case study on self exploration

A Case Study Exploration into the Benefits of Teaching Self-Care to School Psychology Graduate Students

Affiliation.

• 1 Division of Counseling and School Psychology, Alfred University, 1 Saxon Drive, Alfred, NY 14802 USA.
• PMID: 33133766
• PMCID: PMC7583692
• DOI: 10.1007/s40688-020-00328-3

It has long been established that school psychology practitioners experience high levels of burnout. As a means of preventing burnout among future practitioners, school psychology training programs are frequently encouraged to teach and model self-care to students. This is particularly important as the current generation of graduate students experience high levels of anxiety and depression, but there have been very few examples in the research literature of how training programs should teach self-care and whether it is actually effective. The current study presents results from an exploratory case study, which integrated self-care instruction into graduate school psychology curriculum with a small sample ( N = 22) of first-year school psychology students across two separate cohorts. Students created written plans with self-care strategies that they attempted to implement over the course of their first semester in graduate school. A qualitative review of their plans and written reflections revealed that students described many sources of stress upon entry into training, and most needed to revise their strategies for coping as stresses changed during the semester. Overall, student reflections revealed that the self-care activities were helpful to meet the demands of their graduate education.

Keywords: Graduate student mental health; Graduate training; School psychology; Self-care.

© California Association of School Psychologists 2020.

How to Begin Your Self-Discovery Journey: 16 Best Questions

As part of this process, we must not only search to determine what constitutes our true selves, but let go of objects of identification we’ve long mistaken for ourselves, requiring a balance of introspection and new experiences.

So let’s set sail.

In this article, we’ll give you a range of powerful questions to help you along your journey of self-discovery and point you toward further reading and resources.

Before you continue, you might like to download our three Meaning and Valued Living Exercises for free . These creative, science-based exercises will help you learn more about your values, motivations, and goals and will give you the tools to inspire a sense of meaning in the lives of your clients, students, or employees.

This Article Contains:

What is self-discovery according to psychology, fostering self-discovery skills: 10 examples & tips, why is the process important, a look at self-discovery coaching, 3 exercises, games, and activities for adults, best worksheets and journal prompts, 16 questions to ask yourself or your clients, helpful books & apps for your journey, tools from positivepsychology.com, a take-home message.

Drawing often from the field of philosophy , psychologists point to the illumination of our daimon (or ‘true self’) as the ultimate goal of self-discovery.

Formally defined, this true self is

“the central inner force common to all human beings and yet unique to each, which is the deep source of growth… [that is] free, healthy development in accordance with the potentials of one’s generic and individual nature.”

Horney, 1950, p. 17

As part of the process of searching for our true selves, we are ultimately working to identify three things (Waterman, 2011):

• Personal potentials
• Our purposes for living
• Opportunities to act upon those potentials and purposes in living

The search for our true selves, therefore:

“refers to those processes, both intuitive and reasoned, by which those [personal, purpose-related] potentials are discovered and come to attain the status of personally concordant goals that are to be actualized.”

Waterman, 2011, p. 360

According to this view, a person’s true self essentially lies beneath the surface, and our task is to find, recognize, or understand that which already exists. Once you have, you can then make choices about your life and identity that are more consistent with this self-knowledge (Waterman, 2011).

Seek a supportive atmosphere

The more time we spend in the presence of supportive family, friends, lovers, and communities , the sooner we will be likely to discover our true nature. This is because warm and encouraging atmospheres facilitate feelings of inner security while providing the freedom to have our own feelings and thoughts (Horney, 1950).

To this end, here are some ideas to consider:

• Seek quiet spaces and time out to facilitate reflection or journaling .
• Join a social group whose interests and passions align with your own, such as a painting, writing, or poetry group.
• Find a coach or therapist for a safe space to pursue self-discovery.
• Set boundaries with people who discourage your individuality, negatively affect your emotions, or put you down.
• Seek the company of people who inspire you, make you feel positive, and challenge your perception of yourself.

Identify your drifts

Pay close attention to the things you naturally love doing, or drifts, particularly those that are personally expressive . By paying attention to the subconscious pull of these activities, you can allow them to guide you toward your true self, stemming from your genetic makeup, upbringing, and experiences (Pagedar, 2021).

• Our drifts tend to emerge when the mind is still, so try selecting a quiet day to do some meditation or practice some relaxation techniques.
• Try to notice activities that cause you to slip into the state of flow , as these often point us toward our drifts.
• Consider which activities you possess a natural aptitude or talent for, perhaps using a strengths-finding exercise .
• Think about which activities you find intrinsically motivating . These are the activities you would undertake in the absence of external rewards, such as money or the approval of others.
• Notice times when you feel a strong sense of personal responsibility to do something or have a unique vision about how something should be carried out.

Download 3 Meaning & Valued Living Exercises (PDF)

These detailed, science-based exercises will equip you or your clients with tools to find meaning in life help and pursue directions that are in alignment with values.

Download 3 Free Meaning Tools Pack (PDF)

By filling out your name and email address below.

To understand why self-discovery is so important, we must consider the consequences of failing to identify our true selves.

According to Horney (1950), when a person experiences a large discrepancy between their lived and real selves, they are likely to experience a sense of alienation from themselves. This remains true even if the person is successful in their activities and receives external rewards.

Such a person may often notice themselves wondering, “ Why am I doing this when it’s not who I really am? ” The consequence is a feeling of guilt or dissatisfaction if we fail to live up to an idealized version of ourselves that we cannot be.

Besides this negative emotional toll, the problem with pursuing such an ideal is that it will be rooted in externally derived standards of worth.

To illustrate, here are some examples:

• A student feels pressure from their parents to pursue a prestigious career in law, even though this line of work does not inspire them.
• A famous musician has mistaken their true self with their like of the status, prestige, and social validation they receive while performing.
• A woman’s family talks her into finding a husband and settling down when she’d rather travel the world with her friends.
• A son feels obligated to take over the family business when he’d prefer to start his own venture.

When we cannot live in alignment with our true selves, we must spend energy attempting to deny and distort our experiences to make sense of a pervasive lack of happiness and personal fulfillment. This ongoing effort can go so far as to produce psychological states and conditions such as depression (Waterman et al., 2010).

This is why self-discovery is so important.

Our goal in life should not be to pursue imagined or externally derived ideals, but rather to develop a more realistic understanding of our strengths and limitations. By doing so, we can avoid negative psychological states and self-actualize , feel contentment, and make better contributions to the world.

A growing trend in coaching, self-discovery coaching is about looking beyond specific goal pursuits (e.g., “I want to improve my self-esteem ”) to discover how we can live authentically and be truly happy .

Self-discovery coaching has many components, including (Elevate Life Project, n.d.):

• Exploring your values to live in congruence with what’s most important to you
• Discovering grounded confidence, centeredness, and strength
• Identifying your abilities for making easier decisions

The role of a self-discovery coach in this process is to act as co-pilot on a client’s journey toward authentic fulfillment by challenging them, imbuing them with courage, and showing compassion.

If you or your clients are looking to set off on a self-discovery journey, consider the following fun and insightful activities to get you started.

This exercise is a useful starting point for viewing yourself clearly in terms of values, beliefs, and more. The exercise guides users through a two-step process of considering themselves from the perspective of others, followed by a consideration of their self-perceptions at different times in their life.

Spontaneous collage

Collage is a fun and cathartic method of self-discovery that helps people bypass the socially protective aspects of the mind and reveal aspects of their authentic self. Best of all, no previous art experience is required.

For a great resource, check out Shelley Klammer’s 12-week online course and check out the #collageforselfdiscovery hashtag on Instagram to get inspired by others’ collages.

Kokology: The Game of Self-Discovery

Created by famous Japanese psychologists Tadahiko Nagao and Isamu Saito, kokology , the study of kokoro (“mind” or “spirit” in Japanese), is a fun and sometimes hilarious game for learning about yourself.

The game invites players to answer questions about seemingly innocent topics, such as the color of an imaginary bird that has flown in their window, to reveal profound insights in their answers.

Journaling and worksheets can both be hugely helpful for this purpose.

To help, look at some of the following free resources from our site:

• Self-Awareness Worksheet for Adults This worksheet poses a series of 15 questions to help you discover more about your true self. Specifically, the questions tap into topics such as your talents/strengths, values, and barriers to living more authentically.
• What Are My Qualities and Traits? This worksheet invites you to identify your top five and weakest two qualities from a list of 100 strengths. It then invites you to consider how you might shape, develop, and use your toolkit of identified strengths to better your life.
• Reflecting on Three Things This worksheet invites you to explore what defines who you are. These reflections can include statements, objects, roles in life, people you admire, and ambitions.

If you’re more into journaling, see if any of the following prompts might inspire some of your upcoming entries (Hollis, 2019):

• What things have you been doing lately that may be positively or negatively affecting your mental health ?
• What ways can you touch or move your body that makes you feel good?
• If you could spend the day doing anything, what would you do?
• How do you show love to other people?
• What are some things about you that you wish other people knew?

How to discover your authentic self – at any age – Bevy Smith

For more ways to get started on your journey of self-inquiry, consider the following questions, drawn from leading books designed to guide you toward self-discovery (see Helpful Books & Apps for Your Journey ):

Mindful self-discovery questions

• What’s going on inside your body at the moment (e.g., sensations, flows of energy)?
• Is there joy, ease, and lightness in what you are doing at the present moment?
• Do you really have any problems right now in this present moment ?
• Is there anything you can do to change, improve, or remove yourself from a present dissatisfactory situation? If not, how can you move toward accepting your present circumstances?

Exploring values

• What are your top five personal and professional values?
• How are you living outside your values?
• In what areas do you feel a personal sense of responsibility to better the world?
• How are you living outside of your integrity?

Questions about fear and courage

• What do you fear the most?
• What fears have actually come true in your life?
• What would happen if you treated the actions you fear as an experiment?
• For which pending decision could you use 10% more courage?

Considering worthwhile experiences

• What has made your childhood worthwhile?
• What lessons did you learn last week?
• What makes life worthwhile for you?
• What trip have you always wanted to take, and how could you make this trip happen?

More questions for self-discovery

For even more powerful coaching questions, be sure to check out some of the dedicated articles throughout our blog:

• 73 Powerful Coaching Questions to Ask Your Clients
• 100 Most Powerful Life Coaching Questions [+PDF]
• Self-Coaching Model Explained: 56 Questions & Techniques for Self-Mastery

Here are some of our favorite books and apps to support greater self-insight and discovery.

1. The Power of Now: A Guide to Spiritual Enlightenment – Eckhart Tolle

A critical first step toward greater self-insight involves ceasing to confuse your true self with the endless stream of thoughts flowing through your mind.

The bestselling book The Power of Now  takes readers on a journey to find their deepest self through the lens of mindfulness and spirituality.

The book guides the reader through steps to help recognize and free themselves from ego in the form of defense mechanisms, automatic negative habits, and over-identification with thought. From here, readers can then discover their true nature and lasting contentment, rooted in the present moment.

Find the book on Amazon .

2. Self-Discovery Questions: 155 Breakthrough Questions to Accelerate Massive Action – Barrie Davenport

Not all of us have the resources to employ a self-discovery coach, making it all the more important to know what questions to ask on your self-discovery journey.

Barrie Davenport’s book of 155 powerful questions is a perfect companion for self-reflection and journaling, helping readers become less reactive and take charge of their lives and destiny.

Once you become acquainted with your answers, you can strengthen self-awareness , break out of automatic patterns, and feel empowered to make positive new life changes.

3. The 365 Self-Discovery Journal: One Year of Reflection & Development – Created by 21 Exercises

Journaling remains one of the best ways to pursue self-discovery and greater self-insight (Charles, 2010).

This book provides journal lovers with a year’s worth of challenging and original questions to guide self-discovery.

By combining each prompt with thought-provoking poems and quotes, this book is an excellent tool to help steadily expand the reader’s comfort zone and curiosity across domains ranging from career and finances to love and relationships.

4. The Quenza app

Quenza was designed by our very own team as a one-stop resource for coaches and psychologists wishing to remotely support their clients’ self-inquiry between scheduled sessions.

The app links with an online dashboard and growing library of science-backed activities you can customize and send directly to your clients’ smart devices, including audio meditations, guided visualizations, and many thought-provoking reflections.

Try the app, platform, and entire library of pre-built activities for 30 days for just $1.

5. The Waking Up app

While Western takes on meditation tend to emphasize health and stress reduction, there is much more we can discover about ourselves through this powerful practice.

Waking Up , developed by philosopher and neuroscientist Sam Harris, features a rich array of audio-based meditations, exercises, and conversations with leading experts and teachers to help you make profound discoveries about the nature of your own mind.

This app is a top-rated resource for those seeking to dismantle illusions of the self and rediscover their true nature and purpose.

6. The Reflectly app

With the growing recognition of journaling as a tool for self-insight, new technologies are emerging to support this powerful practice.

Reflectly is a modern journaling app for self-care and greater happiness. Drawing on evidence-based approaches from positive psychology, mindfulness, and Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy, this app serves as an AI companion to help you manage negative thoughts and find greater happiness.

Among its personalized functions, the app includes daily quotes, a mood tracker , and personalized insights via its reporting features.

Throughout this post, we’ve discussed the importance of clarifying values to better understand what brings meaning throughout one’s journey of self-discovery. To this end, we invite you to check out our free Meaning & Valued Living Exercises Pack .

This pack features three of our top tools from the Positive Psychology Toolkit©, all of which center on the theme of values-based living:

• The Top 5 Values This exercise draws on key principles of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy to help clients begin brainstorming their values. Following this, clients will then prioritize these values in a list to identify those most central to who they are.
• Self-Eulogy This exercise invites clients to consider how they’d like to be remembered at their funeral as a means to identify and clarify values. Based on this, they can then consider how well they are living in alignment with these values.
• The Scoreboard Metaphor This exercise helps clients recognize how to enact their values through goal-setting. In particular, it draws on the metaphor of a basketball game to illustrate how living into one’s values is an ongoing process and that the paths by which we pursue our goals are opportunities to enact our values in daily life.

You can access all three exercises for free by downloading our Meaning & Valued Living Exercises Pack .

If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others discover meaning, this collection contains 17 validated meaning tools for practitioners. Use them to help others choose directions for their lives in alignment with what is truly important to them.

17 Tools To Encourage Meaningful, Value-Aligned Living

This 17 Meaning & Valued Living Exercises [PDF] pack contains our best exercises for helping others discover their purpose and live more fulfilling, value-aligned lives.

Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

Self-discovery is an ongoing process of stripping away that which is unimportant, reviewing our core values, and seeking to live in greater alignment with these inner truths.

Importantly, anyone can take steps toward greater self-knowledge . All that’s required is an attitude of curiosity and regular time out for meditation, reflection, or self-questioning.

We hope this article has left you feeling equipped for your journey of self-discovery, and if you decide to try out any of the tools or exercises we’ve explored, be sure to let us know in the comments.

We’d love to hear from you.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Meaning and Valued Living Exercises for free .

• 21 Exercises. (2018).  The 365 self-discovery journal: One year of reflection & development.  Author.
• Charles, J. P. (2010). Journaling: Creating space for “I”. Creative Nursing , 16 (4), 180–184.
• Davenport, B. (2015).  Self-discovery questions: 155 Breakthrough questions to accelerate massive action.  Bold Living Press.
• Elevate Life Project. (n.d.). Self discovery coaching . Retrieved October 11, 2021 from https://elevatelifeproject.com/self-discovery-coaching/
• Hollis, B. (2019, July 16). Who am I? Journaling prompts for self-discovery and self-reflection. Learning to Be Free . Retrieved October 11, 2021 from https://www.learningtobefree.com/2019/07/16/journaling-prompts-for-self-discovery/
• Horney, K. (1950). Neurosis and human growth: The struggle toward self-realization . Norton.
• Pagedar, A. (2021). Finding awareness: The journey of self-discovery . Author.
• Tolle, E. (2004).  The power of now: A guide to spiritual enlightenment.  New World Library.
• Waterman, A. S. (2011). Eudaimonic identity theory: Identity as self-discovery. In S. Schwartz, K. Luyckx, & V. Vignoles (Eds.), Handbook of identity theory and research (pp. 357–379). Springer.
• Waterman, A. S., Schwartz, S. J., Zamboanga, B. L., Ravert, R. D., Williams, M. K., Bede Agocha, V., … Brent Donnellan, M. (2010). The Questionnaire for Eudaimonic Well-Being: Psychometric properties, demographic comparisons, and evidence of validity. The Journal of Positive Psychology , 5 (1), 41–61.

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What our readers think.

This is a great article for self-discovery, I recommend it to all, it’s a must read for the young minds.

Thanks to a great counselor. I appreciate your encouragement and efforts that have served as an eyes opener to self discovery and other resources that is helpful.

You have some great resources listed here in this article. Thanks for the great read! -Ryan

Appreciated, Nicole, for insight well done to start kicking where need be. Keep up te good work!

Thanks Nicole. I will explore some of the resources which sounds great. I work with medical students, some of whom are at the very beginning of learning reflective approaches to enhance their self knowledge. The challenge is always to find a variety of ways to promote engagement. You have given me some helpful ideas.

Thank You Dr, Nicole.

I have left you a message on LinkedIn.

Thank you so much for this wonderful article. Very useful and helps in the journey of self awareness and so helpful to the therapist and counselors who are using these resources to support clients. Heartfelt thanks and gratitude for all the resources that benefit the clients and counselors who otherwise would not be able to access such great quality articles and resources. Thank you. As a counselor who is doing a lot of free counseling these resources and articles are so helpful, cause I cannot afford them otherwise. Thanks for supporting the counselors and therapist and clients who ultimately benefit.

Thanks, Nicole … you shared a very interesting set of perspective.

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90 journal prompts for self-discovery to get the ink flowing

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Benefits of journal prompts

90 journal prompts for self-discovery

Keep prompting and writing

Everyone’s been there. You’re about to meet new classmates, coworkers, or social acquaintances, and the proverbial mic turns to you. Someone asks, “What do you do?” or “Tell me about yourself.” 

Unless you had your answer planned, you may have panicked. Or you shot off a response only to remember that you forgot an important detail about yourself. 

