Today, there are more automobiles on the streets than ever. Some say that this increase in the number of automobiles is the reason the number of road accidents is increasing too. Some others say that people nowadays have become more careless, this leads to a higher number of accidents due to carelessness. Another problem that is very prevalent in India is the lack of civic sense in people. People in the cities of India do not strictly adhere to the traffic rules; some people also lack the basic road sense. On top of that, certain parts of the city have narrow roads. All these add up to increase road accidents.

Description of Road Accident:

Road accidents are scary for our lives. In recent times it has increased more. Every morning when you open a newspaper every second or third page will have news related to road accidents. The reason for increasing road accidents is due to the fact that people are buying more automobiles and have also become careless while driving vehicles.

Many a time we have seen that people are just avoiding following traffic rules. Especially in metropolitan cities, people are more careless while driving vehicles which ultimately lead to road accidents.

The foremost causes of road accidents in such metropolitan areas can be narrow roads and roads with potholes.

Thus a road accident damages the lives of life and material. People should be very careful while driving or walking on the road.

It is also seen that walking on the road is also equally dangerous because of heavy traffic it can also be harmful to the people walking on the road. Hence, such people should walk on the side of the road or walk on footpaths.

Road Accident Incident:

Once I was coming back from my office at that time when I witnessed a road accident. I was with my co-worker and it was around 6 o’clock in the evening. In the middle of the road, we saw a crowd surrounding something. We weren’t sure what was happening as the first thought that came to our mind was that it was probably a quarrel between two groups of people but then after reaching the spot, we found that an accident had taken place. 

After talking with the people present there, we came to know that a man who was crossing the road met with an accident while crossing the road. A truck passing by hit him leaving him with serious injuries. The man was lying on the ground bleeding and people were calling for an ambulance, plus they also informed the police about the incident. 

Subsequently, the police arrived and caught the driver of the truck as people had already taken a hold of the driver. During the investigation with the driver, the cops came to know that the driver was drunk and was driving the vehicle. Later on, cops detained him and took the injured person to the nearest hospital, and took a statement from the injured person. The driver was released later based on the statement given by the person. That incident made me realize how precious our lives are and we must be very careful when we are walking on the road, on foot, or driving a car.

  Prevention from Road Accidents:

There are some most important points that every person should keep in mind while driving or walking or crossing the road. These points are as follows:

Drive within the prescribed speed limit.

Don’t drink or smoke while driving.

Follow all the traffic rules as they are for our safety.

Never use mobile phones while driving a vehicle.

Always drive in the proper lane.

While riding a bike always wear a helmet.

FAQs on Road Accident Essay

1.  What are the causes of Road Accidents?

The main cause of road accidents is human beings’ attitude towards not following the traffic rule. Apart from this, there are some major causes of Road Accidents which are as follows:

  Over Speeding

  Drink and drive

  To avoid wearing a helmet while driving a bike.

  Talking on mobile phones.

 To avoid waiting on traffic signals and so are some of the major causes of a road accident.

2.  How to prevent Road Accidents?

Prevention of Road Accidents can only be possible if people change their attitudes towards traffic rules and show some maturity while driving vehicles. People should be very cautious while passing from the crowded area and at such places they should reduce their speed limit. On the turning of the road, they should stop and before crossing the road they should look at the right and left side of the road and then should cross the road.  Last but not least every vehicle should maintain proper distance between two vehicles to avoid a collision.

3.  How to reduce road death and injuries?

To reduce road death and injuries the corporation of the respective cities should see that city roads are connecting areas properly and constructed compactly. The sides of the road should be constructed broad and vendors or any cattle should be avoided who block the roads because sometimes due to unwanted cattle’s road death and fatal injuries might occur.

4.  How should an injured person be treated?

If someone is injured at that time first check the severity of the casualty accordingly and give the treatment. If the person is having normal injuries, first treat him/her with first aid and in the matter of serious injuries call an emergency ambulance.

5.  Why is it important to give First Aid immediately after the accident?

To promote instant relief and to avoid any further damage as well as for speedy recovery it is recommended to give first aid treatment immediately after the accident. This can help to reduce the fatal level of the injuries before getting emergency treatment.  As it is not always possible that emergency care reaches the victim within an hour. In that case, the people who are available next to the victim can give him/her first aid treatment to save his/her life.

Road Traffic Accidents: Problems and Solutions Proposal

Introduction, scope of the research, literature review.

Road traffic crashes (RTCs) or road traffic accidents (RTAs) are a major cause of injuries and deaths both in the US and worldwide. A report issued by the World Health Organization (WHO) reveals that in 2013, traffic accidents claimed the lives of approximately 1.3 million people (WHO, n.d.). RTAs are the main cause of death for young drivers aged 15 to 29 years (WHO, 2015). If the current trend continues, RTAs will account for every fifth death worldwide by 2030 (Ernstberger et al., 2015).

Fortunately, recent efforts by federal, state, and local authorities and non-profit organizations have led to a dramatic decrease in traffic accidents in the US. Nonetheless, more than 30, 000 lives were lost to traffic crashes in the US in 2012 (Lee, Abdel-Aty, & Choi, 2014). These tragic statistics call for a better understanding of traffic safety issues that have led to an increase in the American burden of deaths and injuries.

There are many factors that contribute to both the incidence rates of vehicle crashes and their severity. The findings of a study conducted by Morgan and Mannering show that there are “substantial differences across age/gender groups under different roadway-surface conditions and argued that drivers perceive and react to pavement surface conditions in different ways based on gender and as they age” (as cited in Kim, Ulfarsson, Kim, & Shankar, 2013).

In addition to gender and age, alcohol-impaired driving plays a substantial role in car crashes. In the US, alcohol-impaired crashes accounted for 10, 228 deaths in 2011 (Ferguson, 2012). From the point of view of traffic injury prevention, it is clear that alcohol-related traffic accidents are an exceptionally pernicious problem that requires careful study and effective countermeasures.

The aim of this paper is to present a proposal for a research project on the role of ethnicity in alcohol-related traffic accidents. The project will help to better understand whether members of different ethnic groups are at different risk of being involved in alcohol-related traffic accidents because of variances in their blood alcohol content (BAC) levels.

Even though considerable progress has been made during the last few decades in reducing the number of RTAs and especially alcohol-related traffic accidents, hospital and police records reveal that many ethnic and socioeconomic groups are still overrepresented in traffic fatalities (Sehat, Naieni, Asadi-Lari, Foroushani, & Malek-Afzali, 2012). Numerous studies and government reports point to the fact that a likelihood of being involved in driving while under the influence of alcohol (DUI) differs across ethnic groups (Hallstone, 2013; Keys, Liu, & Cerda, 2012).

A study conducted by Caetano, Vaeth, Chartier, and Mills (2014) shows that some ethnicities are more likely than others to consume alcoholic beverages. Specifically, non-Hispanic whites and non-Hispanic blacks are much likely to develop lifetime alcohol abuse and dependence than Hispanics.

Despite the fact that Hispanics are less likely to display harmful patterns of alcohol consumption, which are associated with a higher risk of traffic accidents, major epidemiologic surveys in the US suggest that it is an ethnic group that is related to the substantial incidence of alcohol-attributable crashes (Keys et al., 2012). However, Hispanics are at a lower risk for self-reported DUI than Whites and at a higher risk than Asians, and Blacks in the US (Delcher, Johnson, & Maldonado-Molina, 2014). It means that complex phenomena may underlie ethnic disparities in the risk of involvement in alcohol-related RTAs. Therefore, there is a need to investigate why the rate of incidence of injurious deaths from motor vehicle accidents is not uniform across different ethnicities.

Prior to analyzing the extant literature on the subject and developing a hypothesis regarding the relationship between alcohol-related RTAs involvement and ethnicity, it is necessary to delineate the scope of the research. In order to ensure that the scope of this research is specific enough, it will be limited to a specific area (the State of California) and a sub-area (Northern California).

DUI in California

Over the last few decades, a considerable body of research has been accumulated on traffic accidents in the United States. Area-specific evidence on RTAs is also plentiful, which allows gauging the scope of the issue at hand. DUI arrest rates in California indicate that the problem accounts for a substantial share of local law enforcement efforts (MacLeod et al., 2017). The data for single-vehicle crashes gathered by the California Highway Patrol, suggests that crashes occur at diverse weather conditions and involve different age, gender, and ethnic groups (Kim et al., 2013). Furthermore, there are also substantial differences in injury distributions across these categories.

According to a set of statistics produced by a federal traffic safety agency, 3, 074 people died in motor vehicle accidents in 2014 (Brekke, 2015). The number represents a 2.5 percent increase from the previous year’s death toll of 3, 000 (Brekke, 2015). Most importantly, the increase is representative of a larger trend of the growth in the number of RTAs in California. Namely, 2014 was “the fourth year in a row that vehicle-related fatalities have increased in the state” (Brekke, 2015, para. 4).

A fact sheet issued by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) indicates that more than 10, 000 people were killed in alcohol-related RTAs in California over the period between 2003 and 2012 (CDC, 2014). In 2013, the total number of DUI arrests in the state was 162, 199 (Ticket Crushers, 2015). Fatal collisions accounted for 568 arrests, injury collisions for 11, 861 arrests, alcohol-involved fatal collisions for 1, 075 arrests, and alcohol-involved injury collisions for 16, 060 arrests (Ticket Crushers, 2015). Given that there are substantial ethnic differences in alcohol consumption, it is necessary to explore ethnic variations in DUI statistics.

