speech definition by different authors

Definition of Language by Different Scholars and Linguists

Definition of language.

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What is the best way to communicate with yourself if you ask someone else? He will reply to you ‘definitely language’ without any hesitation or hindrance. So it’s easy to assume that language is the most influential way to communicate with each other.

But many of us want to answer the question ‘what is the definition of language’? Everybody can attempt this question and answer it somehow or another.

Nonetheless, we cannot find a single definition of language that has wholly explained the phenomenon in that particular question and given us satisfaction and stopped scholars, authors, and linguists from defining the exact answer to that question.

However, language is a complex human phenomenon, as all attempts to define it have proved inadequate. In brief, we can say, language is an ‘original noise’ used in actual social situations by human beings.

Language is a system of conventional, spoken, or written symbols utilizing which human beings are used to communicate.

Definition of Language by Different scholars

Let us now go through the definition of language delivered by different scholars, linguists, authors, and reference books.

Speech is the representation of the experience of the mind. According to Aristotle, language is a speech sound produced by human beings to express their ideas, emotions, thoughts, desires, and feelings.

Language is an arbitrary system of signs constituted of the signifier and signified. In other words, language is first a system based on no logic or reason, and Secondly, the system covers both objects and expressions used for objects.

Thirdly objects and expressions are arbitrarily linked. And finally, expressions include sounds and graphemes used by humans for generating speech and writing, respectively, for communication.

According to Sapir, language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires through a system of voluntarily produced sounds.

The definition of Sapir expresses that language is mainly concerned with only human beings and constitutes a system of sounds produced by them for communication.

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The totality of the utterances that can be made in a speech community is the language of that speech community.

Bloomfield’s definition of language focuses on the utterances produced by all the community’s people and hence overlooks writing. Besides, he stresses form, not meaning, as the basis of language.

Bloch and Trager

According to Bloch and Trager, a language is a system of arbitrary vocal sounds through a social group that cooperates.

Their definition of language points out that language is an arbitrary system, vocal sounds, a way of communication, and collectivity.

Noam Chomsky

Noam Chomsky says that language is the inherent capability of native speakers to understand and form grammatical sentences. A language is a set of (finite or infinite) sentences, each finite length constructed out of a limited set of elements.

This definition of language considers sentences as the basis of a language. Sentences may be limited or unlimited and are made up of only minor components.

Derbyshire says that language is undoubtedly a kind of communication among human beings. It consists primarily of vocal sounds, articulatory, systematic, symbolic, and arbitrary.

This definition of Derbyshire clearly utters, language is the best source of communication, and it also portrays how human language is formed and the fundamental principles of language.

According to Lyons, languages are the principal communication systems used by particular groups of human beings within the specific society of which they are members.

Especially Lyons points out that language is the best communicative system of human beings by particular social groups.

A language is a system of arbitrary vocal sounds used for human communication. This definition of language by Wardhaugh mainly insists on arbitrariness, vocal sounds, humans, and communication.

Indian linguist Patanjali utters that language is a human expression produced by different speech organs of human beings.

Through speech organs, humans produce several expressions converted to language.

Encyclopedia Britannica

According to the definition of  Encyclopedia Britannica , language is a system of conventional or written symbols through which human beings, as members of social groups and participants in their culture, communicate.

In other words, it says that language is a system of communication through which human beings express themselves.

Thus, we can say that language is a system of communication or arbitrary vocal sounds through which human beings communicate and interact with each other in their everyday lives.

There are approximately 6,500 spoken languages available in the entire world used by different social groups and cultures.

Bloomfield Leonard (1914): An introduction to the study of language. New York: Henry Holt and company. Chomsky, Noam (2000): The Architecture of Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lyons John (1981): Language and Linguistics: Cambridge University Press. Encyclopedia Britannica: Language | Definition, Characteristics & Change

Azizul Hakim is the founder & CEO of englishfinders.com . He is a passionate writer, English instructor, and content creator. He has completed his graduation and post-graduation in English language and literature.