Expressing who you are in a brief introduction is a challenging task, and not just because you’re nervous in front of new peers. The question of who you are is one of the toughest to answer. You might struggle with your self-awareness or identifying your deepest values. 

So, who are you, anyway? If you feel you’re not entirely ready to answer confidently, it’s normal. In fact, it’s an indicator of your introspective nature. 

You can get closer to understanding this question by penning your thoughts. Here are 90 journal prompts for self-discovery to get the ink flowing and help you learn more about yourself.

Benefits of journal prompts 

Journaling is good for you — physically and emotionally. Research has proven it. According to a report by the New York Times, journaling leads to improved sleep, better self-acceptance, and a more robust immune system . This activity helps people channel their ideas, flush out emotions, and process new challenges. The New York Times article’s author tried journaling herself while going through a difficult time and found that it provided her a pressure valve for her anxiety — these are mental health benefits of journaling backed by science . 

As the article’s author learns, knowing where to start is tough — maybe more so if you’re a person who doesn’t often express themselves through the written word. That’s where a journal prompt comes in. 

According to UConn’s Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning, journal prompts help students focus and encourage interest . In other words, journal prompts help you overcome writer's block to explore ideas with direction and freedom. 

90 journal prompts for self-discovery 

Seeing as they promote reflection , self-discovery journal prompts allow you to tap into the information you already have via your imagination, feelings, and desires. These prompts push you to go deep and become more self-aware , allowing you to explore your identity and learn more about yourself. From there, you can identify opportunities for personal development or ways to let your authentic self shine. 

Self-reflection or self-esteem journal prompts should inspire you but not cause further stress or anxiety. If you start on a prompt that causes you to self-reflect in painful or unproductive ways, try another. The good news is that there are countless to explore. Here are 90 journaling prompts for self-discovery for various occasions — from when you’re curious to when you’re stuck. 

Journal prompts to get you started

So, you’ve never journaled before . You may doubt whether this practice will help, and your hesitance may intensify the writer’s block. Here are several high-level journal prompts for beginners, focused on general self-knowledge to get you started. 

1. What are my core values ? (Honestly, compassion , productivity , loyalty, for example) Why? 

2. What do I like about myself? 

3. What was a time I overcame a challenge? How did I do it?

4. Who or what events have helped determine who I am today? Why?

5. What are my most common emotions? 

6. Is anything missing in my life right now? 

7. What are the three most important things in my life? 

8. How would I describe myself to a stranger? 

9. What was one of the best days or periods of my life? 

10. What brings me joy? 

11. What are the good and bad habits I’ve formed ? 

12. How could I improve my self-care , self-love, or well-being? 

13. How do I make time for myself? 

14. What has been my greatest accomplishment so far?

15. What are my strengths and areas of opportunity ?

Journal prompts to use after a hard day 

When you’re feeling emotionally activated, it can be hard to break the cycle of sad, nervous, or frustrated thoughts. Using the following self-evaluation prompts, you can explore the root of these feelings and enjoy a release at the same time. 

Remember that if you’re struggling to unpack traumas or deal with emotions, you may want to complement your journaling practice with help from a mental health professional or life coach . They can guide you on coping techniques, help you understand your behaviors, and provide tools for feeling better. 

16: What coping mechanisms do I tend toward? (Repression, altruism, humor, channeling emotions through art.)  17: Whose emotional regulation skills do I admire? Why?

18: Was there a moment I could have handled better today? 

19: Do my behaviors reflect impulses or how I would like to act? 

20: What’s one way I could have more compassion for myself today? 

21: What prevents me from feeling good or happy? Can I change that? 

22: Are there parts of my daily life or environments I could alter to feel better? How could I make every day my ideal day?

23: What is the root of the worry that I feel? 

24: How can I make more time for myself at stressful times? 

25: Is there someone I can ask for support right now? Why and how? 

26: Is it possible that I should let go of (insert: job, relationship, place) to feel better? 

27: What would my role model do at this difficult moment? 

28: Why was X moment so challenging for me today? 

29: What about my life causes X emotion? (Sadness, stress , anxiety )

30: What advice would I give myself if I could see my situation from the outside?

Journal prompts when you’re at a career crossroads 

Feeling unsatisfied, lost, or overwhelmed in your career is stressful. You depend on your job for income and stimulation, and questioning whether you’re on the right path can be destabilizing. Before making a career change , soul search with the following thought-provoking questions, get professional help from a career coach or therapist , and ensure the conditions of your life (like finances) permit a safe, practical shift. 

31: Finish the sentence: “If I could reinvent myself , I would…”

32: What do I think I was called to do ?

33: What do I most like about my job? 

34: What do I dislike about my job? 

35: What are roles I could use my current skills in? 

36: Am I taking full advantage of my talents in my current role? 

37: What dreams did I have growing up that I left behind? Are they still important to me? 

38: What would I do with my life if money were no object? 

39: Finish the sentence: “If I could go back to school for anything, I would study…”

40: What do my peers appreciate about me? 

41: What’s one action I can take in my current role to work more comfortably? 

42: Is there a way I could better prove myself at work and advance? 

43: Where would I like to see my career in five years ? 10?

44: How’s my work-life balance ? 

45: How are my relationships with my coworkers ? Is there anything I could do to improve them? 

Journal prompts to show gratitude

Showing gratitude is the practice of recognizing the people, things, events, and inner strengths that fulfill you. The act implies taking a moment to be thankful for what you have. Practicing gratitude is important — research shows that thankful people are less depressed . Start your gratitude practice today and carry it into the future with the following self-reflection journal prompts. 

46: What’s one thing I am grateful for today? 

47: What makes me glad to be alive? 

48: What people am I grateful for? Why? 

49: What are five objects in my surroundings that I’m grateful to have? (I.e., books, appliances, etc.) 

50: What do I enjoy about the place I live? 

51: In what ways am I grateful for my job? 

52: What are five positive affirmations I could say about myself? 

53: What is something I can do to help others who are struggling? 

54: How can I use my resources and talents for good? 

55: What am I looking forward to? 

56: What is good about my financial situation? 

57: What aspects of my health are strong? 

58: What’s one lesson I’m thankful for? Why? 

59:What was a time that life surprised me with something unexpected good? 

60: What would I thank my past self for? 

Looking to a bright future

Set your sights on a positive future by visualizing it, then planning it. The following journal prompts for self-reflection can help you craft a way toward what you want in life , set meaningful goals, and decide on actions you can take immediately to start working toward that brighter tomorrow. This activity may even help you manifest change . 

61: What will my life look like in five years? 

62: What would self-actualization feel like? 

63: What does a dream life look like? 

64: What’s a bad habit I hope to drop or a healthy one I’d like to foster? 

65: How do I want people to remember me at the end of my life? 

66: What would I add to my bucket list ? 

67: What’s a skill or credential I would like to acquire? 

68: How do I envision my mental and physical health in an ideal future? What can I do to work toward it? 

69: What steps can I start taking today to achieve X ( financial wellness , better health, a new career)?

70: Are any aspects of my current lifestyle unsustainable, and how could I change them? 

71: What would I regret later on if I didn’t do it now? 

72: What’s a short-term, high-impact goal I could start working on today? 

73: What’s something I hope to achieve in the coming year? 

74: What advice would my future self give me? 

75:What are three things I can accomplish from my to-do list this month?

Journal prompts for assessing your relationships

Many relationships have seasons. Your best friend from college moved to another country, and you no longer have the tight-knit bond you once did. A partnership was no longer serving you, so you moved on. 

Sometimes, life phases out relationships naturally or cues you into red flags worth heeding. Other times, you have an inkling that a relationship is working out well or poorly, and you want to explore that gut feeling . Here are several self-discovery prompts to help you do that. 

76: Who do I envision having a role in my life in the future?

77: Are there any toxic elements of my familial, romantic, or friendly relationships? 

78: What do I admire most about my X (partner, best friend, sibling)? 

79: What can I do to better support my X (partner, best friend, sibling)? 

80: When did a relationship end that was for the best? Why? 

81: Is there anyone in my life I’d like to get to know better or spend more time with? 

82: What is my love language? What is my partner’s? 

83: Is there a boundary I could set in a relationship to make it healthier?

84: What’s a relationship lesson I’ve learned? 

85: What’s my communication style ? Could I improve it? 

86: What’s a recent interaction that didn’t go well? How could I avoid repeating it in the future? 

87: How have other people in my life brought out good qualities in me? 

88: How have I bought out good qualities in others? 

89: Is there anyone in my life who deserves an apology? 

90: What’s my idea of a healthy relationship ? 

Knowing yourself is integral to personal growth. And using journal prompts for self-discovery can help you spot areas of opportunity and manifest a better life .

Aim to make free-writing a daily practice, and encourage yourself to keep it up by seeking prompts that resonate with you. Collect strong ideas as you see them or write down ones that come to you to gather 365 journal prompts for self-discovery to support this positive habit. 

Discover your authentic self

Kickstart your path to self-discovery and self-awareness. Our coaches can guide you to better understand yourself and your potential.

Elizabeth Perry, ACC

Elizabeth Perry is a Coach Community Manager at BetterUp. She uses strategic engagement strategies to cultivate a learning community across a global network of Coaches through in-person and virtual experiences, technology-enabled platforms, and strategic coaching industry partnerships. With over 3 years of coaching experience and a certification in transformative leadership and life coaching from Sofia University, Elizabeth leverages transpersonal psychology expertise to help coaches and clients gain awareness of their behavioral and thought patterns, discover their purpose and passions, and elevate their potential. She is a lifelong student of psychology, personal growth, and human potential as well as an ICF-certified ACC transpersonal life and leadership Coach.

100 self-reflection questions to explore yourself

50 self-discovery questions for getting to know the real you, get to know yourself through the act of self-reflection, 10 self-discovery techniques to help you find yourself, 75 shadow work prompts for self-discovery and acceptance, what is self-awareness and how to develop it, how to stop being self-conscious: strategies to feel more confident, your path to self-actualization: 6 ways to get started, the only guide you need to prepare for your career coaching session, similar articles, 35 journal prompts for mental health and self-reflection tips, tune in to the self discovery channel with 10 tips for finding yourself, 105 daily journal prompts that’ll make you want to write, how to find your purpose — 7 tips, 33 self-esteem journal prompts for confidence & self-compassion, journal your way to the future you want, stay connected with betterup, get our newsletter, event invites, plus product insights and research..

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Freedom to explore the self: How emerging adults use leisure to develop identity

Eric k. layland.

1 Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA

2 Department of Recreation, Park & Tourism Management, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA

Brian J. Hill

3 Department of Recreation Management, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT

Larry J. Nelson

4 School of Family Life, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT

During a period of newly attained freedom preceding commitments expected in adulthood, emerging adults are faced with the major task of identity development. Leisure provides a context with relative freedom wherein emerging adults explore new experiences and access opportunities not always available in more constrained environments like work and school. In this case study of 40 emerging adults from 18 countries ( M age =23.14 years), qualitative interviews were used to investigate the role of leisure as a context for identity development. Results indicate five major themes for leisure-based identity development in emerging adulthood: discovering identity, forming identity, defining identity, positioning identity, and forgoing opportunities. These themes support leisure as an additional context wherein emerging adults may flourish on the pathway toward adulthood. Access to both novel and familiar leisure provide a context for emerging adults to actively direct their identity development through decisions made in leisure time.

Leisure provides a context wherein emerging adults (i.e., age 18 through the late 20s) can direct their experiences without the obligations associated with contexts like work, school, or family. Because development is shaped by bi-directional influences between individuals and context ( Gottlieb, 1996 ), leisure, a context framed by freedom, provides a unique environment wherein individuals actively reshape their surroundings by reacting to experiences in leisure and exerting control over this context. These reactions can be seen as recurring transactions between individual and context that contribute to individual commitments in identity ( Bosma & Kunnen, 2001 ). Even with the ability to influence context and guide development, not all leisure choices have equal impact on identity development. In fact, leisure has the potential to foster identity exploration and achievement but likewise has the potential to distract individuals from active identity exploration, thereby delaying or interfering with the identity process. Hence, the myriad of experiences comprising the leisure context creates potential for a division between pathways of flourishing and floundering as emerging adults individually direct their leisure time. Previous developmental research has revealed patterns of flourishing or floundering on the pathway toward adulthood ( Nelson & Padilla-Walker, 2013 ), however, researchers have not yet addressed the impact of leisure as a context for facilitating or hindering identity development during emerging adulthood.

By extending research beyond domains of school, work, and family, leisure serves as an additional environment for understanding what behaviors and experiences impact optimal development during the third decade of life. Research on emerging adults’ leisure is often narrowly focused on specific forms of leisure (e.g., video games, television viewing, travel) rather than the context as a cohesive space for development. The subjective approach to leisure allows researchers to examine diverse, seemingly unrelated experiences (e.g., travel, video games, horseback riding) and use participant perspective to conceptualize leisure as a cohesive context wherein disparate experiences are harmoniously characterized by voluntary participation and enjoyment. Positive psychology encourages the examination of all circumstances and processes that contribute to flourishing ( Gable & Haidt, 2005 ), and extending the study of identity development to a leisure context might contribute to our understanding of how emerging adults establish their identity. Experiences in leisure may reveal behaviors that enhance or restrict identity development in a manner not observed in other contexts. This study sought to expand the understanding of emerging adult identity development by exploring identity related experiences across a cohesive leisure context. Specifically, the authors aimed to identify processes of identity development in which leisure played a major role and how these processes contributed to both flourishing and floundering pathways on the way to adulthood.

Existing literature on emerging adulthood supports extending research to explore the role of leisure in emerging adult development. The following literature review first summarizes major developmental tasks of emerging adulthood in connection to divergent flourishing and floundering pathways. Next, a more focused review of identity development in emerging adulthood highlights patterns of exploration and commitment across various contexts. Finally, the need for studying leisure as a cohesive context for development is demonstrated through existing research and gaps in the literature.

Emerging adulthood

It is believed that there are distinct features of emerging adulthood setting it apart as a period of development that is unique from both adolescence and adulthood ( Arnett, 2000 ). These features include feeling in-between (emerging adults do not see themselves as either adolescents or adults), identity exploration (especially in the areas of work, love, and world views), focus on the self (not self-centered, but simply lacking obligations to others), instability (evidenced by changes of direction in residential status, relationships, work, and education), and age of possibilities ( optimism in the potential to steer their lives in any number of desired directions).

Of interest for this study is the notion that emerging adulthood is a period characterized by high levels of exploration in romantic relationships, work, education, and world views ( Arnett, 2000 ). Patterns of increased exploration are expressed particularly in industrialized nations as young people spend more time seeking opportunities to explore their identities, discover themselves, and oscillate between jobs, relationships, and residencies before settling into an occupation, marriage, or parenthood ( Arnett, 2000 ; Douglass, 2007 ). The delay of these traditional markers of adulthood has been accompanied by increased time spent in socialization and travel ( Douglass, 2007 ). Developmental contexts during the third decade of life have shifted, allowing individuals to spend an extended period of time focusing on the self and establishing independence. With delayed commitments to workforce, residence, and family ( Arnett, 2004 ), emerging adults have increased freedom permitting self-directed time for exploration in many contexts including leisure.

Researchers have explored both positive and negative factors associated with these features of emerging adulthood. Identity exploration and self-focus allow young people to spend more time selecting paths and activities they prefer ( Luyckx, De Witte, & Goossens, 2011 ; Murphy, Blustein, Bohlig, & Platt, 2010 ). By recognizing possibilities, individuals maintain a sense of optimism toward the future ( Murphy et al., 2010 ), and studies show an increase in well-being and self-esteem during this period ( Arnett, 2007 ). When comparing flourishing emerging adults with their floundering peers, the most well-adjusted emerging adults appear to be characterized by internalization of one’s values, a more settled identity, and less substance use ( Nelson & Padilla-Walker, 2013 ). During emerging adulthood, individuals who internalize prosocial values are more likely to report prosocial tendencies and reduced emphasis on themselves ( Barry, Padilla-Walker, Madsen, & Nelson, 2008 ). In sum, flourishing during the third decade of life appears to be connected to making progress in identity including internalizing one’s own set of beliefs and values and turning outward as indicated in engaging in prosocial behaviors towards others.

Other scholars (e.g., Hendry & Kloep, 2007 ) point to negative outcomes associated with emerging adulthood for individuals (e.g., failure to acquire skills), families (e.g., financial burden to parents), and society (e.g., economic cost to societies through delayed workforce entry). Instability in emerging adulthood has been linked to occupation-related negative psychological effects (e.g., job exhaustion and burnout; Luyckx, De Witte et al., 2011 ). Increased perceived stress, risky behavior, suicide rates, and mental health issues are among the many other challenges faced by emerging adults ( Johnson, Gans, Kerr, & LaValle, 2010 ). Indeed, compared to their peers who are flourishing, it has been found that floundering emerging adults engage in more risk behaviors, experience more internalizing problems, report lower levels of identity achievement, participate in fewer prosocial behaviors, and struggle in their relationships with their parents ( Nelson & Padilla-Walker, 2013 ).

Taken together, the split between negative and positive outcomes demonstrates diverging pathways indicative of flourishing and floundering during the third decade of life. It is becoming increasingly clear that one of the factors that distinguishes those emerging adults who are flourishing from those who may be floundering is the extent to which progress in identity development takes place. It has long been believed that the development of identity is a key developmental process for the late teens and early twenties (e.g., Erikson, 1968 ).

One of the most critical tasks for emerging adults is identity development ( Schwartz, Côté, & Arnett, 2005 ). Beginning in adolescence and extending into adulthood, individuals are faced with the task of establishing continuity and sameness in the self across contexts ( Erikson, 1968 ). Marcia’s (1993) Neo-Eriksonian model of identity processes offered commitment and exploration as dimensions for operationalizing identity development and sorted the status of one’s identity into four states based on these dimensions. High levels of exploration accompanied by high commitment indicate identity achievement whereas identity diffusion and moratorium reflect varying levels of exploration with failure to commit (( Marcia, 1993 ; Orlofsky, Marcia, & Lesser, 1973 ). Building on this work, contemporary models of identity expand the dimensions of exploration and commitment to more comprehensively explain the identity development process ( Luyckx, Schwartz, Goossens, Beyers, & Missotten, 2011 ). In a process-oriented model of identity development, it is believed that commitment formation typically occurs first, beginning with exploration in breadth paired with commitment making. Commitment evaluation follows with exploration in depth and identification with the commitment. The commitment evaluation process may conclude with a firm identity commitment or may lead to further exploration and a return to the commitment formation process ( Luyckx, Goossens, Soenens, & Beyers, 2006 ).