A report issued by the University of California Traffic Safety Center reveals that there are disturbing patterns of RTAs in Hispanic communities of California (Cooper, Wilder, Lankina, Geyer, & Ragland, 2015). The report is a part of the Latino Traffic Safety Project the aim of which is to improve understanding of traffic safety in the Hispanic population of California. The population is expected to reach twenty million people by 2065 (Cooper et al., 2015).

The project analyzes the following elements of traffic safety in the population: DUI, seat belt use, child passenger safety, pedestrian safety, licensing, and community organization among others. It is projected that Hispanics will become a major ethnic group in California by 2020 (Cooper et al., 2015). This demographic shift implies that any existing traffic safety issues in the population might present significant challenges for the state.

The findings of the report show that “drinking and driving are consistently cited as the most pressing traffic safety problem in Hispanic communities” (Cooper et al., 2015, p. 9). Given that males are at a higher risk of being involved in DUI, it is safe to assume that young Hispanic males are disproportionately presented in DUI arrest statistics. Indeed, the report confirms that the rate of DUI arrests is “the most pronounced among 21-to 30-year-olds” (Cooper et al., 2015, p. 9) Hispanic males.

The information presented in the report also provides some insights into ethnic discrepancies in DUI data. Specifically, the sale of alcohol to agricultural workers, the increase in the population of Hispanics during harvest seasons, and the lack of recreational opportunities for young Hispanic males are named as problems specific to rural communities of the state (Cooper et al., 2015). Taking into consideration the fact that these issues cannot be extrapolated to Northern California, it is necessary to find an independent variable that can be extended to the sub-area.

A recent study on the relationship between differences in the perception of risk for drinking and driving in California shows that more than nine percent of its participants did not perceive DUI a substantial traffic concern (MacLeod et al., 2017). Most importantly, the study reveals an important independent variable for high incident rates of traffic accidents—BAC.

It has been long recognized that the consumption of alcohol impairs the sensory and motor faculties of an individual. These faculties are critical for driving performance; therefore, their impairment can result in a higher risk of traffic accidents. A study on alcohol-impaired driving indicates that psychomotor faculties of a person are impaired to a great extent even by “the effects of low-to-moderate BACs (≤0.100%)” (Martin et al., 2013, p. 1242).

Even though there is no threshold effect for BAC impairment, it has been discovered that “BACs of 0.050% and higher can produce impairment of the major components of driver performance for most people” (Martin et al., 2013, p. 1247). Therefore, the National Transportation Safety Board has established this level of BAC as a limit for driving in the US (Fell & Voas, 2014).

There is a substantial discrepancy between self-reported DUI data and crash incidence data for Hispanics (Voas, Torres, Romano, & Lacey, 2012). In order to account for this discrepancy, the researcher assumes that Hispanics are less involved in DUI than other ethnicities and more involved in RTAs because the volume of alcohol they consume per occasion is higher than that for other ethnicities. This assumption is based on the findings of a study on alcohol consumption and economic losses. The study suggests that Hispanics are particularly vulnerable to “the negative effects of economic hardship on the development and/or maintenance of alcohol problems” (Zemore, Mulia, Jones-Webb, Huiguo, & Schmidt, 2013, p. 12).

Even though there are many studies that investigate relationships between variables such as age, gender, and socioeconomic characteristics of drivers involved in RTAs, to the researcher’s knowledge, the possibility that Hispanics in Northern California are at a higher risk for traffic accidents at higher BAC levels has not been explored.

Brekke, D. (2015). With rising number of highway deaths, California bucks national trend . Web.

Caetano, R., Vaeth, P., Chartier, K., & Mills, B. (2014). Epidemiology of drinking, alcohol use disorders, and related problems in US ethnic minority groups. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 124 (1), 629-643.

CDC. (2014). Sobering facts: Drunk driving in California . Web.

Cooper, J., Wilder, T., Lankina, E., Geyer, J., & Ragland, D. (2015). Traffic safety among Latino populations in California: Current status and policy recommendations . Web.

Delcher, C., Johnson, R., & Maldonado-Molina, M. (2014). Driving after drinking among young adults of different race/ethnicities in the United States: Unique risk factors in early adolescence? Journal of Adolescent Health, 52 (5), 584-591.

Ernstberger, A., Joeris, A., Daigl, M., Kiss, M., Angerpointer, K., Nerlich, M.,… Schmucker, U. (2015). Decrease of morbidity in road traffic accidents in a high income country: An analysis of 24, 405 accidents in a 21-year period. International Journal of the Care of the Injured, 46 (4), 135-143.

Fell, J., & Voas, R. (2014). The effectiveness of a 0.05 blood alcohol concentration (BAC) limit for driving in the United States. Addiction, 14 (1), 112-119.

Ferguson, S. (2012). Alcohol-impaired driving in the United States: Contributors to the problem and effective countermeasures. Traffic Injury Prevention , 13(1), 427-441.

Hallstone, M. (2013). The criminal history of repeat DUI offenders. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 31 (1), 337-347.

Keys, K., Liu, X., & Cerda, M. (2012). The role of race/ethnicity in alcohol-attributable injury in the United States. Epidemiologic Reviews, 34( 1), 89-102.

Kim, J., Ulfarsson, G., Kim, S., & Shankar, V. (2013). Driver-injury in single-vehicle crashes in California: A mixed analysis of heterogeneity due to age and gender. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 50 (1), 1073-1081.

Lee, J., Abdel-Aty, M., & Choi, K. (2014). Analysis of residence characteristics of at-fault drivers in traffic crashes. Safety Science, 68 (1), 6-13.

MacLeod, K., Jaffe, K., Satariano, W., Kelley-Baker, T., Lacey, J., & Raqland, D. (2017). Drinking and driving and perceptions of arrest risk among California drivers: Relationships with DUI arrests in their city of residence. Traffic Injury Prevention, 18 (6), 566-572.

Martin, T., Solbeck, P., Mayers, D., Langille, R., Buczek, Y., & Pelletier, M. (2013). A review of alcohol-impaired driving: The role of blood alcohol concentration and complexity of the driving task. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 58 (5), 1238-1250.

NHTSA. (n.d.). Fatality analysis reporting system (FARS) . Web.

Sehat, M., Naieni, K., Asadi-Lari, M., Foroushani, A., & Malek-Afzali, H. (2012). Socioeconomic status and incidence of traffic accidents in Metropolitan Tehran: A population-based study. International Journal of Preventive Medicine, 3 (3), 181-190.

Ticket Crushers. (2015). California DUI statistics . Web.

Voas, R., Torres, P., Romano, E., & Lacey, J. (2012). Alcohol-related risk of driver fatalities: An update using 2007 data. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 73 (3), 341-350.

WHO. (2015). Global status report on road safety 2015 . Web.

WHO. (n.d.). Number of road traffic deaths . Web.

Zemore, S., Mulia, N., Jones-Webb, R., Huiguo, M., & Schmidt, L. (2013). The 2008-2009 recession and alcohol outcomes: Differential exposure and vulnerability for Black and Latino populations. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 74 (1), 9-20.

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• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 16 March 2022

Effects of interventions for preventing road traffic crashes: an overview of systematic reviews

• Ronald Fisa   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1953-5190 1 ,
• Mwiche Musukuma 1 ,
• Mutale Sampa 1 ,
• Patrick Musonda 1 , 2 &
• Taryn Young 3  

BMC Public Health volume  22 , Article number:  513 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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Road traffic crashes (RTCs) are among the eight-leading causes of death globally. Strategies and policies have been put in place by many countries to reduce RTCs and to prevent RTCs and related injuries/deaths.

In this review, we searched the following databases Ovid Medline, Embase, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Epistemonikos, Web of Science, and LILACS for reviews matching our inclusion criteria between periods January 1950 and March 2020. We did not apply language or publication restrictions in the searches. We, however, excluded reviews that focused primarily on injury prevention and reviews that looked at crashes not involving a motor vehicle.

We identified 35 systematic reviews matching our inclusion criteria and most of the reviews (33/35) included studies strictly from high-income countries. Most reviews were published before 2015, with only 5 published between 2015 and 2020. Methodological quality varied between reviews. Most reviews focused on enforcement intervention. There was strong evidence that random breath testing, selective breath testing, and sobriety checkpoints were effective in reducing alcohol-related crashes and associated fatal and nonfatal injuries. Other reviews found that sobriety checkpoints reduced the number of crashes by 17% [CI: (− 20, − 14)]. Road safety campaigns were found to reduce the numbers of RTCs by 9% [CI: (− 11, − 8%)]. Mass media campaigns indicated some median decrease in crashes across all studies and all levels of crash severity was 10% (IQR: 6 to 14%). Converting intersections to roundabouts was associated with a reduction of 30 to 50% in the number of RTCs resulting in injury and property damage. Electronic stability control measure was found to reduce single-vehicle crashes by − 49% [95% CI: (− 55, − 42%)]. No evidence was found to indicate that post-license driver education is effective in preventing road traffic injuries or crashes.

