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Classroom Behaviour Management Theories – Influential Thought Leaders

Last Updated on 02/09/2023 by James Barron

Table of Contents

This comprehensive overview examines several theories and approaches to learning and behaviour management. Starting with Behaviourism, the piece outlines the theory’s principles emphasising reinforcement and punishment as critical tools in shaping behaviours. The Cognitivist approach underscores mental processing of behaviour, while the Humanist approach highlights individualised learning plans and understanding root causes of behaviour. Pragmatism, as described by Dewey, emphasises learning through real-world experiences. Glasser’s Choice Theory focuses on understanding behaviour through intrinsic needs. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory introduces the concept of learning through observation. Several classroom behaviour management theorists, such as Fred Jones, Edward Ford, Lee and Marlene Canter, Gordon Thomas, Jacob Kounin, Rudolf Dreikurs, Alfie Kohn, and B. F. Skinner are discussed, highlighting their contributions and distinctive methodologies. The overview concludes with an in-depth look at Applied Behaviour Analysis, a systematic approach beneficial for managing challenging behaviours and promoting effective learning. This body of work provides educators and researchers a comprehensive perspective on the historical and contemporary views on learning and behaviour management.

Introduction – What is Behaviour Management?

Behaviour management refers to the strategies, techniques, and approaches educators and other professionals use to prevent and address undesired behaviours while fostering and reinforcing desired ones. It is integral to creating an environment conducive to learning, where disruptions are minimised, and positive interactions are promoted. Effective behaviour management goes beyond mere discipline or control; it seeks to understand the underlying causes of behaviour and employs proactive measures to help individuals develop self-regulation and responsibility. By setting clear expectations, consistently enforcing boundaries, and using positive reinforcement, educators can guide students towards constructive behaviours and attitudes, thereby enhancing the overall learning experience.

Behaviourism learning theory

Behaviourism, rooted in early 20th-century psychology, posits that learning occurs when a new behaviour pattern is established. Pioneers like John B. Watson emphasised the manifestation of new behaviours as evidence of learning, while Ivan Pavlov introduced classical conditioning, a process demonstrated by making dogs salivate at a bell’s sound. This approach, however, has limitations since it doesn’t always account for entirely new learning. Central to behaviourism is the role of feedback, especially reinforcement and punishment. Positive reinforcement rewards desired behaviour, negative reinforcement prevents a negative outcome following desired behaviour, and punishment is given for undesired actions. The author cites personal teaching experiences using these methods. Behaviourism’s strengths include its clarity and its systematic approach that breaks complex subjects into digestible parts, facilitating easier measurement of learning outcomes. However, over-reliance on positive reinforcement can diminish its impact, potentially stunting students’ motivations as they become overly accustomed to constant praise.

Cognitivist Approach in Understanding and Managing Behaviour

A cognitivist approach from Jean Piaget and Philip Kendall in which students are encouraged to mentally process their behaviour, can be extremely effective. For instance, with a student that has become aggressive, getting them to describe their poor behaviour within the class can greatly reduce aggression levels and make them reflect on their actions. However, if a student is too aggressive to listen, this method will be ineffective until their aggression subsides. Another method from the cognitivist theory involves having students create their own ground rules. This fosters ownership, increasing the likelihood that students will adhere to these rules. Interestingly, once these ground rules are established, they then align with behaviourist theory.

Humanist Approach to Behaviour Management

Another behaviour management theory is the Humanist approach from Abraham Maslow. As quoted, “Unlike the behaviourists, humanistic psychologists believe that humans are not solely the product of their environment.” (Cortland, 2004) The objective with the Humanist approach is to view the student as an individual. This involves understanding the root causes of poor behaviour through the student’s perspective, aiming to address the issue in a mutually satisfactory manner. For instance, a student’s individual learning plan might encompass a unique behaviour strategy, such as allowing them to listen to music to help them focus. This method can effectively manage challenging students, ensuring inclusivity in teaching practices. One practical approach I implemented was asking a student to reflect on their desire to be in the course. This led to the discovery that the student was in an undesirable course due to enrolment limitations. The realisation that the student was in an unsuitable course was the root of their poor behaviour. Once they transitioned to their preferred course, their behaviour notably improved.

Pragmatism theory by John Dewey

Pragmatism, as articulated by John Dewey, is an educational and philosophical approach that prioritises experience and practical knowledge over fixed truths or static principles. Dewey believed that learning should be rooted in real-world experiences, and that thinking and doing are intrinsically intertwined. For Dewey, the ideal learning environment is one in which students engage actively with their surroundings, solve real problems, and reflect on their actions. He emphasised the idea of “learning by doing,” arguing that knowledge is a product of our direct interactions with our environment. Dewey’s pragmatism also highlighted the role of educators as facilitators, guiding students through meaningful experiences and helping them connect theory with practice. His ideas have deeply influenced progressive education movements, shifting the focus from rote memorisation to experiential, problem-based learning.

William Glasser and Choice Theory

William Glasser, an influential American psychiatrist, developed Choice Theory, which posits that almost all human behaviour is chosen and that we are driven by our internal needs to satisfy certain basic requirements: survival, love and belonging, power, freedom, and fun. Glasser emphasised that for individuals to lead fulfilling lives, they must take responsibility for their choices and actions. In the context of education, he advocated for classroom environments where students have a say in their learning and feel a sense of belonging and importance. Rather than external coercion, he believed in fostering intrinsic motivation through positive relationships and self-evaluation. Glasser’s ideas were revolutionary in shifting the focus from external control and punishment to understanding behaviour through internal needs and choices.

Albert Bandura and Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura, a prominent psychologist, is best known for his Social Learning Theory, which posits that individuals learn not only through personal experience but also by observing the actions of others and the consequences of those actions. Central to this theory is the concept of observational learning or modelling, where behaviours are acquired or modified by watching others. Bandura emphasised the role of cognitive processes, asserting that individuals do not simply mimic observed behaviour; instead, they process, interpret, and integrate it with existing knowledge. His famous “Bobo Doll” experiment highlighted how children can learn aggressive behaviours by observing adults. Bandura later expanded his theory to encompass self-efficacy, the belief in one’s capability to achieve goals, which plays a crucial role in determining the actions individuals are likely to take. His work has had a profound impact on understanding the interplay of environmental, cognitive, and individual factors in learning and behaviour.

Other Key Theorists on Classroom Behaviour Management

Fred Jones, a prominent educational consultant, developed a classroom management approach that emphasises the importance of helping students become responsible for their behaviour and learning. Central to Jones’s theory is the concept of “Positive Classroom Discipline,” which suggests that effective classroom management is less about reacting to disruptions and more about creating a structured environment where students know what’s expected of them and are motivated to follow those expectations. Jones advocates for clear procedures, efficient use of instructional time, and consistent consequences. He emphasises the role of body language, proximity, and non-verbal cues in maintaining classroom order. Furthermore, Jones’s strategies prioritise teaching students to work independently and responsibly, reducing their reliance on the teacher and increasing time-on-task. His methods are designed to create classrooms where teachers can teach effectively, and students can learn without unnecessary interruptions.

Edward Ford – Responsible Thinking Process

Edward Ford developed the Responsible Thinking Process (RTP) as a classroom management strategy designed to empower students to take responsibility for their own behaviours. Rooted in the principles of reality therapy and choice theory, RTP emphasises respectful dialogue between educators and students. When students disrupt the learning environment, they are asked a series of structured questions designed to guide them towards understanding their choices, the rules they’ve broken, and considering alternative, appropriate behaviours. Instead of traditional punitive measures, RTP focuses on teaching students to reflect upon and correct their behavior, ultimately fostering a sense of responsibility. By encouraging thoughtful reflection and problem-solving, Ford’s approach seeks to create a classroom environment where both learning and personal growth are prioritised.

Lee and Marlene Canter – Assertive Discipline

Lee and Marlene Canter’s “Assertive Discipline” theory, introduced in 1976, is a structured, systematic approach to classroom management that emphasises the rights of the teacher to define and enforce standards for student behaviour, and the responsibility of students to adhere to these standards. The Canters advocated for educators to adopt an assertive demeanour, expressing their expectations clearly and confidently, without being aggressive or passive. Central to their approach is the idea of consistent application of positive reinforcements for appropriate behaviour and consequences for misbehaviour. By establishing a clear set of classroom rules and ensuring that rewards and consequences are applied fairly and consistently, the Canters believed that educators could create a positive learning environment where teachers can teach, and students can learn without unnecessary disruptions. Their work has been influential in shaping classroom management strategies in schools across the world.

Gordon Thomas – Teacher Effectiveness Training

Gordon Thomas introduced “Teacher Effectiveness Training” (TET) in 1974, emphasising the importance of fostering effective and open communication between teachers and students. Instead of adopting an authoritative or permissive stance, TET encourages educators to seek a more collaborative approach, facilitating an environment where students feel understood and valued. Central to this model is the use of “I-messages” — a way of expressing feelings without placing blame, thus promoting responsibility without inducing defensiveness. Additionally, the training emphasises active listening, problem-solving, and conflict resolution, enabling teachers to understand students’ needs better and jointly find solutions to classroom challenges. Thomas’s approach reframed the teacher-student relationship, shifting it from mere authority figures to partners in the educational process, thereby enhancing the classroom environment’s overall effectiveness and harmony.