Taken together, exploration is a key feature in the process of forming an identity. Some young people may face barriers (e.g., cost of living, unemployment, need for education) preventing them from exploring and/or achieving identity, gaining independence, and transitioning to adulthood, however, the period of identity exploration is often shaped by how effectively they use this time to gain experience ( Hendry & Kloep, 2007 ). Emerging adulthood provides a period full of potential identity choices and vast variation in pathways to adulthood; as a result, young people may purposefully and consciously make navigating identity formation an active project ( Schwartz et al., 2005 ). Although past research has focused on the domains of work, education, and relationships as contexts within which this exploration occurs, little work has explored the context of leisure as a setting in which identity exploration may occur. Exploration of leisure as a context for development would help to extend the understanding of emerging adult identity development across multiple domains.

Leisure is marked by freedom of choice ( Mannell & Kleiber, 1997 ) or, more specifically, “the context of free time in combination with the expectation of preferred experience” ( Kleiber, 1999 , p. 11). Leisure researchers examine leisure from either a structural or subjective approach ( Kuykendall, Tay, & Ng, 2015 ). The structural approach uses definitions imposed by theory and researchers to set parameters of what qualifies as leisure participation ( Kleiber, Mannell, & Walker, 2011 ). The subjective approach permits participants to set the delimitations of their leisure context by using their individual perspective to define what is included in leisure. Leisure researchers are often challenged by the diversity of leisure forms (e.g., physical activity, entertainment, artistic expression, technology-based leisure, hobbies, relaxation) and manner of engagement (e.g., duration, frequency, with whom). This problem can be managed with data reduction through a priori categories in quantitative methods, however, this approach leads to minimization of experiential diversity in the leisure context. The subjective approach to leisure participation allows researchers to cast a wide net when studying the leisure context. Using this strategy researchers are able to link together diverse leisure types within a cohesive leisure context. Previous research on different leisure types in emerging adulthood can be connected by considering leisure as a broad context wherein participants define leisure through their own voluntarily chosen experiences accompanied by expectation of enjoyment.

Research of leisure in emerging adulthood has provided some evidence demonstrating how diverse types of leisure are linked to developmental outcomes. A study of emerging adults who graduated from university and entered the work force found individuals were using their free time to explore intrinsically motivating interests in hopes of finding an occupation more connected to their preferences ( Murphy et al., 2010 ). This use of leisure time allowed individuals to explore career options and possibilities through recreational pursuits. For unemployed emerging adults, spending time in leisure positively impacted their subjective well-being and career adaptability ( Celen-Demirtas, Konstam, & Tomek, 2015 ). A study of Birthright trips among Jewish emerging adults documented a link between travel and cognitive identity processing in this specific population ( Aaron, 2015 ). Arnett and Tanner (2011a) called attention to the gap year, a one- to three-year exploratory break between school and work or before beginning university. The gap year is especially common in Northern Europe, where many emerging adults use the time to “pursue leisure, travel, and adventure while working at low-level jobs” ( Arnett & Tanner, 2011a , p. 129). Furthermore, evidence of differential flourishing and floundering pathways in emerging adulthood utilized some leisure activities (e.g., drinking, violent video game use) to differentiate between flourishing and floundering groups ( Nelson & Padilla-Walker, 2013 ). Finally, recent scholarly literature on emerging adult leisure addressed media ( Coyne, Padilla-Walker, & Howard, 2015 ) and television use ( Ward, Seabrook, Giaccardi, & Zuo, 2015 ). Taken together, the small but growing literature suggests that the type of leisure one chooses to engage in may be important in determining whether individuals start to flourish or flounder. Studying leisure as a cohesive context where a diversity of experiences is considered within a single context will allow researchers to explore how leisure broadly impacts emerging adult development.

A noteworthy trend of identity exploration is manifested in risky behavior ( Arnett, 2000 ), including several forms of taboo leisure, deviant recreational behavior typically restricted by social tradition ( Russell, 2005 ). Illegal drug use, risky sexual behavior, and binge drinking peak during emerging adulthood ( Arnett, 2000 ). Emerging adults may use risky and traditionally unacceptable leisure like excessive partying to explore their identity and seek new experiences. Such taboo leisure activities have been observed in young people, but more research is needed to understand the influence of these risky behaviors on individual identity development in emerging adulthood. Ravert (2009) explored risk taking and now-or-never experiences among emerging adults in college. In this study, participants described experiences they perceived to be available only during their current life stage. Six of the eight themes that emerged were related to leisure including travel and adventure, social events and partying, alcohol and drug use, establishing a large number of relationships, carefree lifestyle, and sports ( Ravert, 2009 ). Emerging adults often take advantage of leisure experiences in anticipation of an opportunity passing ( Arnett, 2000 ); however, it is unclear whether this impacts development, generally, and identity development specifically.

Leisure is often used as a tool for identity formation and exploration in adolescence ( Duerden, Widmer, Taniguchi, & McCoy, 2009 ; Mannell & Kleiber, 1997 ), and completing identity formation has been described as a critical step to full adulthood ( Meulemann, 2003 ). Because identity formation extends into emerging adulthood, the influence of leisure on identity achievement may have expanded into emerging adulthood. Although data exist illustrating leisure as an individually desired aspect of emerging adulthood ( Ravert, 2009 ), evidence linking emerging adult identity development to leisure is limited. Studying more variables and domains may allow researchers to understand what conditions facilitate or restrict progressive identity formation ( Kroger, Martinussen, & Marcia, 2010 ). In addition, the individual process of identity development does not occur in isolation from interpersonal influence. According to identity control theory, conflict between self-perception and input from others is minimized through a series of feedback loops ( Kerpelman, Pittman, & Lamke, 1997 ). Making identity commitments is a critical first step, however, evaluative feedback from others, especially those with close personal relationships ( Kerpelman et al., 1997 ), influence the identity development process. When the internal perception and external feedback are incongruent the individual will change either their self-perception or the situation ( Luyckx, Schwartz, et al., 2011 ). With leisure including social activities and interpersonal interactions, it is likely that close relationships serve as an important resource for feedback on identity commitments.

The possible impact of leisure on optimal development of identity in emerging adulthood must be further examined. It is expected that findings will reveal a multi-faceted and complex picture of how identity development occurs within the context of leisure. The purpose of this study is to identify how emerging adults in this case study engage in identity development in a leisure context by identifying identity development processes in which leisure plays a critical role. This approach will enhance interpretation of how flourishing and floundering pathways to adulthood may be guided by distinct, leisure-related processes.

In the current study, participants’ personal accounts collected via interviews allowed researchers to focus on lived experiences in the leisure context rather than using surveys administered to large sample or population data, which may obscure processes occurring at the individual level. Qualitative research encouraged participants to discuss their own development and experiences while personally defining the boundaries of leisure without theoretically prescribed limitations.

Participants

The purposive sample ( N = 40) was recruited to include diversity in gender, age, nationality, and education (see Table 1 ). The sample was evenly split by gender and had an average age of 23.14 years old ( SD = 3.16). The following external markers of emerging adulthood were used as inclusion criteria during recruitment ( Arnett, 2004 ): (a) participants had never been married, (b) never had children, (c) and were between the ages of 18 and 30 years old. Participants identified a home country within one of four culturally grouped regions of Europe (i.e., Anglo-Saxon, French-German speaking, Nordic, and Mediterranean; as grouped by Esping-Andersen, as cited in Douglass, 2007 ) with 18 countries represented in the sample. The sample did not include individuals from a fifth region, Eastern Europe, because of historical and demographic differences. The majority of respondents were ethnically European with one respondent identifying her heritage as African and another respondent identifying as mixed race of European and South American heritage.

Sample Demographic Frequencies and Percentages

Note . Percentage of total sample in parentheses.

Data collection

Participants were recruited through direct in-person contact, through gatekeepers within participants’ communities (i.e., researchers’ personal contacts who were not eligible for the study), through web-based social media, and snowball sampling. Participant recruitment took place during participants’ free time and travel, work, and online. Universities were avoided as a recruitment setting as an effort to avoid a study saturated by university students, a debated criticism of emerging adult research ( Arnett & Tanner, 2011b ). In 2012, at the time of data collection, 36.0% of the European Union population aged 30 to 34 years old had completed university or university-like education ( Eurostat, 2016 ). This study sample closely resembled population-wide data, with 37.5% of participants having completed university at the time of data collection. An additional 32.5% of the sample had either elected an alternative career path to one involving attending university (e.g., trade school, civil service, workforce entry) or had not firmly committed to attend university. The remaining participants were either currently enrolled in university or had completed some university previously. Interview settings included participants’ homes, public spaces (e.g., park, train station), and at places of work (e.g., cafe, hospital).

At the time of research design, reports indicated English proficiency in the majority of countries in the Mediterranean region was low in contrast to native speakers in the Anglo-Saxon region, very high proficiency in the Nordic region, and moderate to high proficiency in the French-German region ( Education First, 2011 ). Therefore, the research team was organized to include researchers with advanced Spanish, Italian, and English training. Researchers had previously used language skills in professional settings including language immersion in a foreign country. Interviews with individuals in the Mediterranean region were conducted in participants’ native languages whenever possible with interviews in English as the alternative. Non-native English speakers in all regions were offered a text copy of the interview schedule to provide a second source of interview comprehension. All research for this study was completed with the ethical approval of the Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects at the authors’ institution.

Instrumentation

Interviews were conducted over a 3-month period in 2012. A semi-structured interview schedule was developed and revised through pilot testing and external review prior to field data collection. All participants were asked the same set of primary questions with a bank of follow-up questions used by interviewers to probe for additional information and increase the depth of responses. To address differences in English proficiency, interview schedules were translated into Italian and Spanish and then reviewed by native speakers and language experts (i.e., professors of Italian and Spanish) before additional pilot testing with native speakers from Spain and Italy.

The interview schedule was triangulated to elicit diverse responses through five distinct types of questions: situation narratives (i.e., accounts of personal experiences), repisodes (i.e., “regularly occurring situations”), examples (i.e., abstractions derived from concrete situations), subjective definitions (i.e., personal perception or explanation of terms), and argumentative-theoretical statements (i.e., “explanations of concepts and their relations”; Flick, 2007 , p. 62). This format facilitated concrete, semi-abstract, and abstract responses contributing to rich descriptions and diverse examples of participant experiences and perspectives. The flexible interview format allowed participants to discuss leisure and identity at any point in the interview not only in response to questions designed to target identity (e.g., ‘What types of free time activities do you feel you are most committed to?’; ‘How do you think free time activities influence your identity?’).

To ensure credibility, informal member checks were completed following many of the interviews ( Lincoln & Guba, 1985 ). Researchers summarized the participant’s responses, described emerging themes from the study as a whole, and then invited participants to respond critically to the evolving field analysis. Additional formal member checks were completed 10 months after fieldwork when participants were invited to review major themes for accuracy in representing their experiences. The response rate for the follow-up member checks was 50.0%. No major revisions to findings were necessary as a result of the member checks.

Following fieldwork, all interviews were transcribed. Interviews completed in Spanish or Italian were transcribed before translation into English. Codes for identity exploration and leisure were created using the approach to codebook development modeled by Ryan (1995) . The leisure code was developed to be broadly inclusive of any experiences participants defined as leisure. The exploring identity code included accounts of exploration and commitment as outlined by process-oriented models of identity development ( Luyckx, Schwartz et al., 2011 ) as well as more general reflections or discussion of self. Code reliability was improved through a series of inter-rater reliability tests between the primary investigator and a secondary coder. The codebook was revised and retested until all codes reached high levels (ƙ > 0.7) of inter-rater agreement as indicated by Cohen’s kappa ( Landis & Koch, 1977 ). The following inter-rater agreement levels were considered to be excellent: exploring identity (ƙ = 0.82) and leisure (ƙ = 0.73). After applying the codes to all transcripts using NVivo qualitative analysis software, a cross-coding query was run to identify all passages coded for both leisure and identity exploration. Only data identified within the leisure-by-exploring identity query were included in this study.

An iterative process of coding started with broad, open coding of all passages for any identifiable themes in leisure and identity (e.g., ‘leisure with friends’, ‘visiting new places’, or ‘identifying as an athlete’). Any time a new theme was identified, researchers returned to previously coded passages to look for the newly identified theme. Selective coding was then used to reduce the number of codes and focus the analysis on core themes (e.g., ‘new experiences, ‘making new friends’, or ‘choosing not to do a leisure activity’). Through axial coding, core themes identified in the previous steps were linked together to describe thematic processes of identity development in leisure.

In response to open ended questions, some participants failed to make connections or occasionally rejected links between leisure and other emerging adult topics such as instability, feeling in-between, and possibilities, however, all participants were able to make connections between individual identity development and leisure in emerging adulthood. Participants identified many types of leisure in connection to identity development with the most commonly discussed leisure forms including going out with friends, travel, sport, reading, and volunteering. Cake decorating, pole dancing, kick boxing, making jewelry, roller skating, shopping, snorkeling, storytelling, playing video games, and going to the zoo were each only mentioned by a single participant, illustrating the diversity and complexity of the leisure context.

A Welsh woman summarized a belief shared by many members of the sample when she said, ‘I think if it wasn’t for my free time and leisure then I probably wouldn’t be the person I am.’ Using their own experiences and abstractions of leisure and identity, other members of the sample also expressed the value of leisure as a resource for directing identity development. After reviewing each instance of leisure-by-exploring identity researchers used a reductive process using broad, then selective, and finally axial coding to identify an exhaustive list of themes, then isolate a core set of themes, and finally, identify links between themes and the process of identity development. Exploring identity in leisure was divided into a final set of five thematic groups: (a) discovering identity, (b) forming identity, (c) defining identity, (d) positioning identity, and (e) forgoing opportunities (see Table 2 for a summary of results).

Summary of Leisure Identity Themes

Note. N = 40. The number of cases for each theme: n discovering =36; n forming =36; n defining =26; n positioning =37; n forgoing = 9.

Discovering identity

According to 90.0% ( n =36) of the sample, an important identity development process in leisure is becoming cognizant of and reflecting on existing aspects of one’s identity. This process of internal exploration is marked by turning inward to realize and review commitments which then leads to further active exploration or conclusions about identity. Within the leisure context, discovering identity includes becoming aware of preferences, discovering strengths and weaknesses, and reflecting on self, or as five participants independently described it, ‘know[ing] yourself.’ At times, this process reveals cognitive dissonance between an individual’s desired and perceived identity motivating changes in her behavior and commitments.

Through various leisure experiences, the European emerging adults in this sample were able to experiment with and learn about their preferences. A Finnish young man said,

When you really don’t have anyone else to tell you that you should do something, then you just have to figure out yourself what you like. So, in that sense, I think it’s good to have some time off where you can really think [for] yourself what it is that you really like to do, who you are. What you don’t like, what do you like…So having time to think of that I think is really important.

Free time creates a space with increased freedom wherein preferences can be reviewed and discovered. In addition to recognizing and developing personal preferences, leisure allows individuals to discover their strengths and weaknesses. A Luxembourgian participant said, ‘[Sports] allowed me to discover myself…It allowed me to know where my limits are or where I can go further. What I can and can’t do. What I could do.’

Discovering identity also included reflecting on experiences and choices, as exemplified by this individual, ‘[Free time] has allowed you to be yourself. It has allowed you to move forward as a person. It’s allowed you to ask yourself questions, rather than being in a situation where you’re too busy to do that.’ Free time permits individuals to look inwardly at themselves and reflect and question their choices, opinions, and preferences, and then to move forward with more decisions. Leisure was also used intentionally as a tool for individual development. A Belgian man explained his motivation for taking a gap year to cycle internationally,

I had to choose what I wanted to study after secondary school and I had no idea. So, for me it sounded very reasonable, kind of smart, to take a gap year to develop myself, find my interests, and just find out what I wanted to study.

Like this example, other participants were able to identify times when they chose leisure experiences with the aim of learning about themselves or reflecting on their behavior. These examples included both individual and group leisure.

In some cases, experiences in leisure led to difficult-to-reconcile cognitive dissonance between how an individual perceived herself and her behavior. These examples were most often illustrated through long discussions of leisure experience marked by personal enjoyment and acknowledgement of negative outcomes. For two Irish women, drinking alcohol was a favored leisure activity shared with many close friends; however, they also felt embarrassment and a desire to change both their behavior and mentality. The following excerpt illustrated the conflicted reasoning of one of the women when explaining her relationship with social drinking,

We have this stereotypical view onto us that we’re big drinkers, and it’s true. It’s because we are big drinkers. I’d like not to follow that path all my life. It’s okay to do it when you’re young and you’re care free or whatever, but I’d like to reduce it. I’m not saying stop fully, but reduce…[Drinking alcohol all the time is] not a great thing to do and we’ve learned that through leisure and free time by doing it. We know that we’d like to reduce that. Kind of change our mentality on it in the future.

In another example, an Austrian man directly linked the negative social perceptions of gambling to his own identity when he said, ‘When I’m with these friends…they are gambling, then I think there is also a point of my identity that sometimes I am also bad. It’s not good and then I think that my identity is also not very good.’ In the process of discovering identity, this young man and a few others found parts of their identity that conflicted with their self-perception, however, despite this conflict, they continued the leisure behavior.

Forming identity

Through exposure to novel, external input such as new experiences, ideas, or people during leisure time, members of the sample had opportunities to make commitments or changes to their identity through a process called forming identity . This process was identified in 90.0% ( n =36) of the sample. A Greek woman summarized this theme by describing the influence of meeting new people or going new places,

I think it’s very important to meet new people, to learn new stuff, see how they think, what they think about and then you can adapt yourself. Some things you can keep, some things are useful for you, so you can keep [them] and follow whatever you want, but also giving knowledge to others and accepting knowledge as well. That can happen both from meeting people or going new places.

