drug addiction thesis statement brainly

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Understanding Drug Use and Addiction DrugFacts

Many people don't understand why or how other people become addicted to drugs. They may mistakenly think that those who use drugs lack moral principles or willpower and that they could stop their drug use simply by choosing to. In reality, drug addiction is a complex disease, and quitting usually takes more than good intentions or a strong will. Drugs change the brain in ways that make quitting hard, even for those who want to. Fortunately, researchers know more than ever about how drugs affect the brain and have found treatments that can help people recover from drug addiction and lead productive lives.

What Is drug addiction?

Addiction is a chronic disease characterized by drug seeking and use that is compulsive, or difficult to control, despite harmful consequences. The initial decision to take drugs is voluntary for most people, but repeated drug use can lead to brain changes that challenge an addicted person’s self-control and interfere with their ability to resist intense urges to take drugs. These brain changes can be persistent, which is why drug addiction is considered a "relapsing" disease—people in recovery from drug use disorders are at increased risk for returning to drug use even after years of not taking the drug.

It's common for a person to relapse, but relapse doesn't mean that treatment doesn’t work. As with other chronic health conditions, treatment should be ongoing and should be adjusted based on how the patient responds. Treatment plans need to be reviewed often and modified to fit the patient’s changing needs.

Video: Why are Drugs So Hard to Quit?

What happens to the brain when a person takes drugs?

Most drugs affect the brain's "reward circuit," causing euphoria as well as flooding it with the chemical messenger dopamine. A properly functioning reward system motivates a person to repeat behaviors needed to thrive, such as eating and spending time with loved ones. Surges of dopamine in the reward circuit cause the reinforcement of pleasurable but unhealthy behaviors like taking drugs, leading people to repeat the behavior again and again.

As a person continues to use drugs, the brain adapts by reducing the ability of cells in the reward circuit to respond to it. This reduces the high that the person feels compared to the high they felt when first taking the drug—an effect known as tolerance. They might take more of the drug to try and achieve the same high. These brain adaptations often lead to the person becoming less and less able to derive pleasure from other things they once enjoyed, like food, sex, or social activities.

Long-term use also causes changes in other brain chemical systems and circuits as well, affecting functions that include:

• decision-making

Despite being aware of these harmful outcomes, many people who use drugs continue to take them, which is the nature of addiction.

Why do some people become addicted to drugs while others don't?

No one factor can predict if a person will become addicted to drugs. A combination of factors influences risk for addiction. The more risk factors a person has, the greater the chance that taking drugs can lead to addiction. For example:

• Biology . The genes that people are born with account for about half of a person's risk for addiction. Gender, ethnicity, and the presence of other mental disorders may also influence risk for drug use and addiction.
• Environment . A person’s environment includes many different influences, from family and friends to economic status and general quality of life. Factors such as peer pressure, physical and sexual abuse, early exposure to drugs, stress, and parental guidance can greatly affect a person’s likelihood of drug use and addiction.
• Development . Genetic and environmental factors interact with critical developmental stages in a person’s life to affect addiction risk. Although taking drugs at any age can lead to addiction, the earlier that drug use begins, the more likely it will progress to addiction. This is particularly problematic for teens. Because areas in their brains that control decision-making, judgment, and self-control are still developing, teens may be especially prone to risky behaviors, including trying drugs.

Can drug addiction be cured or prevented?

As with most other chronic diseases, such as diabetes, asthma, or heart disease, treatment for drug addiction generally isn’t a cure. However, addiction is treatable and can be successfully managed. People who are recovering from an addiction will be at risk for relapse for years and possibly for their whole lives. Research shows that combining addiction treatment medicines with behavioral therapy ensures the best chance of success for most patients. Treatment approaches tailored to each patient’s drug use patterns and any co-occurring medical, mental, and social problems can lead to continued recovery.

More good news is that drug use and addiction are preventable. Results from NIDA-funded research have shown that prevention programs involving families, schools, communities, and the media are effective for preventing or reducing drug use and addiction. Although personal events and cultural factors affect drug use trends, when young people view drug use as harmful, they tend to decrease their drug taking. Therefore, education and outreach are key in helping people understand the possible risks of drug use. Teachers, parents, and health care providers have crucial roles in educating young people and preventing drug use and addiction.

Points to Remember

• Drug addiction is a chronic disease characterized by drug seeking and use that is compulsive, or difficult to control, despite harmful consequences.
• Brain changes that occur over time with drug use challenge an addicted person’s self-control and interfere with their ability to resist intense urges to take drugs. This is why drug addiction is also a relapsing disease.
• Relapse is the return to drug use after an attempt to stop. Relapse indicates the need for more or different treatment.
• Most drugs affect the brain's reward circuit by flooding it with the chemical messenger dopamine. Surges of dopamine in the reward circuit cause the reinforcement of pleasurable but unhealthy activities, leading people to repeat the behavior again and again.
• Over time, the brain adjusts to the excess dopamine, which reduces the high that the person feels compared to the high they felt when first taking the drug—an effect known as tolerance. They might take more of the drug, trying to achieve the same dopamine high.
• No single factor can predict whether a person will become addicted to drugs. A combination of genetic, environmental, and developmental factors influences risk for addiction. The more risk factors a person has, the greater the chance that taking drugs can lead to addiction.
• Drug addiction is treatable and can be successfully managed.
• More good news is that drug use and addiction are preventable. Teachers, parents, and health care providers have crucial roles in educating young people and preventing drug use and addiction.