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Mind blowing thats the thing i was wondering for

Informative

Informative. Thanks

Thank you so much❤️

Thanks a lot but, I was expecting to see the references of each definitions

For me I chose the definition of language of by Aristotle. Because I am more convince base on my own experience. Speech is the representation of the experience of the mind. When there is some thoughts in mind I can express this through words and with the help of action it is more understandable. My experienced in living Italy given me a new understanding about communicating. Because in order to communicate with them I also need to learn there language. It is more easy and comfortable when both person has the same language or they both know how to speak in another language. Thank you.

Please what are the strengths and weaknesses of these definitions by different linguistics

I was asked to write a short review of different definition of language and honestly I don’t know what to write.any help please?

Try to understand this lesson carefully.

Comprehensive and intelligible. Good work.

Perhaps could you tell me who wrote this article and when? I was hoping to cite it in my paper.

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“Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation." 1 Let’s pause and acknowledge the flashbacks to the grueling process of memorizing President Abraham Lincoln ’s famous speech “The Gettysburg Address ” (1863) in elementary or middle school. At the time, it wasn’t easy to understand the point of the assignment, but with age comes wisdom. More exposure to historical speeches shows their impact on society, including literature. Persuasive speeches have taken nations to war and changed moral views. Evaluating famous speeches teaches critical thinking and allows us to recognize the motives behind what our leaders tell us.

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True of false: A society's rhetoric is not influenced by its culture.

What differed between Greek and Roman rhetoric?

Which era's speeches were mostly religious?

What are the Five Canons of Rhetoric?

What is the rhetorical triangle?

How does a speech become classified as a work of literature?

Is it necessary to consider the audience when analyzing a speech?

True or False: Examining whether a speech uses proof to back its claims is an example of its ethos.

Most speeches that become works of literature are of which speech type?

Why does the definition of rhetoric keep changing?

Who was Malcolm X?

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Speech definition in literature

In literature, a speech is a public discourse performed by an orator. In other words, a person uses a public forum to inform, persuade, or entertain a group of people. Speeches help create a space for people to discuss policies that affect society, either after the decision or during the decision-making process. When a speech is widely believed to be particularly moving, it becomes classified as a work of literature.

History of public speaking

Egyptians were the first known society to formulate guidelines for effective public speaking. They believed speeches should focus on listening as much as speaking and that orators should carefully choose their words, emphasizing concepts with a sense of permanency. Their ideas about rhetoric mirrored their culture, as later eras would as well.

At its most basic, rhetoric is how we communicate. The discussion around a formal definition of rhetoric continues today because the ways we communicate change. Rhetorical analysis concentrated on oral and written communication for much of history, but visual media is now included in rhetorical studies. Applying rhetorical rules effectively in a speech requires language skills, cultural knowledge, and a working understanding of the purpose, context, and audience.

Classical Period (500-400 BC)

Ancient Greece picked up where the Egyptians left off, and as political participation was highly valued, rhetoric became a serious philosophical study.

Roman Era (30 BC-476 AD)

The Greeks’ eloquence influenced the Romans, so they began to devise their own rules of rhetoric. Their speeches included humor and diversions to create interest for the audience.

Medieval Era (400 AD-1400 AD)

Popular thought during the Medieval era considered rhetoric a way to manipulate and hide the truth. Speeches were mainly religious in nature.

Renaissance Period (1400-1600 AD)

As this period saw an increase in academic study, scholars began looking back at previous forms of speech-making. There was an increased focus on style and logic over rhetoric. Other scholars felt morality and ethics were essential parts of an effective speech.

Enlightenment Period (1600-1800 AD)

The Enlightenment took the best of the past and applied it to the present. Philosophers studied persuasiveness and rhetoric through the lens of scientific and moral reasoning. The Enlightenment period combined Rhetoric inspired by the Classical Era with new ideas about how speech delivery influenced audiences.

New School (1900-Today)

Classical rhetoric informs modern theories. Thanks to technology, speeches can now be pre-recorded and delivered over the internet in addition to live events. Podcasts, Ted Talks, YouTube, and video conferences are all ways modern speeches are delivered.