The excerpt starts with focus on exposure to ‘new people,’ ‘new stuff,’ and new ways of thinking, an important aspect of identity exploration. According to the participant, when she encounters something new, she decides whether to integrate (e.g., ‘adapt’) these ideas and experiences into her identity by committing (e.g., ‘keeping’) to some, if not all, of the new ideas to which she is exposed. She also recognized the potential reciprocal nature of this experience created by ‘giving knowledge to others;’ thus, she offers others the same opportunity to shape their identity through exposure to her ideas and interests.

This idea of change and adaptation was not limited to face-to-face interactions with others. A Swiss woman who recently spent a year traveling alone gave a personal example of how experiences in her leisure time impacted her, ‘What really changed me was my travel in South America. Because I came back not as a completely different person, but it really changed me a lot, just my way of thinking and seeing things.’ Her identity had already been developed at some level, however, her travel and exposure to new experiences allowed her to continue individual development of her identity via incremental change.

Forming identity includes specific changes to the self resulting from leisure experiences. For an English woman, leisure choices directly contributed to developing character and sense of self:

I think that however you use your free time, that’s more part of your character building. Whatever you choose to do with it is part of what’s going to make you who you are. So, you know, you can use it well or not well, but you know, that’s going to be what makes you as a person.

She recognized each leisure choice as a part of a ‘character building’ process, as if each leisure experience is a building block contributing to the process of forming identity. She also placed value on the freedom to choose associated with leisure, noting that consequences of those choices shape individual development. Participants also offered specific leisure exemplars illustrating their own process of individual development via leisure. An Irish woman gave this example, ‘Surfing has made me more outgoing and fun and adventurous and made me more willing to try something new even though I haven’t done it before. I suppose it’s made me more of an adventurous person.’

Conversely, a limited number of participants offered examples of an alternative interpretation marked by extended pursuit of new, sometimes extravagant, experiences. An English man described his desire for continued exploration of self through leisure when he said, ‘There’s so much more you want to do in terms of being yourself.’ He, like others, noted that despite having many leisure-based experiences, he could always see something more to explore. Another participant described how he would try new things but after some time, he would consistently be ready to move on to the next new idea. Others indicated a need to travel in order to have new experiences and avoid feeling ‘stuck.’ A Swedish woman described her motivation for travel, suggesting geographic change precedes new experiences, ‘You know, just seeing new things. And see what kind of life other people have. And not be stuck here, but to see the world.’ This sentiment was shared by a French woman who expressed that her experiences of meeting new people were made possible by leaving her home country. These participants and others shared stories that implied some participants have aggrandized identity exploration in a leisure context by expecting travel away from their hometown or country to fulfill their exploratory need for novel experiences. Finally, one participant introduced the idea of new experiences becoming addicting. He said,

Traveling makes [you] who you are. You really get hooked on that kind of stuff, and never really want to let it go, so it definitely makes your identity…And once you’ve discovered that, you’re hooked. It’s a big addiction, but a good one I think.

Although in his case it is not documented as a diagnosable addiction, the idea that one can become ‘hooked’ on leisure demonstrates the multiplicity of outcomes possible in a leisure context during the formation of identity.

Defining identity

The third theme observed in 65.0% ( n =26) of the sample was defining identity . One participant said, ‘I think [leisure] defines your identity. Like if you’re climbing a lot, you get into climbing society, or if you have a lot of friends doing it. It kind of makes your own identity as well.’ Both through personal examples and general abstractions, many members of the sample independently came to the same conclusion that identity can be defined by leisure. A German post-graduate student explained that leisure identity definitions can be used to create comparative distinctions between individuals, ‘I think also [leisure] basically defines you as a person. If you do an extreme sport, you might think you can distinguish yourself from ordinary people.’

Another way of understanding leisure identity definition is to examine the identity labels it creates. A Swedish young woman described the process of defining identity in terms of commitment to a leisure label, ‘I think if you’re very committed to something, you get to be like a dog person or something. You feel like, “That’s really who I am,” and you identify yourself with that.’ Because of her free time commitment to training dogs, she saw herself as a ‘dog person’ and recognized how this is connected to who she is and how she identifies.

Within the defining identity process, 11 participants described leisure as an external marker or identity label used to communicate a message about themselves to others. A Dutch man said, ‘If you spend every weekend at a rave party then that alters how people view you, as opposed to when you spend every weekend at a museum. So definitely I think it influences mostly how people think of you.’ An English student reiterated this idea when she said, ‘I think what you do kind of defines you. If you go clubbing all the time…It kind of identifies you as a party girl.’ Identity definitions allow individuals to make internal commitments and convey those distinctions to others. In some instances, participants offered examples of disassociating from others by evaluating differences in leisure behavior. An Italian woman said,

We have the culture of the wine but I think that the difference between us and especially the Anglo-Saxon people is …they drink to get drunk, to get crazy, to throw bottles or things like this. Here if you get a little bit drunk it's just because you are having fun with other people.

She, like many others, compared her own leisure behavior with that of others to draw conclusions about differences in identity by suggesting that drinking behavior is attached to an individual’s identity. Comparing leisure of others to one’s own offers an opportunity to evaluate differences in behavior and identity. An Italian man described how he would be different if he had made leisure choices similar to some of his peers, ‘If my passions had been different, instead of sports if I liked the clubs, to spend my days and time with other youth and not do anything. I would have become less, I would be childlike.’ Finally, in a few cases, individuals used comparisons to draw conclusions about the value of their personal leisure experiences. A Swedish man noted that his extensive traveling made others envious, and a Finnish woman observed that it seemed others always had more leisure activities than her.

Positioning identity

Of the sample, 92.5% ( n =37) discussed the process of positioning personal identity within relationships nested in a leisure context. The term positioning was chosen to describe the process by which an individual navigates integration of her developing identity into new and existing relationships across her social network, especially in proximal relationships. Positioning identity was marked by three different patterns of individual-peer interaction where individuals both explicitly and implicitly commented on their cognitive proximity to peers and significant others. The first form of positioning builds off defining identity and shows how individuals use congruency between their leisure and the leisure of peers to draw conclusions about compatibility in friendship and relationships. The second form demonstrates leisure as a resource for establishing and strengthening relationships wherein individuals are apt to explore new ideas and experiences. Finally, the third process illustrates how individual volition and peer feedback create polarizing demands on core identity decisions.

Positioning identity in the leisure context illustrates how labels assumed during the defining identity process can be sued to make assumptions about compatibility and potential for close friendship. Many individuals in the sample gave examples of the two steps in this process: first, observe the leisure behavior of others in comparison to their own, and then, draw conclusions about whether these comparisons indicate high potential for friendship or relationship. A French woman discussed how an initial shared leisure experience based on common interest provided the foundation for new friendships,

When you go out, you meet people who like the same things. When you go to a football match or a rugby match, you know that the people who are here [are] interested in the same thing as you. You just start to speak with them and then you’re like, ‘Okay I have a couple friends who like the same thing as me,’ which is pretty key to going out for football match or rugby match or whatever. You start going out with them.

This participant established a new social connection by concluding that shared leisure interest indicated similarity between two strangers. Then following this shared experience, a leisure-focused bond was expected to continue a friendship initially focused on leisure. A Swedish man illustrated how leisure can provide an immediate foundation for social connections, ‘I go on my bike and I see a guy on a racing bike, and I feel like we are the same—I identify with this. You feel this connection with someone even though you just pass these people.’ Unlike the previous example, this man did not need to directly interact with the other cyclist to recognize commonality in identities. By participating in the same leisure, he immediately assumed a leisure-driven identity connection with other cyclists without any other evidence of similarity. Thus, leisure supports decision-making regarding who would integrate well into an individual’s social network and provide friendship based on common interests and shared identity commitments.

Within both new and existing relationships, individuals are apt to be exposed to novel ideas and experiences necessary for the process of forming identity. Participants explained how leisure facilitated stronger bonds and provided a relational context for exploration. An English woman explained, ‘That’s all part of building a relationship with someone, if you’ve had shared experience and common ground and things like that. That’s how you build friendships and relationships and make them strong.’ Using building as a metaphor, she identified leisure as a tool for the incremental process of increasing closeness in friendships and relationships. A Scottish man further illustrated this point by describing a free time experience with his girlfriend,

We went to the zoo and just had a wander around and that sort of thing, and because of that we sort of bonded over the kind of strange experiences that you get when you go and look at animals in glass boxes…it builds up shared experience. It creates a bond between two people. It strengthens a bond that’s already there.

Leisure can draw people closer together in an existing relationship by allowing individuals to accumulate shared experiences and strengthen the link between them. In summary, this pattern of positioning illustrates how leisure can create or reinforce a connection between two people, thus fortifying a relational context for exploration of ideas, experiences, and worldviews.

The leisure context also serves as a space for friends to offer evaluative feedback on individual identity choices. In all instances of evaluative feedback, participants offered examples of close friends or family members whose feedback held increased weight because of their proximal position within the participant’s social network. For one participant, integration of rock climbing into his identity was supported by the positive feedback of his sister and her boyfriend. Another participant was heavily involved in political organizations in his free time. He described how building friendship within a leisure activity (e.g., political volunteering) reinforced his political identity as his friends validated and supported his beliefs. Feedback sometimes takes the form of peer pressure with conflict between the participant’s aim and the feedback from peers. One woman was challenged by her friends when trying to make an intentional change in her leisure and spend less time drinking. She explained what typically happens when she tries to diverge her behavior and identity from drinking,

‘I can literally say [if] one of the girls I would socialize with…came up here and said to me, even if I didn’t want to go for a drink that night, and [she] said to me, “Let’s go on the beer. Awe c’mon, you’re no crack.” And then I’ll be like, “Okay.” And I’d be so easily influenced… I want to change the mentality and how influenced I could be.’

She, like a few other participants, noticed that even when wanting to change a leisure activity inconsistent with her developing identity, friends provided resistance when a decision mismatched with their expectations for her.

Forgoing opportunities

The final theme, forgoing opportunities , highlights the process of refusing or misusing opportunities to explore identity in a leisure context. Of the sample, 22.5% ( n =9) of participants described this process with their own experiences or proposed how it could occur with others. The theme was sometimes manifested through deliberate rejection of exploration as individuals recognized potential for novel leisure and chose to forgo the experience. A participant in Northern Ireland described how he reacted to new experiences, ‘[Leisure] does allow me to do new things, but I don’t really try new things. It’s there, but I just don’t really try new things to be honest…I’ve found a routine, do the same things.’ Another participant from Spain stated that because he already knows what he likes, he does not feel compelled to try new things even when he has the chance.

Other participants selected leisure by default, exposing themselves to opportunities only when bored or relying on others to create the experience. Illustrating how boredom fuels his exploration as a last resort, a participant stated, ‘I guess I get bored, I find something I want to do that I’ve never tried before and think, “Well, I’ve got nothing else to do, so I think I’ll give it a go.”’ Another participant relied on his friends to guide his leisure time and said, ‘They introduced me to those things, so I’m not sure if I really chose it myself or just got used to it. That’s why I do them.’ Outlining a process of defaulting to his peers’ preferences, this participant allowed his friends to direct what became a part of his regular repertoire of leisure activities. In a similar manner, a Scottish participant said his process for choosing leisure was to ‘take it as it comes’ rather than making intentional decisions to pursue new experiences.

Finally, forgoing opportunities also included instances when individuals recognized that free time could be misused. A woman from England described how she felt ‘super miserable’ and ‘pathetic’ when she ‘did nothing with [herself],’ and a man from Italy reflected on how his pastimes could be interpreted as a waste of time. Although these statements are subjective judgments of personal experiences, they demonstrate the belief that there are social parameters directing appropriate use of leisure time, and misuse can lead to adverse consequences or negative self-reflection. As one participant summarized, ‘[Leisure’s] very important in terms of character building and all those things, if you spend it wisely.’

These results help us better understand the importance of leisure as a context for identity development during emerging adulthood. Specifically, this study demonstrates that leisure provides a context for internal identity discovery, identity formation, identity definition, and navigation of personal identity within an individual’s social relationships, as well as showing how young people may pass up or miss opportunities to use leisure as a context for the development of identity. These findings make several important contributions to our understanding of the role of leisure as a context for identity development.

First, findings in this study offer evidence that emerging adults take an active role in the development of their identity. Individual, personal accounts portrayed leisure as a context for goal-directed behavior often oriented toward exploration and development of identity. Individuals identified leisure experiences where they actively steered their identity development by seeking out new experiences. Emerging adult leisure includes active pursuit of new experiences and relationships followed by reactive cognitive processing and potential for new commitments. Individuals in the study acknowledged their leisure decisions regarding intentional exposure to new people, places, and ideas. The identity processes observed in a leisure context made it apparent that individuals are aware of the impact of leisure and filter what experiences will be integrated into their identity through cognitive evaluation. This provides additional support for the findings of Schwartz and colleagues (2005) who suggested emerging adults take an active role in creating their identity. Likewise, some individuals willfully chose to forgo opportunities to explore. This finding elucidates the impact of volitional control suggested by inherent freedom in a leisure context. New experiences were met with contrasting responses as some participants responded to novelty with energetic pursuits and others with rejection. Further research is needed to understand what motivates some emerging adults to rejected new experiences and whether these decisions impacted their identity development.

Second, processes of discovering and forming identity offer a deconstructed view of identity development where individuals use both internal and external processes to carry out identity development. Discovering identity parallels Luyckx and colleagues’ (2006) process of commitment evaluation, where individuals reflect on commitments previously made. Leisure facilitates this process by providing a context wherein individuals can turn the focus inward for self-reflection and evaluation without pressure to honor other obligations. Forming identity occurs in response to exposure to new experiences. This exposure is characterized by instances of exploration and then either commitment to or rejection of the new ideas and experiences at hand. This incremental process follows a developmental trajectory as emerging adults compare previous experiences and commitments to new opportunities encountered through exploration. Examples of this process include the Greek participant who described the adaptions to self following interactions with new people and places and the Englishwoman who saw leisure activities as a resource for building character. In addition, previous process-oriented models of identity development (see Luyckx, Schwartz, et al., 2011 ) refer to both internal and external aspects of exploration in both breadth and depth. The findings in this study extend this model by suggesting manners in which both internal (i.e., discovering identity) and external (i.e., forming identity) forces contribute to identity development in leisure.

Third, general identity development is expanded by two distinct resources available in leisure. First, leisure-specific activities provide an opportunity for defining and communicating identity commitments, and, second, individual autonomy in leisure contexts offers a dynamic relationship between individual and context. Defining identity serves to conclusively inform identity development with leisure used as a symbol of firm identity commitments. This process extends the idea that specific leisure activities represent unique identity images motivating participation ( Haggard & Williams, 1992 ). Identity definition not only echoes the idea that leisure activities are linked to identity images, but reveals that identity definition can be intentionally used to communicate identity decisions to others. This study also expands the link between leisure and identity definition beyond college students and into the leisure context holistically.

Like many other contexts, evidence in this study suggests the influence between leisure and the individual appears to be bi-directional ( Gottlieb, 1996 ). However, unlike educational and work settings, individuals maintain a great deal of control over the spaces, people, and experiences to which they are exposed in leisure. As emerging adults explore new leisure experiences, they continue or cease participation of their own volition. In the case of one Italian participant who went to the gym daily, he said he could reject this activity entirely and expel it from his daily context if he no longer desired to go. This regulation of the environment suggests the circumstances for development are not static but are shaped by the decisions of the individual. For the Swedish young man involved in political organizations, he recognized that the group he decided to socialize within his free time would provide the context guiding and reinforcing his ideals and identity. He recognized that had he chosen a different political organization, he would have changed in different ways. Because the leisure context can be actively redirected by the individual, conditions contributing to optimal development may change and evolve over time and move toward stability. Earlier in development as emerging adults explore new leisure experiences, the environment may be relatively unstable. Similar trends of instability have been tied to identity development and identified in emerging adulthood with frequent transition in jobs, residence, and relationships ( Arnett, 2004 ). The power of individuals to create their environment and experiences raises an interesting issue in identifying circumstances that allow individuals to flourish. However, processes of discovering, forming, and defining identity suggest progress toward commitments in leisure and a more stable environment over time.

Fourth, the results of this study further inform the processes by which emerging adults develop their identities through shared experience with others. Positioning identity extends what Arnett (2004) has described as exploration of love and relationships. Leisure facilitates a context wherein individuals can establish and build both friendships and romantic relationships and then together explore additional new experiences. In this sample, shared leisure was a tool for enhancing relationships both in early formation stages and later on in established relationships. This time spent with others in leisure facilitates identity development processes as new relationships expose individuals to novel experiences and ideas. Identifying shared interests and experiences in leisure can lead to patterns of commitment as emerging adults incorporate new preferences and pastimes into their sense of self through identity formation. Peers also provide a source for feedback on identity commitments as they validate or reject leisure-based identity choices of their friends. In particular, when emerging adults identify leisure behavior they want to change or eliminate, peers can be a barrier to identity conflict resolution by refusing the individual’s choice and encouraging her to continue the leisure behavior.

Fifth, the processes identified in this study revealed potential for impact on both flourishing and floundering trajectories in emerging adulthood. Emerging adults follow a variety of different pathways toward adulthood. Recognizing how leisure helps emerging adults establish identity may be especially valuable in distinguishing emerging adults who flourish versus those who flounder during this period. As suggested by the accounts of emerging adults in this study, leisure is not only enjoyable but serves to help emerging adults explore and commit to an identity. Certain types of leisure or free time activities may be more beneficial for encouraging flourishing and successful development, but generally, members of this sample see clear benefit in their lives as a result of choices they make in leisure. In some cases, participants provided insight into adverse patterns in leisure where unwavering commitments (i.e., ‘addictions’) could compel an individual to pursue an activity and comprise the freedom to cease participation. Furthermore, some participants recognized potential for misusing freedom in leisure time. These forgone opportunities highlight a potential pathway for floundering in emerging adulthood. Misuse and rejection of opportunities in leisure could be further investigated to understand how some leisure decisions contribute to suboptimal development.