For information about understanding drug use and addiction, visit:

• www.nida.nih.gov/publications/drugs-brains-behavior-science-addiction/drug-abuse-addiction

For more information about the costs of drug abuse to the United States, visit:

• www.nida.nih.gov/related-topics/trends-statistics#costs

For more information about prevention, visit:

• www.nida.nih.gov/related-topics/prevention

For more information about treatment, visit:

• www.nida.nih.gov/related-topics/treatment

To find a publicly funded treatment center in your state, call 1-800-662-HELP or visit:

• https://findtreatment.samhsa.gov/

This publication is available for your use and may be reproduced in its entirety without permission from NIDA. Citation of the source is appreciated, using the following language: Source: National Institute on Drug Abuse; National Institutes of Health; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Public Health Issues — Drug Addiction

Drug Addiction Essay Examples

Hook examples for drug addiction essays, the personal story hook.

Start your essay with a personal story or anecdote related to drug addiction. Share an experience or the journey of someone who has struggled with addiction to create an emotional connection with your readers.

The Shocking Statistics Hook

Begin with alarming statistics or data about drug addiction rates, overdoses, or the economic impact of addiction. Highlight the gravity of the issue to capture the reader's attention.

The Historical Perspective Hook

Explore the historical context of drug addiction. Discuss the evolution of drug policies, societal perceptions, and the impact of substances on different cultures and time periods.

The Celebrity Case Study Hook

Examine the stories of well-known individuals who have battled drug addiction. Discuss their struggles, treatment, and how their experiences shed light on the broader issue of addiction.

The Societal Consequences Hook

Highlight the societal consequences of drug addiction, such as family breakdowns, crime rates, and the burden on healthcare systems. Explain why addressing addiction is essential for the well-being of communities.

The Brain Science Hook

Introduce the science behind addiction by discussing how drugs affect the brain's reward system. Explain the neurological aspects and why addiction is considered a complex brain disorder.

The Recovery Success Hook

Share stories of individuals who have successfully recovered from addiction. Emphasize the themes of resilience, rehabilitation, and hope to inspire readers and showcase the possibility of recovery.

The Policy and Legislation Hook

Discuss drug policies and legislation related to addiction. Explain how policies have evolved and their impact on addiction treatment, prevention, and societal attitudes.

The Prevention and Education Hook

Highlight the importance of prevention and education programs. Discuss initiatives aimed at raising awareness, providing resources, and educating the public about the dangers of drug addiction.

The Personal Reflection Hook

Begin with a thought-provoking question or reflection on the broader implications of drug addiction. Encourage readers to consider their own perspectives and attitudes toward addiction.

Drug Addiction Solution: a Comprehensive Approach

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The Temperance Models of Drug Addiction

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Substance Abuse: Drug Types, Alcohol, Tobacco, and More

Drug abuse, its effect on health, and preventative measures, the relation between drug addiction and crimes among the youth, hidden impact of substance abuse, get a personalized essay in under 3 hours.

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Drug Addiction in Our Brain

An examination of the genetic risk factors in drug addiction, biological basis of addiction, the drug abuse problem, teenage drug abuse in the united states, impact of drug abuse on today's society, the theme of drug and alcohol abuse in books and films, investigating causes of drug abuse /effects /intervention strategies in kenya, technology addiction among youth and its impact, the negative consequences of drugs consumption, the effects and possible solutions of drug abuse in society, the addiction of america with drugs, analysis of substance abuse through biological, psychological and sociological perspectives, prescription drug abuse among teenagers, arguments against legalization of illicit street drugs, a view of the usage of suboxone in the battle against dependency on opioid, the downtown eastside community of people, important ideas on perceptions & attitude of youth towards narcotic drugs, hate being sober: why african americans experience substance abuse in their community, drug abuse in kenya.

Contrary to the popular belief, drug addiction is an issue that is not only met among famous rock stars or people living in the streets with no home or shelter of any kind. In truth, since the evolution of synthetic drugs, even middle school children have become the victims of drug addiction. The same can be said about people who tend to live with the help of strong painkillers and medication that contains narcotic substances. Finally, we can take the ongoing issue of recreational marijuana, which is also addictive. It shows that once you start exploring this social issue, it goes way further than we initially think.

While the subject of drug addiction can be met all over the world for decades, it does not get enough coverage or statistics regarding the range or scope of the problem. It has always been in discussion since the famous Opium Wars that you might have heard of while at school or in college. Still, the modern side of the problem has been linked to the nightclubs and entertainment among young people. You can see some of our free samples on this subject to get a better idea. Regardless if you take the past or the modern times, it will have enough to write about.

Starting with the World Federation Against Drugs (an international NGO) to famous celebrities who have battled addiction, we have several people who have started an international movement to show young people how a person cannot battle the woes of addiction alone without professional medical help. The examples include Robert Downey Jr, Demi Lovato, Ben Affleck, Bradley Cooper, Drew Barrymore who has announced that she was an addict while being only 13, Elton John, Jamie Lee Curtis, a famous children’s book author, Keith Urban, Daniel Radcliffe, Eric Clapton, Carrie Fisher (Star Wars), and many others.

• Mental and physical degradation.
• Violation of the federal laws.
• Inability to recover without ruining one’s body.
• The physical danger of overdose.

Even if you have not faced any person with an addiction in your life, it is still something that we should not ignore. As a college student and a responsible person, you can make a major difference by protecting people from this awful situation with the help of education and social help. It also relates to people in recovery who require help and support. As the social stigma is quite strong, the addicts are usually left on their own and rarely ask for help, not only because they do not realize that they need help. By providing better information and exploring this subject, you can make a difference and save lives.