Jacob Kounin

Jacob Kounin’s insights into classroom management shifted the focus from individual student discipline to the dynamics of the entire classroom. Kounin emphasised the significance of “withitness” — a teacher’s ability to be aware of everything happening in the classroom, thereby preventing potential disruptions before they escalate. He argued that effective classroom management isn’t merely about how teachers respond to disruptions, but more importantly, about how they can prevent them. Another central concept introduced by Kounin is “momentum” or the flow of a lesson. He posited that lessons should move with a smooth, steady pace to maintain student engagement and minimise off-task behaviours. Kounin’s approach underscores the importance of proactive techniques and the interconnectedness of classroom events, highlighting that the management of one situation can influence others.

Rudolf Dreikurs

Rudolf Dreikurs, a renowned psychiatrist and educator, introduced a democratic approach to classroom management and child discipline in the 1970s. Building on the work of Alfred Adler, Dreikurs emphasised the innate desire of children for belonging and significance within their social groups. He identified four primary misbehaviours in children, which he believed arose from mistaken goals: attention-seeking, power-seeking, revenge, and demonstrating inadequacy. Instead of resorting to punitive measures, Dreikurs advocated for encouragement as a fundamental tool. He believed that by understanding the root causes of a child’s behaviour and addressing their unmet needs, educators and parents could guide children towards socially beneficial behaviours. His approach prioritised mutual respect and cooperative solutions, offering a humane alternative to the authoritarian discipline methods of his time.

Alfie Kohn, born in 1957, is a prominent critic of traditional educational practices and an advocate for progressive, student-centred learning. Kohn challenges conventional beliefs about motivation, competition, and discipline. He is particularly critical of practices like standardised testing, homework, and behaviourist discipline methods, such as rewards and punishments. Kohn contends that these practices often prioritise compliance over genuine understanding and can extinguish a student’s intrinsic motivation to learn. He advocates for a more holistic, child-centred approach to education, emphasising collaboration, critical thinking, and fostering a genuine love of learning. His work calls for a radical rethinking of educational norms, emphasising the importance of attending to the individual needs and interests of students rather than adhering to a one-size-fits-all model.

B. F. Skinner

B. F. Skinner, a pioneering figure in the field of psychology, is best known for his work on operant conditioning, a type of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. In his seminal work from 1954, Skinner emphasised the role of reinforcement and punishment in shaping behaviour. He introduced the idea of the “Skinner Box,” a controlled environment used to study animal behaviour, demonstrating that behaviours followed by positive outcomes (reinforcements) are likely to be repeated, while those followed by negative outcomes (punishments) are suppressed. His theories have profound implications for education, suggesting that learners can be guided through systematic rewards and consequences. While some critics argue that this approach reduces learning to mere stimulus-response patterns, Skinner’s insights have laid foundational groundwork for many contemporary educational practices, particularly in the realm of behaviour management and instructional design.

Applied Behaviour Analysis

Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA) in the classroom revolves around the systematic application of learning principles to encourage desired behaviours and reduce or eliminate unwanted ones. Using ABA, educators can break down complex skills into smaller, teachable components and use positive reinforcement to promote mastery. By continuously collecting data on student performance, teachers can make informed decisions about instructional strategies and tailor interventions to individual student needs. ABA is particularly useful in managing challenging behaviours, as it seeks to understand the underlying causes or triggers and address them directly. Through individualised behaviour plans, consistent reinforcement schedules, and continuous monitoring, ABA offers educators a structured and evidence-based approach to enhance classroom management and promote effective learning for all students, especially those with special needs or behavioural challenges.

Behaviour management in classrooms is a multifaceted domain, pulling insights from various theories and practices to create conducive learning environments. The array of theories, from Behaviourism’s systematic rewards system to the Humanist approach’s emphasis on individualised understanding, showcases the evolving nature of pedagogical strategies. As educators, it’s crucial to draw from these diverse perspectives, understanding that students are not monolithic in their learning or behaviour. Whether it’s Dewey’s pragmatism advocating for experiential learning or Glasser’s focus on personal choices, what remains clear is the necessity of adapting and tailoring our approaches to the unique challenges and opportunities each classroom presents. Classroom management isn’t merely about maintaining order; it’s about fostering an environment where every student feels understood, valued, and primed for academic success. As we reflect on these theorists’ contributions, it serves as a reminder that effective education is a dynamic interplay of understanding behaviours, motivations, and the individual needs of students.

What is withitness?

“Withitness” refers to a teacher’s acute awareness of everything happening in the classroom. It encompasses being alert to potential disruptions and addressing them proactively. A teacher with high withitness effectively maintains classroom order by demonstrating an innate understanding of classroom dynamics and student behaviour.

How do cultural differences impact the effectiveness of different behaviour management strategies?

Cultural differences can greatly influence perceptions of appropriate behaviour and effective discipline. Strategies successful in one cultural context might be ineffective or even counterproductive in another. It’s crucial for educators to be culturally responsive, adapting strategies to ensure respect and understanding of diverse student backgrounds.

What long-term effects do these behaviour management theories have on students’ emotional and social development?

Behaviour management theories can shape students’ self-perception, interpersonal relationships, and coping mechanisms in the long run. Positive, constructive strategies can foster resilience, self-regulation, and healthy social interactions. In contrast, punitive approaches might lead to fear, resentment, or social withdrawal.

Are there specific age or developmental stages where one approach is more effective than others?

Yes, different developmental stages require tailored approaches. For instance, younger children might benefit more from clear boundaries and immediate feedback, while adolescents might respond better to strategies emphasising autonomy and understanding. Age-appropriate interventions ensure effective learning and behavioural outcomes.

How do digital technologies and online learning environments change the dynamics of behaviour management?

Digital platforms introduce challenges like online distractions and cyberbullying but also offer tools for monitoring and encouraging positive behaviours. Traditional classroom management tactics might be less effective online, necessitating new strategies that prioritise digital etiquette and self-regulation. Engaging content, interactive platforms, and clear guidelines can help maintain a productive online learning environment.

How do these behaviour management strategies integrate with students diagnosed with learning disorders or special needs?

Students with special needs may require individualised behaviour strategies that account for their unique challenges. Approaches like Applied Behaviour Analysis have been especially beneficial for students with disorders like autism. It’s essential to approach such students with empathy, understanding, and patience, offering consistent support and tailored interventions.

Are there potential negative repercussions or criticisms associated with any of these theories when implemented in real-world classroom settings?

Yes, any approach, if misapplied or used rigidly, can have drawbacks. Over-reliance on rewards in behaviourism, for instance, can hinder intrinsic motivation. Educators need to be flexible and observant, adjusting strategies as needed to ensure positive outcomes and prevent unintended negative effects.

How do socio-economic factors influence the effectiveness of these behaviour management approaches?

Socio-economic factors can impact students’ behaviour and their response to interventions. Students from disadvantaged backgrounds might exhibit behaviours stemming from external stressors, and traditional strategies might not address root causes. Teachers should be sensitive to socio-economic challenges, offering support and understanding while implementing behaviour management.

How should teachers adapt these strategies in multicultural or diverse classrooms where students come from various backgrounds?

In multicultural settings, teachers should prioritise cultural responsiveness, understanding that perceptions of behaviour and discipline can vary widely. Engaging with students’ backgrounds and integrating diverse perspectives can make behaviour management more effective and inclusive. Open dialogue, mutual respect, and flexibility are key in such diverse environments.

Which of these theories is most in line with current educational standards and curriculum frameworks?

Current educational trends emphasise holistic, student-centred approaches that prioritise well-being, inclusivity, and mutual respect. While many of these theories contribute valuable insights, approaches like Humanist and Cognitivist align closely with these contemporary values. However, the best-fit strategy often depends on the specific context and individual student needs.

How do teachers’ personal beliefs and biases influence their choice and implementation of a particular behaviour management theory?

Teachers’ personal beliefs can significantly shape their approach to behaviour management. Their past experiences, educational training, and personal biases can lead them to favour certain strategies over others. It’s crucial for educators to continually reflect on their practices, ensuring they prioritise students’ best interests and remain open to adapting their approaches.

Further reading

Classroom management: creating positive outcomes for all students by lisa bloom..

This book offers insights into creating a positive learning environment, addressing diverse student needs, and developing strategies for effective classroom management.

The First Days of School: How to Be an Effective Teacher by Harry K. Wong and Rosemary T. Wong.

This is a classic text that helps teachers set the tone for a successful school year, with a strong focus on effective classroom and behaviour management from day one.

Positive Behavior Management in Physical Activity Settings, Third Edition by Barry Lavay, Ron French, and Hester Henderson.

This text offers behaviour management strategies specifically for physical activity settings, making it a unique and valuable resource for educators in this area.

Setting Limits in the Classroom: A Complete Guide to Effective Classroom Management with a School-wide Discipline Plan by Robert J. Mackenzie.

Mackenzie provides educators with tools and techniques to set clear boundaries and enforce them consistently.

The Classroom Management Book by Harry K. Wong, Rosemary T. Wong, Karen Yenofsky, and Sarah F. Jondahl.

A practical guide filled with classroom strategies, procedures, and routines to help teachers maintain a productive learning environment.

Responsive Classroom

Responsive Classroom focuses on an evidence-based approach to education that emphasises social-emotional learning, and effective discipline.