By documenting processes of identity development in the leisure context rather than through distinct leisure forms, this study supports leisure as a diverse, cohesive domain for development. Identifying thematic processes instead of focusing on specific leisure forms allows for more transferability to other populations where leisure may be different but developmental processes similar. Despite the range of experiences of individuals in this study, leisure provided a cohesive environment wherein processes of identity development were shared across gender, nationality, and educational level. As an additional environment for considering impact on positive development, leisure may be an essential context to consider when holistically examining development of emerging adults.

Future research addressing specific leisure typologies in emerging adulthood could reveal whether certain leisure forms are more salient as resources for optimal development. For example, previous research has identified drinking and playing violent video games as leisure activities linked to emerging adults floundering on their pathway toward emerging adulthood ( Nelson & Padilla-Walker, 2013 ). Identification of specific leisure types linked to floundering trajectories could be examined within the processes identified in this study to understand how emerging adulthood discover and then integrate these leisure activities into their developing identity. Additionally, comparative studies may reveal differences in patterns of leisure use between cultural groups, ages, gender, and socio-economic status. Activities and processes may vary between and within groups. Findings from this study focus on freedom in leisure without addressing constraints. Future research addressing constraints and navigation of barriers to leisure could provide additional insight into the processes of negotiating freedom in leisure. Much like leisure types, constraints to leisure are likely to vary across groups.

Evidence was found supporting leisure as a resource for individual development, however, comparisons of leisure to other previously studied domains for development in emerging adulthood were not within the scope of this study. Extended analysis of this and future data should compare leisure to other important life domains including romantic relationships, work, and education. It would not be expected that the leisure context on its own provides adequate opportunities for complete exploration and identity development. Because individuals are able to choose and construct their leisure context, some exposure to new experiences may be limited when an individual is unwilling or reluctant to experience something new. Experiences, ideas, and people that seem foreign, uncomfortable, or unattainable could be missed in a leisure context where individuals can choose only what appears attractive or rewarding. Together with contexts characterized by guided structure such as work and school, leisure can enhance identity exploration by extending development into a context marked by autonomous freedom. Whether the impact of leisure experiences in emerging adulthood positively or negatively spills over into other domains remains unknown.

Limitations

Findings from this research should be interpreted within the limitations of the study. Although qualitative research allowed broad, in-depth examination of emerging adults’ experiences in leisure, results should be applied to other populations with caution. As a case study, the findings support evidence for these identity development themes only in the study sample. Further research is necessary to investigate these themes in other and more diverse populations (e.g., other countries, people of color, individuals living in poverty) and more extensively among European emerging adults. This study included individuals from early to late emerging adulthood providing evidence for the leisure identity themes throughout the age period, however, cross-sectional data collection limits conclusive evidence supporting developmental impact over time. Additional research documenting emerging adults in leisure at multiple time points may reveal how these themes differentially impact individuals as they age.

Efforts were made to conduct studies in participants’ native languages whenever possible. Because the study included participants from more than a dozen countries, some interviews were conducted in the participant’s second language (i.e., English). All participants demonstrated comprehension of English language during interviews. The authors acknowledge interviews conducted in English for non-native English speakers may impact the individual’s ability to respond to interview questions.

Finally, the results of this study should be viewed as foundational and preliminary rather than conclusive. The open, qualitative approach was selected to elicit themes and variables for future study. Future research may reveal disconfirming evidence or variations in leisure-based identity themes. More research is needed to explore the role of leisure in identity development universally. Much remains unknown about the leisure context and how it contributes to the positive development of emerging adults across the world.

Leisure is a diverse context wherein emerging adults actively navigate their identity development through exposure to new experiences and relationships, as well as resulting commitments. This space, free of obligation, allows self-directed identity development. Arnett’s (2000) oft cited description of emerging adulthood as a period for exploring “love, work, and worldviews” (p. 469) could be extended to include leisure as a major exploratory area contributing to the development and growth of individual emerging adults. In order for emerging adults to flourish, all circumstances and contexts should be considered in the lived experience of emerging adults. Scholars studying emerging adults should recognize the impact leisure has on optimal development during the third decade of life and take steps to incorporate elements of leisure into their research.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to recognize the contributions of Layne Watson Schwabedissen and Rory Haglund Bluth who were invaluable partners in translation, data collection, and field work.

This work was supported by a Mary Lou Fulton Endowment research grant; the first author was supported by the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health under award number T32 DA017629. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the Mary Lou Fulton Endowment, National Institute on Drug Abuse, or the National Institutes of Health.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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Case Studies

The Case Study approach to learning is one of the oldest methods used to gain knowledge in medicine. Its use can be traced back to Hippocrates, Asclepius, and the writings of Galen. These early physicians placed emphasis on careful observation and the recording of signs and symptoms. In Acutonics® we incorporate the use of a case studies as a foundation to our educational programs and as a way to document, discuss and learn from our clinical experiences. Through the use of narrative, careful observation, questions, effective interview techniques, and systematic review and evaluation of information, valuable contributions to knowledge are achieved. Case studies are explored in depth throughout our training, although specific emphasis on this methodology is covered in Acutonics Level VI: Case Studies, Clinical Documentaries.

Specific case study examples that incorporate the use of Acutonics can be found in Acutonics: There’s No Place Like Ohm, Sound Healing, East Asian Medicine and the Cosmic Mysteries, and in the Acutonics From Galaxies to Cells Case Study Companion Guide .

In addition to case study documentation regarding the efficacy of Acutonics, a range of research projects, some of which incorporate a case study approach, have also been conducted. 

Studies Conducted Include:  Franklin, E. F. (2014). Acutonics ® self-care program and stress: Multiple case study exploration of an intervention to ameliorate symptoms of severe stress and compassion fatigue in nurses. (Order No. 3628163, Saybrook University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 259. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/1559942695?accountid=35915. (1559942695).

Burke-Kelly, Mary (2014). The perceived pain reduction effects of Acutonics versus traditional needle acupuncture. Acutonics Institute of Integrative Medicine, LLC, research conducted in partial fulfillment of requirements to become a Certified Acutonics ® Practitioner.

Gallagher, C.M. (2010). The effects of Acutonics ® on perceptions of Joy. Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Clayton College of Natural Health.

McAlister, S. (2009). Vibrational frequencies in wound healing. Explore: The Journal of Science and Healing, 5(3), 147. doi:10.1016/j.explore.2009.03.012 

A Sample of Books that Cite Acutonics: Carey, D., & de Muynck, M. (2007). Acutonics: There’s No Place Like Ohm: Sound Healing, East Asian Medicine and the Cosmic Mysteries . Vadito, NM: Devachan Press. Carey, D., Franklin, E.F, Ponton, J. Ponton P, Michelangelo (2010). Acutonics ® from Galaxies to Cells: Planetary Science, Harmony and Medicine . Vadito, NM: Devachan Press. Gehl, J.T & Micozzi, M.S. (2017). The Science of Planetary Signatures in Medicine: Restoring the Cosmic Foundations of Healing . Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press Gehl, J. T. (2019). The Return of Planet Sedna: Astrology, Healing and the Awakening of Cosmic Kundalini . Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press Micozzi, M.S. (2019). Fundamentals of Complementary, Alternative and Integrative Medicine, 6th Edition, St.Louis, MO: Elsevier. Wakefield, M.E. & Michelangelo (2020). Vibrational Acupuncture: Integrating Tuning Forks and Needles . Philadelphia, PA: Singing Dragon Press. Numerous articles have been published about the Acutonics methodology. To receive further information on available articles or the above cited research email [email protected] .

Heart Palpitations

J a forty-year old married man sought treatment for intermittent heart palpitations that had been active over the previous month. He reported that when his heart started to race he felt anxiety, shortness of breath, and chest pain.

J a forty-year old married man sought treatment for intermittent heart palpitations that had been active over the previous month. He reported that when his heart started to race he felt anxiety, shortness of breath, and chest pain. He was admitted to the hospital the first time it happened and had a complete heart work-up that was negative for myocardial infarction or any specific heart problem. J had been married for one year and was the father of a six-month old baby boy. He worked full time as a physician’s assistant in an emergency care setting and found his work busy and rewarding.

J had a long family history of alcoholism. His father had been physically abusive to him, his siblings, and mother. J received some therapy in the past to deal with particular childhood problems.

J admits that he hides and covers many of his feelings with humor and sarcasm. He worries about being a good enough father, husband, and physician’s assistant. When he doubts himself he uses alcohol to calm his worries. He admitted to having a problem with drinking, although he had reduced the number of times he drank to excess.

J eats a vegetarian diet and has hot meals with his family that his wife prepares. He reported consuming too much dairy and cheese and had gained weight since getting married. He acknowledges the need to drink more water and will go for long periods of time when he doesn’t drink liquids at all during a day, then has beer or cocktails at night.

He was assessed energetically with: Shen disturbance (agitation of the spirit) Imbalances of the Liver Spleen and Kidney energies Intergenerational alcoholism Heart chakra issues Fear

At the first treatment J came in with heart palpitations and was visibly uncomfortable and frightened. Treatment strategies for this visit were to calm the spirit, slow the heart rate and breathing, and strengthen the Kidney energy to anchor the energy of the Heart and Lungs:

The treatment was started with the Ohm tuning forks for grounding, centering and stabilizing Kidney energy. Tuning fork intervals were applied to points for calming the Spirit and nourishing and balancing the Heart energy.

Grounding on Kidney points was repeated and J reported feeling calm and a sensation he described as his heart slowing down. He was less anxious and visibly relaxed on the treatment table.

Extraordinary vessels were used to address the intergenerational issues, drawing on their primordial connection to Source to open to those deep seeded childhood issues. Tuning fork combinations for deep opening, balancing and healing ( Ohm/New Moon, Mars/Venus and Ohm/Chiron) were used to break through the familial issues.

The session ended with additional grounding, using Kidney points located on the feet. He reported feeling calm and rested.

Dietary, hydration and exercise recommendations were made to J.

J reported no palpitations or panic symptoms following his first treatment.

Subsequent treatments focused on nourishing Kidney energy and balancing the nervous system while continuing to address familial patterns and to provide nurturance.

High octave tuning forks were added and sounded above the body to clear and heal in the body’s subtle energy field.

The energy of a sacred geometry was created by activating specific points with tuning forks for grounding and opening to the cosmos, and aiding in transformational work and for deep nurturance.

Balancing tuning fork intervals were applied to the points that influence the Heart and the Heart Chakra to calm and nourish the heart and spirit. ( Mars/Venus )

Points that create energy circulation and that balance the Liver were treated with intervals that disperse the Liver stagnation, and create smooth flow of Liver energy and aid in transforming addiction issues.

Treatment for the intergenerational issues was again addressed using the same extraordinary vessel as in the first treatment. Tuning forks for dissolving, breaking through and healing old addiction patterns were utilized.

High octave tuning forks were used off the body in the field to clear dense familial energy patterns from the etheric fields.

The treatment ended by grounding the energy shifts, using Kidney points on the feet.

J reported that after his first treatment the palpitations did not return. Though he still experienced occasional stress and anxiety he felt much better. He continued to work on his diet and stopped drinking alcohol. He was investigating an outpatient rehabilitation program and considering treatment.

Lower Back and Hip Pain

J is a 60-year-old woman who came in with a complaint of low back pain and hip pain that, at times, radiated to her knees. She had experienced the pain for about twelve years, since a fall at work. She had been diagnosed with a bulging disc at her forth and fifth lumbar vertebrae region.

J is a 60-year-old woman who came in with a complaint of low back pain and hip pain that, at times, radiated to her knees. She had experienced the pain for about twelve years, since a fall at work. She had been diagnosed with a bulging disc at her forth and fifth lumbar vertebrae region. Her work responsibilities required her to stand on her feet for most for the day and by the end of the day, just walking was painful. She had gained weight over the years and wanted to loose weight but was unable to exercise due to the pain. Recently, J has been experiencing depression and hopelessness at times, which she describes as feeling “weighted down, without a light”. Her elderly mother is in poor health with a short life expectancy and lives about an hour away from her. Her handicapped daughter stays with her on the weekends. J is in a good marriage and very much in love with her husband. She would like to change jobs and work for herself.

I assessed J with an energetic pattern of Kidney qi deficiency that presented as lack of support, adrenal burnout, emotional and physical exhaustion, fear of the future and a feeling of collapsing under the weight of her responsibilities. She also displayed a pattern of stagnant gallbladder energy manifesting as hip pain and an inability to move forward in her life.

Ohm forks were used on points to ground and nurture and to create a safe and secure starting place. These included Kidney points and other energy building points.

Specific Extraordinary Vessels ( vessels that allow access to the body’s deepest energies ) were chosen, and treated with tuning fork combinations, to address weakness and stagnation of energy in the spine, to strengthen the Kidney energy and to assist her in moving forward.

The pattern of stagnant gallbladder channel energy was addressed using tuning fork intervals for dispersing stagnation on points along the outer side of the leg from hip to foot.

Intervals for balancing energy were applied to additional points to influence the hip and side of the leg and for overall circulation of energy in the body.

Three octaves of an interval to promote healing were applied along the gallbladder channel on the side of the leg. 

An interval ( Ohm/Saturn ) that supports the structure of the body was applied along the spine from top to bottom along with additional intervals and points to support the core energy of the body

A high octave combination of forks ( Ohm/Chiron ), was used in the field over the spine tracing sacred geometries.

After the First treatment J reported feeling lighter and experiencing less pain. In the second treatment additional planetary tuning fork frequencies were introduced to activate and clear stubborn stagnation.

The third treatment introduced a combination of tuning forks ( Ohm/Mercury ), to aid in increased communication among her body, mind and spirit. High octave frequencies were also used over the spine to activate a new matrix of stability and well-being.

After five treatments, the pain was almost gone in J’s back and hips and only returned when she was very tired. J was laid off from her job and decided to take a little time off for herself. She expressed the intention that her next job be a four-day workweek and to value the enjoyment of life and of having fun.

Sprained Ankle

A female patient came in 5 days after she had sprained her left ankle. She also had severe pain in her foot and into her heel and Achilles tendon. She wore an orthopedic support boot.

A female patient came in 5 days after she had sprained her left ankle. She also had severe pain in her foot and into her heel and Achilles tendon. She wore an orthopedic support boot. She stated that she had been moving in too many directions in her life and doing too many things. She said that she got the message to slow down and focus! She had been in her head, not fully present or in her body, overworking her nervous system and going through a major transition and re-patterning of her life.

My assessment was that the patient was suffering traumatic injury resulting in pain and energy stagnation in her left foot effecting muscle (controlled by the spleen), tendons ( controlled by the liver/gall bladder ), and bone ( controlled by the kidney ). Her pulses indicated a constitutional nervous system of a tense person who was working on overdrive.

The treatment objective was to support, nourish, stabilize the injury, and relieve the severe pain, while also providing support to the patient in balancing her overextended life.

It should be noted that in these treatments, the lower octave forks were used. The reason for this is because the low forks work well on the lower part of the body and work deeper in the body.

The treatment opened with the Ohm Unison tuning forks on KID 1, Gushing Spring ( on the bottom of the foot ) for grounding.

Extraordinary Vessels, which connect with deep energies of potentiality were treated with interval combinations to open and balance the right and left sides of the body and to relax “overcharging” of the nervous system and create energetic and cellular reformatting.

Tuning fork intervals were used on points on the feet and lower legs to open energetic pathways and disperse stagnant/stuck energy to relieve pain.

Opening and dispersing intervals ( New Moon 5th and Zodiac 3rd ) were also used to circulate stagnation in the overall flow of energy in the body.

Intervals with correspondence to bone and connective tissue ( including Saturn ) and to overall structural support were chosen not only for physical structural support, but support for the patient, to create a foundation for her life process.

Other interval combinations were employed to promote physical and emotional/spiritual healing, for awareness of ability to move forward and to tonify and stabilize the patient’s feel and for grounding.

The patient experienced significant pain reduction with some discomfort remaining. 

Follow up sessions focused on points and intervals to disperse stagnation and inflammation ( including Mars energy for clearing inflammation ) and for supporting and grounding energy ( Ohm/Earth Day ). The extraordinary vessels were employed again to create deep access to balance and support. Three follow-up sessions were performed over the period of a week. At the end of the series of sessions, the patient reported that her ankle and foot were pain free and that she felt stronger and more supported on a psycho-spiritual level.

Respiratory Distress-COPD

A sixty-five year old woman, came for treatment because she was experiencing difficulty breathing. She had a history of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Her chronic condition had been exacerbated by air travel and recent exposure to cigarette smoke.

A sixty-five year old woman, came for treatment because she was experiencing difficulty breathing. She had a history of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Her chronic condition had been exacerbated by air travel and recent exposure to cigarette smoke. She said she also had exacerbations of her condition from stress and that she suffered from frequent sinus congestion. She quit a long time smoking habit, after having been diagnosed with COPD eight years earlier. When the condition was bad, as it was at this visit, she had thick, yellow mucous that was difficult to expectorate. When she entered the office she was relying on a portable oxygen bottle to assist her breathing and she had to stop every few steps and rest, supporting herself by leaning against the wall or against furniture. She said that she had had chronic fatigue since the age of twelve that she attributed to mercury toxicity. She also reported having been diagnosed with high levels of lead in her body. She was taking Prozac to control depression that she also attributed to mercury toxicity.

I assessed her shortness of breath as being caused by phlegm heat obstructing the lungs.

Because the patient was to be in town for only one more day, the focus of the treatment was to relieve the acute respiratory distress she was experiencing-to support and strengthen the lungs and resolve phlegm heat.

The New Moon 5th interval was applied to an acupuncture point on her upper back used to treat asthma to open the lungs. To clear heat from the lungs another point was chosen, on the upper back using the same interval. Additional tuning fork intervals were used on the upper back to strengthen and heal the lung energy and to improve the ability of the lung energy to circulate normally. This same sequence was applied to a point used for deeply rooted illnesses and providing tonification to the lung as well as for strengthening the lung’s yin energy and clearing heat and resolving phlegm in the lung.

Extraordinary vessels and tuning fork intervals were chosen to open the lungs, and the to provide healing energy to the lungs and chest.