There were many systematic reviews of varying quality available which included studies that were conducted in high-income settings. The overview has found that behavioural based interventions are very effective in reducing RTCs.

Peer Review reports

Description of the problem

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines a Road Traffic Crash (RTC) as a collision involving at least one vehicle in motion on a public or private road that results in at least one person being injured or killed [ 1 ]. Road traffic crashes can result in property damage, injury, or loss of life. A road traffic injury (RTI) is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as “a fatal or non-fatal injury incurred as a result of a collision on a public road involving at least one moving vehicle” [ 2 ]. Not all RTCs result in injuries however, the latter cannot precede the former.

It is the eighth leading cause of death for all age groups surpassing HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and diarrhoeal diseases [ 3 ]. Road traffic crashes now represent the eighth leading cause of death globally. The WHO reports that about 1.24 million people die on the roads annually, with 20-50 million sustaining non-fatal injuries [ 2 ]. Globally, RTIs are reported as the leading cause of death for children and young adults aged 5–29 years and are among the top three causes of mortality among people aged 15–44 years. More than 85% of the global deaths due to injuries occur in low and middle-income countries (LMICs) consuming substantial health sector resources [ 4 ]. The WHO indicates that RTIs cause considerable economic losses to victims, their families, and nations. These losses arise from the cost of treatment (including rehabilitation and incident investigation) as well as reduced/lost productivity (e.g. in wages) for those killed or disabled by their injuries as well as family members who need to take time off work (or school) to care for the injured. Road traffic deaths and injuries are a major but neglected public health challenge that requires concerted efforts for effective and sustainable [ 4 ].

Many countries have put forward strategies and policies to curb RTCs to help prevent deaths and injuries. For example, the vision on sustainable safety was developed in 1992 in the Netherlands. In March 2000, the Government of the United Kingdom set out its strategy for improving road safety over the next decade in Tomorrow’s roads: safer for everyone [ 5 ]. More recently, in March 2010 the United Nations General Assembly resolution 64/255 proclaimed a Decade of Action for Road Safety 2011–2020 intending to stabilize and then reduce the forecasted level of road traffic fatalities around the world by increasing activities conducted at national, regional and global levels [ 6 ]. With the burden of RTCs occurring in LMICs, the Bloomberg Initiative for Global Road Safety (BIGRS) 2015-2019 program is a recent initiative implemented in some LMICs. The program seeks to reduce fatalities and injuries from road traffic crashes in LMICs by strengthening road safety legislation at the national level and implementing proven road safety interventions at the city level [ 7 ].

Description of interventions

The high incidence of RTCs worldwide (HICs and LMICs) has led to the implementation of preventive interventions. Interventions aimed at the reduction of RTCs can be described as a coherent, organized, structured set of objectives and activities implemented to eliminate adverse events related to the use of roads [ 8 ]. Interventions for the prevention of RTCs can be tailored for motorists, pedestrians, cyclists, and all other road users. Many systematic reviews exist that attempt to answer the question of whether or not these interventions are effective in reducing RTCs around the world. The reduction of RTCs in different sub-populations has also been the focus of interest in some systematic reviews. A brief search of systematic reviews suggests that legislation is the most common intervention evaluated with the best outcomes when combined with strong enforcement initiatives or as part of a multifaceted approach [ 9 , 10 ]. Other reviews suggest that graduated driver licensing (GDL) and interventions aimed at improving pedestrian and cyclist visibility as well as area-wide traffic calming has been effective when implemented with concerted efforts [ 11 , 12 , 13 ].

Why is it important to do this assessment of systematic reviews?

Between 2013 and 2016, no reductions in the number of road traffic deaths were observed in any low-income country, while some reductions were observed in 48 middle- and high-income countries [ 3 ]. The abundance of different interventions that have been implemented and reported to have a positive effect coupled with the continued increase in the incidence of RTCs, illustrates the need to comprehensively assess and describe the evidence from systematic reviews and the quality of these reviews to identify effective interventions on one hand and gaps in the evidence base on the other hand.

Interventions for preventing RTCs fall into various categories which include legislation, enforcement, public awareness/education, driver education, and speed control measures such as speed cameras. The logic model below (Fig.  1 ) shows existing interventions and their target population. These interventions can be targeted at different individuals/groups; Drivers, Riders (motorcyclists & cyclists), Pedestrians, Passengers, all road users, and non-motorized vehicles (hand carts). William Haddon [ 14 ] developed a matrix that identifies risk factors before the crash, during the crash, and after the crash, with the person, vehicle, and environment. Since the interventions are a deterrent measure of RTCs, in this overview of systematic reviews, the focus will be on the before the crash stage.

A logic model; Interventions aimed at reducing road traffic crashes around the world which include interventions at individual and organisational level

The objective of this overview of systematic reviews is to describe the evidence and quality of existing systematic reviews. The main objective of this overview was to summarize the available evidence worldwide from systematic reviews that focused on interventions that have been put in place to reduce RTCs.

Search methods for identification of systematic reviews

This overview focused on systematic reviews of interventions that aimed at reducing RTCs and subsequently RTIs. To identify the reviews, an information specialist conducted searches in Medline Ovid, Embase Ovid, Web of Science, Epistemonikos (which includes Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews), Pubmed, EMBASE, The Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL). We further searched PsycINFO, LILACS (Literatura Latinoamericana y del Caribe en Ciencias de la Salud), Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects (DARE), and the Campbell Collaboration online library using relevant search terms (See additional Table 11 for the search strategy used). The details of the search strategy including the mesh terms are given in Additional file 2 . Reference lists of systematic and related reviews were also searched to find additional potentially eligible studies. All systematic reviews published between 1950 and March 2020, which included Cochrane and non-Cochrane reviews, were considered. The search was again conducted in September 2021 during the revision of the manuscript to identify new reviews. We did not find any review that focused of interventions to prevent RTCs. The searches were not restricted by language or publication status.

Criteria for considering reviews for inclusion

This overview considered all systematic reviews that focused on interventions and measures that have been put in place to reduce RTCs around the world. Reviews that were included satisfied our definition of a systematic review according to Antman and Oxman. The reviews to be included should clearly state the objectives, searched for studies on two or more databases including grey literature/unpublished work, extracted data should have been analysed, and a risk of bias assessed for each study with results presented appropriately [ 15 , 16 , 17 ]. For any systematic review to be included, the PICO component must be satisfied (population, intervention, comparator, and outcome). The population in these reviews included people who use roads such as drivers, pedestrians, cyclists etc. Interventions included sobriety check points, lowering Blood alcohol content, road expansions, mass media campaigns among others and comparators included areas/sections where there was no intervention. The outcome of the overview was road traffic crashes (RTC).

Systematic review selection, data extraction and management

Titles and abstracts were examined independently by two reviewers and full text articles of the selected titles and abstracts were retrieved for further scrutiny. The full texts were independently assessed using the pre-specified eligibility criteria. A final decision on the included studies was made and the data extraction phase began. Conflicts during the screening process were resolved by a third reviewer. A PRISMA flow diagram (Fig.  2 ) shows the screening process of articles up to the final number of reviews which were included in the overview.

PRISMA Flow diagram; selection of relevant systematic reviews meeting the inclusion criteria for the overview

A checklist of items to consider when extracting the data from the systematic reviews was created. The checklist included items on the methods used in each systematic review, the interventions considered in the review and results which were obtained in each systematic review. We then summarized data from the systematic reviews in the table of characteristics of included systematic reviews. The methodological quality of the systematic reviews was assessed using AMSTAR 2 [ 18 ], a critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews that include randomized or non-randomized studies of health care interventions. It consists of 16 domains which must be answered with a yes, partial yes, N/A or a no. The domains are given in the following table (Table  1 ).

Data analysis

This overview was a descriptive study that aimed at describing all systematic reviews that focused on interventions aimed at reducing the incidence of RTCs. The overview also identified interventions that were effective in reducing RTCs as well as ineffective interventions. We reported the type of interventions that assessed in the included systematic reviews, we also stratified the included systematic reviews according to the economic status of the countries in which the reviews were conducted. For example, we reported the number of systematic reviews which were conducted in LMICs. We further examined potential overlap between included systematic reviews.

This overview included systematic reviews that had interventions to prevent road traffic crashes around the globe. The objective was to describe and summarize findings from existing reviews. The different intervention which were assessed are included in Table  2 . 

Results of the search

The search for the overview was conducted in December 2019 and identified 4376 systematic reviews, and of these, 2258 reviews were excluded as they were duplicates. A total of 2118 abstracts were screened and 1952 studies were deemed irrelevant and were excluded. One hundred and sixty-four (164) full text studies were assessed for eligibility and out these studies, 129 were excluded. The reasons for exclusion included wrong outcomes, wrong intervention, wrong setting and wrong patient population (Fig. 2 ). Thirty-five (35) systematic reviews were included in this overview. The interventions in these reviews were then classified into different categories such as enforcement, driver education, structural improvement, legislation, public awareness, improvement of vehicle design, mixed intervention and other intervention.