It does not matter what topic you may be given or have the freedom to choose for your college essay, you can explore the economical state, criminal situation, and many other aspects of life. For example, one of our paper samples talks about Bangladesh and drug addiction among young people while the other one explores the process of overcoming this problem. You can also start a debate regarding recreational marijuana and all those dangerous cocktails in modern nightclubs. The possibilities are virtually endless, which is why this topic is often approached by colleges worldwide.

The most important aspect here is understanding that you (or your friend) cannot cope alone without professional medical help. One of the reasons why addiction rehabs are present in the life of the ex-addicts is the role of the chemical processes in one’s body, which means that a person receives special medication to decrease the reception of the elements that lead to dangerous consequences. In addition, providing mental support is also important, which is something you can do as a student. Finally, the best method is to prevent something bad from happening, which can be done with the help of educational materials and discussions with young people.

Relevant topics

• Eating Disorders
• Mental Health

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Cigarette Smoking Among Adolescents With Alcohol and Other Drug Use Problems

Cigarette and alcohol use often develop concurrently, and smoking is especially common among youth treated for alcohol and other drug (AOD) use disorders. Special considerations for adolescent smoking cessation treatment include peer influences, motivation, and nicotine dependence. Little research has addressed smoking cessation treatment for youth with AOD use disorders, but the few available studies suggest that tobacco cessation efforts are feasible and potentially effective for this population. Findings to date suggest that adolescents with AOD use disorders may benefit more from relatively intensive multicomponent programs rather than brief treatment for smoking cessation. Additional research is needed to further address the inclusion of tobacco-specific interventions for adolescents in AOD use disorder treatment programs.

Studies examining the origins of alcohol and other drug (AOD) use problems (i.e., AOD abuse and dependence) consistently find that cigarette smoking is closely related with AOD use. Because the use of psychoactive substances significantly escalates during the high school years ( Johnston et al. 2006 ), most research in this area has focused on high school–aged youth (e.g., 14–18 years old). Although researchers have identified a broad range of factors that influence the initiation and progression of tobacco and AOD use, peer influences are particularly salient given the key developmental tasks of this period (e.g., establishing an identity separate from ones’ family). Ethnic and regional variations exist in the development of psychoactive substance use, yet adolescents typically start using cigarettes or alcohol prior to other drugs ( Ellickson et al. 1992 ). Tobacco and alcohol, often referred to as “gateway drugs,” are among the first substances consumed by adolescents. This is likely influenced by their ready availability along with other sociocultural (e.g., peer influences, acculturation) and biological factors (e.g., family history of substance use disorders) ( Vega and Gil 2005 ).

As with alcohol, adolescent cigarette smoking is strongly associated with illicit drug use (e.g., Eckhardt et al. 1994 ). In addition to more frequent use of illicit drugs, youth who consistently smoke throughout adolescence are at significantly greater risk for marijuana and other drug abuse or dependence ( Vega and Gil 2005 ). Much of the research in this area has focused on concurrent use of cigarettes and alcohol, which predicts a variety of problems, both during adolescence and beyond. For example, it has been found that youth who smoke and drink have an increased risk of having difficulties at school, delinquency, and use of other drugs ( Hoffman et al. 2001 ).

Adolescents who report consistent smoking and drinking have higher rates of deviant behavior and violence and are more likely to have legal and substance use problems in their 20s than those who consistently drink but do not regularly smoke ( Orlando et al. 2005 ). The authors of the latter study noted, “…while it is common during adolescence to drink but not smoke, it is very unusual to smoke and not drink” ( Orlando et al. 2005 ), suggesting that smoking is a reliable marker of adolescent alcohol use.

This article examines the prevalence of cigarette smoking among adolescents with AOD use problems, smoking cessation efforts in this population, and special considerations for adolescent smoking cessation treatment, including peer influences, motivation, and nicotine dependence. This article concludes with a brief review of studies evaluating smoking cessation treatment for adolescents with AOD use problems and a discussion of the implications of these findings.

Prevalence of Cigarette Smoking Among Adolescents With AOD Use Problems

Research consistently demonstrates a link between adolescent smoking and psychiatric problems, in particular major depressive disorder, disruptive behavior disorders, and AOD use problems (e.g., Brown et al. 1996 ). Few studies have focused specifically on smoking in clinical samples 1 of adolescents treated for AOD use problems. In an initial investigation of smoking among such adolescents ( Myers and Brown 1994 ), 85 percent reported current (i.e., within the past 30 days) cigarette smoking at treatment entry, of whom 75 percent were daily smokers and 61 percent smoked 10 or more cigarettes daily. The frequency and intensity of smoking in this clinical sample was substantially higher than for adolescents in the general population. When these subjects were interviewed again 2 years following treatment, both prevalence of current smoking and average daily cigarette consumption by smokers had decreased, yet both remained very high. Heavier smokers at the time of treatment were more likely to report respiratory problems (e.g., bronchitis, pneumonia, and respiratory tract infections) at the 24-month followup, suggesting that health consequences from smoking may appear relatively early for these youth. In addition, rates of smoking were not associated with relapse to AOD use, suggesting that even adolescents abstinent from AODs remained at risk for continued cigarette use and related health problems.