Website URL:  www.responsiveclassroom.org

Smart Classroom Management

A blog filled with practical advice and strategies for teachers at various grade levels, focusing on creating a calm and productive classroom environment.

Website URL:  www.smartclassroommanagement.com

This site offers strategies, interventions, and supports for addressing a wide range of behavioural challenges, based on the Positive Behavioural Interventions & Supports framework.

Website URL:  www.pbisworld.com

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• Our Mission

The Key to Effective Classroom Management

A three-phase process helps build strong teacher-student bonds, which can reduce disruptive behavior.

It’s a daunting but all-too-common sight for many teachers: A classroom full of rowdy students who are unable to focus on the lesson. Classroom management techniques may get things back on track, but valuable time has already been lost.

Many experienced teachers know that making meaningful connections with students is one of the most effective ways to prevent disruptions in the first place, and a new study set out to assess this approach . In classrooms where teachers used a series of techniques centered around establishing, maintaining, and restoring relationships, academic engagement increased by 33 percent and disruptive behavior decreased by 75 percent—making the time students spent in the classroom more worthwhile and productive.

“Strong teacher-student relationships have long been considered a foundational aspect of a positive school experience,” explains Clayton Cook, the lead author of the study and a professor at the University of Minnesota. When those relationships are damaged, student well-being may be affected, leading to academic and behavioral problems.

In the study, teachers used an approach called Establish-Maintain-Restore to build positive interactions with students—a total of 220 in fourth and fifth grade—and boost their sense of belonging. (A follow-up study with middle school teachers used the same strategies, with similar results.) Relationship-building was broken down into three phases: the first meeting, maintenance throughout the school year, and points when a relationship may suffer damage, with useful strategies for each phase.

Since it can be easy for some students to fall through the cracks, a relationship reflection form—like the one we share here—can help teachers take notes on each individual student and highlight ones who need the most attention.

Starting on a Positive Note

At the start of the school year, the teachers in the study made time for establishing relationships. “The goal is to ensure all students feel a sense of belonging that is characterized by trust, connection, and understanding,” Cook and his colleagues explain. For students with learning or behavioral problems, cultivating positive relationships provided “protective effects” that helped them stay focused on learning.

To establish positive relationships, teachers can:

• “Bank time” with students. Schedule one-on-one meetings with students to get to know them better. The goal is to “make deposits into the relationship” to help ease conflict in the future if you have to give constructive feedback or address disruptive behavior.
• Encourage student-led activities. Students feel more invested in their learning if given opportunity to share their interests . Teachers can step aside, be supportive, and listen.
• Welcome students into the classroom. Activities such as positive greetings at the door and icebreaker questions help create a warm classroom culture.
• Use positive communication techniques. Open-ended questions, reflective listening, validation statements, expressions of enthusiasm or interest, and compliments help students—especially shy or introverted ones—ease into classroom discussions.

Maintaining Relationships

Without active maintenance, relationships deteriorate over time, the study authors point out. Teachers may focus too much on academics and not enough on supporting students’ emotional well-being, slowly using up the banked time they initially built up with students.

Teachers can maintain relationships by continuing to implement the strategies above, and in addition they can:

• Take note of positive and negative interactions with students.  Teachers should aim for a five-to-one ratio.
• Regularly check in with students. Ask how they’re doing and what support they may need. In an Edutopia article, Todd Finley explains how 5x5 assessment time helped him focus on a handful of students every day.
• Acknowledge good behavior. When teachers focus attention on positive conduct, disruptive behavior is stemmed before it becomes an issue.

Repairing Harm Before Things Get Worse

Eventually, negative interactions such as misunderstandings, conflict, or criticism can weaken a teacher-student relationship. If these negative interactions are left unaddressed, students may feel disengaged and be less willing to participate in activities. They may also be more likely to misbehave, creating further damage. So it’s important for teachers to “intentionally reconnect” with students to restore the relationship to a positive state.

When relationships need repair, teachers can:

• Let go and start fresh. Teachers should avoid holding mistakes over a student’s head, instead giving them a chance to start each day with a clean slate.
• Take responsibility for their actions. Teachers can avoid blaming students when things go wrong, and think, “What could I have done to avoid the problem in the first place?” They shouldn’t be afraid to apologize when that’s called for—doing so helps build trust with students.
• Show empathy. There are two sides to every story, and a teacher can acknowledge that students may have a different perspective about what happened.
• Focus on solutions, not problems. Teachers can work with students to find a solution that everyone feels is fair.
• Separate the deed from the doer. It’s important to criticize the behavior, not the person. If teachers label children as “problem students,” there’s a danger that they’ll internalize that label, making it more likely that they’ll repeat the behavior in the future.

The takeaway: Effective classroom management starts with relationship building. When students feel a greater sense of belonging, they’re more likely to be academically engaged and demonstrate positive behavior.

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• Essay on Skills

Behavior Management Argumentative Essay Examples

Type of paper: Argumentative Essay

Topic: Skills , Communication Skills , Behavior , Communication , Workplace , Profession , Students , Employee

Words: 1200

Published: 03/02/2020

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Argumentative essay on the nature and evidence of professional skills

Introduction There are skills needed for one to be successful in their profession. Certificates alone do not prove one worthy of acquiring a job. For one to build a career that is meaningful and rewarding, the individual needs to recognize the thinking processes, actions and behavior that is appropriate for the profession. These skills make the individual competent among peers and he/she stands out. These skills include; behavior management, communication skills, building relationships, decision making, leadership, advocating and negotiating for oneself ,boundary enforcement, work-life balance and career management and planning (Caprino, 2012). The three top skills among these required for a commencing graduate are behavior management, communication skills and decision making. The following essay will talk on two of these behavior management and communication skills. It entails a discussion with a potential employer and what the person considers as the most important professional skills.

Communication

In order for one to succeed in their career one needs to communicate effectively with clarity and confidence. Effective communication helps as create an environment where creative ideas can be developed, conflicts can be resolved and people are able to build trust and respect. Good communication skills are very important for a graduate who wishes to be employed. Not only may they help him pass an interview but they will also be of great assistance as he develops his career. Professionals require their applicants to have good communication skills since communication is inevitable while working. Employees communicate with fellow employees, clients and their leaders. Effective communication skills are even more important when negotiating, advocating for things, making presentations and communicating to cross-cultural clients (Satyawan, 2008). Courses such as public relations and human resource largely deal with educating students on how to develop good communication skills. The way a person communicates could be the draw the line between getting into a business deal and losing it. Level of education plays a great role in getting a good job but people of the highest levels of education without good communication skills have difficulty succeeding in their careers. People with good communication skills with low levels of education have managed to run their businesses more successfully than people with high levels of education who have poor communication skills. Communication skills influence relationship building which is important between employee-customer relations. Poor communication skills lead to misunderstandings which can cause conflicts in the workplace creating a stressful working environment. Effective communication usually entails; Completeness, Consideration, Concreteness, Courtesy, Clarity, Correctness and Conciseness (Caprino, 2012). Communication skills also include how one communicates in written letters, memos, reports and emails and these are also extremely important. Listening is one of the most important communication skills (Caprino, 2012). Effective listening creates and environment that allows free expression of ideas, makes the speaker feel understood and saves time by avoiding misunderstandings and avoiding conflicts. Non-verbal communication is especially important as sometimes body language expresses what is unsaid. Non-verbal communication involves; facial expressions, body language, tone, eye contact, posture and gestures. One’s non-verbal signs should match their body language otherwise a client may not appreciate what is being communicated.

Behavior management means acting accordingly when in the workplace. It is important in maintaining good working relationships and in turn creating supportive work environments. Employers have a certain code of conduct that is expected form their employees. The code of conduct may vary but there is a standard professional behavior expected from employees in all work settings. Employees should have respect and dignity for their fellow employees and employer. All employees have the responsibility of creating a safe workplace, one free of violence. Behavior says a lot about a person and can either enhance the workplace environment or destroy it. Dysfunctional an inappropriate behavior in the work place can affect work productivity, have psychological effects on the wellbeing of staff and job satisfaction (Lewis, Packard & Lewis, 2007). Unaccepted workplace behavior is behavior that would be abusive, offensive, threaten or belittle other people in the workplace. Employers take behavior management very seriously and these is why letters of recommendation are required when one is applying for a job since they inform the potential employer on what kind of behavior he/she can expect from the applicant. A university graduate who is looking for a job needs to know the kind of behavior is preferred in the workplace. Unacceptable workplace behavior has caused some people to lose their jobs. Behaviors such as bullying in the workplace are not allowed. Professional training can help graduates to learn professional behavior and avoid unprofessional behavior in the workplace.

Behavior management practices that can be used in workplaces include;

- Being mindful of one’s own reaction; it enables the individual to know how their behavior affects the behavior of others. When an individual knows how their behavior affects others they know what to expect and can control their behavior to avoid conflicts (Lewis, Packard & Lewis, 2007). - Maintain rational detachment; an individual who is rationally detached does not take negative comments personally. Thus negative reactions which could cause damage are avoided. - Positive self-talk; it enables one to maintain his cool in the midst of a negative outburst. Sometimes employers may be harsh to their employees but employees need to know how to keep calm and not respond to the comments physically otherwise they end up losing their job. Unacceptable workplace behaviors fall under the following categories; sexual harassment, bullying, discrimination, abuse of power, conflict of interest and unfitting workplace relationships (Satyawan, 2008). In workplaces where employees behave well relationships are enhanced and a good working environment is created which allows the generation of ideas. Good behavior management practices enhance working relationships and improve productivity. Decision making is an important skill in workplace functioning (Satyawan, 2008). Often critical decisions need to be made in the work place which may determine productivity in a firm. Employers are hence pleased with employees who are good decision makers. Employers who are good at decision making are an asset to the company’s growth. Good decision making is especially important for the graduate as he is trying to progress career wise.