The strengthening interval ( Mars/Earth Day ) was used to boost energy and enhance immune response. 

Ohm/Full Moon was used on the Source Point for the Kidneys, to nourish the yin energy and provide cooling to the acute heat condition.

Tibetan bowls were sounded on and over the patient’s chest and lungs to clear congestion in the area.

The treatment was concluded with a gong sound bath focusing on Mercury to harmonize the lung energy, Jupiter to provide expansiveness to the lungs and Neptune to promote moistening to thin the thick, sticky phlegm.

The patient’s breathing began improving from early in the treatment and continued to improve throughout. At the end of the session she no longer felt the need to use her oxygen tank and was able to walk across the room unassisted.

She e-mailed me two weeks later, after returning home to report that her condition had continued to improve in the days following the treatment and asked for a referral to an Acutonics ® practitioner near where she lived.

Stress and Panic Attacks

L is a 54 year-old woman with chief complaints of stress and anxiety and a western medical diagnosis of panic attacks. She experienced chest tightness, jaw tightness, anxiety and episodes of intense stifling heat from the waist up.

L is a 54 year-old woman with chief complaints of stress and anxiety and a western medical diagnosis of panic attacks. She experienced chest tightness, jaw tightness, anxiety and episodes of intense stifling heat from the waist up. An evaluated by a cardiologist found no evidence of cardiac disease. 

L’s stress level increased when her husband experienced a health crisis. She was also the primary care giver for her father in law, who has Alzheimer’s disease and who lives with the client and her husband. L experienced sleep disturbance worrying that her father in law would get up and have a fall or other accident in the night. L also traveled across the country periodically to check in on her ailing mother.

L’s health history included multiple surgeries and medications related to a series of gynecological problems and sinus problems. She began to avail herself of more alternative health care options starting about ten years earlier and since, relied mostly on herbs and dietary supplements along with naturopathic and chiropractic care. L felt extremely energetically sensitive. She did not tolerate acupuncture well, even with very few needles. She reported being greatly affected by electromagnetic energy that caused her to feel ungrounded and physically agitated.

I assessed her as having stress resulting in rising liver energy creating heat and agitation. She also had low Kidney energy affecting her gynecological health and creating lack of grounding.

This client was so sensitive that even placing tuning forks on acupuncture points was too intense for her; so all the forks were used over the points in the subtle energy fields.

Extraordinary Vessels were chosen to nourish her Kidney energy and address gynecological health and grounding issues and to address intergenerational stresses utilizing tuning forks calibrated to frequencies of the Full Moon and Venus .

Acupuncture points were selected to restore smooth flow of liver energy in the body applying tuning forks in a figure eight geometry sequence.

Heart and Kidney points were stimulated with forks to calm her spirit and reduce anxiety ( New Moon and Neptune ).

Chakras were grounded from crown down to root for additional grounding and to balance the nervous and endocrine systems

Tibetan bowls were placed around the treatment table and sounded to produce a sound bath to calm her anxiety and balance her energy

After the initial session, the patient reported feeling more grounded and having fewer and less intense episodes of heat and chest tightness. Her sleep had improved. Additional follow-up sessions, similar to the approach used in the first treatment, were done at 1-2 week intervals

The client reported significant improvement in her sleep patterns and energy. Over the course of six treatments the heat sensations and chest and jaw tightness totally resolved. She reported a reduction in stress and was using mantra and meditation to help her to maintain calmer and more stable energy.

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Generation Z – also known as Gen Z, iGen or postmillennial – are a highly collaborative cohort that cares deeply about others and have a pragmatic attitude about how to address a set of inherited issues like climate change, according to research by Roberta Katz, a senior research scholar at Stanford’s Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences (CASBS) .

Roberta Katz (Image credit: Charles Katz)

Since 2017, Katz, along with her co-authors, Sarah Ogilvie, a linguist at the University of Oxford and formerly at Stanford; Jane Shaw, a historian who is the principal of Harris Manchester College at Oxford and was previously dean for Religious Life at Stanford; and Linda Woodhead, a sociologist at King’s College London, collaborated as part of a multi-year CASBS research project to better understand a generation who, born between the mid-1990s to around 2010, grew up with digital tools always at their fingertips.

Their findings are based on some 120 interviews gathered on three college campuses – Stanford University; Foothill College, a community college in Los Altos Hills, California; and Lancaster University, a research university in Lancaster, England. A set of focus groups and two surveys in the U.S. and the U.K. were administered to a representative sample of over 2,000 adults aged between 18 and 25 years old.

Contributing further to the scholar’s understanding of Gen Z was the creation of the “ iGen corpus ,” a 70 million item digital repository of spoken and written language of people aged 16 to 25 years that included transcripts from the researchers’ interviews and focus groups, as well as public data from the social media platforms Twitter, Reddit, Twitch, 4chan and YouTube, as well as memes and copypastas from Facebook and Instagram. Ogilvie, the principal investigator on the corpus research team, along with a team of Stanford student research assistants, applied machine learning algorithms to discover the many ways in which young people today express themselves.

Taken together, the scholars’ research offers a snapshot of who Gen Zers really are, what matters to them and why. Findings from Katz’s and her co-authors’ research are detailed in a new book, Gen Z, Explained: The Art of Living in a Digital Age (University of Chicago Press, 2021).

Here, Katz discusses some of what she and her colleagues learned from their extensive research into how Gen Zers, the most diverse generation yet , experience and understand the world.

Based on your research, can you briefly describe the typical Gen Zer?

In summary, a typical Gen Zer is a self-driver who deeply cares about others, strives for a diverse community, is highly collaborative and social, values flexibility, relevance, authenticity and non-hierarchical leadership, and, while dismayed about inherited issues like climate change, has a pragmatic attitude about the work that has to be done to address those issues.

How has growing up in an internet-connected society shaped how Gen Zers see and experience the world and everyday life?

Internet-related technologies have dramatically changed the speed, scale and scope of human communications, resulting in significant changes in how people work, play, shop, find friends and learn about other people. For Gen Zers living in the United States and Britain (the two places we studied), the “norm” they experienced as children was a world that operated at speed, scale and scope. They developed an early facility with powerful digital tools that allowed them to be self-reliant as well as collaborative. Similarly, because they could learn about people and cultures around the globe from an early age, they developed a greater appreciation for diversity and the importance of finding their own unique identities.

What do people most misunderstand or get wrong about Gen Zers?

For quite a while, people were critical of what they saw as a generation that was too coddled and “soft.” Gen Zers were called “snowflakes” and “unwilling to grow up.” But much of that negative judgment came from a misunderstanding of what it is like to grow up in today’s world when compared with how their elders grew up. As an example, Gen Zers have been criticized as lazy because they don’t have after-school or summer jobs. But many Gen Zers have been earning significant dollars online through a variety of activities, even including product placements on fashion-advice sites. Another example concerns drivers’ licenses: older people, for whom getting a driver’s license was a rite of passage toward adulthood, have criticized Gen Zers who do not rush to take their driver’s tests when they turn 16, but this criticism fails to consider that Gen Zers have no need to drive when they have ready access to ride services like Uber and Lyft.

Do you think Gen Zers get an undeserved bad rap?

Yes, but that is changing. Of late, many people are beginning to appreciate the strength and pragmatism of Gen Zers.

What were you most surprised to learn about Gen Zers?

Our biggest surprise came in response to this interview question: “What type of communication do you like best?” We expected the interviewees to respond with their favorite type of digital communication – e.g., text, email, chat group, DM, FaceTime, Skype, etc. – but instead nearly every single person said their favorite form of communication was “in person.”

As Gen Zers enter the workforce, what would be helpful for other generations to know about their post-millennial colleagues?

For those who are now experiencing Gen Zers in the workplace, my advice is to recognize that these new colleagues are used to working collaboratively and flexibly, with an eye to being efficient in getting the job done. They are pragmatic and value direct communication, authenticity and relevance. They also value self-care. They may be more likely than older people were when they were the age of the Gen Zers to question rules and authority because they are so used to finding what they need on their own. They are not always right; often they don’t know what they need, especially in a new setting, and this is where inter-generational dialogue can be so helpful. Both the older and the younger colleagues can learn from the other, in each case by listening with more respect, appreciation and trust. The older colleague can learn some helpful new ways of getting a job done, while the younger colleague may learn good reasons for why things have long been done in a certain way. Without that dialogue, we’ll have a wasteful tug of war between the past and the future. The goal is for older and younger generations to work together, with openness and trust, to ensure that the wisdom – but not what has become the excess baggage – of the past is not lost to the future.

How has studying Gen Zers changed your own interactions with this generation?

I came to understand that Gen Zers are, on the whole, much better adapted to life in a digital age than those of us who are older and that they can be very frustrated by what appear to them to be outdated and often irrelevant ways of doing things. As one simple example that we cite in the book, an older person would likely assume that any organization needs a set of officers, for that has been the norm in their experience, but a Gen Zer would say, from their lived experience, that there is no need to elect officers (or other leaders) if the group can accomplish its mission through online collaborations that take advantage of the participants’ diverse skills.

In my own interactions with Gen Zers, I am much more likely than I used to be to listen closely to what they say, and to refrain from making a judgment about their ideas, values and behaviors based on an assumption that they are wrong and I am right. They often do things differently, have some different values and have some different ideas about the future than I do, and I have come to appreciate and trust that they often have a new and better approach. Many of us who are older have a different understanding of how the world works, which is rooted in our own early experiences, so it’s easy for us to assume that the world will continue to operate in much the same way going forward and that the young people need to adapt to that older way of living. But the younger people are necessarily future-oriented, and as we all are increasingly coming to appreciate, the digital-age future is quite different from the industrial-age past.

For 13 years, Katz served under Stanford University Presidents John Hennessy and Marc Tessier-Lavigne as the associate vice president for strategic planning. She also served as President Tessier-Lavigne’s interim chief of staff until early 2017. Katz has been deeply involved in the facilitation of a variety of interdisciplinary research initiatives at Stanford, and she is a current member of the CASBS board of directors.

This research was funded by the Knight Foundation.

The Self and Second Life: A Case Study Exploring the Emergence of Virtual Selves

• First Online: 01 January 2011

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• Simon Evans 3  

Part of the book series: Springer Series in Immersive Environments ((SSIE))

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Using the virtual world Second Life TM as a case study, the chapter begins a social psychological exploration of how living in virtual worlds may be transforming the experience of the self in contemporary society, from the ‘insider viewpoint’ of virtual world residents. The relationship between the virtual self and the ‘real life’ self is explored using data collected and key themes elicited from 40 textual interviews conducted inworld and inductive thematic analysis. The findings indicate a variety of complex relationships between the self experienced in the physical world and Second Life. First, the degree of similarity between the actual and virtual self varies according to experience. Second, the avatar tends to be seen as a separate entity. Finally, social processes within Second Life affects how the self is experienced, by allowing exploration of aspects of the self not possible in the physical world.

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An outline of the series that included the article may be found on http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/documentaries/features/visions-future.shtml .

One billion accounts does not necessarily signify one billion individuals, since it is possible to have accounts across different worlds and more than one account within a given world.

While this chapter will most often use the expression ‘physical world’, on occasion the term ‘real life’ will be adopted when in the context of taking the viewpoint of virtual world residents or in understanding various aspects of being a virtual self. This is because ‘real life’ (or RL) is the expression used by virtual world residents when referring to the physical world.

As a relatively new area of study for the discipline of social psychology, a grounded theory approach, as outlined by Flick ( 2009 ), could provide the basis of a new social psychological ‘theory of the self’. A grounded theory is one that is developed inductively from data, via a cycle of data collection, coding, analysis, writing, design and theoretical categorisation, rather than being a pre-developed theory tested by data. While a new grounded ‘theory of the self’ is outside the scope of this chapter, it is believed that the procedures and findings from the research discussed here could form the basis of a more extensive piece of research that develops a grounded theory.

As with the current universe of virtual worlds detailed above, this does not necessarily indicate 1,360,030 different users, since it is possible for one person to have more than one avatar, i.e. more than one account.

The numbers of residents who have logged in the previous 60 days and who are online at the time of logging are presented every time an account holder logs into Second Life. This is the source of the statistics presented here.

i.e. where users can use a microphone to allowing verbal communicate rather than being limited to text only.

This means to be unexpectedly logged out of the Second Life program, usually due to data overload.

All quotes in this section have been amended to be grammatically correct for ease of reading. Initials parenthesised after each quote represent the participant from whose interview the quote is taken. Moreover, the quotes adhere to the convention of abbreviating Second Life and ‘real life’ as SL and RL respectively, which is commonly used by residents.

The terms ‘local’, ‘local chat’, ‘open chat’ or ‘open’ are used to denote conversations that occur in public making it possible for anyone within in a given distance (typically 20 ‘metres’) to hear or read what is said verbally or textually. In this context LM means that she was continuously asking for help via text in ‘local chat’.

The term ‘noob’, ‘noobie’, ‘newb’ or ‘newbie’ is an expression used to denote someone who is relatively new and/or inexperienced in Second Life.

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Evans, S. (2011). The Self and Second Life: A Case Study Exploring the Emergence of Virtual Selves. In: Peachey, A., Childs, M. (eds) Reinventing Ourselves: Contemporary Concepts of Identity in Virtual Worlds. Springer Series in Immersive Environments. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-85729-361-9_3

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• Published: 11 May 2024

Does a perceptual gap lead to actions against digital misinformation? A third-person effect study among medical students

• Zongya Li   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4479-5971 1 &
• Jun Yan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9539-8466 1  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  1291 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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We are making progress in the fight against health-related misinformation, but mass participation and active engagement are far from adequate. Focusing on pre-professional medical students with above-average medical knowledge, our study examined whether and how third-person perceptions (TPP), which hypothesize that people tend to perceive media messages as having a greater effect on others than on themselves, would motivate their actions against misinformation.

We collected the cross-sectional data through a self-administered paper-and-pencil survey of 1,500 medical students in China during April 2022.

Structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis, showed that TPP was negatively associated with medical students’ actions against digital misinformation, including rebuttal of misinformation and promotion of corrective information. However, self-efficacy and collectivism served as positive predictors of both actions. Additionally, we found professional identification failed to play a significant role in influencing TPP, while digital misinformation self-efficacy was found to broaden the third-person perceptual gap and collectivism tended to reduce the perceptual bias significantly.

Conclusions

Our study contributes both to theory and practice. It extends the third-person effect theory by moving beyond the examination of restrictive actions and toward the exploration of corrective and promotional actions in the context of misinformation., It also lends a new perspective to the current efforts to counter digital misinformation; involving pre-professionals (in this case, medical students) in the fight.

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Introduction

The widespread persistence of misinformation in the social media environment calls for effective strategies to mitigate the threat to our society [ 1 ]. Misinformation has received substantial scholarly attention in recent years [ 2 ], and solution-oriented explorations have long been a focus but the subject remains underexplored [ 3 ].

Health professionals, particularly physicians and nurses, are highly expected to play a role in the fight against misinformation as they serve as the most trusted information sources regarding medical topics [ 4 ]. However, some barriers, such as limitations regarding time and digital skills, greatly hinder their efforts to tackle misinformation on social media [ 5 ].

Medical students (i.e., college students majoring in health/medical science), in contrast to medical faculty, have a greater potential to become the major force in dealing with digital misinformation as they are not only equipped with basic medical knowledge but generally possess greater social media skills than the former generation [ 6 ]. Few studies, to our knowledge, have tried to explore the potential of these pre-professionals in tackling misinformation. Our research thus fills the gap by specifically exploring how these pre-professionals can be motivated to fight against digital health-related misinformation.

The third-person perception (TPP), which states that people tend to perceive media messages as having a greater effect on others than on themselves [ 7 ], has been found to play an important role in influencing individuals’ coping strategies related to misinformation. But empirical exploration from this line of studies has yielded contradictory results. Some studies revealed that individuals who perceived a greater negative influence of misinformation on others than on themselves were more likely to take corrective actions to debunk misinformation [ 8 ]. In contrast, some research found that stronger TPP reduced individuals’ willingness to engage in misinformation correction [ 9 , 10 ]. Such conflicting findings impel us to examine the association between the third-person perception and medical students’ corrective actions in response to misinformation, thus attempting to unveil the underlying mechanisms that promote or inhibit these pre-professionals’ engagement with misinformation.

Researchers have also identified several perceptual factors that motivate individuals’ actions against misinformation, especially efficacy-related concepts (e.g., self-efficacy and health literacy) and normative variables (e.g., subjective norms and perceived responsibility) [ 3 , 8 , 9 ]. However, most studies devote attention to the general population; little is known about whether and how these factors affect medical students’ intentions to deal with misinformation. We recruited Chinese medical students in order to study a social group that is mutually influenced by cultural norms (collectivism in Chinese society) and professional norms. Meanwhile, systematic education and training equip medical students with abundant clinical knowledge and good levels of eHealth literacy [ 5 ], which enable them to have potential efficacy in tackling misinformation. Our study thus aims to examine how medical students’ self-efficacy, cultural norms (i.e., collectivism) and professional norms (i.e., professional identification) impact their actions against misinformation.

Previous research has found self-efficacy to be a reliable moderator of optimistic bias, the tendency for individuals to consider themselves as less likely to experience negative events but more likely to experience positive events as compared to others [ 11 , 12 , 13 ]. As TPP is thought to be a product of optimistic bias, accordingly, self-efficacy should have the potential to influence the magnitude of third-person perception [ 14 , 15 ]. Meanwhile, scholars also suggest that the magnitude of TPP is influenced by social distance corollary [ 16 , 17 ]. Simply put, individuals tend to perceive those who are more socially distant from them to be more susceptible to the influence of undesirable media than those who are socially proximal [ 18 , 19 , 20 ]. From a social identity perspective, collectivism and professional identification might moderate the relative distance between oneself and others while the directions of such effects differ [ 21 , 22 ]. For example, collectivists tend to perceive a smaller social distance between self and others as “they are less likely to view themselves as distinct or unique from others” [ 23 ]. In contrast, individuals who are highly identified with their professional community (i.e., medical community) are more likely to perceive a larger social distance between in-group members (including themselves) and out-group members [ 24 ]. In this way, collectivism and professional identification might exert different effects on TPP. On this basis, this study aims to examine whether and how medical students’ perceptions of professional identity, self-efficacy and collectivism influence the magnitude of TPP and in turn influence their actions against misinformation.