In a subsequent report ( Myers and Brown 1997 ), we examined the persistence of cigarette smoking 4 years following treatment for participants from the initial study, at which time these youth were, on average, 20 years old. Consistent with other reports indicating that cigarette use is a highly persistent behavior, 80 percent of those who smoked at the time of treatment were still smoking 4 years later. Those who had stopped smoking by the 4-year follow-up assessment reported lower rates of AOD involvement than those who continued to smoke. Thus, our studies to date underscore the fact that youth treated for AOD abuse are a heavy cigarette-smoking population, that smoking persists following treatment, and that smoking-related health problems already are evident during adolescence. Further, these initial studies provided suggestive evidence that smoking cessation does not detrimentally influence substance use outcomes. These findings highlight the importance of interventions to address tobacco use among these youth.

Smoking Cessation Efforts

Information regarding self-initiated efforts to change smoking behaviors suggests that adolescent smokers frequently consider quitting smoking and, as such, may be amenable to intervention. Studies of general population and school samples consistently find that adolescents often want to stop smoking and frequently attempt smoking cessation yet seldom succeed in maintaining long-term abstinence. We recently examined smoking cessation among youth in treatment for substance abuse ( Myers and Macpherson 2004 ). The majority (63 percent) of adolescents in the study had previously attempted to quit smoking yet reported difficulties staying abstinent––70 percent had returned to smoking within a month of quitting. The frequency and duration of smoking cessation efforts for this substance-abusing sample was comparable to findings with adolescent smokers from community-based studies (e.g., Burt and Peterson 1998 ; Pierce et al. 1998 ). Overall, adolescents tend to return to smoking relatively soon after cessation attempts, indicating the potential value of tobacco-focused interventions to enhance and support abstinence from smoking.

Adolescent Smoking Cessation Treatment: Developmental Considerations

Developmental differences between adolescent and adult smokers pose significant challenges for designing effective youth-specific interventions ( Mermelstein 2003 ). Interventions targeted at adolescents must thus include content appropriate to key developmental differences between youth and adults ( c.f., Milton et al. 2003 ). Peer influences and motivation for change are especially important considerations for any adolescent-focused tobacco use intervention and are particularly salient for youth with AOD problems. Adolescents also appear to differ from adults in characteristics of nicotine dependence ( Colby et al. 2000 ). Another important issue to include in treatment is that the extent of dependence is found to influence cessation outcomes.

Peer Influences

Studies consistently find that adolescents who associate with smoking peers have less success with quitting. The high smoking rates among AOD-abusing youth indicate that addressing peer influences may be particularly important with this population ( Myers 1999 ). Adolescents strongly identify with their friends and peers, a phenomenon central to an adolescent’s development of a self-image distinct from one’s family ( Greenberg et al. 1983 ). As such, the role of peers in adolescent smoking can be understood as part of an adolescent’s social identity (e.g., how youth view smoking in relation to self and others) and peer selection rather than solely as “peer pressure” ( Ennett and Bauman 1994 ). For instance, cigarettes take on a social role by providing adolescent smokers a method for meeting and interacting with others. The social function of smoking may be particularly powerful for AOD-abusing adolescents, whether they currently are using substances or are abstaining, because their peer group likely will include many smokers. For example, being around smokers may lead to perceived pressure to smoke or may give rise to cravings. 2 Because smoking is a normative behavior for AOD-involved youth, particular attention should be focused on youth perceptions regarding the acceptability of smoking, adolescents’ beliefs about the social role of cigarettes, beliefs regarding the relationship between smoking and other drug use (e.g., enhanced effects), and skills to resist temptations to smoke.

Motivation can be understood as a shifting state of desire to change, and, as such, promoting and enhancing the motivation to quit smoking is a central issue for both adolescent and adult treatment. Adolescents may have lower interest in quitting smoking than adults because they are less likely to have incurred subjectively noticeable negative consequences from smoking, and tobacco-related health problems tend to accrue gradually over a long period of time. For youth with AOD-related problems, the normative status of smoking may serve to dampen interest in quitting. In addition, those youth receiving treatment for a substance use disorder (and their parents) are likely to view smoking as a “lesser evil” compared with AOD use and, thus, a lower-priority issue. Incorporating client-centered motivational enhancement techniques 3 as part of treatment is therefore likely to be particularly important when addressing smoking in the context of AOD use disorder treatment, because these youth may have little initial desire to change their smoking behavior ( Myers 1999 ). As such, smoking intervention for AOD-abusing adolescents should address motivational obstacles to initial participation and include techniques to increase and sustain motivation for change.

Nicotine Dependence

Most adolescents smoke cigarettes less often and in smaller quantities than adults. Despite lower levels of consumption, studies to date suggest that adolescent smokers, especially daily smokers, experience nicotine dependence, and the majority report experiencing withdrawal symptoms 4 upon cessation ( Colby et al. 2000 ). Available evidence also indicates that, as with adults, youth with higher levels of nicotine dependence have greater difficulty quitting smoking ( Colby et al. 2000 ). Yet, the extent to which features of nicotine dependence are similar between adult and adolescent smokers is not yet well established. Treatment of adult smokers typically incorporates medication, such as nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) (e.g., transdermal nicotine patch). However, research has not yet established whether NRT and other medications are appropriate and effective for tobacco cessation among youth. Because a majority of AODabusing youth appears to be daily smokers, nicotine dependence should be addressed in the course of intervention. This can be accomplished by educating adolescents regarding the features of nicotine dependence (e.g., anticipating withdrawal symptoms), teaching strategies for coping with urges and withdrawal, and providing medication if appropriate (see Brown et al. 2003 ).

Smoking Cessation Treatment for Adolescents With AOD Use Problems

Adolescent smoking cessation treatment has received growing attention over the past decade, yet few studies have focused on youth with AOD problems. We identified four published treatment studies relevant to this population, each of which addressed key developmental issues, including motivation, peer factors, and nicotine dependence.