Description of included reviews

Thirty-five (35) of the systematic reviews in the overview included studies from high-income countries. Only one review [ 50 ] included studies from high-income, upper-middle and low-income countries. One systematic review did not find any studies that met the inclusion criteria despite the search being updated twice [ 41 , 52 , 53 ]. Most reviews were published prior to 2015, only 5 published between 2015 and 2020.

Enforcement results

Eleven systematic reviews looked at enforcement of laws that help reduce RTCs (Table 3 in Additional file 3 ) [ 12 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 54 , 55 ]. Some of these enforcement strategies included police patrols, sobriety check points, speed cameras and speed control measures such as humps. Little overlap existed between these systematic reviews. After conducting quality assessment of the reviews using AMSTAR 2 (See additional file 1 ), results indicated that 4 reviews were of critically low quality [ 25 , 26 , 30 , 31 ], 3 were of low quality [ 24 , 27 , 54 ] and 4 were of moderate quality [ 23 , 28 , 29 , 32 ].

The reviews found different results depending on the type of intervention. Reviews such as one done by Aeron-Thomas and Hess [ 23 ] conducted in high-income countries (Australia, Singapore, USA) on red-light cameras (RLCs) on RTCs found that that RLCs reduced total casualty crashes though the investigators indicated that there was limited evidence available regarding the reduction of right-angle or rare-end crashes. Contrary to these findings of reduction in motor vehicle crashes by RLCs, a review by Erke [ 26 ] where the effects of RLCs on crashes was investigated in high income countries, the findings for RLCs were rather unfavourable. Results from this overview indicated that right-angle collisions were reduced by about 10%, whereas the rear-end collisions increased significantly increased by 40% and the overall effect of RLCs on all types of crashes is an increase by about 15% (Erke, 2009). Further, another systematic review by Pilkington and Kinra [ 31 ] assessed the effectiveness of speed cameras in reducing road traffic collisions and related casualties. The review found that speed cameras consistently reduced road traffic collisions effectively as an intervention. In the same line of interventions but with regard to speed cameras, Wilson et al., [ 32 ] conducted an assessment to investigate whether the use of speed cameras on the roads reduces incidence of speeding, road traffic crashes, injuries and deaths. In this review, findings showed that speed cameras were an effective intervention for reducing RTIs and deaths. There was however, a weak level of evidence as only 12 of the 35 studies included in the review were of high quality. Most of these reviews (23/35) were of poor quality [ 31 ].

Other interventions which fall under enforcement included police intervention, assessing these interventions indicated a reduced number of crashes. This reduction however varied between 23 and 31% [ 24 ]. The review further found that all the types of police interventions reviewed, such as enhancing police controls were effective in reducing RTCs and as a result improved road safety.

Traffic calming has been used as one of the interventions to reduce RTCs. In this vain, a review by Bunn et al. [ 12 ] consisting of controlled before-after studies revealed that area-wide traffic calming schemes may have the potential to reduce road traffic deaths and injuries. However, there was no evidence that traffic calming schemes prevented pedestrian-motor collisions. One of the important effects of traffic calming schemes is to reduce the speed of traffic and by doing this, we reduce the likelihood of injury in the event of a collision.

Other interventions focused on reduction of drinking and driving which is one of the common factors documented to be associated with RTCs. Interventions in this category included sobriety check points and this was assessed for effectiveness. Findings from one review by Elder [ 25 ] indicated that there was a strong evidence that both random breath testing (RBT) and selective breath testing (SBT) sobriety check points were effective in reducing alcohol-related crashes and associated fatal and nonfatal injuries. The results of this review were consistent with results from other reviews such as those by Peek-Asa [ 30 ] and Erke et al., [ 27 ] on sobriety check points. The review by Erke [ 27 ] revealed that the overall effect of driving under influence (DUI) checkpoints on the number of crashes had an estimated reduction of 17% [CI: (− 20; − 14)] and when controlled for publication bias, the estimated reduction in RTCs was 14%. The reviews which fall under this category are summarized in Table 3 below.

Public awareness

In this category, five reviews fell under this and assessed public awareness strategies [ 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 ]. All the reviews included data from high income countries. One of the reviews focused on awareness campaigns targeting pedestrians [ 42 ] while the remaining four reviews focused on awareness campaigns which targeted drivers [ 44 , 45 , 46 ]. Little overlap was observed between the systematic reviews in this category. After an assessment of the methodological quality of the reviews, we found that three out of the five reviews were critically of low quality [ 43 , 44 , 46 ] and two were of moderate quality [ 42 , 45 ]. A summary of the methodological quality of all the reviews is included in the attachments (additional file 1 ).

A review by Dupperex [ 42 ] assessed the effectiveness of safety education with respect to pedestrians. The review did not find any significant information on the magnitude of the driver education effectiveness in reducing child injuries. A meta-analysis on road safety campaigns conducted by Phillips, (2011) found that road safety campaigns reduce the numbers of road crashes by 9% [CI: (− 11%; − 8%)]. In the same line Elder [ 43 ] focused primarily on the effectiveness of School Based Programs for reducing drinking and driving (DD) behaviour but the review did not find sufficient evidence regarding its effectiveness. Mass media campaigns is one of the strategies which countries have been using in reducing RTCs. A review by Elder [ 44 ] found some decrease in crashes across all studies and all levels of crash severity was 13% (IQR: 6 to 14%). Similar findings were obtained by Yadav [ 46 ] where he found that studies that evaluated the impact of mass media campaigns independently showed reduction more consistently with a median of 15.1% (28.8, 0). A summary of these reviews is given in Table 4 below.

Structural improvement

In structural improvement, we looked at interventions that brought about the change in road network, signage etc. In this category one review assessed the safety effects of street lights [ 47 ], another one looked at the effects and efficiency of digital countdown timers [ 50 ], and the remaining two reviews focused on the effectiveness of converting intersections into roundabouts [ 48 , 49 ]. Of the four reviews, only one review by Fu et al. [ 50 ] included primary studies from high income, upper-middle and lower-middle countries, while all the other reviews only included primary studies from high income countries. A lot of overlap existed between two studies conducted by Elvik [ 48 , 49 ] as all the studies used in the systematic review by [ 48 ] were also included in the 2017 review. Table 5 below gives systematic reviews which were considered in this category.

A review conducted by Beyer [ 47 ] evaluated street lighting and prevention of RTIs. This review consisted of controlled before-after studies and the findings suggested that street lighting may prevent road traffic crashes, injuries and fatalities.

Other reviews in this category included Elvik’s 2003 and 2017 [ 48 , 49 ] studies in which the effects of converting intersections to roundabouts in order to improve on road safety was examined. Elvik found that roundabouts were associated with a reduction of 30 to 50% in the number of injury accidents, and fatal accidents were reduced by 50 to 70% [ 48 ]. Similarly, an updated review by Elvik [ 49 ], revealed that converting junctions to roundabout was associated with a reduction of fatal accidents. The reduction of fatal accidents was estimated to be of 65%, while a reduction of injury accidents was estimated to be approximately 40%.

Regarding the Digital countdown timers (DCT), a review by Fu [ 50 ] found no evidence of DCT being effective on intersections. The author therefore, made no recommendations with regard to installing DCT at signalized intersections as a way of improving road safety and operational efficiency.

Legislation

Three reviews were included under the legislation category [ 33 , 34 , 35 ]. Interventions in these reviews included graduated driver licensing (GDL) programs for teenage drivers [ 33 , 34 ] and low blood alcohol concentration (BAC) laws among younger drivers [ 35 ]. Due to the nature of the interventions, none of the reviews utilized data from a randomized controlled trial (RCT) but all three utilized data from observational studies. All three reviews used primary studies conducted in either in the United States of America, Canada, Australia, or New Zealand. There was little overlap between two reviews Foss and Russel in this category [ 33 , 34 ]. All the reviews in this category are given in Table 6 below.

A review by Foss [ 33 ] focused on GDL programme and their effectiveness. The review found that insufficient data on GDL programs to assess their effectiveness in reducing RTCs and crashes. One of the limitations in this review was that there were very few graduate driver licensing programs around the world and thus evidence was limited. However, a latest review done by Russel [ 34 ] on GDL found that the program was effective in reducing crash rates of teenage drivers. The GDL was very effective in reducing all crash types, although this is not a common intervention especially in LMIC.

Zwerling [ 35 ] focused on blood alcohol content and aimed at investigating if the reduction in the BAC could lead to reduced RTCs and crashes, the law was effective and the number of accidents were seen to be reducing. Reductions in RTCs/crashes ranged from 11 to 33% with a cluster of parameter estimates just under 20% [ 35 ].

Driver education

Four reviews were included in the driver education category [ 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 ]. Two of the reviews focused on driver education programs targeting teen drivers [ 19 , 22 ], one focused on retraining of older individuals [ 21 ] while another focused on post-license driver education for all drivers, regardless of age (reported in two publications) [ 20 ]. All reviews included primary studies from high income countries. Table 7 below gives a summary of included studies in this category.

In a review by Curry [ 19 ], findings were that the teens driving interventions only improved parental supervisory behaviours and increased teen driver skill acquisition, however, the intervention did not demonstrate a reduction on teen crashes and resultant injuries. These findings were consistent with Roberts and Kwan [ 22 ] who also found no evidence that driver education reduces teenage involvement in road traffic crashes but driver education only leads to early licencing. Roberts and Kwan’s’ research further observed that because driver education encourages earlier licensing, it may lead to a modest but potentially important increase in the number of teenagers involved in road traffic crashes.