Professional skills are an important tool for both employees and employers. In university much of the emphasis is placed on level of education until the graduates go out looking for jobs and find out in addition to their certificates they need professional skills. It is advisable for students to undergo professional skills training before getting into jobs.

Caprino, K. (2012). What You Don't Know Will Hurt You: The Top 8 Skills Professionals Need Lewis, J. A., Packard, T. R., & Lewis, M. D. (2007). Management of Human Service Programs, 4th Ed.. California: Thomson Brooks Publishers. Satyawan, H. (2008). Business Communication. Mumbai: Rishabh Publishing House.

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PGCE Behaviour Management Essay 62% Pass

Subject: Pedagogy and professional development

Age range: Age not applicable

Resource type: Other

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3 March 2023

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This is a PGCE essay on Behaviour Management. The title of the essay and the questions answered are:

Behaviour Management: What does consistency mean in behaviour management? Critically evaluate whether it is an essential component for successful class relationships. Critically reflect on what behavioural strategies used in your practice create a positive learning environment.

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Factors and management techniques in odontogenic keratocysts: a systematic review

• Mario Dioguardi 1 ,
• Cristian Quarta 1 ,
• Diego Sovereto 1 ,
• Giorgia Apollonia Caloro 2 ,
• Andrea Ballini 1 ,
• Riccardo Aiuto 3 ,
• Angelo Martella 4 ,
• Lorenzo Lo Muzio 1 &
• Michele Di Cosola 1  

European Journal of Medical Research volume  29 , Article number:  287 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Odontogenic keratocysts exhibit frequent recurrence, distinctive histopathological traits, a tendency towards aggressive clinical behavior, and a potential linkage to the nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome. The aim of this systematic review is to compile insights concerning the control of this condition and assess the effectiveness of various treatment approaches in reducing the likelihood of recurrence.

Materials and methods

The following systematic review adhered to the PRISMA guidelines. The systematic revision was registered on PROSPERO and  structured around the questions related to the population, intervention, control, outcome and study design (PICOS).

After conducting a search on the PubMed database, we initially identified 944 records. After using end-note software to remove duplicate entries, results totally with 462 distinct records. A thorough review of the titles and abstracts of these articles led to the selection of 50 papers for in-depth examination. Ultimately, following the application of our eligibility criteria, we incorporated 11 articles into our primary outcome analysis.

Among the studies examined, the most common location for these lesions was found to be in the area of the mandibular ramus and the posterior region of the mandible. In cases where the exact location wasn’t specified, the mandible emerged as the predominant site. When we considered the characteristics of these lesions in studies that mentioned locularity, most were described as unilocular in two studies, while in two other studies, the prevalence of multilocular lesions was observed. Risk factors associated with keratocyst recurrence include younger patient age, the presence of multilocular lesions, larger lesion size, and a longer anteroposterior dimension. Certain treatment methods have demonstrated a lack of relapses. These include the use of 5-fluorouracil, marsupialization, enucleation with peripheral ostectomy or resection, enucleation and curettage, as well as resection without creating continuity defects. However, it is important to note that further research is essential. Prospective studies and randomized trials are needed to collect more comprehensive evidence regarding the effectiveness of various treatment approaches and follow-up protocols for managing odontogenic keratocysts.

Clinical relevance

Odontogenic keratocysts still enter into differential diagnoses with other lesions that affect the jaw bones such as ameloblastama and other tumor forms, furthermore it is not free from recurrence, therefore the therapeutic approach to the lesion aimed at its elimination can influence both the possible recurrence and complications, knowledge of the surgical methods that offer the most predictable and clinically relevant result for the management of follow-up and recurrences.

Introduction

The odontogenic keratocyst (OKC) is a developmental cyst that originates from remnants of the dental lamina within the jawbones [ 1 ]. Several studies have reported a preference for males [ 1 , 2 , 3 ], with an incidence peak around the third decade [ 4 ] and a nearly equal distribution in other decades, with another small peak between 50 and 70 years of age [ 1 ]. It can occur in any area of the jawbones but is most commonly found in the mandible, with a particular preference for the mandibular angle extending to the mandibular ramus [ 4 ].

Diagnosis of OKC is typically  radiological. Radiographs commonly reveal well-defined radiolucent areas with  rounded or scalloped margins that are well demarcated; these areas can present as either multilocular or unilocular [ 5 ].

In the 2022 classification, OKC remains classified as a cyst; molecular studies have detected frequent mutations in the tumor suppressor gene PTCH1, a gene that activates the SHH pathway, leading to aberrant epithelial proliferation [ 1 ], sparking debates on whether OKC is a cyst or a cystic neoplasm. It was labeled as a keratocystic odontogenic tumor in 2005 [ 5 ], thus considered a cystic neoplasm, and later reclassified as a cyst in the 2017 classification [ 1 ].

Keratocysts are characterized by a high recurrence rate, specific histological features, aggressive clinical behavior, and can be associated with the nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome [ 6 ].

The mechanism of recurrence was proposed by Brannon [ 7 ] in 1976, suggesting it was due to three different mechanisms:

Incomplete removal of the cyst,

Growth of new keratocysts from satellite cysts,

Development of a new keratocyst in the area adjacent to the site of the primary keratocyst, interpreted as recurrence.

Odontogenic keratocysts can be treated with various surgical methods, which can be divided into conservative approaches and invasive approaches or a combination thereof [ 8 ]; in the literature, enucleation, marsupialization, resection, and the use of adjunct therapies such as Carnoy’s solution and cryotherapy are reported [ 1 , 4 , 9 ].

Despite many studies in the literature examining several therapeutic approaches in managing this lesion, it is still not clear which method provides lower recurrence rates without causing significant morbidity [ 10 ]; the purpose of this systematic review is to gather information on the management of this lesion and evaluate which treatment method results in fewer recurrences.

The following systematic review adhered to the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic review and Meta-Analysis) protocol guidelines [ 11 ].

The systematic revision was registered on PROSPERO with number of: CRD42023480051.

The study was structured around the questions related to the population, intervention, control, outcome and study design (PICOS):

Population (P): individuals with non-syndromic or syndromic odontogenic keratocyst (initial cases) diagnosed histologically;

Intervention (I): surgical interventions for patients with odontogenic keratocystic, such as enucleation, enucleation coupled with curettage, enucleation with additional therapeutic measures (such as Carnoy's solution application, cryotherapy), marsupialization or decompression, with or without subsequent cystectomy and adjunctive therapy, and resection;

Control (C): not applicable;

Outcome (O): recurrence of KOT (Keratocystic Odontogenic Tumor) associated with distinct surgical treatments and characteristics of the keratocysts analyzed;

Study design (S): prospective randomized controlled clinical trials, controlled clinical investigations (either prospective or retrospective), and case series that explored and compared the diverse surgical approaches concerning recurrence over a suitable follow-up period (minimum of 1 year).

The formulation of the PICOS question can be summarized as follows: “What characteristics do the odontogenic keratocysts analyzed in the studies have? Which surgeries had the least recurrences during the follow-up?”.

Following the initial selection phase of records identified in various databases, potentially eligible articles were qualitatively assessed. This assessment aimed to investigate which surgical treatment was the most reliable in giving the least number of recurrences.

Eligibility criteria

This text discusses the process of selecting research articles for a study related to the recurrence of KOT associated with distinct surgical interventions, such as enucleation, with or without curettage and additional therapeutic measures, marsupialization or decompression, with or without subsequent cystectomy and adjunctive therapy, and resection.

The process involved initially identifying potentially eligible articles based on their abstracts. These articles were then subjected to a thorough examination of their full content to determine their suitability for both qualitative and quantitative analyses.

The criteria for including articles in the full-text analysis were studies relating to KOT treatments in which the number of recurrences and the general characteristics of the lesions are reported.

The exclusion criteria were applied to exclude the following types of studies:

Studies involving animals or conducted in a laboratory setting (in vitro)

Letters to the editor

Articles that did not adequately specify the type of surgical method used

Studies with an inadequate follow-up period (less than 1 year)

Clinical studies conducted more than 30 years ago (only studies from the last 30 years were included because classifications and surgical and therapeutic techniques have been constantly changing and improving, with generally earlier diagnoses and more suitable treatments with lower recurrence rates. Therefore, to avoid increasing the heterogeneity of the included studies and to prevent bias in the aggregated treatment results, the reviewers collectively decided to include only studies from 1989 onwards)

Review articles

Research methodology

Studies have been identified through bibliographic research on electronic databases.

The literature search was conducted on the search engines “PubMed”. The search on the providers was conducted between 02.09.2023 and 12.09.2023, and the last search for a partial update of the literature was conducted on 18.09.2023.

The following search terms were used on PubMed: “KOT” AND “Recurrence” (37 records), “odontogenic keratocyst marsupialization” (285 records), “odontogenic keratocyst enucleation” (622 records).