The largest study to date of smoking cessation with high-risk youth is Project Ex, an intervention designed for and delivered in continuation high schools 5 ( Sussman et al. 2001 ). Continuation schools serve high-risk youth, thus their students have a substantially higher prevalence of tobacco and AOD use than students in traditional high schools.

The intervention included eight sessions delivered over a 6-week period. A motivational approach was employed, such that students initially were not asked or required to quit but rather prepared for their quit attempt. Program content included examining reasons for smoking and quitting, education about the effects of tobacco and nicotine, coping skills, strategies for maintaining abstinence, and relapse prevention. It also included alternative medicine strategies and “talk shows” to make the intervention more appealing to youth.

The program was assessed by randomly assigning schools to one of three conditions: intervention alone, intervention with a school-as-community component 6 ( Sussman et al. 2001 ), and a no-treatment control. Three hundred and thirty-five smokers from 18 continuation high schools participated in the study. Follow-up assessment 5 months after the program quit day indicated a significant difference between treatment conditions; 17 percent of smokers in the treatment conditions reported having quit smoking for the last 30 days, compared with just 8 percent of those in the no-treatment control condition. Project Ex is one of the first studies to demonstrate the benefits of smoking cessation interventions with high-risk youth. Although this intervention’s content was developed and implemented with high-risk youth rather than youth diagnosed with AOD use disorders, its content may well apply to AOD-abusing youth.

Motivational Intervention for Adolescents With Psychiatric and Substance Use Disorders

A recently completed treatment study compared the effectiveness of an intervention designed to enhance motivation to quit with a brief advice condition for smoking cessation in adolescents admitted for psychiatric hospitalization for any axis I condition other than a psychotic disorder (e.g., schizophrenia) ( Brown et al. 2003 ). The motivational intervention consisted of two 45-minute sessions. The first session involved examination of the pros and cons of smoking and quitting, followed by feedback regarding peer influences, nicotine dependence, adolescent attitudes toward smoking, and costs of smoking. The second session incorporated feedback about the effects of smoking on appearance, pulmonary health, and measurement of lung function. This session ended with discussion of a plan for changing cigarette use. Participants in the motivational interview condition also received a manual that outlined skills for preventing relapse to smoking and that described strategies for coping with negative moods. In addition, participants received up to six brief counseling phone calls during the initial 6 months following hospitalization and parents received up to four phone counseling sessions. Finally, in order to further address nicotine dependence, eligible participants in this motivational intervention condition received up to two 8-week supplies of transdermal nicotine patch therapy.

The brief advice condition was designed in accordance with current clinical guidelines for smoking cessation, and participants were given 5 to 10 minutes of advice about quitting smoking. Participants received a clear recommendation to quit smoking, information about the negative health effects of smoking, and advice for quitting (e.g., setting a quit date). Eligible participants also received a single course of transdermal nicotine patch therapy.

The study included 191 adolescents who were randomly assigned to receive either motivational enhancement or brief advice and were followed for 12 months after discharge from the hospital. Several outcomes were compared across treatment conditions, including proportion attempting to quit smoking, duration of longest quit attempt, smoking abstinence rates, and smoking rates (cigarettes per day). Overall, no significant differences were observed between the treatment conditions on frequency of quit attempts or rates of abstinence, suggesting that the motivational intervention had no more effect on smoking than brief advice. Cessation rates reported for this study (9 to 14 percent of participants in each condition were abstinent for the prior week at follow-up assessments) were comparable to those of the no-treatment conditions of the other studies reviewed herein, suggesting that this brief motivational intervention had little effect on smoking in this clinical population. Although a similar intervention with a nonclinical sample of adolescents has shown positive findings ( Colby et al. 2005 ), adolescents with concurrent substance use and other psychiatric disorders may require more intensive intervention than provided in this study.

Cigarette Smoking Intervention for Adolescents in AOD Abuse Treatment

In response to the need for smoking interventions targeted to youth with AOD use problems, we conducted a series of studies on this issue. The first study focused on designing and implementing a smoking intervention with this population ( Myers et al. 2000 ). Subsequently, we conducted a controlled comparison study of the previously developed intervention ( Myers and Brown 2005 ).

The initial study ( Myers et al. 2000 ) aimed to produce a treatment manual and demonstrate the feasibility of providing a tobacco-focused intervention in the context of treatment for AOD use disorders. Design of the intervention was based on available research regarding influences on adolescent smoking cessation and persistence, developmental issues, and factors specific to AOD-abusing youth. Each version of the intervention addressed these primary considerations, and subsequent applications were modified in response to prior experience and participant feedback. In keeping with the client-centered, motivational approach underlying the intervention, participants were asked to set their own goals for change, with smoking cessation representing one of several possible outcomes. The final version of the intervention consisted of six, weekly, hour-long group sessions integrated within existing programs for treatment of adolescent AOD use disorders. Content included strategies for increasing motivation for change, training in behavioral strategies for reducing cigarette use, skills for managing urges to smoke, and preventing relapse to smoking. Social aspects of adolescent smoking were addressed, with an emphasis on obtaining peer support for quitting smoking and skills for refusing offers of cigarettes. Commonalities and differences between adolescent experiences with AOD use versus cigarette use were also discussed.

Thirty-five adolescents participated in this pilot project and were followed for 3 months following completion of the smoking intervention. Analyses found that 3 months after treatment, 6 of 28 (21 percent; 17 percent of original sample) participants reported abstinence from smoking for at least the prior 7 days. Forty-six percent of participants reported at least one quit attempt following participation. Further, no relationship was found between attempting to quit smoking and extent of AOD use. These findings provided initial support for the feasibility of this approach, and evidence that providing a client-centered, motivation-enhancing, tobacco intervention in the context of AOD treatment was not detrimental to AOD-related treatment outcomes for adolescents.