Our study builds a model that reflects the theoretical linkages among self-efficacy, collectivism, professional identity, TPP, and actions against misinformation. The model, which clarifies the key antecedents of TPP and examines the mediating role of TPP, contribute to the third-person effect literature and offer practical contributions to countering digital misinformation.

Context of the study

As pre-professionals equipped with specialized knowledge and skills, medical students have been involved in efforts in health communication and promotion during the pandemic. For instance, thousands of medical students have participated in various volunteering activities in the fight against COVID-19, such as case data visualization [ 25 ], psychological counseling [ 26 ], and providing online consultations [ 27 ]. Due to the shortage of medical personnel and the burden of work, some medical schools also encouraged their students to participate in health care assistance in hospitals during the pandemic [ 28 , 29 ].

The flood of COVID-19 related misinformation has posed an additional threat to and burden on public health. We have an opportunity to address this issue and respond to the general public’s call for guidance from the medical community about COVID-19 by engaging medical students as a main force in the fight against coronavirus related misinformation.

Literature review

The third-person effect in the misinformation context.

Originally proposed by Davison [ 7 ], the third-person effect hypothesizes that people tend to perceive a greater effect of mass media on others than on themselves. Specifically, the TPE consists of two key components: the perceptual and the behavioral [ 16 ]. The perceptual component centers on the perceptual gap where individuals tend to perceive that others are more influenced by media messages than themselves. The behavioral component refers to the behavioral outcomes of the self-other perceptual gap in which people act in accordance with such perceptual asymmetry.

According to Perloff [ 30 ], the TPE is contingent upon situations. For instance, one general finding suggests that when media messages are considered socially undesirable, nonbeneficial, or involving risks, the TPE will get amplified [ 16 ]. Misinformation characterized as inaccurate, misleading, and even false, is regarded as undesirable in nature [ 31 ]. Based on this line of reasoning, we anticipate that people will tend to perceive that others would be more influenced by misinformation than themselves.

Recent studies also provide empirical evidence of the TPE in the context of misinformation [ 32 ]. For instance, an online survey of 511 Chinese respondents conducted by Liu and Huang [ 33 ] revealed that individuals would perceive others to be more vulnerable to the negative influence of COVID-19 digital disinformation. An examination of the TPE within a pre-professional group – the medical students–will allow our study to examine the TPE scholarship in a particular population in the context of tackling misinformation.

Why TPE occurs among medical students: a social identity perspective

Of the works that have provided explanations for the TPE, the well-known ones include self-enhancement [ 34 ], attributional bias [ 35 ], self-categorization theory [ 36 ], and the exposure hypothesis [ 19 ]. In this study, we argue for a social identity perspective as being an important explanation for third-person effects of misinformation among medical students [ 36 , 37 ].

The social identity explanation suggests that people define themselves in terms of their group memberships and seek to maintain a positive self-image through favoring the members of their own groups over members of an outgroup, which is also known as downward comparison [ 38 , 39 ]. In intergroup settings, the tendency to evaluate their ingroups more positively than the outgroups will lead to an ingroup bias [ 40 ]. Such an ingroup bias is typically described as a trigger for the third-person effect as individuals consider themselves and their group members superior and less vulnerable to undesirable media messages than are others and outgroup members [ 20 ].

In the context of our study, medical students highly identified with the medical community tend to maintain a positive social identity through an intergroup comparison that favors the ingroup and derogates the outgroup (i.e., the general public). It is likely that medical students consider themselves belonging to the medical community and thus are more knowledgeable and smarter than the general public in health-related topics, leading them to perceive the general public as more vulnerable to health-related misinformation than themselves. Accordingly, we propose the following hypothesis:

H1: As medical students’ identification with the medical community increases, the TPP concerning digital misinformation will become larger.

What influences the magnitude of TPP

Previous studies have demonstrated that the magnitude of the third-person perception is influenced by a host of factors including efficacy beliefs [ 3 ] and cultural differences in self-construal [ 22 , 23 ]. Self-construal is defined as “a constellation of thoughts, feelings, and actions concerning the relationship of the self to others, and the self as distinct from others” [ 41 ]. Markus and Kitayama (1991) identified two dimensions of self-construal: Independent and interdependent. Generally, collectivists hold an interdependent view of the self that emphasizes harmony, relatedness, and places importance on belonging, whereas individualists tend to have an independent view of the self and thus view themselves as distinct and unique from others [ 42 ]. Accordingly, cultural values such as collectivism-individualism should also play a role in shaping third-person perception due to the adjustment that people make of the self-other social identity distance [ 22 ].

Set in a Chinese context aiming to explore the potential of individual-level approaches to deal with misinformation, this study examines whether collectivism (the prevailing cultural value in China) and self-efficacy (an important determinant of ones’ behavioral intentions) would affect the magnitude of TPP concerning misinformation and how such impact in turn would influence their actions against misinformation.

The impact of self-efficacy on TPP

Bandura [ 43 ] refers to self-efficacy as one’s perceived capability to perform a desired action required to overcome barriers or manage challenging situations. He also suggests understanding self-efficacy as “a differentiated set of self-beliefs linked to distinct realms of functioning” [ 44 ]. That is to say, self-efficacy should be specifically conceptualized and operationalized in accordance with specific contexts, activities, and tasks [ 45 ]. In the context of digital misinformation, this study defines self-efficacy as one’s belief in his/her abilities to identify and verify misinformation within an affordance-bounded social media environment [ 3 ].

Previous studies have found self-efficacy to be a reliable moderator of biased optimism, which indicates that the more efficacious individuals consider themselves, the greater biased optimism will be invoked [ 12 , 23 , 46 ]. Even if self-efficacy deals only with one’s assessment of self in performing a task, it can still create the other-self perceptual gap; individuals who perceive a higher self-efficacy tend to believe that they are more capable of controlling a stressful or challenging situation [ 12 , 14 ]. As such, they are likely to consider themselves less vulnerable to negative events than are others [ 23 ]. That is, individuals with higher levels of self-efficacy tend to underestimate the impact of harmful messages on themselves, thereby widening the other-self perceptual gap.

In the context of fake news, which is closely related to misinformation, scholars have confirmed that fake news efficacy (i.e., a belief in one’s capability to evaluate fake news [ 3 ]) may lead to a larger third-person perception. Based upon previous research evidence, we thus propose the following hypothesis:

H2: As medical students’ digital misinformation self-efficacy increases, the TPP concerning digital misinformation will become larger.

The influence of collectivism on TPP

Originally conceptualized as a societal-level construct [ 47 ], collectivism reflects a culture that highlights the importance of collective goals over individual goals, defines the self in relation to the group, and places great emphasis on conformity, harmony and interdependence [ 48 ]. Some scholars propose to also examine cultural values at the individual level as culture is embedded within every individual and could vary significantly among individuals, further exerting effects on their perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors [ 49 ]. Corresponding to the construct at the macro-cultural level, micro-psychometric collectivism which reflects personality tendencies is characterized by an interdependent view of the self, a strong sense of other-orientation, and a great concern for the public good [ 50 ].

A few prior studies have indicated that collectivism might influence the magnitude of TPP. For instance, Lee and Tamborini [ 23 ] found that collectivism had a significant negative effect on the magnitude of TPP concerning Internet pornography. Such an impact can be understood in terms of biased optimism and social distance. Collectivists tend to view themselves as an integral part of a greater social whole and consider themselves less differentiated from others [ 51 ]. Collectivism thus would mitigate the third-person perception due to a smaller perceived social distance between individuals and other social members and a lower level of comparative optimism [ 22 , 23 ]. Based on this line of reasoning, we thus propose the following hypothesis:

H3: As medical students’ collectivism increases, the TPP concerning digital misinformation will become smaller.

Behavioral consequences of TPE in the misinformation context

The behavioral consequences trigged by TPE have been classified into three categories: restrictive actions refer to support for censorship or regulation of socially undesirable content such as pornography or violence on television [ 52 ]; corrective action is a specific type of behavior where people seek to voice their own opinions and correct the perceived harmful or ambiguous messages [ 53 ]; promotional actions target at media content with desirable influence, such as advocating for public service announcements [ 24 ]. In a word, restriction, correction and promotion are potential behavioral outcomes of TPE concerning messages with varying valence of social desirability [ 16 ].

Restrictive action as an outcome of third-person perceptual bias (i.e., the perceptual component of TPE positing that people tend to perceive media messages to have a greater impact on others than on themselves) has received substantial scholarly attention in past decades; scholars thus suggest that TPE scholarship to go beyond this tradition and move toward the exploration of corrective and promotional behaviors [ 16 , 24 ]. Moreover, individual-level corrective and promotional actions deserve more investigation specifically in the context of countering misinformation, as efforts from networked citizens have been documented as an important supplement beyond institutional regulations (e.g., drafting policy initiatives to counter misinformation) and platform-based measures (e.g., improving platform algorithms for detecting misinformation) [ 8 ].

In this study, corrective action specifically refers to individuals’ reactive behaviors that seek to rectify misinformation; these include such actions as debunking online misinformation by commenting, flagging, or reporting it [ 3 , 54 ]. Promotional action involves advancing correct information online, including in response to misinformation that has already been disseminated to the public [ 55 ].

The impact of TPP on corrective and promotional actions

Either paternalism theory [ 56 ] or the protective motivation theory [ 57 ] can act as an explanatory framework for behavioral outcomes triggered by third-person perception. According to these theories, people act upon TPP as they think themselves to know better and feel obligated to protect those who are more vulnerable to negative media influence [ 58 ]. That is, corrective and promotional actions as behavioral consequences of TPP might be driven by a protective concern for others and a positive sense of themselves.

To date, several empirical studies across contexts have examined the link between TPP and corrective actions. Koo et al. [ 8 ], for instance, found TPP was not only positively related to respondents’ willingness to correct misinformation propagated by others, but also was positively associated with their self-correction. Other studies suggest that TPP motivates individuals to engage in both online and offline corrective political participation [ 59 ], give a thumbs down to a biased story [ 60 ], and implement corrective behaviors concerning “problematic” TV reality shows [ 16 ]. Based on previous research evidence, we thus propose the following hypothesis:

H4: Medical students with higher degrees of TPP will report greater intentions to correct digital misinformation.

Compared to correction, promotional behavior has received less attention in the TPE research. Promotion commonly occurs in a situation where harmful messages have already been disseminated to the public and others appear to have been influenced by these messages, and it serves as a remedial action to amplify messages with positive influence which may in turn mitigate the detrimental effects of harmful messages [ 16 ].

Within this line of studies, however, empirical studies provide mixed findings. Wei and Golan [ 24 ] found a positive association between TPP of desirable political ads and promotional social media activism such as posting or linking the ad on their social media accounts. Sun et al. [ 16 ] found a negative association between TPP regarding clarity and community-connection public service announcements (PSAs) and promotion behaviors such as advocating for airing more PSAs in TV shows.

As promotional action is still underexplored in the TPE research, and existing evidence for the link between TPP and promotion is indeed mixed, we thus propose an exploratory research question:

RQ1: What is the relationship between TPP and medical students’ intentions to promote corrective information?

The impact of self-efficacy and collectivism on actions against misinformation

According to social cognitive theory, people with higher levels of self-efficacy tend to believe they are competent and capable and are more likely to execute specific actions [ 43 ]. Within the context of digital misinformation, individuals might become more willing to engage in misinformation correction if they have enough knowledge and confidence to evaluate information, and possess sufficient skills to verify information through digital tools and services [ 61 ].

Accordingly, we assumed medical students with higher levels of digital misinformation self-efficacy would be likely to become more active in the fight against misinformation.

H5: Medical students with higher levels of digital misinformation self-efficacy will report greater intentions to (a) correct misinformation and (b) promote corrective information on social media.

Social actions of collectivists are strongly guided by prevailing social norms, collective responsibilities, and common interest, goals, and obligations [ 48 ]. Hence, highly collectivistic individuals are more likely to self-sacrifice for group interests and are more oriented toward pro-social behaviors, such as adopting pro-environmental behaviors [ 62 ], sharing knowledge [ 23 ], and providing help for people in need [ 63 ].

Fighting against misinformation is also considered to comprise altruism, especially self-engaged corrective and promotional actions, as such actions are costly to the actor (i.e., taking up time and energy) but could benefit the general public [ 61 ]. Accordingly, we assume collectivism might play a role in prompting people to engage in reactive behaviors against misinformation.

It is also noted that collectivist values are deeply rooted in Chinese society and were especially strongly advocated during the outbreak of COVID-19 with an attempt to motivate prosocial behaviors [ 63 ]. Accordingly, we expected that the more the medical students were oriented toward collectivist values, the more likely they would feel personally obliged and normatively motivated to engage in misinformation correction. However, as empirical evidence was quite limited, we proposed exploratory research questions:

RQ2: Will medical students with higher levels of collectivism report greater intentions to (a) correct misinformation and (b) promote corrective information on social media?

The theoretical model

To integrate both the antecedents and consequences of TPP, we proposed a theoretical model (as shown in Fig. 1 ) to examine how professional identification, self-efficacy and collectivism would influence the magnitude of TPP, and how such impact would in turn influence medical students’ intentions to correct digital misinformation and promote corrective information. Thus, RQ3 was proposed:

RQ3: Will the TPP mediate the impact of self-efficacy and collectivism on medical students’ intentions to (a) correct misinformation, and (b) promote corrective information on social media? Fig. 1 The proposed theoretical model. DMSE = Digital Misinformation Self-efficacy; PIMC = Professional Identification with Medical Community; ICDM = Intention to Correct Digital Misinformation; IPCI = Intention to Promote Corrective Information Full size image

To examine the proposed hypotheses, this study utilized cross-sectional survey data from medical students in Tongji Medical College (TJMC) of China. TJMC is one of the birthplaces of Chinese modern medical education and among the first universities and colleges that offer eight-year curricula on clinical medicine. Further, TJMC is located in Wuhan, the epicenter of the initial COVID-19 outbreaks, thus its students might find the pandemic especially relevant – and threatening – to them.

The survey instrument was pilot tested using a convenience sample of 58 respondents, leading to minor refinements to a few items. Upon approval from the university’s Institutional Research Board (IRB), the formal investigation was launched in TJMC during April 2022. Given the challenges of reaching the whole target population and acquiring an appropriate sampling frame, this study employed purposive and convenience sampling.

We first contacted four school counselors as survey administrators through email with a letter explaining the objective of the study and requesting cooperation. All survey administrators were trained by the principal investigator to help with the data collection in four majors (i.e., basic medicine, clinical medicine, nursing, and public health). Paper-and-pencil questionnaires were distributed to students on regular weekly departmental meetings of each major as students in all grades (including undergraduates, master students, and doctoral students) were required to attend the meeting. The projected time of completion of the survey was approximately 10–15 min. The survey administrators indicated to students that participation was voluntary, their responses would remain confidential and secure, and the data would be used only for academic purposes. Though a total of 1,500 participants took the survey, 17 responses were excluded from the analysis as they failed the attention filters. Ultimately, a total of 1,483 surveys were deemed valid for analysis.

Of the 1,483 respondents, 624 (42.10%) were men and 855 (57.70%) were women, and four did not identify gender. The average age of the sample was 22.00 ( SD  = 2.54, ranging from 17 to 40). Regarding the distribution of respondents’ majors, 387 (26.10%) were in basic medicine, 390 (26.30%) in clinical medicine, 307 (20.70%) in nursing, and 399 (26.90%) in public health. In terms of university class, 1,041 (70.40%) were undergraduates, 291 (19.70%) were working on their master degrees, 146 (9.90%) were doctoral students, and five did not identify their class data.

Measurement of key variables

Perceived effects of digital misinformation on oneself and on others.

Three modified items adapted from previous research [ 33 , 64 ] were employed to measure perceived effects of digital misinformation on oneself. Respondents were asked to indicate to what extent they agreed with the following: (1) I am frequently concerned that the information about COVID-19 I read on social media might be false; (2) Misinformation on social media might misguide my understanding of the coronavirus; (3) Misinformation on social media might influence my decisions regarding COVID-19. The response categories used a 7-point scale, where 1 meant “strongly disagree” and 7 meant “strongly agree.” The measure of perceived effects of digital misinformation on others consisted of four parallel items with the same statement except replacing “I” and “my” with “the general others” and “their”. The three “self” items were averaged to create a measure of “perceived effects on oneself” ( M  = 3.98, SD  = 1.49, α  = 0.87). The three “others” items were also added and averaged to form an index of “perceived effects on others” ( M  = 4.62, SD  = 1.32, α  = 0.87).

The perceived self-other disparity (TPP)

TPP was derived by subtracting perceived effects on oneself from perceived effects on others.

Professional identification with medical community

Professional identification was measured using a three item, 7-point Likert-type scale (1 =  strongly disagree , 7 =  strongly agree ) adapted from previous studies [ 65 , 66 ] by asking respondents to indicate to what extent they agreed with the following statements: (1) I would be proud to be a medical staff member in the future; (2) I am committed to my major; and (3) I will be in an occupation that matches my current major. The three items were thus averaged to create a composite measure of professional identification ( M  = 5.34, SD  = 1.37, α  = 0.88).

Digital misinformation self-efficacy

Modified from previous studies [ 3 ], self-efficacy was measured with three items. Respondents were asked to indicate on a 7-point Linkert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) their agreement with the following: (1) I think I can identify misinformation relating to COVID-19 on social media by myself; (2) I know how to verify misinformation regarding COVID-19 by using digital tools such as Tencent Jiaozhen Footnote 1 and Piyao.org.cn Footnote 2 ; (3) I am confident in my ability to identify digital misinformation relating to COVID-19. A composite measure of self-efficacy was constructed by averaging the three items ( M  = 4.38, SD  = 1.14, α  = 0.77).