Types of speeches

There are three broad types of speeches:

• Entertaining: Speeches that deliver a message by stimulating their audience using humor or drama. Entertaining speeches are typical at special events such as weddings.
• A definition speech explains the main points of a topic so an audience will understand it better.
• A demonstration speech explains how something works.
• An explanatory speech usually uses statistics or other data types to describe a topic.
• A descriptive speech uses words to paint a picture of a subject.
• Persuasive: Speeches that try to influence an audience to believe or do something.

Persuasive speeches

Speeches that become known as works of literature are usually persuasive. The best way to persuade an audience has been studied since the Egyptians laid a foundation for rhetoric. However, philosophers throughout history have offered different theories regarding the most effective ways to use rhetoric to persuade an audience. As a result, much of what is taught today is actually thousands of years old.

Marcus Tullius Cicero of Ancient Rome established a five-step process for writing a persuasive speech that is still widely respected and used, called the Five Canons of Rhetoric (50 BC):

• Invention: How someone develops their idea. For example, to get ready for a political debate, a candidate will brainstorm about the main points they want to try to make.
• Arrangement: Deciding how the orator should organize the speech. Rather than diving right into the solution to a civil rights issue, a speechwriter first introduces the problem, so the audience knows why they’re supposed to act.
• Style: Language choices within the speech. For example, an orator should know their audience well enough to know whether or not humor will be appropriate.
• Memory: the act of memorizing a speech. To see why this is important, consider political leaders' consequences when they slip up mid-speech or misread words on a teleprompter.
• Delivery: How an orator presents the speech to the audience. People tend to trust a speaker who uses direct eye contact more than one who seems distracted because they keep looking down or off to the side.

Many of these guidelines can also be helpful when writing a paper.

Persuasive speech topics

Topics of a persuasive speech usually boil down to one of three types of debatable points:

• For example, the specific details surrounding a historical event can sometimes be debated.
• For example, public health is a policy issue.
• For example, a speaker's arguments for or against the death penalty are influenced by their values.

Evaluating speeches

A speech analysis essay examines how successfully a speech uses rhetorical devices to appeal to its audience.

The Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle established a formula known as the rhetorical triangle that balances three characteristics that work together to create a powerful speech:

• Logos (Word): In a speech, logos is the appeal to logic. In an analysis, look at how well the speech argues its main points.
• Ethos (Character): Ethos appeals to character, meaning it scrutinizes the reliability of the speech’s author. Ethos evaluates whether the speaker’s argument is credible.
• Pathos (Sympathy): Pathos appeals to the audience’s emotions. A speech analysis essay delves into the beliefs that underlie the argument and how they resonate with the audience.

Evaluate a speech using the rhetorical triangle and these guidelines:

What is the purpose of the speech?

Who is the target audience, and how does the speech appeal to them?

Does the speech back its claims with reliable proof?

Who is the speaker, and what is their effect on the speech?

How and where was the speech delivered?

Was the speech compelling? Why or why not?

Famous speeches in English Literature

Some speeches transcend their moment in time to become famous examples of the genre that continue to inspire others.

Demosthenes “Third Philippic” (341 BC)

Demosthenes was an Ancient Greek orator whose skills impressed Cicero three hundred years later. “Third Philippic” is the third speech Demosthenes made to his fellow Athenians to persuade them to go to war against Phillip of Macedon, who was creeping into their territory. After the speech, the Athenian Assembly immediately decided it was time to act.

Demosthenes studied for years to become one of the most respected orators in Athens (Ethos).

[I]n fact it is your indifference and carelessness that Phillip has conquered; your city he has not conquered. Nor have you been defeated–no! You have not even made a move. 2

Demosthenes calls out the Assembly’s previous inaction, which appealed to their sense of duty (pathos).

If we are going to wait for him to acknowledge a state of war with us, we are indeed the simplest of mortals; for even if he marches straight against Attica and the Piraeus, he will not admit it, if we may judge from his treatment of the other states. 2

Demosthenes provides proof of Phillip’s aggressive and devious behavior against other communities to convince the Assembly (logos).