The efficacy of this intervention was subsequently assessed in a controlled outcome study ( Myers and Brown 2005 ). Fifty-four adolescents recruited from AOD use disorder treatment programs were assigned either to receive the intervention or to a waitlist control condition. Those assigned to the control condition were offered access to the intervention after completing study participation. Participants were followed for 6 months after completing the smoking intervention and were compared across conditions on rates of quit attempts and abstinence from smoking. Analyses were conducted employing an intent-to-treat approach, whereby all participants who entered the study were included, with those lost to follow-up considered as not having attempted cessation and not abstinent. No differences were found across groups for frequency of cessation attempts. However, compared with individuals in the control condition, treatment participants were more likely to report pastweek abstinence from smoking at the end of treatment (4 percent versus 38 percent, respectively), at the 3-month follow-up (4 percent versus 31 percent, respectively), and at the 6-month follow-up (4 percent versus 15 percent respectively) (see Figure 2 ). That a statistically significant difference was found only for abstinence at 3 months posttreatment may reflect the small sample size and consequent limited statistical power. This study provided initial evidence for the efficacy of a smoking cessation intervention delivered in the context of adolescent substance use disorder treatment.

Proportion of adolescents abstinent from smoking for at least 7 days across treatment and control conditions at the end of treatment and at 3- and 6-months’ followup. Compared with individuals in the control condition, treatment participants were more likely to report past-week abstinence from smoking at each of the three followups.

SOURCE: Myers and Brown 2005 .

Summary of Findings

The evolution of smoking treatment for adolescents with AOD-related problems is in its early stages. The few relevant treatment studies indicate that tobacco use interventions for this population are feasible and potentially effective. Findings to date suggest that adolescents with AOD use disorders may benefit more from relatively intensive multicomponent programs rather than brief treatment for smoking cessation. It is noteworthy that all of the treatments reviewed focused on clientcentered approaches to motivating changes in smoking behavior and, in contrast with standard adult treatment, did not require cessation. Motivational approaches thus could be especially important for engaging adolescents in treatment. The studies showing significant effects included interventions delivered in group rather than individual sessions. This finding may reflect that adolescent social factors may be more salient and effectively addressed in a group, rather than individual, format. Finally, offering a tobacco-focused intervention as an integral part of AOD treatment may serve to reduce barriers to participation and alter normative attitudes regarding tobacco use.

These conclusions must be tempered by considering the limitations of the studies reviewed. Project Ex, the study with the strongest outcomes, did not specifically focus on adolescents diagnosed with substance use disorders. As such, further research is needed to establish whether this same program would prove effective among youth with AOD use disorders. Generalizing the findings of these studies is further complicated by gender and ethnic composition differences across studies. Finally, the two studies conducted with youth treated for AOD use disorders included small samples and as such require replication with larger samples.

Implications for Adolescent AOD Use Disorder Treatment

Cigarette and alcohol use share common etiological factors and often develop concurrently. Smoking is especially common among youth treated for AOD use disorders and appears to persist at least into early adulthood. Despite the potentially severe health consequences of concurrent tobacco and alcohol use and the possible benefits of early intervention, little research has addressed treatments targeted at this population. The few available studies suggest the feasibility and utility of addressing tobacco use among youth with AOD problems. When considered in concert with findings that client-centered adolescent smoking cessation efforts do not appear to detract from AOD use outcomes, the current evidence is cause for optimism. However, the dearth of studies and limitations of current research serve to emphasize the need for additional research to address the inclusion of tobacco-specific interventions for adolescents in AOD use disorder treatment programs.

The overlap between adolescent alcohol and cigarette use is illustrated by data from Statewide surveys of 7th to 12th grade students in New York State. Evaluation of concurrent use of alcohol and cigarettes indicated that approximately one-third of current drinkers smoked, whereas approximately 95 percent of current smokers used alcohol.

SOURCE: Hoffman et al. 2001 .

Acknowledgements

Work on this paper was supported by an Independent Scientist Award from the National Institute on Drug Abuse (DA–017652). Dr. Myers’s research on smoking treatment for alcohol and other drug–abusing adolescents was supported by grants from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (AA–11333) and the California Tobacco Related Disease Research Program (7RT–0135)

1 A clinical sample refers to study participants recruited from inpatient or outpatient treatment settings.

2 A strong perceived desire or urge to smoke.

3 Motivational enhancement techniques refer to therapeutic strategies designed to increase the likelihood of an individual engaging in and maintaining behavior change. Motivational interventions incorporate the client-centered principles of empathy, acceptance, and positive regard.

4 Common withdrawal symptoms that occur within 24 hours after stopping smoking include irritability, anxiety, poor concentration, insomnia, and depression.

5 Continuation high schools are part of the California public high school system and serve youth who are diverted from the traditional high schools for reasons such as behavior problems and poor academic performance.

6 The community component was designed to promote school-wide changes in attitudes toward smoking as a means for facilitating cessation efforts.