A study be Ker [ 20 ] quantified the effectiveness of post-licence driver education in reducing road traffic crashes. This review found no evidence that post-licence driver education is effective in preventing RTIs or crashes. The authors indicated that although the results are compatible with a small reduction in the occurrence of traffic offences, there’s no evidence of this being truly effective; and this may be due to selection biases or biases in the included trials. Driver retraining especially older drivers was also looked at by Korner-bitensky [ 21 ]. Interventions included in the review were classroom sessions, on road sessions and on road education in comparison with controls. In this review, Korner-bitensky found strong evidence from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that an educational intervention curriculum versus no intervention was effective in reducing crashes.

Improvement of vehicle design

Two reviews by Elder et al., and Erke looked at interventions targeted at improving the designs of motor vehicles [ 51 , 56 ]. The study by Elder looked at the effect of ignition interlocks on reducing alcohol impaired driving and alcohol related crashes [ 51 ] while Erke [ 56 ] focused on the effect of electronic stability control (ESC) in reducing RTCs. In these two systematic reviews, we found no overlap. Both systematic reviews only included studies from high income countries, as demonstrated in Table 8 .

In the study by Elder that assessed the effectiveness of ignition interlocks in reducing alcohol-impaired driving and alcohol-related crashes, no evidence of effectiveness was found in this intervention [ 51 ]. Although the findings were not statistically significant, Elder found that rates of single-vehicle night time crashes (SVNCs) were similar for first-time offenders with interlocks installed relative to those with suspended licenses (HR1.05, p -value = 0.85). This was lower for repeat offenders (HR0.46, p  = 0.14). Investigators noted that the potential for interlock programs to reduce alcohol-impaired driving and alcohol-related crashes is currently limited by the small proportion of offenders who participate in the programs and the lack of a persistent beneficial effect once the interlock is removed [ 51 ].

Electronic stability control was also evaluated by Erke [ 56 ]. This is an active safety device for motor vehicles which aims to improve driving dynamics and to prevent accidents which result from loss of control. In this review, Erke found significant reductions in single vehicle accidents (− 49%; 95% CI: [− 55%; − 42%]), and smaller reductions in head-on collisions (− 13%; 95% CI: [− 17%; − 8%]). Similarly, multi-vehicle fatal accidents were also reduced (− 32%; 95% CI: [− 43%; − 20%]).

Mixed interventions results

The mixed interventions categories consisted of systematic reviews which assessed the effectiveness of several interventions in reducing RTCs. In this category, there were three systematic reviews [ 36 , 37 , 38 ]. All three reviews were of critically low quality (See additional file 1 ). The reviews under this intervention are given in Table 9 below.

Bergen et al., [ 37 ] evaluated the effects of publicized sobriety checkpoint, media coverage, student designed social marketing campaign programs on alcohol involved crash fatalities. Results from this review indicated that eight out of 10 evaluations that measured alcohol involved crash fatalities reported reductions in the outcome after implementing publicized sobriety checkpoint programs. As such, publicized checkpoints were proven to be effective in preventing RTCs. Further, Bergen et al. found that stratified analysis of the effect of various factors on intervention effectiveness showed evidence of effectiveness for high-risk populations. However, differing check point configurations and publicized sobriety checkpoint programs were effective among high-risk populations of men aged 21–34 years and college students.

Lefio et al., [ 38 ] analysed several interventions which included monitoring motor carrier safety, regulatory compliance of trucking companies, a mandatory alcohol-testing program to reduce alcohol involvement in motor carrier crashes. Of all these interventions, the interventions which were found to reduce RTCs were blood alcohol content limit, enhancement of safety driving and driver standard. The results further indicated that among the working population, interventions most frequently shown to be effective were enforcement of national safety standards in the workplace (for companies that have transport operations) and interventions that used mandatory testing to prevent and severely restrict alcohol consumption.

Aguilera et al., [ 36 ] evaluated education as a behavior change strategy, as well as infrastructure interventions, inspections and other traffic safety policies. The studies included in the review focused on surveillance interventions. This intervention showed effectiveness in short-term assessments for example the points penalty system (SPP) was effective in promoting safe driving with outcomes more favourable to reducing morbidity and mortality. Enforcement was effective in changing driver’s behaviour, especially in relation to speeding and alcohol consumption associated with driving. Infrastructure development on the other hand promoted a safe environment, in which pedestrians, cyclists and drivers can live together. Finally, education was more informative and supportive of the other strategies used and did not present evidence of generating cultural change in road safety.

‘Other’ interventions

In the process of categorising these interventions, there were interventions such as vision screening for older drivers which did not fall in any of the interventions. Although these are targeted at individuals (drivers), we grouped these as other interventions. Three of the reviews [ 39 , 40 , 53 ] did not fall into any of the previous six categories. These interventions were then categorised as other interventions. Another review by Ditter et al.,[ 39 ] looked at the effect of designated drivers on alcohol related RTCs while Kwan and Mapstone [ 40 ] focused on how visibility aids used by cyclists and pedestrians can help increase visibility, reaction time and ultimately RTCs. The review by Kwan and Mapstone [ 40 ] included primary studies from high income countries as well as upper-middle income countries (South-Africa). A systematic review focusing on vision screening in older drivers by Desapriya et al., [ 53 ] did not find any studies that met the inclusion criteria and as such had 0 included studies and all these reviews are given in Table 10 below.

Ditter [ 39 ], evaluated the effects of specific designated driver programs which involved drivers moving long distances. However, no study that evaluated whether the use of designated drivers decreased alcohol related motor vehicle related injuries was found was found. Kwan and Mapstone [ 40 ] quantified the effect of visibility aids versus no visibility aids in pedestrians to reduce motor vehicle crashes and also to help drivers’ detection and recognition responses. Results of the review suggested that visibility aids influence drivers’ reaction, detection and recognition resulting in reduced RTCs. For daytime visibility, fluorescent materials in yellow, red and orange improved detection and recognition whereas in night-time visibility the use of lamps, flashing lights and retro reflective materials in red and yellow enhanced drivers’ detection and recognition. The review by Kwan and Mapstone [ 40 ] further indicated that the behaviors of drivers, pedestrians and cyclist in terms of intoxication and speeding are important issues to consider. Desapriya et al., [ 53 ] assessed the effects of vision screening interventions for older drivers who have problems with visual to prevent RTIs and fatalities, the review however did not find any study meeting the inclusion criteria.

Taking stock of existing systematic reviews is an important approach to use in informing both new research as well as policy and practice. This overview included 35 systematic reviews that evaluated different types of interventions to reduce RTCs. Out of all these reviews, 33 included studies which were conducted in HICs such as United Kingdom, Norway, Australia, Canada, Spain, USA, France, Netherlands, and Italy. Interventions assessed included enforcement, driver education, vehicle design, legislation, structural improvement and public awareness. Not all interventions showed consistency in reducing RTC’s. Sobriety check point and random breath testing, red light cameras, speed cameras, police patrols, roundabouts, streetlights and vehicle design improvement were consistently found to reduce RTCs.

This overview has provided evidence in HIC in which all the interventions have been applied. The overview has also established that the majority of the enforcement interventions (RLC, speed cameras, police interventions and sobriety check points) lead to a reduced number of road traffic crashes as compared to other intervention categories such as legislation and structural improvements. As indicated above, all the interventions which were assessed were implemented in HIC which include the UK, USA, England Australia, Germany, Denmark and Norway. It has been established from the descriptive analysis that enforcement programmes are very effective in reducing RTCs.

Other interventions that were falling in the public awareness only mass media campaigns were found to reduce the number of road traffic crashes and these results were in agreement with another study by Yadav [ 46 ]. These mass media campaigns must be encouraged as they educate school going children and the general public on safety measures when on the roads.

Interventions which were aligned to structural improvement strategies were not found to be very effective in preventing road traffic crashes. These interventions included street lighting, converting of intersections to round-about. In HIC, reducing blood alcohol content has proved to be effective in reducing road traffic crashes. The results from this overview is consistent with results found by Lefio [ 38 ] that blood alcohol concentration limit has a significance reduction in number of RTCs.

Our overview also confirmed the low number of reviews that have summarized evidence on interventions to prevent RTC on the African continent. This however, could have been as a result of few studies conducted which focused on interventions to prevent RTCs have been conducted on the African continent. This need to be explored so as to identify some of the effective interventions in road safety. In addition, there is need to synthesise evidence from LMICs through systematic reviews/meta-analysis where the majority of road traffic deaths occur.

Drivers are key individuals in these road traffic crashes and interventions that are driver-centered. The overview has also shown that programmes targeted on individuals/drivers are more effective than those targeted on road network and infrastructure. Some of these interventions include sobriety check points, class room sessions for drivers showed effectiveness in reducing RTCs. In summary, our findings are mapping to Fig. 1 in that we have identified interventions that are effective in road safety, these are mainly interventions which focused on behavioural change of drivers such as drink and driving, police presence and driver/pedestrian education.