George Washington “1783 Resignation Speech” (December 23, 1783)

George Washington commanded the Continental Army in the Revolutionary War and became the United States’ first President. He wrote this speech after the Revolutionary War was over and he had completed the duty bestowed on him.

One of the things Washington is famous for is that he didn’t seek out the offices he held. Instead, people saw his leadership qualities and asked him to serve. And when the job was done, Washington respectfully stepped away to let someone else take over (ethos).

The Successful termination of the War has verified the most sanguine expectations, and my gratitude for the interposition of Providence, and the assistance I have received from my Countrymen, encreases with every review of the momentous contest. 3

Washington compliments the men he fought with and thanks God for their success, which is even better than the most optimistic expectations as an appeal to Congress’s peace of mind (pathos).

Having now finished the work assigned to me, I retire from the great theatre of Action. 3

He logically argues that his job is complete because the war is won, so he is ready to stand aside (logos).

Sojourner Truth “Ain’t I A Woman?” (1851)

Sojourner Truth was a formerly enslaved person who became an activist. She gave the speech “Ain’t I A Woman?” at the Women’s Convention in Akron, Ohio, which calls out popular beliefs about race and gender.

Truth’s autobiography, The Narrative of Sojourner Truth (1850), brought her national attention, and she began speaking on various topics. She helped enslaved people escape slavery, and when the Civil War started, she encouraged African American men to help fight with the Union (Ethos).

I have borne thirteen children, and seen most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother’s grief, none but Jesus heard me! 4

Truth appeals to the audience’s beliefs about motherly love to question why her race sets her apart as deserving the right to vote along with other women (pathos).

Look at my arm! I have ploughed and planted, and gathered into barns, and no man could head me! . . . I could work as much and eat as much as a man–when I could get it–and bear the lash as well! 4

Truth argues that she has done as much work as any man, so if men can vote because they work, she should be allowed to vote also (logos).

Literary speeches meld rhetorical skills with creative writing. They transport the reader to their moment in history and inspire future generations to act. Literary speeches act as a time capsule that allows a glimpse into a famous (or infamous) person's thoughts and emotions and helps readers better understand their influence on society.

Speeches - Key takeaways

• When a speech is especially thought-provoking, it can become classified as a work of literature.
• Rhetoric looks at how we communicate. Rhetorical study requires language skills, cultural knowledge, and a working understanding of the purpose, context, and audience.
• Speeches that become works of literature are typically persuasive. Persuasive speech topics can be categorized as issues of fact, issues of policy, or issues of value.
• When evaluating a speech, examine its use of pathos, logos, and ethos.
• Great literary speeches invoke an emotional response thousands of years after they were written.
• Lincoln, Abraham. 1863 "The Gettysburg Address ." Abraham Lincoln Online. 2020
• Demosthenes. 341 BC "Third Philippic." The Bibliotheke.
• Washington, George. 1783 "Washington's Address to Congress Resigning His Commission." National Archives.
• Truth, Sojourner. 1851 "Ain't I A Woman?" Lit2Go
• Fig. 1: Poster announcing a lecture of Frederick Douglass, Public Domain, (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Poster_announcing_a_lecture_of_Frederick_Douglass.jpg)

Flashcards in Speeches 90

False: Studying the history of rhetoric shows that a society's rhetoric mirrors its culture.

Roman rhetoric was influenced by Greek rhetoric, but they added humor and diversions to their speeches.

All of the above

The rhetorical triangle was developed by Aristotle to explain how pathos, ethos, and logos work together to create a powerful speech.

A speech becomes classified as a work of literature when it is widely considered to be especially thought-provoking.

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Frequently Asked Questions about Speeches

What is speech in literature?

In literature, a speech is a public discourse performed by an orator. In other words, a person uses a public forum to inform, persuade, or entertain a group of people. When a speech is widely believed to be particularly moving, it becomes classified as a work of literature. 

What are the three main types of speeches?

The three main types of speeches are:

• Entertaining
• Informative

What are the four types of informative speeches?