• Collectivism

Collectivism was measured using four items adapted from previous research [ 67 ], in which respondents were asked to indicate their agreement with the following statements on a 7-point scale, from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree): (1) Individuals should sacrifice self-interest for the group; (2) Group welfare is more important than individual rewards; (3) Group success is more important than individual success; and (4) Group loyalty should be encouraged even if individual goals suffer. Therefore, the average of the four items was used to create a composite index of collectivism ( M  = 4.47, SD  = 1.30, α  = 0.89).

Intention to correct digital misinformation

We used three items adapted from past research [ 68 ] to measure respondents’ intention to correct misinformation on social media. All items were scored on a 7-point scale from 1 (very unlikely) to 7 (very likely): (1) I will post a comment saying that the information is wrong; (2) I will message the person who posts the misinformation to tell him/her the post is wrong; (3) I will track the progress of social media platforms in dealing with the wrong post (i.e., whether it’s deleted or corrected). A composite measure of “intention to correct digital misinformation” was constructed by adding the three items and dividing by three ( M  = 3.39, SD  = 1.43, α  = 0.81).

Intention to promote corrective information

On a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (very unlikely) to 7 (very likely), respondents were asked to indicate their intentions to (1) Retweet the corrective information about coronavirus on my social media account; (2) Share the corrective information about coronavirus with others through Social Networking Services. The two items were averaged to create a composite measure of “intention to promote corrective information” ( M  = 4.60, SD  = 1.68, r  = 0.77).

Control variables

We included gender, age, class (1 = undergraduate degree; 2 = master degree; 3 = doctoral degree), and clinical internship (0 = none; 1 = less than 0.5 year; 2 = 0.5 to 1.5 years; 3 = 1.5 to 3 years; 4 = more than 3 years) as control variables in the analyses. Additionally, coronavirus-related information exposure (i.e., how frequently they were exposed to information about COVID-19 on Weibo, WeChat, and QQ) and misinformation exposure on social media (i.e., how frequently they were exposed to misinformation about COVID-19 on Weibo, WeChat, and QQ) were also assessed as control variables because previous studies [ 69 , 70 ] had found them relevant to misinformation-related behaviors. Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations between main variables were shown in Table 1 .

Statistical analysis

We ran confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in Mplus (version 7.4, Muthén & Muthén, 1998) to ensure the construct validity of the scales. To examine the associations between variables and tested our hypotheses, we performed structural equation modeling (SEM). Mplus was chosen over other SEM statistical package mainly because the current data set included some missing data, and the Mplus has its strength in handling missing data using full-information maximum likelihood imputation, which enabled us to include all available data [ 71 , 72 ]. Meanwhile, Mplus also shows great flexibility in modelling when simultaneously handling continuous, categorical, observed, and latent variables in a variety of models. Further, Mplus provides a variety of useful information in a concise manner [ 73 ].

Table 2 shows the model fit information for the measurement and structural models. Five latent variables were specified in the measurement model. To test the measurement model, we examined the values of Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability (CR), and average variance extracted (AVE) (Table 1 ). Cronbach’s alpha values ranged from 0.77 to 0.89. The CRs, which ranged from 0.78 to 0.91, exceeded the level of 0.70 recommended by Fornell (1982) and thus confirmed the internal consistency. The AVE estimates, which ranged from 0.54 to 0.78, exceeded the 0.50 lower limit recommended by Fornell and Larcker (1981), and thus supported convergent validity. All the square roots of AVE were greater than the off-diagonal correlations in the corresponding rows and columns [ 74 ]. Therefore, discriminant validity was assured. In a word, our measurement model showed sufficient convergence and discriminant validity.

Five model fit indices–the relative chi-square ratio (χ 2 / df ), the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and the standardized root-mean-square residual (SRMR) were used to assess the model. Specifically, the normed chi-square between 1 and 5 is acceptable [ 75 ]. TLI and CFI over 0.95 are considered acceptable, SRMR value less than 0.08 and RMSEA value less than 0.06 indicate good fit [ 76 ]. Based on these criteria, the model was found to have an acceptable fit to the data.

Figure 2 presents the results of our hypothesized model. H1 was rejected as professional identification failed to predict TPP ( β  = 0.06, p  > 0.05). Self-efficacy was positively associated with TPP ( β  = 0.14, p  < 0.001) while collectivism was negatively related to TPP ( β  = -0.10, p  < 0.01), lending support to H2 and H3.

Note. N  = 1,483. The coefficients of relationships between latent variables are standardized beta coefficients. Significant paths are indicated by solid line; non-significant paths are indicated by dotted lines. * p  < .05, ** p  < .01; *** p  < .001. DMSE = Digital Misinformation Self-efficacy; PIMC = Professional Identification with Medical Community; ICDM = Intention to Correct Digital Misinformation; IPCI = Intention to Promote Corrective Information

H4 posited that medical students with higher degrees of TPP would report greater intentions to correct digital misinformation. However, we found a negative association between TPP and intentions to correct misinformation ( β  = -0.12, p  < 0.001). H4 was thus rejected. Regarding RQ1, results revealed that TPP was negatively associated with intentions to promote corrective information ( β  = -0.08, p  < 0.05).

Further, our results supported H5 as we found that self-efficacy had a significant positive relationship with corrective intentions ( β  = 0.18, p  < 0.001) and promotional intentions ( β  = 0.32, p  < 0.001). Collectivism was also positively associated with intentions to correct misinformation ( β  = 0.14, p  < 0.001) and promote corrective information ( β  = 0.20, p  < 0.001), which answered RQ2.

Regarding RQ3 (see Table 3 ), TPP significantly mediated the relationship between self-efficacy and intentions to correct misinformation ( β  = -0.016), as well as the relationship between self-efficacy and intentions to promote corrective information ( β  = -0.011). However, TPP failed to mediate either the association between collectivism and corrective intentions ( β  = 0.011, ns ) or the association between collectivism and promotional intentions ( β  = 0.007, ns ).

Recent research has highlighted the role of health professionals and scientists in the fight against misinformation as they are considered knowledgeable, ethical, and reliable [ 5 , 77 ]. This study moved a step further by exploring the great potential of pre-professional medical students to tackle digital misinformation. Drawing on TPE theory, we investigated how medical students perceived the impact of digital misinformation, the influence of professional identification, self-efficacy and collectivism on these perceptions, and how these perceptions would in turn affect their actions against digital misinformation.

In line with prior studies [ 3 , 63 ], this research revealed that self-efficacy and collectivism played a significant role in influencing the magnitude of third-person perception, while professional identification had no significant impact on TPP. As shown in Table 1 , professional identification was positively associated with perceived effects of misinformation on oneself ( r  = 0.14, p  < 0.001) and on others ( r  = 0.20, p  < 0.001) simultaneously, which might result in a diminished TPP. What explains a shared or joint influence of professional identification on self and others? A potential explanation is that even medical staff had poor knowledge about the novel coronavirus during the initial outbreak [ 78 ]. Accordingly, identification with the medical community was insufficient to create an optimistic bias concerning identifying misinformation about COVID-19.

Our findings indicated that TPP was negatively associated with medical students’ intentions to correct misinformation and promote corrective information, which contradicted our hypotheses but was consistent with some previous TPP research conducted in the context of perceived risk [ 10 , 79 , 80 , 81 ]. For instance, Stavrositu and Kim (2014) found that increased TPP regarding cancer risk was negatively associated with behavioral intentions to engage in further cancer information search/exchange, as well as to adopt preventive lifestyle changes. Similarly, Wei et al. (2008) found concerning avian flu news that TPP negatively predicted the likelihood of engaging in actions such as seeking relevant information and getting vaccinated. In contrast, the perceived effects of avian flu news on oneself emerged as a positive predictor of intentions to take protective behavior.

Our study shows a similar pattern as perceived effects of misinformation on oneself were positively associated with intentions to correct misinformation ( r  = 0.06, p  < 0.05) and promote corrective information ( r  = 0.10, p  < 0.001, See Table 1 ). While the reasons for the behavioral patterns are rather elusive, such findings are indicative of human nature. When people perceive misinformation-related risk to be highly personally relevant, they do not take chances. However, when they perceive others to be more vulnerable than themselves, a set of sociopsychological dynamics such as self-defense mechanism, positive illusion, optimistic bias, and social comparison provide a restraint on people’s intention to engage in corrective and promotional actions against misinformation [ 81 ].

In addition to the indirect effects via TPP, our study also revealed that self-efficacy and collectivism serve as direct and powerful drivers of corrective and promotive actions. Consistent with previous literature [ 61 , 68 ], individuals will be more willing to engage in social corrections of misinformation if they possess enough knowledge, skills, abilities, and resources to identify misinformation, as correcting misinformation is difficult and their effort would not necessarily yield positive outcomes. Collectivists are also more likely to engage in misinformation correction as they are concerned for the public good and social benefits, aiming to protect vulnerable people from being misguided by misinformation [ 82 ].

This study offers some theoretical advancements. First, our study extends the TPE theory by moving beyond the examination of restrictive actions and toward the exploration of corrective and promotional actions in the context of misinformation. This exploratory investigation suggests that self-other asymmetry biased perception concerning misinformation did influence individuals’ actions against misinformation, but in an unexpected direction. The results also suggest that using TPP alone to predict behavioral outcomes was deficient as it only “focuses on differences between ‘self’ and ‘other’ while ignoring situations in which the ‘self’ and ‘other’ are jointly influenced” [ 83 ]. Future research, therefore, could provide a more sophisticated understanding of third-person effects on behavior by comparing the difference of perceived effects on oneself, perceived effects on others, and the third-person perception in the pattern and strength of the effects on behavioral outcomes.

Moreover, institutionalized corrective solutions such as government and platform regulation are non-exhaustive [ 84 , 85 ]; it thus becomes critical to tap the great potential of the crowd to engage in the fight against misinformation [ 8 ] while so far, research on the motivations underlying users’ active countering of misinformation has been scarce. The current paper helps bridge this gap by exploring the role of self-efficacy and collectivism in predicting medical students’ intentions to correct misinformation and promote corrective information. We found a parallel impact of the self-ability-related factor and the collective-responsibility-related factor on intentions to correct misinformation and promote corrective information. That is, in a collectivist society like China, cultivating a sense of collective responsibility and obligation in tackling misinformation (i.e., a persuasive story told with an emphasis on collective interests of social corrections of misinformation), in parallel with systematic medical education and digital literacy training (particularly, handling various fact-checking tools, acquiring Internet skills for information seeking and verification) would be effective methods to encourage medical students to engage in active countering behaviors against misinformation. Moreover, such an effective means of encouraging social corrections of misinformation might also be applied to the general public.

In practical terms, this study lends new perspectives to the current efforts in dealing with digital misinformation by involving pre-professionals (in this case, medical students) into the fight against misinformation. As digital natives, medical students usually spend more time online, have developed sophisticated digital competencies and are equipped with basic medical knowledge, thus possessing great potential in tackling digital misinformation. This study further sheds light on how to motivate medical students to become active in thwarting digital misinformation, which can help guide strategies to enlist pre-professionals to reduce the spread and threat of misinformation. For example, collectivism education in parallel with digital literacy training would help increase medical students’ sense of responsibility for and confidence in tackling misinformation, thus encouraging them to engage in active countering behaviors.

This study also has its limitations. First, the cross-sectional survey study did not allow us to justify causal claims. Granted, the proposed direction of causality in this study is in line with extant theorizing, but there is still a possibility of reverse causal relationships. To establish causality, experimental research or longitudinal studies would be more appropriate. Our second limitation lies in the generalizability of our findings. With the focus set on medical students in Chinese society, one should be cautious in generalizing the findings to other populations and cultures. For example, the effects of collectivism on actions against misinformation might differ in Eastern and Western cultures. Further studies would benefit from replication in diverse contexts and with diverse populations to increase the overall generalizability of our findings.

Drawing on TPE theory, our study revealed that TPP failed to motivate medical students to correct misinformation and promote corrective information. However, self-efficacy and collectivism were found to serve as direct and powerful drivers of corrective and promotive actions. Accordingly, in a collectivist society such as China’s, cultivating a sense of collective responsibility in tackling misinformation, in parallel with efficient personal efficacy interventions, would be effective methods to encourage medical students, even the general public, to actively engage in countering behaviors against misinformation.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Tencent Jiaozhen Fact-Checking Platform which comprises the Tencent information verification tool allow users to check information authenticity through keyword searching. The tool is updated on a daily basis and adopts a human-machine collaboration approach to discovering, verifying, and refuting rumors and false information. For refuting rumors, Tencent Jiaozhen publishes verified content on the homepage of Tencent's rumor-refuting platform, and uses algorithms to accurately push this content to users exposed to the relevant rumors through the WeChat dispelling assistant.

Piyao.org.cn is hosted by the Internet Illegal Information Reporting Center under the Office of the Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission and operated by Xinhuanet.com. The platform is a website that collects statements from Twitter-like services, news portals and China's biggest search engine, Baidu, to refute online rumors and expose the scams of phishing websites. It has integrated over 40 local rumor-refuting platforms and uses artificial intelligence to identify rumors.

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Acknowledgements

We thank all participants and staff working for the project.

This work was supported by Humanities and Social Sciences Youth Foundation of the Ministry of Education of China (Grant No. 21YJC860012).

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Li, Z., Yan, J. Does a perceptual gap lead to actions against digital misinformation? A third-person effect study among medical students. BMC Public Health 24 , 1291 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18763-9

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Published : 11 May 2024

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Up to 40pc of mental health conditions are linked to child abuse and neglect, study finds

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In 1996, Ange McAuley was just 11 years old when ABC's Four Corners profiled her family living on Brisbane's outskirts.

At the time her mother was pregnant with her sixth child and her father had long ago moved back to Perth.

WARNING: This story contains details that may be distressing to some readers.

It was a story about child protection and the program was profiling the role of community volunteers helping her mother, who had been in and out of mental health wards.

Ange was the eldest and it fell to her to get her younger siblings ready for school.

By the time the new baby arrived, she would stay home and change nappies.

"It was pretty crazy back then — I wasn't going to school a lot," she said.

By that age she was already holding a secret — she'd been sexually abused at age six by her stepfather, who would later be convicted of the crime.

"Back in the nineties, a lot of people kept stuff hidden and it wasn't spoken about outside of the family," she said.

"I've carried all these big burdens that weren't even mine. Sexual abuse happened to me. I didn't ask for it."

She says the trauma triggered a lifetime of mental health problems from substance abuse and self-harm as a teen, right through to post-natal depression.

Hidden source of our mental health crisis

A new study from the University of Sydney's Matilda Centre has established just how much Australia's mental health crisis can be traced back to this kind of childhood abuse and neglect.

The research has found that childhood maltreatment is responsible for up to 41 per cent of common mental health conditions including anxiety, depression, substance abuse, self-harm and suicide attempts.

The research, which draws on a 2023 meta-analysis of 34 research studies covering 54,000 people, found maltreatment accounted for 41 per cent of suicide attempts in Australia, 35 per cent of self-harm cases and 21 per cent of depression episodes.

It defined childhood maltreatment as physical, sexual, emotional abuse, emotional or physical neglect and domestic violence before the age of 18.

Lead researcher Lucy Grummitt said it is the first piece of work to quantify the direct impact of child abuse on long-term mental health. 

It found if childhood maltreatment was eradicated it would avert more than 1.8 million cases of depression, anxiety and substance use disorders.

"It shows just how many people in Australia are suffering from mental health conditions that are potentially preventable," she said.

Dr Grummitt said they found in the year 2023 child maltreatment in Australia accounted for 66,143 years of life lost and 118,493 years lived with disability because of the associated mental health conditions.

"We know that when a child is exposed to this level of stress or trauma, it does trigger a lot of changes in the brain and body," Dr Grummitt said.

"Things like altering the body's stress response will make a child hyper-vigilant to threat. It can lead to difficulties with emotion regulation, being able to cope with difficult emotions."

While some areas of maltreatment are trending down, figures from the landmark Australian child maltreatment study last year show rising rates of sexual abuse by adolescents and emotional abuse.

That study found more than one in three females and one in seven males aged 16 to 24 had experienced childhood sexual abuse.

Dr Grummit says childhood trauma can affect how the brain processes emotions once children become teens.

"It could be teenagers struggling to really cope with difficult emotions and certainly trauma can play a huge role in causing those difficult emotions," she said.

Mental health scars emerge early

For Ange, the trauma of her early years first showed itself in adolescence when she started acting out — she remembers punching walls and cars, binge drinking and using drugs.

"I would get angry and just scream," she said.

"I used to talk back to the teachers. I didn't finish school. Mum kicked me out a lot as a teenager. I was back and forth between mum and dad's."

By the time she disclosed her abuse, she was self-harming and at one point tried to take her own life.

"I was just done," she said.

"I was sick of having to get up every day. I didn't want to do it anymore."

Later on, she would have inappropriate relationships with much older men and suffered from depression, including post-natal depression.

"It's definitely affected relationships, it's affected my friendships, it's affected my intimate relationships," she said.

"Flashbacks can come in at the most inappropriate times — you're back in that moment and you feel guilt and shame.

"I feel like it's held me back a lot."

Calls for mental health 'immunisation'

Dr Grummitt said childhood abuse and neglect should be treated as a national public health priority.

In Australia, suicide is the leading cause of death for young people. 

"It's critical that we are investing in prevention rather than putting all our investments into treatment of mental health problems," she said.

Her team has suggested child development and mental health check-ins become a regular feature across a person's lifetime and have proposed a mental health "immunisation schedule".

Chief executive of mental health charity Prevention United, Stephen Carbone, said they estimate that less than 1 per cent of mental health funding goes toward prevention.

"There's been a big steady increase in per capita funding for mental health over the last 30 years but that hasn't translated into reductions," Dr Carbone, a GP, said. 

"You're not going to be able to prevent mental health conditions unless you start to tackle some of these big causes, in particular child maltreatment."

He said most of Australia's child protection system was about reacting to problems rather than trying to prevent them.

"If you're not tackling the upstream risk factors or putting in place protective factors you just keep getting more and more young people experiencing problems and services being overwhelmed," he said.

Now a mother of two teens herself, Ange says she wants to break the cycle and has been going to therapy regularly to help identify and avoid destructive patterns that she's seen herself fall into.

"I love my girls so much and I want better for them."

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