Screening methodology

The selection criteria and their combinations for searching were established prior to the record identification stage through mutual consensus between the two reviewers  (M.D. and M.D.C.) responsible for choosing potentially eligible articles. Following this, the records acquired were then assessed separately by the two independent reviewers, with a third reviewer  (A.B.) serving as an decision-maker in cases of uncertainty.

The screening process involved evaluating the titles and abstracts of articles, and in cases where there was uncertainty, a more in-depth examination of the article's content was conducted to remove records that were not relevant to the topics under review.

Following a search in the PubMed database, 944 records were initially located. Subsequently, after applying end-note software to eliminate duplications, 462 unique records remained. Upon reviewing the titles and abstracts of these articles, after this initial screening, a total of 50 articles were selected for a thorough examination of their full text by two reviewers. From these 50 articles, the ones that met the criteria for qualitative analysis for the outcome were identified. Finally, applying the eligibility criteria, we included 16 articles for the primary outcome analysis (Fig.  1 ).

Flowchart of the different phases of the systematic review

Study characteristics and data extraction

The included studies for the quantitative analysis were: Maurette et al. [ 12 ]; Nakamura et al. [ 13 ]; Bataineh and al Qudah [ 14 ]; Leung et al. [ 15 ]; Kolokythas et al. [ 9 ]; Berge et al. [ 16 ]; Pogrel and Jordan, [ 17 ]; Tabrizi et al. [ 18 ]; Zecha et al. [ 19 ]; Moellmann et al. [ 20 ]; Caminiti et al.[ 21 ], Stoelinga [ 4 ]; Dammer et al. [ 2 ]; Marker et.al. [ 22 ]; August et al.[ 23 ]; Brøndum and Jensen [ 24 ].

The extracted data included the journal (author, data, and reference); study design; number of patients (males/females); number of lesions; number of lesions associated with basal cell naevus syndrome (BCNS); mean age (range); site where the lesions were diagnosed; locularity (multilocular or unilocular); type of treatment; mean follow-up.

Finally, for each study, the number of relapses relating to each treatment was observed.

The data extracted are shown in Table  1 and 2 .

Risk of bias

The risk of bias was assessed using the Newcastle–Ottawa Scale (NOS) for cohort studies, assigning a value from 0 to 3 for each item, the assessment of the risk of bias was assessed by the first reviewer, and was deemed acceptable for all included studies, details are shown in Table  3

The articles included in this review analyze different types of keratocyst treatment and lesion characteristics.

Among the first to coin the term 'odontogenic keratocyst' was Philipsen in 1956, who, in a literature review, proposed the term 'odontogenic keratocyst' for all odontogenic cysts that exhibit epithelial keratinization [ 25 ].

The terminology, as adopted by Pindborg in 1962 and 1963 and also used by Toller in 1967, replaced the term ‘primordial cyst’ with ‘odontogenic keratocyst’, identifying 33 odontogenic keratocysts (study not included in this review) [ 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 ]

One of the early retrospective studies conducted on odontogenic keratocysts was performed by Pindborg, who retrospectively identified 26 keratinized cysts out of a total of 791 odontogenic cysts in 1962 [ 27 ].

The odontogenic keratocysts are often described in literature as benign cysts occurring within the bones, and they exhibit a propensity for infiltrative and aggressive growth patterns. These cysts make up an estimated 2–21.8% of all cysts affecting the jaw [ 24 , 25 ]. Moreover, there is a potential association between these cysts and genetic mutations, notably linked to nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome (NBCCS), a condition characterized by the presence of multiple OKCs in the jaw region [ 26 ]; this is also found in one of the articles included in this review [ 13 ], while in others the association was not specified [ 14 , 17 ] or there was no association at all [ 9 , 12 , 15 , 16 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 ]; many of these studies have placed the correlation with this syndrome in the exclusion criteria, as in the patients who are affected by it the probability that these cysts will reappear is high, and therefore it would be difficult to distinguish a recurrent event from the appearance of a new cyst [ 21 ]

These cysts are notorious for their tendency to grow aggressively in their immediate prossimity and for having a notably high rate of recurrence. Several contributing factors underpin this recurrence, including the use of inadequate treatment methods, incomplete elimination of the cyst, a high rate of cell division (mitotic index) within the cyst's epithelial cells, a larger cyst size, and the specific location of the cyst. The latter factor becomes especially problematic if it is challenging to access surgically [ 25 , 27 ]. Although they exhibit hostile conduct, OKC generally induce limited bone enlargement as they tend to proliferate within the intramedullary region, effectively growing within the bone [ 30 ].

Substantial lesions marked by substantial cortical plate erosion and engagement with neighboring structures may not produce symptoms in individuals, resulting in a delayed diagnosis [ 31 ].

The most frequent location of the lesions in the studies analyzed is at the level of the mandibular ramus and in the posterior mandible [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 19 ], and where the precise localization of the lesions is not specified, the mandible is the most frequent site [ 9 , 18 , 20 , 21 ]. In the studies in which locularity is specified among the characteristics of the lesions, the majority of the lesions were unilocular in two studies [ 13 , 21 ], while in two other studies the quantity of multilocular lesions was greater [ 14 , 15 ]. Younger patient age, multilocularity of the lesion, larger size, and longer anteroposterior dimension of the keratocyst have been identified as risk factors for keratocyst recurrence [ 15 ].

The treatments that have not had relapses are that with 5-fluorouracil [ 21 ], marsupialization [ 13 , 17 , 18 ], enucleation with peripheral ostectomy or resection [ 9 ], enucleation and curettage [ 12 ], and resection without continuity defects [ 14 ].

Decompression has been studied in 5 articles [ 9 , 12 , 22 , 23 , 24 ]; this method has the advantage of having minimal surgical morbidity and reduced risk to anatomical structures associated with the lesion, such as developing nerves or teeth [ 22 ]. Decompression and marsupialization techniques involve creating a communication between the cyst and the oral cavity, relieving pressure and allowing cyst shrinkage and bone apposition [ 12 ]. Clinical and radiographic resolution of OKCs after marsupialization is relatively rapid, typically within 19 months [ 17 ]. In studies where marsupialization alone was used for treatment, there were no relapses in two studies [ 17 , 18 ], while Zecha et al. [ 19 ] found four cases of relapse in ten patients treated with marsupialization.

Decompression and marsupialization are non-invasive treatment options for keratocysts, but require patient cooperation, including regular irrigation and follow-up [ 17 , 18 ].

Topical 5-fluorouracil is known for its antiproliferative effects on keratocystic epithelium and satellite cysts; furthermore, its use has some advantages, such as technical ease and the lack of neurotoxicity [ 21 ] and, in the only study of this review in which it were used in the treatment, there were no relapses [ 21 ].

Other treatment modalities used to reduce keratocyst recurrence are resection of the affected maxillary segment and enucleation with additional treatments such as curettage or ostectomy [ 9 , 14 ], which in these studies have not given recurrences, which, as regards resection, is a similar result to other studies in the literature [ 4 , 8 , 32 ]. However, despite the remarkably high success rate of this approach, resection is not widely embraced as a standard procedure, primarily due to concerns regarding its aggressiveness and associated postoperative complications, including morbidity [ 33 ]. Enucleation, often combined with curettage (the process of scraping the walls of the lesion cavity) or ostectomy (the surgical removal of bone tissue), is commonly used to treat keratocysts; although a more conservative treatment than resection, the effectiveness of this modality may be limited in cases where vital structures, such as the exposed inferior alveolar nerve, are at risk or when there is a perforation of the bony wall exposing the overlying mucosal tissue [ 15 ].

Carnoy’s solution was used in three studies [ 15 , 20 , 21 ] and of these studies one used the modified Carnoy’s solution [ 21 ]. The FDA avoid the use of Carnoy's solution containing chloroform in the United States, leading to the adoption of a modified formula. However, the modified formula has been found to have a higher relapse rate, suggesting the potential role that traditional Carnoy’s solution may have in treatment [ 34 ].

There are risk factors associated with the recurrence of odontogenic keratocyst, such as age, multilocularity, lesion size and radiographic characteristics.

The various surgical techniques used to treat keratocysts have potential benefits, including preservation of jaw function, reduction of the potential for recurrence, and eradication of the cystic lesion.

Marsupialization or decompression are advantageous conservative treatment options that aim to minimize surgical invasiveness while effectively managing keratocysts.

Long-term follow-up and monitoring of patients treated for these lesions is important to detect recurrence early.

There is a need for further research, prospective studies and randomized trials to gather more evidence on the effectiveness of different treatment methods and follow-up protocols for odontogenic keratocysts.