The four types of informative speeches are:

• Demonstration
• Explanatory
• Descriptive

What is a speech analysis essay?

A speech analysis essay examines how successfully a speech uses rhetorical devices to appeal to its audience.  

What are some examples of famous speeches?

Some examples of famous speeches are:

• Demosthenes's "Third Philippic" (341 BC)
• George Washington's "Washington's Address to Congress Resigning His Commission" (1783)
• Sojourner Truth's "Ain't I A Woman?" (1851)

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Which era's speeches were mostly religious?

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• Introduction

Common figures of speech and their use

• The five major categories
• Figures of speech in non-Western languages

figure of speech

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• Academia - Figures of Speech
• Literary Devices - Figure of Speech
• Washington State University - Figures of Speech
• figure of speech - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
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figure of speech , any intentional deviation from literal statement or common usage that emphasizes, clarifies, or embellishes both written and spoken language . Forming an integral part of language, figures of speech are found in oral literatures as well as in polished poetry and prose and in everyday speech. Greeting-card rhymes, advertising slogans, newspaper headlines, the captions of cartoons, and the mottoes of families and institutions often use figures of speech, generally for humorous, mnemonic , or eye-catching purposes. The argots of sports , jazz , journalism, business, politics, or any specialized groups abound in figurative language.

Most figures in everyday speech are formed by extending the vocabulary of what is already familiar and better known to what is less well known. Thus metaphors (implied resemblances) derived from human physiology are commonly extended to nature or inanimate objects as in the expressions “the mouth of a river,” “the snout of a glacier,” “the bowels of the earth,” or “the eye of a needle.” Conversely, resemblances to natural phenomena are frequently applied to other areas, as in the expressions “a wave of enthusiasm,” “a ripple of excitement,” or “a storm of abuse.” Use of simile (a comparison, usually indicated by “like” or “as”) is exemplified in “We were packed in the room like sardines” or “He is as slow as molasses.” Personification (speaking of an abstract quality or inanimate object as if it were a person) is exemplified in “Money talks”; metonymy (using the name of one thing for another closely related to it), in “The power of the crown was mortally weakened,” where “crown” means “king” or “queen”); synecdoche (use of a part to imply the whole), in expressions such as “brass” for high-ranking military officers or “hard hats” for construction workers.

Other common forms of figurative speech are hyperbole (deliberate exaggeration for the sake of effect), as in “I’m so mad I could chew nails”; the rhetorical question (asked for effect, with no answer expected), as in “How can I express my thanks to you?”; litotes (conscious understatement in which emphasis is achieved by negation), as in “It’s no fun to be sick”; and onomatopoeia (imitation of natural sounds by words), in such words as “crunch,” “gurgle,” “plunk,” and “splash.”

Almost all the figures of speech that appear in everyday speech may also be found in literature . In serious poetry and prose, however, their use is more fully conscious, more artistic, and much more subtle; it thus has a stronger intellectual and emotional impact, is more memorable, and sometimes contributes a range and depth of association and suggestion far beyond the scope of the casual colloquial use of imagery. The Old and New Testaments of the Bible—an example of a work rich in simile , metaphor , personification, and parallelism (which is often used in Hebrew poetry)—is an important literary influence.

Informative Speeches — Types, Topics, and Examples

What is an informative speech.

An informative speech uses descriptions, demonstrations, and strong detail to explain a person, place, or subject. An informative speech makes a complex topic easier to understand and focuses on delivering information, rather than providing a persuasive argument.

Types of informative speeches

The most common types of informative speeches are definition, explanation, description, and demonstration.

A definition speech explains a concept, theory, or philosophy about which the audience knows little. The purpose of the speech is to inform the audience so they understand the main aspects of the subject matter.

An explanatory speech presents information on the state of a given topic. The purpose is to provide a specific viewpoint on the chosen subject. Speakers typically incorporate a visual of data and/or statistics.

The speaker of a descriptive speech provides audiences with a detailed and vivid description of an activity, person, place, or object using elaborate imagery to make the subject matter memorable.