Overall completeness and applicability of evidence

The overview did not identify any systematic review focusing on LMICs. Caution should be taken when making inference on the effectiveness of some of these interventions especially in middle and low-income countries. The road infrastructure may greatly vary from developed countries where most of the primary studies included in the reviews took place.

Generally, the systematic reviews were of low quality. Twenty-two out of the thirty-five reviews were found to be either critically low or of low quality according to AMSTAR2 [ 12 , 19 , 22 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 30 , 31 , 33 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 43 , 44 , 46 , 51 , 56 ]. To assess the quality of the reviews, the reviewers read the methods section of the systematic reviews or searched for published protocols where possible. Most of the reviews lacked clarity on the methods used in the review process. Given the nature of some interventions, the majority of the reviews included studies that didn’t have comparison groups or of an observational design. This resulted in such reviews scoring poorly. This overview brought together findings from existing systematic reviews on interventions to prevent RTCs which can be used to inform future research and practice.

Quality of the evidence

Most of the reviews included in this overview indicated that there was ‘weak level of evidence available’. Most of the systematic reviews conducted had included studies that were of poor quality in terms of study design, sampling etc. However, it was noted that, in general, some of the more recent studies were conducted with greater methodological rigour. A review by Goss et al., [ 28 ] observed that although increased police patrols appeared to reduce alcohol-related crashes and traffic fatalities in the identified studies, the quality and reporting of these studies was often poor. The review further found that there is need for methodologically rigorous research to evaluate effectiveness of these interventions.

Heterogeneity was present between included studies in the reviews. More evidence is needed to determine effectiveness of interventions such as, red light cameras, speed cameras, roundabouts, streetlights and vehicle design improvement in LMICs.

Potential biases in the overview process

One of the potential biases in this overview could have resulted from the studies found during the search. In this regard, the search for potential systematic reviews did not comprehensively search for unpublished systematic reviews or grey literature. Unknown potential biases were minimised by following standard methods throughout the review. Two overview authors independently conducted eligibility assessment and data extraction, with resolution of conflicts through consultation with a third overview author.

The review has revealed that individual based interventions have been found to be very effective as compared to other interventions. This finding suggests that the majority of the accidents are as a result of a driver’s behaviour. Therefore, results from the overview are anchoring on behaviour change to reduce RTCs. This change in behaviour can be done through sobriety check points, driver education, mass media campaigns for both drivers and other road users. In this vain, there is need for countries to strengthen interventions that target drivers, pedestrians, cyclists and motor cyclists. The overview has also established that there are very few reviews in Africa focusing on effectiveness of these interventions. Implications for new research is the need to conduct systematic reviews on effectiveness of interventions in LMIC.

Availability of data and materials

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article (and its supplementary files). Extraction forms for all included systematic reviews are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

Blood Alcohol Concentration

Bloomberg Initiative for Global Road Safety

Confidence Interval

Digital Countdown Timer

Drinking and Driving

Driving under the Influence

Electronic Stability Control

Graduated Driver Licensing

High Income Countries

Human immunodeficiency virus

Hazards Ratio

Inter-quartile range

Low- and Middle-Income Countries

Non-randomized Studies of therapeutic Interventions

Population, Intervention, Comparison and Outcome

Random Breath Testing

Randomized Controlled Trials

Ridding with Drinking Drivers

Red Light Cameras

Risk of Bias

Road Traffic Crash

Road Traffic Crashes

Road Traffic Injuries

Selective Breath Testing

Points Penalty System

Single Vehicle Night Time Crashes

United Kingdom

United States of America

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Acknowledgements

We thank Paul Garner from Liverpool School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, University of Liverpool for his feedback in the designing of the protocol as well as during the write up of the overview. We also thank Vittoria Lutge for her efforts in conducting the searches and retrieving the reviews for the overview.

This research was partly funded by the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) and UK AID through the Research, Evidence and Development Initiative (READ-It, project ID 300342–104). The views expressed do not necessarily reflect the UK government’s official policies.

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RF and MM conceived the idea and designed the protocol with the help of TY and PM. TY helped in the application of the inclusion and exclusion criteria and advised RF and MM on the analyses for the overview. RF and MM independently examined titles, abstracts, full text and wrote the overview with the help of TY. TY and MS helped in resolving conflicts during the title, abstract and full text screening process. RF and MM assessed the methodological quality of the reviews and in cases of disagreements, MS assisted in resolving the disagreements and reaching on the final decision. TY and PM read the overview throughout the writing process and added comments. TY helped extensively in writing the overview and approved the final manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Supplementary Information

Additional file 1: table 1..

Methodological quality of systematic reviews.

Additional file 2: Table 3.

 Description of included systematic reviews in the overview: Enforcement category.

Additional file 3: Table 11

. Search Strategy-Overview of systematic reviews.

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Fisa, R., Musukuma, M., Sampa, M. et al. Effects of interventions for preventing road traffic crashes: an overview of systematic reviews. BMC Public Health 22 , 513 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-12253-y

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IELTS Essay, topic: Traffic accidents

• IELTS Essays - Band 6

The best way to reduce the number of traffic accidents is to raise the age limit for younger drivers and to lower the age limit for aged drivers. Do you agree ?

Traffic accidents are on the rise these days. Most of the accidents injuries or death. Research have found that most of the accidents are caused by inexperienced drivers, for example young drivers.

The government should encourage the driving to conduct driving lessons for drivers for a longer period. This will give them a clear picture about how accidents happen and teach them about the safety of others on the road. Drivers that have been in an accident after drunk driving should be from driving for at least two years and be given driving lessons again.

To conclude, I feel that to raise the of young drivers not the best solution but to about the problems they may encounter on the road and to ban them from driving if they have caused an accident due to carelessness. As for the drivers, as long as they are capable on the road before a certain age and there are no health issues there shouldn’t be a problem.

This essay is too long; you have written 305 words instead of the advised 250-265. In the first paragraph you should have presented the topic of argument an two opinions. The main issue here is multiple spelling and grammatical errors, see comments underlined in blue for more details. The task is covered, the paragraphs are coherent and logically connected by linking words. Overall, this looks like a Band 6.5 essay.

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Essay on Road Accidents: Causes and Remedies to Reduce Road Accidents

Essay on Road Accidents:  Causes and Preventive Remedies! Also learn about: 1. Causes of Road Accidents, 2. Accident Studies 3. Preventive Measures and Remedies to Reduce Accident Rates in India.

Road accidents, as the name itself suggests, are random events that are caused by the interplay of diverse factors relating to the road and its condition, the road users, the vehicles, and environmental conditions. Invariably, a combination of two or more of these factors may lead to accidents. 

An undesirable feature of highway transport is the occurrence of accidents and consequent loss of lives and property. The spectacular increase of vehicles on the road has been causing a steady growth accident rates on highways. India has a poor record of road safety with a large number of accidents as well as fatalities.

This has become a major social problem and deserves special attention from the highway and traffic engineers. Based on a scientific analysis of the causes of accidents, the traffic engineer has to devise ways to reduce them through better design, construction, and maintenance of highways, and through better traffic operation and regulation.

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Heavy economic losses and human misery caused by accidents indicate the need for systematic accident studies. The data obtained from an analysis of accidents helps the engineer to evolve improvement schemes and regulatory measures to enhance road safety and decrease accidents.

Essay on the Causes of Road Accidents:

Road accidents, as the name itself suggests, are random events that are caused by the interplay of diverse factors relating to the road and its condition, the road users, the vehicles, and environmental conditions. Invariably, a combination of two or more of these factors may lead to accidents.

The following is a brief summary of the causes of accidents on roads:

1. Road and Road Conditions:

Faulty geometric design components like sight distance, shoulders, super-elevation, transitions and inadequate traffic control devices cause accidents, as do slippery road conditions with inadequate friction leading to skidding and pot holes, ruts and damaged conditions of the surface.

2. Road Users:

The drivers of vehicles can cause accidents through rash driving and excessive speed, violation of traffic rules, traffic signs and signals, through fatigue due to excessive continuous driving, alcoholism and drunken driving. In addition, bus passengers can cause accidents while getting into and alighting from moving vehicles, and distracting the driver’s attention. Pedestrians using the carriageway and violating regulations can also cause accidents.

3. Vehicles:

Mechanical defects of vehicles like failure of brakes, tyre burst, and steering system invariably lead to traffic accidents.

4. Weather:

Unfavourable weather conditions such as fog, heavy rainfall, dust and smoke render driving unsafe, leading to accidents.

5. Miscellaneous:

Stray animals, unmanned level crossings, advertisement boards and hoardings affecting visibility and distracting the drivers’ attention and a host of other such things may also cause road accidents.

Accident Records:

The importance of collecting and recording accurate and comprehensive information relating to road accidents cannot be over-emphasised. Such records help to identify the causes of road accidents and evolve methods of overcoming the deficiencies observed; statistical techniques may also be used in the analysis of accident data.

The IRC have prescribed standard accident reporting forms – Form A-1-for collecting the details of an accident and Form 4 for summary of road accidents in a state during the year.

The particulars in Form A-l are in the following heads:

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• About Health Effects of Cigarette Smoking
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Health Effects of Vaping

At a glance.