Financial Disclosure

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

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Thesis Paper on Drug Addiction

Drug addiction has long been and still is a topical issue around the world. There are different reasons why people get addicted and various levels to which people become dependent on drugs. Some people start taking them because of pure curiosity, others so as to improve their athletic performance or reduce stress and get rid of depression. It doesn't matter why people start, the main thing here is to get help at the right time and not to ruin their life and health. When people start taking drugs, with time the way their brain functions and looks is altered. First of all, drug taking causes elevation of dopamine level in brain, which results in the feeling of pleasure. Brain remembers this event and wants it repeated. So, the drug a person takes eventually reaches the significance that other physiological needs have. As a result, the person's abilities to think clearly, control behavior, exercise good judgment and feel well without drugs intake becomes affected. This, in its turn, causes problems in relations with family, friends, at work or in university. It is extremely important to recognize drug addiction at the right moment, preferably in the beginning, so as not to spoil social relationships and health. It is necessary to understand that the sooner the problem will be attended, the better it is for the treatment progress. There are certain symptoms of drug abuse: when drug is getting people into legal trouble, if because of it people start neglecting their responsibilities, when they use drugs under dangerous conditions, and when they cause problems in relationships.

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Journal of Psychoactive Drugs

Matteo Rivera

Tabish S. A.

Life throws up innumerable situations, which we greet with both negative and positive emotions such as excitement, frustration, fear, happiness, anger, sadness, joy etc. All human beings are not equipped to take on changes or difficult situations in life, naturally. Out of them, many don’t adapt to those situations. The result normally is— those situations and accompanying stress overwhelm people. The mind-boggling changes in every sphere of life—culture, profession, modes of transportation and rapid lifestyle changes put pressure on men to adjust with equal speed. Stress begins to wear them out and there is a loss of resiliency against adverse situations of life. Consequently, they begin to pull away from others and give in to depression. It is said that life acts and you react. Our attitude is our reaction to what life hands out to us. A significant amount of stress symptoms can be avoided or aroused by the way we relate to stressors. Stress is created by what we think rather than by what has actually happened. For instance, handling adopted children, adolescents, academic failures, retirements or sudden loss of money needs a relaxed attitude, focused will and preparedness to face the quirks of life positively. Otherwise one tends to feel stressed and reacts in anger and frustration. Children of stressed out parents are more likely to be ill equipped to handle stressors positively. They may suffer from emotional disturbances, depression, aggressive behaviour or confusion besides chances of weak physical constitutions, which again can be a source of anxiety. With a better control of attention one can feel that the world is a more congenial place to live in. A right attitude can make a resilient person out of us in the face of stressful situations. We can choose to stand aside; or to take weak and ineffective measures; or to implement robust and enduring measures to protect the health and wealth of populations.

Philosophy, Psychology and Psychiatry

Julian Savulescu

Philosophers and psychologists have been attracted to two differing accounts of addictive motivation. In this paper, we investigate these two accounts and challenge their mutual claim that addictions compromise a person’s self-control. First, we identify some incompatibilities between this claim of reduced self-control and the available evidence from various disciplines. A critical assessment of the evidence weakens the empirical argument for reduced autonomy. Second, we identify sources of unwarranted normative bias in the popular theories of addiction that introduce systematic errors in interpreting the evidence. By eliminating these errors, we are able to generate a minimal, but correct account, of addiction that presumes addicts to be autonomous in their addictive behavior, absent further evidence to the contrary. Finally, we explore some of the implications of this minimal, correct view.

Adrian Carter , Ruud ter Meulen , David J Dm Frcp Frcpsych Fmedsci Nutt , W. Hall

The potential developments mentioned in this report raise issues that are likely to become important for policymakers within Member States and will require careful consideration at European level in regard to the EU's role. They raise important questions for both drug policy and human rights and may have implications for the future regional role of the EU in developing policies, monitoring the activities of Member States and taking appropriate action with regard to Member States' policies.

The Promises and Perils of Neuroscience Research on Addiction

Wayne Hall , Ruud ter Meulen

Neuroscience research is uncovering the neurochemical mechanisms that produce the behavioural and cognitive problems observed in those with an addiction. This includes: the pharmacological sites at which drugs act (eg receptors); the neurochemicals involved in the metabolism (eg enzymes) and trafficking of drugs (eg transporters) that regulate their activity within the brain; and the molecular changes that occur in the brain as a result of continuous use of addictive drugs over long periods of time (see Chapter 2).

Addiction and drug abuse exact an enormous toll upon European society, largely as a result of premature death, physical harm and increased health care costs, violence and crime. A significant proportion of the European population will become addicted to licit or illicit drugs during their lifetime. Given the health and social burden of addiction, there is strong public interest in preventing addiction and improving the chances that addicts will stop using drugs.

The Causes That Lead Teenagers to Drug and Alcohol Abuse

Research paper (postgraduate), 2008, 15 pages, grade: 1.5, llb graduate kassandra castillo (author).

I. Introduction A. Opening Statements B. Thesis statement C. Importance of topic D. Road Map

II. The Cases That Lead Teenagers to Drug Abuse and Alcohol Abuse A. Stressful Events B. Peer Influence C. Failure of Parents to Take Their Children Away From Harmful Activities

III. Possible Effects of Drug Abuse and Alcohol Abuse to Teenagers A. Sexual Abuse or Molestation Against Teenagers B. Teenage Pregnancy C. Commission of Crimes Against Other People

IV. Conclusion References

I. Introduction

A. opening statements.

The family is the basic unit of society. Families are composed of parents and their children who live in a community. In the case of the United States of America, there are myriad challenges to families that affect teenagers. The common problems that beset teenagers are drug abuse, alcohol abuse, sexual molestation and teenage pregnancy. Research findings state that in the year 2008, 35.6% of students had had six or more drinks of alcoholic beverages on at least one occasion (Dew, 2009, p. 1). In addition, 70% of eleventh grade students have had at least one drink of alcoholic beverages during their lifetime through the influence of friends and family members (Dew, 2009, p. 1). Hence, the problem of alcohol abuse has escalated through the years.