A demonstrative speech explains how to perform a particular task or carry out a process. These speeches often demonstrate the following:

How to do something

How to make something

How to fix something

How something works

How to write an informative speech

Regardless of the type, every informative speech should include an introduction, a hook, background information, a thesis, the main points, and a conclusion.

Introduction

An attention grabber or hook draws in the audience and sets the tone for the speech. The technique the speaker uses should reflect the subject matter in some way (i.e., if the topic is serious in nature, do not open with a joke). Therefore, when choosing an attention grabber, consider the following:

What’s the topic of the speech?

What’s the occasion?

Who’s the audience?

What’s the purpose of the speech?

Common Attention Grabbers (Hooks)

Ask a question that allows the audience to respond in a non-verbal way (e.g., a poll question where they can simply raise their hands) or ask a rhetorical question that makes the audience think of the topic in a certain way yet requires no response.

Incorporate a well-known quote that introduces the topic. Using the words of a celebrated individual gives credibility and authority to the information in the speech.

Offer a startling statement or information about the topic, which is typically done using data or statistics. The statement should surprise the audience in some way.

Provide a brief anecdote that relates to the topic in some way.

Present a “what if” scenario that connects to the subject matter of the speech.

Identify the importance of the speech’s topic.

Starting a speech with a humorous statement often makes the audience more comfortable with the speaker.

Include any background information pertinent to the topic that the audience needs to know to understand the speech in its entirety.

The thesis statement shares the central purpose of the speech.

Demonstrate

Preview the main ideas that will help accomplish the central purpose. Typically, informational speeches will have an average of three main ideas.

Body paragraphs

Apply the following to each main idea (body) :

Identify the main idea ( NOTE: The main points of a demonstration speech would be the individual steps.)

Provide evidence to support the main idea

Explain how the evidence supports the main idea/central purpose

Transition to the next main idea

Review or restate the thesis and the main points presented throughout the speech.

Much like the attention grabber, the closing statement should interest the audience. Some of the more common techniques include a challenge, a rhetorical question, or restating relevant information:

Provide the audience with a challenge or call to action to apply the presented information to real life.

Detail the benefit of the information.

Close with an anecdote or brief story that illustrates the main points.

Leave the audience with a rhetorical question to ponder after the speech has concluded.

Detail the relevance of the presented information.

Before speech writing, brainstorm a list of informative speech topic ideas. The right topic depends on the type of speech, but good topics can range from video games to disabilities and electric cars to healthcare and mental health.

Informative speech topics

Some common informative essay topics for each type of informational speech include the following:

Informative speech examples

The following list identifies famous informational speeches:

“Duties of American Citizenship” by Theodore Roosevelt

“Duty, Honor, Country” by General Douglas MacArthur

“Strength and Dignity” by Theodore Roosevelt

Explanation

“Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death” by Patrick Henry

“The Decision to Go to the Moon” by John F. Kennedy

“We Shall Fight on the Beaches” by Winston Churchill

Description

“I Have a Dream” by Martin Luther King, Jr.

“Pearl Harbor Address” by Franklin Delano Roosevelt

“Luckiest Man” by Lou Gehrig

Demonstration

The Way to Cook with Julia Child

This Old House with Bob Vila

Bill Nye the Science Guy with Bill Nye

Module 6: Organizing and Outlining Your Speech

Methods of speech delivery, learning objectives.

Identify the four types of speech delivery methods and when to use them.

There are four basic methods of speech delivery: manuscript, memorized, impromptu, and extemporaneous. We’ll look at each method and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each.

A manuscript page from President George W. Bush’s address to the nation on the day of the 9/11 attacks in 2001.

A manuscript speech is when the speaker writes down every word they will speak during the speech. When they deliver the speech, they have each word planned and in front of them on the page, much like a newscaster who reads from a teleprompter.

The advantage of using a manuscript is that the speaker has access to every word they’ve prepared in advance. There is no guesswork or memorization needed. This method comforts some speakers’ nerves as they don’t have to worry about that moment where they might freeze and forget what they’ve planned to say. They also are able to make exact quotes from their source material.

When the exact wording of an idea is crucial, speakers often read from a manuscript, for instance in communicating public statements from a company.