Availability of data and materials

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

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Mario Dioguardi, Cristian Quarta, Diego Sovereto, Andrea Ballini, Lorenzo Lo Muzio & Michele Di Cosola

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Conceptualization, M.D.and C.Q.; methodology, M.D.; software, M.D. and D.S.; validation, M.D. and A.B.; formal analysis, M.D.; investigation, M.D. and C.Q.; data curation, M.D. and D.S.; bibliographic reserach, C.Q. and R.A.; writing—original draft preparation, M.D. and C.Q.; writing—review and editing, M.D. and A.B.; visualization, D.S and M.D..; supervision L.L.M.., and M.D.C.; Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content M.D., C.Q.; and A.B.; Bioinformatic analysis review, A.M.; project administration, L.L.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

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Dioguardi, M., Quarta, C., Sovereto, D. et al. Factors and management techniques in odontogenic keratocysts: a systematic review. Eur J Med Res 29 , 287 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40001-024-01854-z

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• Individual tasks allocations
• Corporate mission, vision and objective statements

Management is the monitoring and adjusting the se activities in order to achieve the greatest effectiveness and efficiency in achieving the organization goal. It is very important because it involves the planning, organizing, controlling, monitoring, revising and modifying the organization operation to meet the expected objectives and expectations. These roles are integrated in the management and thus enable a firm to effectively coordinate all the resources optimally with the main aim of arriving at the organizations vision, missions and objectives. Performance management is the act of monitoring the progress on the corporate objectives and the ways of achieving them while management control is the process of monitoring these objectives and the adjustment of the organization activities which will facilitate the accomplishment of these corporate objectives. 4 These two aspects have an advantage on the organization at large these advantages include;

• Performance management can build trust and improve the communication in all the areas of an organization, it can also promote similarity in the high level of the management, it can promote equity and recognize quality through financial and non-financial rewards and thus emphasizing on the direction of the organization and the total quality management.
• Management control basically establish the standards, action plans, performance indicators etc thus measure their success and also take corrective actions on the problems identified and thus the overall organization performance is achieved.

Principles of a good Organisation structure

Robbins described them as follows 4

• The expectations of each individual is explained with clear guidelines on the job description
• The flow of power and authority i.e. who is answerable to who?
• Tasks of each position or worker known
• Managerial functions should be put in place
• Performance appraisal mechanisms should be in place

Types of organisation structure

Classical form of organization.

• The Simple Structure:

This is a centralized for m of structure which is composed of two to three levels of management. 6

• The Bureaucracy:

This structure is characterized by an inflexible structure, highly standardized and an impersonal one. Max Weber (1947), considered it as an ideal form of organization dispensation in the early times. This form of organization is used by state organizations which have the strict following of rules and regulations as their major weakness.

The process of fitting the organizations operational strategy on the organization to make it work is referred to as organization design. It has the following functions in the organization;

• It helps reduce and eliminate the gap between the way the organization works and the strategy itself.
• The organization design sets out the decision making process thus establishing the levels of responsibility and accountability in the organization.
• It is composed of performance indicators which basically aim at achieving the organization’s objectives thus increasing its efficiency in its operations.
• Conflict resolution in the organization is also enhanced by the design since a chain of command is in place and thus accountability is increased.
• The Matrix Structure:

This type of structure arises where the bosses in the different functional scope can give orders to any employee. The managers are in the same level and the employees in the departments are responsible to any of the managers depending on the tasks being performed. This method can be the best due to its flexibility in the human resources. This approach has three broad types of structural forms are: 5

• Functional Structure
• Divisional Structure
• Adaptive Structure

A functional structure is basically structure in the functional areas present in an organization e.g. marketing department, finance department etc. The activities are set in a manner in which they are allocated in similar units. This structure is advantageous since it has a specialization aspect in the organization and thus enabling the organization to attain the operational efficiency in the people. The top management has a link with the lower management in that they basically have the flow of information and authority. This method is usually suited to the small sized enterprises.

This applied in cases where the firms have different brands or operating in different locations or regions and the structure is based on these attributes. They are semi autonomous divisions which contribute to the profits of the organization. The division is carried out in the form of departments or product lines. It could also be based on the regions they operate.

In a divisional structure each division operates as an independent organization but contributes to the profit of the organization. The divisional management in this case has the authority to perform the strategy formulation roles in the divisions. It is usually a decentralization mechanism. Thus, it enables prompt decision making in the organization. The matters within the jurisdictions of the managers are well handled since they have the authority to make decisions. This structure is disadvantageous in that it has a huge cost and also it requires able managers to control the organization.

Organization structures are often designed to cope with the changing environmental situations both in the internal and the external environments. This type of structure is referred to as adaptive structure. There are two types in structures. 2

• Project Organization
• Matrix Organization
• Project Organization :

The organization stipulates the project to perform without any influence in the normal operations of the business. These systems are normally used in the expansion projects. This type of projects is headed by the project managers and they are basically supposed to report to the chief executives.

This type is advantageous since it leaves the normal business of the organization undisturbed and is basically concerned with the completion of the tasks in time and the conformity with the standards set to achieve the set goals. The major disadvantage is that the functional managers may conflict with the project managers in the project implementation. The frequent shift or transfer of the labor from project to project may also affect its success.

Centralization and decentralization

In centralization little delegation of authority and control of the organizational decision making; power and discretion is based on the top managers who head the organization and they have exclusive authority in the organizational direction in terms of policy and strategy formulation. In small and competitive environments is basically the most efficient model.

Decentralization is the spreading of the decision making roles to the managers and the distribution of the production activities to other regions of the economy. The importance of decentralization is the transference of authority and control from top management to lower level managers. It gives the personnel directly related in the production make decisions and thus they influence the operational efficiency in the organizations.

Span of control and scalar chain of command

The span of control has an effect on a manager’s activities in that the effective coordination of the workforce require an accountability perspective which can only be achieved by the control abilities of the manager. The span of management usually depends on the type of work to be done so that the manager has sufficient time to supervise the workforce. A productive span of management should be dictated by the management and thus the managerial functions would identify the number of workforce under the managers, this is decided by the roles of the organization.

Manager’s ability to manage the workforce also varies from one person to the other and thus they should take responsibility for the more areas and the variety of work in the organization.

The nature of work and the capability of the employees determine the size of the span and thus the span of control vary with the nature of the work and tasks being performed in cases where there are wide levels of supervision and this would be able to facilitate the communication and information flow in the organization. A narrow span requires a large number of supervision levels and thus the flow of communication and information is basically lower.

Organisation chart

Organisation charts are graphical representations showing the chain of control or the flow of authority with the specified tasks and functions of every position in the organisation. In most cases it is represented in a hierarchical format as follows;

Organisation culture

Definition of culture.

The pressure of adopting a particular leadership style are seen through the effects of corporate culture and peer expectations, organisations usually have their values and they perform their duties in a certain way, this is what is referred to as organisation culture. Organisation culture is influenced by the powers of the managers and this will determine how they behave in the organisation.

Organisation systems can also be important in the influencing of culture in organisations in that for instance the control systems can influence the manner in which certain persons behave in the organisations. In the management of change the organisation needs to act in such a manner that the culture supports their organisation strategy and the leaders therefore have to take into account the different organisational cultures. In practice the organisation has three layers;

• Values; they are written as part of the organisations mission or vision statement establishing the interests of the organisation.
• Beliefs; they are more specific in terms of selection of maybe supplier, creditors etc
• Assumptions; they are unwritten culture but the stakeholders tend to follow them in the organisation e.g. interpersonal relations.

Types of culture

Culture can be seen in different perspectives and thus are classified in terms of their scope. Robbins described them as follows 4

• Person culture is basically common in the animal protection organizations. Communes and partnerships
• task culture is job or project orientated
• Role culture is sometimes and previously referred to as bureaucracy.
• Power culture; It involves a powerful central character or leader e.g. campaigns groups

Formation of a culture

Culture is developed or formulated in the initial stages of the organization existence and thus is more related the cultural back ground of the owners. Robbins advised that they can be outlined as 4

• Owner/Founder

The owner’s culture is incorporated in the organization

Culture changes as the organization increases in size.

• Organizational Environment

The environment is changing very fast both in the external and the internal environments and thus the organizations have to be very proactive in dealing with these changes.

• National Culture
• Function and Purpose

The organization functions and purpose lies in the areas or the opportunity the business needs to exploit

• Goals or Objectives

The corporate goals and objectives are incorporated in the culture formation to ensure that the organization is able to achieve them.

The staff and culture relation should be harmonious and thus not going against the population’s beliefs and thus should be well worked out.

The technological changes in the environment should be incorporated to the organization culture to ensure a smooth floe of activities in the organization.

Cultural socialization

Organizational culture is ever changing as environmental conditions change and as it expands to regions with different cultures. Culture socialization is evident when an organization is involved in a foreign business and when it has ventured in a region with a different culture and thus the organization has to adopt to the cultural differences and incorporate some of those cultures in its organizational setting.

Managers need to understand the culture to enable them drive the organisation in an amicable manner, this reduces the conflicts with the consumers, workers and governments in the regions of operation.

Behaviour at work

The characteristics of the human resource could influence the organization in a positive or a negative way. These characteristics influence its success or failures in the operations. Behaviour is described in the following aspects 4

• Attitudes: they can be seen as favorable and unfavorable behavior towards an organization, department or persons.
• Values: personal values influence ones behavior at work.
• Personality; it’s the manner in which people think eel etc. It could be based on the following ;
• Self image; it is the display of ones originality and individuality as it is bases on ones personality and education during his/her younger ages in the human development and growth process.

Definition of teams and groups

Groups are formed by a group of individuals with the aim of accomplishing certain objectives. A formal group is referred to as a team. A group is characterised with the high level of interaction among the members and their attitude towards accomplishing the particular objectives.