Learn more about the health effects of vaping.

• No tobacco products, including e-cigarettes, are safe.
• Most e-cigarettes contain nicotine, which is highly addictive and is a health danger for pregnant people, developing fetuses, and youth. 1
• Aerosol from e-cigarettes can also contain harmful and potentially harmful substances. These include cancer-causing chemicals and tiny particles that can be inhaled deep into lungs. 1
• E-cigarettes should not be used by youth, young adults, or people who are pregnant. E-cigarettes may have the potential to benefit adults who smoke and are not pregnant if used as a complete substitute for all smoked tobacco products. 2 3 4
• Scientists still have a lot to learn about the short- and long-term health effects of using e-cigarettes.

Most e-cigarettes, or vapes, contain nicotine, which has known adverse health effects. 1

• Nicotine is highly addictive. 1
• Nicotine is toxic to developing fetuses and is a health danger for pregnant people. 1
• Acute nicotine exposure can be toxic. Children and adults have been poisoned by swallowing, breathing, or absorbing vaping liquid through their skin or eyes. More than 80% of calls to U.S. poison control centers for e-cigarettes are for children less than 5 years old. 5

Nicotine poses unique dangers to youth because their brains are still developing.

• Nicotine can harm brain development which continues until about age 25. 1
• Youth can start showing signs of nicotine addiction quickly, sometimes before the start of regular or daily use. 1
• Using nicotine during adolescence can harm the parts of the brain that control attention, learning, mood, and impulse control. 1
• Adolescents who use nicotine may be at increased risk for future addiction to other drugs. 1 6
• Youth who vape may also be more likely to smoke cigarettes in the future. 7 8 9 10 11 12

Other potential harms of e-cigarettes

E-cigarette aerosol can contain substances that can be harmful or potentially harmful to the body. These include: 1

• Nicotine, a highly addictive chemical that can harm adolescent brain development
• Cancer-causing chemicals
• Heavy metals such as nickel, tin, and lead
• Tiny particles that can be inhaled deep into the lungs
• Volatile organic compounds
• Flavorings such as diacetyl, a chemical linked to a serious lung disease. Some flavorings used in e-cigarettes may be safe to eat but not to inhale because the lungs process substances differently than the gut.

E-cigarette aerosol generally contains fewer harmful chemicals than the deadly mix of 7,000 chemicals in smoke from cigarettes. 7 13 14 However, this does not make e-cigarettes safe. Scientists are still learning about the immediate and long-term health effects of using e-cigarettes.

Dual use refers to the use of both e-cigarettes and regular cigarettes. Dual use is not an effective way to safeguard health. It may result in greater exposure to toxins and worse respiratory health outcomes than using either product alone. 2 3 4 15

Some people who use e-cigarettes have experienced seizures. Most reports to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA ) have involved youth or young adults. 16 17

E-cigarettes can cause unintended injuries. Defective e-cigarette batteries have caused fires and explosions, some of which have resulted in serious injuries. Most explosions happened when the batteries were being charged.

Anyone can report health or safety issues with tobacco products, including e-cigarettes, through the FDA Safety Reporting Portal .

Health effects of vaping for pregnant people

The use of any tobacco product, including e-cigarettes, is not safe during pregnancy. 1 14 Scientists are still learning about the health effects of vaping on pregnancy and pregnancy outcomes. Here's what we know now:

• Most e-cigarettes, or vapes, contain nicotine—the addictive substance in cigarettes, cigars, and other tobacco products. 18
• Nicotine is a health danger for pregnant people and is toxic to developing fetuses. 1 14
• Nicotine can damage a fetus's developing brain and lungs. 13
• E-cigarette use during pregnancy has been associated with low birth weight and pre-term birth. 19 20

Nicotine addiction and withdrawal

Nicotine is the main addictive substance in tobacco products, including e-cigarettes. With repeated use, a person's brain gets used to having nicotine. This can make them think they need nicotine just to feel okay. This is part of nicotine addiction.

Signs of nicotine addiction include craving nicotine, being unable to stop using it, and developing a tolerance (needing to use more to feel the same). Nicotine addiction can also affect relationships with family and friends and performance in school, at work, or other activities.

When someone addicted to nicotine stops using it, their body and brain have to adjust. This can result in temporary symptoms of nicotine withdrawal which may include:

• Feeling irritable, jumpy, restless, or anxious
• Feeling sad or down
• Having trouble sleeping
• Having a hard time concentrating
• Feeling hungry
• Craving nicotine

Withdrawal symptoms fade over time as the brain gets used to not having nicotine.

Nicotine addiction and mental health

Nicotine addiction can harm mental health and be a source of stress. 21 22 23 24 More research is needed to understand the connection between vaping and mental health, but studies show people who quit smoking cigarettes experience: 25

• Lower levels of anxiety, depression, and stress
• Improved positive mood and quality of life

Mental health is a growing concern among youth. 26 27 Youth vaping and cigarette use are associated with mental health symptoms such as depression. 22 28

The most common reason middle and high school students give for currently using e-cigarettes is, "I am feeling anxious, stressed, or depressed." 29 Nicotine addiction or withdrawal can contribute to these feelings or make them worse. Youth may use tobacco products to relieve their symptoms, which can lead to a cycle of nicotine addiction.

• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. E-Cigarette Use Among Youth and Young Adults: A Report of the Surgeon General . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2016. Accessed Feb 14, 2024.
• Goniewicz ML, Smith DM, Edwards KC, et al. Comparison of nicotine and toxicant exposure in users of electronic cigarettes and combustible cigarettes . JAMA Netw Open. 2018;1(8):e185937.
• Reddy KP, Schwamm E, Kalkhoran S, et al. Respiratory symptom incidence among people using electronic cigarettes, combustible tobacco, or both . Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2021;204(2):231–234.
• Smith DM, Christensen C, van Bemmel D, et al. Exposure to nicotine and toxicants among dual users of tobacco cigarettes and e-cigarettes: Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH) Study, 2013-2014 . Nicotine Tob Res. 2021;23(5):790–797.
• Tashakkori NA, Rostron BL, Christensen CH, Cullen KA. Notes from the field: e-cigarette–associated cases reported to poison centers — United States, April 1, 2022–March 31, 2023 . MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2023;72:694–695.
• Yuan M, Cross SJ, Loughlin SE, Leslie FM. Nicotine and the adolescent brain . J Physiol. 2015;593(16):3397–3412.
• National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. Public Health Consequences of E-Cigarettes . The National Academies Press; 2018.
• Barrington-Trimis JL, Kong G, Leventhal AM, et al. E-cigarette use and subsequent smoking frequency among adolescents . Pediatrics. 2018;142(6):e20180486.
• Barrington-Trimis JL, Urman R, Berhane K, et al. E-cigarettes and future cigarette use . Pediatrics. 2016;138(1):e20160379.
• Bunnell RE, Agaku IT, Arrazola RA, et al. Intentions to smoke cigarettes among never-smoking US middle and high school electronic cigarette users: National Youth Tobacco Survey, 2011-2013 . Nicotine Tob Res. 2015;17(2):228–235.
• Soneji S, Barrington-Trimis JL, Wills TA, et al. Association between initial use of e-cigarettes and subsequent cigarette smoking among adolescents and young adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis . JAMA Pediatr. 2017;171(8):788–797.
• Sun R, Méndez D, Warner KE. Association of electronic cigarette use by U.S. adolescents with subsequent persistent cigarette smoking . JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(3):e234885.
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. How Tobacco Smoke Causes Disease: The Biology and Behavioral Basis for Smoking-Attributable Disease . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2010. Accessed Feb 13, 2024.
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Consequences of Smoking: 50 Years of Progress. A Report of the Surgeon General . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2014. Accessed Feb 12, 2024.
• Mukerjee R, Hirschtick JL, LZ Arciniega, et al. ENDS, cigarettes, and respiratory illness: longitudinal associations among U.S. youth . AJPM. Published online Dec 2023.
• Faulcon LM, Rudy S, Limpert J, Wang B, Murphy I. Adverse experience reports of seizures in youth and young adult electronic nicotine delivery systems users . J Adolesc Health . 2020;66(1):15–17.
• U.S. Food and Drug Administration. E-cigarette: Safety Communication - Related to Seizures Reported Following E-cigarette Use, Particularly in Youth and Young Adults . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2019. Accessed Feb 14, 2024.
• Marynak KL, Gammon DG, Rogers T, et al. Sales of nicotine-containing electronic cigarette products: United States, 2015 . Am J Public Health . 2017;107(5):702-705.
• Regan AK, Bombard JM, O'Hegarty MM, Smith RA, Tong VT. Adverse birth outcomes associated with prepregnancy and prenatal electronic cigarette use . Obstet Gynecol. 2021;138(1):85–94.
• Regan AK, Pereira G. Patterns of combustible and electronic cigarette use during pregnancy and associated pregnancy outcomes . Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):13508.
• Kutlu MG, Parikh V, Gould TJ. Nicotine addiction and psychiatric disorders . Int Rev Neurobiol. 2015;124:171–208.
• Obisesan OH, Mirbolouk M, Osei AD, et al. Association between e-cigarette use and depression in the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, 2016-2017 . JAMA Netw Open. 2019;2(12):e1916800.
• Prochaska JJ, Das S, Young-Wolff KC. Smoking, mental illness, and public health . Annu Rev Public Health. 2017;38:165–185.
• Wootton RE, Richmond RC, Stuijfzand BG, et al. Evidence for causal effects of lifetime smoking on risk for depression and schizophrenia: a Mendelian randomisation study . Psychol Med. 2020;50(14):2435–2443.
• Taylor G, McNeill A, Girling A, Farley A, Lindson-Hawley N, Aveyard P. Change in mental health after smoking cessation: systematic review and meta-analysis . BMJ. 2014;348:g1151.
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.   Youth Risk Behavior Survey Data Summary & Trends Report: 2011–2021 . U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2023. Accessed Dec 15, 2023.
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Protecting Youth Mental Health: The U.S. Surgeon General's Advisory . Office of the Surgeon General; 2021. Accessed Jan 5, 2024.
• Lechner WV, Janssen T, Kahler CW, Audrain-McGovern J, Leventhal AM. Bi-directional associations of electronic and combustible cigarette use onset patterns with depressive symptoms in adolescents . Prev Med. 2017;96:73–78.
• Gentzke AS, Wang TW, Cornelius M, et al. Tobacco product use and associated factors among middle and high school students—National Youth Tobacco Survey, United States, 2021 . MMWR Surveill Summ. 2022;71(No. SS-5):1–29.