However, the disadvantage with a manuscript is that the speakers have MANY words in front of them on the page. This prohibits one of the most important aspects of delivery, eye contact. When many words are on the page, the speakers will find themselves looking down at those words more frequently because they will need the help. If they do look up at the audience, they often cannot find their place when the eye returns to the page. Also, when nerves come into play, speakers with manuscripts often default to reading from the page and forget that they are not making eye contact or engaging their audience. Therefore, manuscript is a very difficult delivery method and not ideal.  Above all, the speakers should remember to rehearse with the script so that they practice looking up often.

Public Speaking in History

The fall of the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989, owed in large part to a momentary error made by an East German government spokesperson. At a live press conference, Günter Schabowski tried to explain new rules relaxing East Germany’s severe travel restrictions. A reporter asked, “when do these new rules go into effect?” Visibly flustered, Schabowski said, “As far as I know, it takes effect immediately, without delay.” In fact, the new visa application procedure was supposed to begin the following day, and with a lot of bureaucracy and red tape. Instead, thousands of East Berliners arrived within minutes at the border crossings, demanding to pass through immediately. The rest is history.

The outcome of this particular public-relations blunder was welcomed by the vast majority of East and West German citizens, and hastened the collapse of communism in Eastern and Central Europe. It’s probably good, then, that Schabowski ran this particular press conference extemporaneously, rather than reading from a manuscript.

You can view the transcript for “The mistake that toppled the Berlin Wall” here (opens in new window) .

A memorized speech is also fully prepared in advance and one in which the speaker does not use any notes. In the case of an occasion speech like a quick toast, a brief dedication, or a short eulogy, word-for-word memorization might make sense. Usually, though, it doesn’t involve committing each and every word to memory, Memorizing a speech isn’t like memorizing a poem where you need to remember every word exactly as written. Don’t memorize a manuscript! Work with your outline instead. Practice with the outline until you can recall the content and order of your main points without effort. Then it’s just a matter of practicing until you’re able to elaborate on your key points in a natural and seamless manner. Ideally, a memorized speech will sound like an off-the-cuff statement by someone who is a really eloquent speaker and an exceptionally organized thinker!

The advantage of a memorized speech is that the speaker can fully face their audience and make lots of eye contact. The problem with a memorized speech is that speakers may get nervous and forget the parts they’ve memorized. Without any notes to lean on, the speaker may hesitate and leave lots of dead air in the room while trying to recall what was planned. Sometimes, the speaker can’t remember or find his or her place in the speech and are forced to go get the notes or go back to the PowerPoint in some capacity to try to trigger his or her memory. This can be an embarrassing and uncomfortable moment for the speaker and the audience, and is a moment which could be easily avoided by using a different speaking method.

How to: memorize a speech

There are lots of tips out there about how to memorize speeches. Here’s one that loosely follows an ancient memorization strategy called the method of loci or “memory palace,” which uses visualizations of familiar spatial environments in order to enhance the recall of information.

You can view the transcript for “How to Memorize a Speech” here (opens in new window) .

An impromptu speech is one for which there is little to no preparation. There is often not a warning even that the person may be asked to speak. For example, your speech teacher may ask you to deliver a speech on your worst pet peeve. You may or may not be given a few minutes to organize your thoughts. What should you do? DO NOT PANIC. Even under pressure, you can create a basic speech that follows the formula of an introduction, body, and conclusion. If you have a few minutes, jot down some notes that fit into each part of the speech. (In fact, the phrase “speaking off the cuff,” which means speaking without preparation, probably refers to the idea that one would jot a few notes on one’s shirt cuff before speaking impromptu.) [1] ) An introduction should include an attention getter, introduction of the topic, speaker credibility, and forecasting of main points. The body should have two or three main points. The conclusion should have a summary, call to action, and final thought. If you can organize your thoughts into those three parts, you will sound like a polished speaker. Even if you only hit two of them, it will still help you to think about the speech in those parts. For example, if a speech is being given on a pet peeve of chewed gum being left under desks in classrooms, it might be organized like this.