Nature of groups

The size and the composition of the group determine the success of the groups in the corporation and the coordination aspects. A group could be composed of many persons in number, ranging from 4 to several hundreds. An effective number of group members should be kept to maintain harmony among the members. Large groups have been characterized by different varieties of opinions and thus conflicts in the decision making pha

Group dynamics

It involves the relationship between the individual conduct and the attainment of group goals. Their compatibility, diversity, or expertise as the major determinants of the appointment of members to a group the different personalities in the groups should be dealt with in a manner that the harmony among the group members is maintained at a high level.

Tuckman’s role

Groups follow some stages before they attain a maximum performance level. These stages include 7

• Forming : also called dependent stage, at this stage the members depend on the outside information and expertise to establish their roles and job descriptions.
• Storming : also called counter dependent stage. At this stage the group is able to formulate its own roles and responsibilities, operational rules and procedures which it will use in the operation of its duties.
• Norming : interdependence, cohesion, and group norms are developed in the members and this will help the organization operate in an amicable way in the future.
• Performing : after all that has been done the organization is positioned in such a way that the goals and the activities or tasks designed to steer the group towards attaining then is established and followed.
• Adjourning : this stage is when the group has completed the tasks assigned and the intended purpose and goal achieved.

Belbin’s role

The team roles are designed to achieve the organisation objectives as outlined by Belbin. Belbin outlined them as follows 1

• The Coordinator presides; the coordinating roles are utilized to ensure that the objectives are achieved.
• The Shaper i.e. dominant approach
• The Plant imaginative and innovation
• The Monitor evaluator – spots flaws
• The Resource investigator
• The Implementer
• The Team worker
• The finisher

Impact of technology in the functioning of the team

The term technology refers to the extent or degree in which an organization transfers its inputs into outputs. The organizations use these knowhow to produce thus using it as a competitive advantage over the other firms in the same or similar industry. It’s basically important in the flow of information and communication especially if the group members are located in different location within the organization. Documentation and the fast dissemination brought about in the group enables it process the results fast. In the event of conflicts the technology aspect can be applied in the conflict resolution mechanism and it would be great since the information got will not be jeopardized.

Organisation structure determines the organisation success and thus an important attribute to consider since it ensures the optimal utilization of the available resources. The macro and the micro factors in the organisations when dealt with in a manner that suit the situation will basically steer the firm towards achieving its corporate objectives.

In this section we will be looking at the organisation approaches with emphasis on the leadership, motivation and their applicability and relevance in today’s management practices. The past management approaches formed the base under which successive theories were developed and through them the management principles have been changing thus making these organisations more and more efficient and effective.

Approaches to management

Scientific management.

According to Frederick W. Taylor, who was known as the “father of scientific management,” indicated that managers should follow four scientific management principles, which include 1

• The element of work should be studies and the best way to perform the work established.
• The selection, training, teaching and the development of the workers should be of a scientific nature. This for of selection would make them optimally efficient and effective.
• The management functions should be well formulated to ensure an effective and efficient implementation mechanism.
• The division of labor approach should be used to ensure there is responsibility when it comes to accountability in the organization.

Taylor felt these principles could be used to align managers and employees by determining a description of the work and in specified amounts. What an average worker could produce at a reasonable time limits. What management should pay workers for that effort in the production process? He indicated that the incentive were the best way to align the workers to the organization goals and objectives.

Classical approach

Frenchman Henri Fayol’s (1841–1925) work experience significantly shaped his thoughts and ideas about management concepts. His management ideology was formed when he was a managing director in a company in France. Fayol is widely known for developing five functions of managers and 14 principles of management, as well as his belief that management is not a talent and could be thought to others and shape the management field.

Human relations approach

The human relations approach to management focused mainly on the psychological and social aspects of work in the organizations. In this approach the people are treated in a better way and not like machines and thus the organization values them more. The aspects of motivation, effort recognition in the work force made great impact on the production levels of the employees and enhance the relationships with their bosses, co workers and workgroup members. This approach insists that the management approach alone is not enough unless it is coupled with the human resource aspect.

• Contingency approach

The contingency approach to management dictates that there is no universal management theories which are affective and efficient and that the most effective management theory or idea depends on the kinds of problems or situations that managers or organizations are facing at a particular time. The major implication of this approach is that management is harder than it looks. It is a complex way of dealing with the organization and the management needs a wide range of skills to enable them deals with the ever changing needs and the different risks facing the organization in particular situations. A second implication of the contingency approach is that managers need to look for key contingencies that differentiate today’s situation or problems from yesterday’s situation or problems. This tests their analytical skills in the analysis of the problems and situation and this will determine the manner in which they successfully solve or fix those problems. 1

Bureaucratic approach

German sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920) proposed this idea of bureaucratic organizations to the business world. It was basically referred to as red tape in the US. This approach was associated with monarchies and patriarchies, In monarchies, where kings, queens, sultans, and emperors ruled, and patriarchies, where a council of elders, wise men, or male heads of extended families ruled, the top leaders typically achieved their positions by virtue of birthright.

Comparison of the approaches to an organisation indicating the approach they follow

Bureaucracy is probably one of the common approaches used by governments and public enterprises e.g. the military, police etc for instance the military is in today’s management associated with these attributes and due to its nature of operations and the sensitivity of its activities it is probably the best approach to use to ensure that there is high level of discipline and commitment to the organizations.

Managers should be able to apply their managerial skills especially in control and influence the employees in the following of the organization’s procedures, rules and regulations. This approach is said to focus more on the punishment part and not the rewarding side of the coin. This approach makes the employees conscious of the consequences of breaking any of those regulations. This approach is characterized with high level of discipline and the military is the best example of a bureaucratic organization.

Definition of leadership and leaders

Managers as leaders in the organisations in times of change are expected to be proactive and not reactive, Various factors outline their ability to manage effectively and define their individual style of management, their functions can be outlines as; coaching and supervision of personnel, controlling financial and human resources, delegation and organizing of functions and activities, leading others i.e. act as a role model, managing work, planning and scheduling, and motivating and employee appraisal.

The manager’s role must be coupled with the thought that all these functions are influenced by both the internal and external changes. Leaders consider three factors when making decisions in their organizations these factors include;

• He considers his own experience, inclination, confidence, and his background.
• The willingness and the unwillingness of the subordinates to accept responsibility is considered in decision making.
• The situation of the organization in terms of corporate culture, time available, style of work and the tasks to be performed are also important.

The situation in the organization will force the organization adopt to change. The situation comes with other factors i.e. pulling and pushing factors and the organization should position itself to a flexible state where it can accommodate those factors.

Qualities of a good leader

A good leader possesses the following qualities;

• A leader should be trustworthy and commendable to extemporary issues.
• Enthusiasm is one of the traits a good leader should poses to ensure that he maintains the cause of the people.
• He should be disciplined and orderly in nature and should be able to tolerate fellow workmates when they make mistakes.
• He should pose academic skills in logical and analytical aspects.
• Should be goal focused and proactive with high commitment to objective achievement.
• Should be able to manage change and any environmental uncertainty at all times in the organisation.

Approaches to leadership

Scholars in the past have come up with various theories of leadership and management of organization in times of change, they range from traditional views to the relatively new theories which insist on situation to any universally desirable set of attributes, some of these theories include;

Leadership approaches in the past have been developed and can be used in the modern organisational setup. Some of these approaches include;

• Situational leadership model;

This approach depends on the readiness of others in the performing of the organisations tasks. In this theory the underlying argument is that the managers need to vary their approach too incorporate the needs and expectations of their followers. In this theory the analysis is done on four quadrants which can have the following properties; 4

• In quadrant 1 the employees are unwilling and resisting any form of direction and control and thus not giving the required productivity or returns. In this stage they should be directed and in any case they should be closely supervised and the negative elements in them eliminated.

• In quadrant 2 the situation is characterised by high task and relationship behaviour and in this case the leader should explain the decisions and provide the opportunity for any form of clarifications.
• The third quadrant is designed to sharing of ideas and thus facilitate decision making where all the stakeholders views are considered, it is characterised by high relationship behaviour and low task behaviour.
• The last quadrant i.e. 4 is characterised by both low task and relationship behaviours and this section is very efficient since a certain level of delegation is required and can be implemented.

Leaders are supposed to poses the highest degree of versatility and competence to handle the environmental issues. Leaders have a tendency of accepting responsibility for what happens in the organizations in that it’s viewed as an area where hard work and consistency is required in the organization. Since leadership is a function that sets direction and in a changing environment it becomes very essential. Leadership skills enable the management implement their goals, visions, missions and objectives efficiently thus the organization cannot survive without leaders. They include;

• Leader-member Relations: this can be describes as the trust the employees have on their leaders. This is the most important factor in the leader’s effectiveness.
• Task Structure: it measures the degree of procedure stipulations. It measures the complexity and the simplicity of the tasks to be performed in the organization.
• Leaders’ position Power: in this position the ability to control and coordinate the workforce is used.

Managers using situational leadership approach will make conscious decision choices between their use of directive behavior and supportive behavior in the management of the organization.