The problem on drug abuse has increased through the years since according to the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, there were 9.5% of teenagers aged 12 to 17 who are currently drug users nowadays (Aldworth et. al., 2007, p. 45). These problems are results of the weakening of family values and ethical standards which make teenagers deviate from the norms. In other words, drug abuse, alcohol abuse, sexual molestation, commission of crimes and teenage pregnancy create challenges for families.

B. Thesis statement

The problems of teenagers involving drug abuse and alcohol abuse are primarily caused by stressful life events, peer influence, and failure of parents to take their children away from harmful activities. Besides, drug abuse and alcohol abuse might lead to sexual abuse or molestation and teenage pregnancy as well as the commission of violent crimes.

C. Importance of topic

The need to solve social problems like drug abuse and alcohol abuse makes it imperative to study the cases that lead teenagers to deviate the norms in society. The knowledge taken from the research paper is also useful in framing correct solutions for the problem.

Who has written about the subject (who has informed your paper):

Dinkmeyer (1990), McKay, De Guzman (1990) and Temke (2006) are authors that have written about the influence of parents on their children. Hobbs (2008) and Pasch (2003) are authors that have written about peer influence and peer pressure on teenagers. Regoli (2000), Wattenberg (2003), Henderson (2008) and Hendrickson (2001) are other authors that have informed this research paper.

D. Road Map

The cases that lead teenagers to drug and alcohol abuse include stressful events, peer influence, and failure of parents to keep their children away from harmful activities. This paper will discuss the reasons why teenagers become victims of drug and alcohol abuse which might cause sexual abuse or molestation against them, and teenage pregnancy despite the presence of their respective families and attendance in formal schools. After that, a discussion on the linkage of teenage drug and alcohol abuse with the commission of violent crimes will be given. It will also discuss the course of action for the treatment and intervention of teenagers who have fallen prey to drugs and excessive intake of alcoholic beverages as solution to the problem.

II. The Cases That Lead Teenagers to Drug Abuse and Alcohol Abuse

The primary cases that lead teenagers to drug abuse and alcohol abuse include stressful life events, peer influence, and failure of parents to take their children away from harmful activities.

A. Stressful Events

Stressful events in life cause trouble to teenager who attends school or not. Stressful life events may include divorce or separation of parents, low grades in school, and poverty. Divorce or separation of parents can affect the emotional, psychological, and physical well-being of a child. The primary concern of parents who are divorcing is the response of their children and their ability to handle the situation to become healthy and happy despite the problem (Temke, 2006, p. 1).

It must be remembered that the effects of divorce on children depends upon their age and gender. In this case, adolescents feel anger, depression, guilt, fear and loneliness due to divorce of their parents (Temke, 2006, p. 2). Other teenagers are forced to hold mature responsibilities like taking care of their siblings and or earning a living for the broken family. The pressure of choosing one parent over the other is also stressful for a teenager.

Teenagers are irreparably damaged due to divorce of their parents. The situation makes teenagers think that they are too powerless to handle such family change. Family relationships are affected by the decision of parents to opt for divorce instead of saving the marriage which makes children feel guilty and depressed. Drug and alcohol abuse is often the means of coping for teenagers to ease the pain of having a broken family.

Moreover, the most common effect of divorcing parents is the inability of teenagers to cope with the changes in their family (Temke, 2006, p. 2). As a result, teenagers react negatively on the situation by resorting to drugs or alcoholic beverages. Hence, parents who are divorcing must help their children to adjust to the situation through proper communication and unconditional love and care. Divorcing parents must not neglect their children despite existing change in family setting. When their children grow up and become teenagers, the social stigma of living with a broken family will haunt them and make them walk astray.

Another stressful event in the life of a teenager is having low grades in school. Although this problem is related to lack of confidence, parents must not take it for granted. Studies mentioned that working memory deficits of a teenager may trigger some learning difficulties and behavioral troubles linked to impulsivity, difficulties in focus, and hyperactivity (“Working memory, psychiatric symptoms, and academic performance at school”). Depression may also cause low performance of teenagers in school. It is also considered the gateway of resorting to drugs and alcohol abuse.

Teenagers who got low grades in school can resort to drug abuse and alcohol abuse in order to ease their pain due to low morale and lack of self-confidence. Drug use is viewed as deriving from failing to make good in school activities and assignments (Regoli & Hewitt, 2000, p. 268). In short, some teenagers who are unable to gain success in academic matters may choose deviant modes of adaptation to deal with their failure.

In addition, poverty may also cause stress to teenagers. Logically, inability of parents to provide enough resources for the physical and financial needs of a teenager is unacceptable but existing today. Some teenagers are forced to be exposed to environmental toxins and family violence, suffer instability of residence, and fewer learning experiences due to poverty (Gunn & Duncan, 1997, p. 2). Others are forced to work while studying just to make both ends meet. Due to lack of proper education, teenagers who belong to poor families experience difficulty in making themselves financially stable. As a result, some teenagers are involved in illegal activities like drug pushing which makes them mingle with people who are considered bad influence for them (Gunn & Duncan, 1997, p. 2). If teenagers are exposed to illegal activities, resorting to alcohol abuse and drug abuse cannot be avoided. Therefore, stressful events like poverty, divorce, and lack of proper education must be abated or lessened in order to prevent teenagers from resorting to drug abuse and alcohol abuse.

to know more about the things that lead teenagers to drug and alcohol abuse

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