Smoking and Tobacco Use

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Crashes on Interstate 35 north near Huxley caused significant delays Wednesday morning.

The Iowa Department of Transportation traffic map was showing a multi-vehicle crash just north of Huxley, in between Ames and Ankeny. The crash led to major delays as speeds were slowed to around 10 mph both northbound and southbound.

The road was temporarily blocked, leading to delays of around 40 minutes. Drivers going southbound on I-35 were being directed to take a detour.

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Iran's President Raisi killed in helicopter crash

By Kathleen Magramo, Deva Lee, Rhea Mogul, Jerome Taylor, Antoinette Radford and Rob Picheta, CNN

Our live coverage has ended

Our live coverage has ended. Read more about the death of Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi here .

Global leaders send condolences following Raisi's death

Reaction to the death of Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi continued to filter through on Monday.

• Saudi Arabia’s Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman told Iran, "we send your country our deepest condolences and sincere sympathy" following the crash, which killed Raisi along with eight others. "May God have mercy on them," the crown prince added.
• Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan said, "I remember Mr. Raisi with respect and gratitude. As Türkiye, we will stand by our neighbor Iran in these difficult and sad times, as we have done many times."
• Kuwait’s Emir Sheikh Mishal Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah sent "a cable of condolences" after the crash, "wishing them [families of the deceased] and the Iranian people and solace."
• NATO spokesperson Farah Dakhlallah said in a brief statement that the Western military alliance sends its "condolences to the people of Iran for the death of President Raisi, Foreign Minister Amir-Abdollahian, and others who perished in the helicopter crash."
• Chinese leader Xi Jinping said, "his unfortunate death is a huge loss to the Iranian people and also makes the Chinese people lose a good friend," according to Chinese foreign ministry spokesperson Wang Wenbin. "The Chinese government and the Chinese people cherish the traditional friendship between China and Iran very much, and believe that with the joint efforts of both sides, the comprehensive strategic partnership between China and Iran will continue to consolidate and develop."

Read more on the international reaction here.

Iran's army chief orders investigation into cause of helicopter crash

From CNN’s Mostafa Salem in Abu Dhabi  

Iran’s chief of staff of the Armed Forces, Mohammad Bagheri, has ordered an investigation into the cause of the helicopter crash that killed President Ebrahim Raisi and Foreign Minister Hossein Amir-Abdollahian, Tasnim news agency said. 

A high-ranking delegation, headed by a military commander and including technical experts, will go to the crash site in Eastern Azerbaijan, Tasnim said.

The helicopter crashed in a remote mountainous region in northwestern Iran on Sunday, killing Raisi, his foreign minister and seven others.

Upcoming election could be "watershed moment" for Iran, analyst says

From CNN's Rob Picheta

The upcoming, early election to replace Ebrahim Raisi as president could be a "watershed moment for Iran" if the country's supreme leader allows a range of candidates to stand, a Middle East expert has told CNN.

"I would argue that the most consequential immediate impact of his death is who will come in his wake," Mohammad Ali Shabani, the editor of Amwaj.media, told CNN's Becky Anderson Monday.

"That election can be a watershed moment for Iran," he said.

Shabani conceded that Iranian Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei "is more inclined towards conservative rule than to open up the political space."

But he said Khamenei "has always emphasized voter turnout as a litmus test of the legitimacy of the system."

Raisi became president of Iran in June 2021 after winning a historically uncompetitive presidential election. Many reform-minded Iranians had refused to take part in an election widely seen as a foregone conclusion, and turnout slumped below 50%.

Khamenei "has now... a golden opportunity to, in a face-saving way, reverse course" by allowing competitive elections and encouraging turnout, Shabani said.

Body of President Raisi to be moved to city of Mashhad on Tuesday

From CNN’s Adam Pourahmadi

The body of Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi and the other victims of Sunday's helicopter crash will be transferred on Tuesday from Tabriz to the northeastern city of Mashhad, where Raisi was born, according to Fars news. 

A large public ceremony is scheduled to take place at a prayer hall in Tabriz at 4 p.m. local time on Monday, Fars news reported. 

At 9 a.m. local time on Tuesday, a large procession will accompany the bodies of Raisi and the other victims from Tabriz Martyr's Square to the city's airport. From there, the bodies will be moved to Mashhad, according to Fars. 

Raisi was born in Mashhad in 1960. He ran the powerful charity known as Astan-e Quds-e Razavi, which manages the huge Imam Reza shrine, a major Islamic holy site in the city.

Iran's president has died. Here's what we know about what comes next

From CNN Staff

Iran's President Ebrahim Raisi was confirmed dead by state media on Monday morning, after a helicopter he was traveling in alongside Foreign Minister Hossein Amir-Abdollahian, and seven others crashed in foggy conditions in the country's remote northwest on Sunday.

Here's what to know now:

Acting president: In the wake of Raisi's death, Vice President Mohammad Mokhber has been appointed as acting president.

Acting foreign minister: Ali Bagheri Kani, who has led Iranian delegations through indirect negotiations with the United States over nuclear issues and prisoner exchanges, has been appointed acting foreign minister after the death of  Amir-Abdollahian , state news agency IRNA reported.

New elections : The Iranian constitution mandates that the three heads of the branches of government, including the vice president, speaker of the parliament, and head of the judiciary, must arrange for an election and elect a new leader within 50 days of assuming the role of acting President. Iran's supreme leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei said in a message to state news agencies that Mokhber was responsible for organizing  elections for a new president within that time.

Public mourning: Ayatollah Khamenei has announced five days of public mourning after the crash, and expressed his condolences. All cultural and arts activities have been canceled in Iran for the next seven days.

Global reaction: The loss of Raisi — a conservative hardliner and protege of Ayatollah Khamenei — is expected to sow further uncertainty in a country already buckling under significant economic and political strain, with tensions with nearby Israel at a dangerous high. His death has already triggered international reaction with Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, India and the UAE leader expressing their condolences for his death. Lebanon has declared three days of mourning .

Militias respond : Iran-backed militant groups Hamas, the Houthis, and Hezbollah have sent condolences to Tehran over the death of Raisi. 

Iran cancels all cultural and arts activities for seven days

From Negar Mahmoodi

All cultural and arts activities in Iran will be suspended for seven days following the death of President Ebrahim Raisi, the Ministry of Culture announced on Monday.

Raisi died in a helicopter crash at age 63.

The country’s foreign minister and seven others were also killed after the crash in a remote, mountainous area of Iran’s northwest.

Iran's acting president holds "extraordinary meeting" with heads of legislative and judiciary branches 

From Alireza Hajihosseini

Iran's acting president Mohammad Mokhber held an "extraordinary meeting" on Monday with the heads of the legislative and judicial branches following the announcement of President Ebrahim Raisi's death, according to Iranian state media. 

Mokhber spoke with Iranian Parliament Speaker Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf and Hujjat al-Islam Gholam-Hossein Mohseni-Eje'i, the head of Iran's Judiciary, according to Iran's semi-official Tasnim News. 

The three expressed their condolences and reaffirmed the three branches of government will continue its duties to the nation "without any interruption," Tasnim reported.  

Iran appoints top negotiator Ali Bagheri Kani as acting foreign minister, state media reports

From CNN’s Mostafa Salem

Ali Bagheri Kani, who has led Iranian delegations through indirect negotiations with the United States over nuclear issues and prisoner exchanges, has been appointed acting foreign minister after the death of Hossein Amir-Abdollahian , state news agency IRNA reported.

Amir-Abdollahian was among the nine people killed in a helicopter crash in Iran's remote northwestern mountainous region on Sunday, along with Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi.

“Following the martyrdom of Hussein Amir Abdollahian, the Foreign Minister of our country, with the approval of the Cabinet Board, Ali Bagheri, the Deputy Foreign Minister of Foreign Affairs, was appointed as the acting minister of the ministry,” state news agency IRNA said.

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