• Management Grid;

Leadership is a multidimensional approach, this grid shows the different ranges of management behaviors based on the various ways the task oriented and the employee oriented approaches are interacted together. This grid can be illustrated as follows;

In this grid formulated there are 81 possible outcomes or interactions and there are five extreme positions namely;

• Country club management; this section score the highest on the concern for people or human resources and lowest on the concern for production and production related activities. The level of satisfaction is very high in this section and is appropriate in areas like clubs, voluntary cooperation etc which involves a lot of contact with the people in the operational level. In this combination the member’s satisfaction level is very high and mangers are perceived to be incapable of making decisions.
• Authoritarian management; this combination scores high on the production level and the efficiency and scores low on the concern of the people. It is basically task oriented and insists on the quality of the decision over the wishes of the middle level managers and subordinates. In this level the subordinates perform the assigned tasks and in some cases they may be unable or unwilling to put extra effort as long as they achieve the set limits.
• Impoverished management. This method believes in laissez faire since it does not give leadership in a positive sense.
• Middle of the road management; this combination scores the most moderate amounts of all the aspects of the organization i.e. its concern for both people and production is moderate. Those applying this method believe in compromise since the decisions are only taken when all the stakeholders in the organization endorse them. These managers and leaders may be dependable and supportive but may not be the best in times of innovation and change.
• Team management; the managers believe that the combination of these concerns is the most compatible since they give satisfaction to workforce as well as meeting the production targets.

The theories of trait and behavioral leadership approaches indicated that the leadership success depend on many variables e.g. personality, attitudes, leadership and management styles etc. Managers will look at the different factors which influence their leadership choice and this is put into consideration in the practical considerations. This theory describes three components in deciding the leadership style;

• Personal forces from within the person in terms of experience, confidence, own back ground and inclination.
• The characteristics of subordinates in terms of accepting the responsibility and decision making ability.
• The situation facing the organization determines the corporate culture, the style of roles and the nature of activities being taken and in the required time frames.

Contingency approach indicates that the manager should consider all the options in the organization to determine the actions to take i.e. the management style demonstrate the self fulfilling prophecy of the extent in which the management style determines the choice of action.

Evaluation of a leadership style with the help of an existing leader

Contingency approach to leadership and management style, organizational culture and the nature of tasks being performed Managers will look at the different factors which influence their leadership choice and this is put into consideration in the practical considerations. At Mc Donald’s the US operation which is headed by Janice L. Fields as its president and the chief executive officer has been applying this approach in her management. She has been applying the contingency approach to her management style in the US.

Since her employment she has been very flexible to the changing needs of both her workers and her consumers and since this is a food company the prospects of quality and marketing are the determinants of the success of the business.

The tasks performed in the over 14000 outlets she manages has enabled her choose this style or approach to manage the organisation and she has received several awards for her extemporary management and leadership style e.g. she was named the Forbes’ 2008 and 2009 etc.

Definition of motivation and motivational theories

Motivation can be referred to as the re-evaluation and the activation of the employee’s morale and attitude towards a specific job by using many ways e.g. giving rewards, promotions etc. Motivation theories are the theories or suggestions by scholars on the best ways to achieve the status of employee satisfaction in an organisation.

Types of motivational theories

Motivational theories are important for the understanding of management since they help the organisation identify the best ways to deal with their employees and the ways to motivate then effectively. Motivational theories enable the organisation utilize its workforce since they are able to formulate strategies which would motivate then thus optimal productivity could be achieved. They include;

Content theories

Maslow (1954) that the theory is designed in sequence from the lowest level to the highest level in the pyramid. In case an employee is satisfied in one level of the hierarchy he moves to the higher level with the change in needs until he reaches a peak level of self actualization. 3

• Physiological needs
• Security needs
• Social needs
• Self esteem needs
• Self actualization

This theory indicate that the employees expect more from their employers in terms of career growth and development and thus this approach has been adopted by many organizations in the promotion processes. Their needs are said to follow the pyramid of needs as shown above and this is assumed to be the trend in all the employees thus this is used as a fair mechanism for promotion purposes. The greatest challenge arises in the part of identifying the stage in which the employees are in the pyramid so as to adequately develop their careers.

The need theories are concerned with the employee needs in the organization setup and how they can be managed to ensure employee satisfaction in the organization. These theories try to explain how the people’s motivation changes over time and attempts to classify the human needs. These theories have an important implication to the managers and give them an opportunity to motivate their employees by different ways like job design, management styles, compensation etc. The following their practical implication;

• Need theories require a satisfaction of the physiological needs and thus the organization should design its programs to try and fulfill these needs e.g. sufficient wages, lunch breaks etc.
• The organization should be able to provide a good working environment which is safe and secure by e.g. proving retirement benefits
• The sense of community in the design by maybe working in teams will fulfill their social needs for instance.
• These theories provide a framework for employee recognition in cases of hard work and extemporal performance and thus their self esteem is boosted. This translates to the huge output.
• The theory outlines the different needs of the employees in the hierarchy and thus the changing needs in the organization’s workforce should not be ignored because they enable the employees perform at their full potential.

Alderfer (1972) in his contribution to motivation theory suggests that individual needs could be summarized and divided into three groups:

• Existence needs; these are the needs necessary for their survival e.g. nutritional and material requirements. And in the case of a working environment could be remuneration and security or safety in their tasks.
• Relatedness needs; these are basically interaction needs which could be with the fellow workers or in relation to their families and thus a work-life balance should be adopted to ensure all these needs are met. 7
• Growth needs; they may be in form of personal psychological developments, this ensures that the employees are satisfied in their roles and thus this will reduce the conflict between the management and the workers. 1

Process theories

Adams (1965) and others describe process theories especially equity theory as one of the most useful motivational frameworks ever formulated. 4 Valence, instrumentality and expectancy (VIE) theory was got from Vroom’s (1964) work into motivation theories. He tried to link reward and effort and thus explained the need for effort recognition in organizations and rewards given on the same. The individual’s abilities, traits, role perceptions and opportunities are used as a motivational force towards mobilizing the workforce t produce at optimum levels. 3 the expectancy theory acts as a reward mechanism for the motivation of the employees in the organization. This theory is important in that it identifies which rewards the employees value for particular course of actions and it bases its analysis on the fact that the level of performance vary with the need for achievement and the reward to be given.

The main contribution of both equity theory and Valence, instrumentality and expectancy (VIE) theory is to highlight the major effects of cognitive and perceptual processes on objective work conditions in the organizations. It suggests that subordinate’s perceptions should not be ignored by the managers and thus they should be looked at with more attention:

The past theories of management are still relevant to days managers in that they are the back ground under which the management policies are based and can be useful in following ways;

• They help in the prediction of the organization trends.
• They help in the understanding of the present situation by giving the background for the interpretation of what is happening and why.
• Some theories are based on the research and they are used as a basis for actions in the organization. The understandings of the management theories help the managers predict the relationship between variables.
• They help in the development of the best practices in the management of the organizations in modern society.

Goal setting theory incorporates the notions of the expectancy theories with the other forms of motivations to increase the performance of the employees and is currently the most influential approach. It has the following applications in the organization as indicated by Robbins 4

• The broad goals set in the theory will enable the people interprets their performance in against a variety of the indicators thus output is basically increased as the satisfaction increases.
• The STRECH is one of the applications whereby the organization sets up unrealistic targets which may appear to be absolutely impossible to achieve thus influencing the employees thinking by making them work harder thus enabling innovation, asset utilization, performance improvement etc.
• There should be measurable goals i.e. goals whose success can be determined by the organization, this will boost the innovation, asset utilization and performance improvement.
• Goal setting will basically guarantee attainable goals to be attained in reasonable time periods with the consideration of the contingency factors affecting this theory thus enabling it have the best results.

Application of these theories to organisations with emphasis on the theory my organisation follows

Most organisations follow the Maslow hierarchy need theory in the management of their human resources. In the communication giant Vodacom UK this is the approach they use even though it is a modified version of it. The growth of ones career at Vodacom is gradual and they give all their employees the opportunity to achieve the full potential in their areas of expertise. The growth of the employees skills through the frequent training programmes has enabled the company have a workforce which can grow up the ladder and become the leaders of tomorrow thus maintaining the organisations competitiveness in the market.

This approach works well in the motivation of the work force in that it reduced the rate of workers turnover since their needs are met as they grow and change from the lowest level to the highest level in the pyramid. It is evident that most of the employees of Vodacom have been growing in their needs and the organisation has responded effectively and thus enabling it to achieve its corporate objectives.

Recommendation on the suitable theory for my organisation

Valence, instrumentality and expectancy (VIE) theory is the most efficient theory to apply in today’s organizations since it observes the employees abilities and their needs and the ways their needs can be used to influence their performance thus giving the organization optimal productivity. In the theory Vodacom has tried to incorporate or modify its motivation theory with this one and thus the best mix may be achieved in the long run.

These theories imposes the skill variety, task identity and significance of motivation to influence the employees experiences meaningfully and thus increase the personal responsibilities thus the more the satisfying or motivating job the more the productivity. The job designs when incorporated with the motivational and reward theories will come up with the best mix for the organizational success since they are moderated by factors such as the individual differences in personality, confidence levels and ability as well as the presence of quality of the organizational support systems.

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• M John, Ivancevich & T Matteson, Organizational Behavior and Management, Irwin, Chicago. 2006. p. 77
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• R Dwivedi, Human Relations and Organizational Behaviour – A Global Perspective, Macmillan, Delhi. 2004. p. 112
• W John, Newstrom & K Devis, Organizational Behavior, Tata McGraw, Hill Publishing Company Ltd, New Delhi. 2001.
• Kalian-city blogspot.com. Organization structure. 2010.
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Management and Organisational Behaviour." January 19, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/management-and-organisational-behaviour/.

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