• Introduction : Speaker chews gum loudly and then puts it under a desk (attention getter, demonstration). Speaker introduces themselves and the topic and why they’re qualified to speak on it (topic introduction and credibility). “I’m Katie Smith and I’ve been a student at this school for three years and witnessed this gum problem the entire time.”
• Body : Speaker states three main points of why we shouldn’t leave gum on desks: it’s rude, it makes custodians have to work harder, it affects the next student who gets nastiness on their seat (forecast of order). Speaker then discusses those three points
• Conclusion : Speaker summarizes those three points (summary, part 1 of conclusion), calls on the audience to pledge to never do this again (call to action), and gives a quote from Michael Jordan about respecting property (final thought).

While an impromptu speech can be challenging, the advantage is that it can also be thrilling as the speaker thinks off the cuff and says what they’re most passionate about in the moment. A speaker should not be afraid to use notes during an impromptu speech if they were given any time to organize their thoughts.

The disadvantage is that there is no time for preparation, so finding research to support claims such as quotes or facts cannot be included. The lack of preparation makes some speakers more nervous and they may struggle to engage the audience due to their nerves.

Extemporaneous

The last method of delivery we’ll look at is extemporaneous. When speaking extemporaneously, speakers prepare some notes in advance that help trigger their memory of what they planned to say. These notes are often placed on notecards. A 4”x6” notecard or 5”x7” size card works well. This size of notecards can be purchased at any office supply store. Speakers should determine what needs to go on each card by reading through their speech notes and giving themselves phrases to say out loud. These notes are not full sentences, but help the speakers, who turn them into a full sentence when spoken aloud. Note that if a quote is being used, listing that quote verbatim is fine.

The advantage of extemporaneous speaking is that the speakers are able to speak in a more conversational tone by letting the cards guide them, but not dictate every word they say. This method allows for the speakers to make more eye contact with the audience. The shorter note forms also prevent speakers from getting lost in their words. Numbering these cards also helps if one gets out of order. Also, these notes are not ones the teacher sees or collects. While you may be required to turn in your speech outline, your extemporaneous notecards are not seen by anyone but you. Therefore, you can also write yourself notes to speak up, slow down, emphasize a point, go to the next slide, etc.

The disadvantage to extemporaneous is the speakers may forget what else was planned to say or find a card to be out of order. This problem can be avoided through rehearsal and double-checking the note order before speaking.

Many speakers consider the extemporaneous method to be the ideal speaking method because it allows them to be prepared, keeps the audience engaged, and makes the speakers more natural in their delivery. In your public speaking class, most of your speeches will probably be delivered extemporaneously.

• As per the Oxford English Dictionary' s entry for "Off the Cuff." See an extensive discussion at Mark Liberman's Language Log here: https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=4130 ↵
• Method of loci definition. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_of_loci . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
• The mistake that toppled the Berlin Wall. Provided by : Vox. Located at : https://youtu.be/Mn4VDwaV-oo . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
• How to Memorize a Speech. Authored by : Memorize Academy. Located at : https://youtu.be/rvBw__VNrsc . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
• Address to the Nation. Provided by : U.S. National Archives. Located at : https://prologue.blogs.archives.gov/2011/09/06/911-an-address-to-the-nation/ . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
• Methods of Speech Delivery. Authored by : Misti Wills with Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution

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Definition of speech

• declamation

Examples of speech in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'speech.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

Middle English speche , from Old English sprǣc, spǣc ; akin to Old English sprecan to speak — more at speak

before the 12th century, in the meaning defined at sense 1a

Phrases Containing speech

• acceptance speech
• figure of speech
• freedom of speech
• free speech
• hate speech
• part of speech
• polite speech

speech community

• speech form
• speech impediment
• speech therapy
• stump speech
• visible speech

Dictionary Entries Near speech

Cite this entry.

“Speech.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/speech. Accessed 22 Aug. 2024.

Kids Definition

Kids definition of speech, medical definition, medical definition of speech, legal definition, legal definition of speech, more from merriam-webster on speech.

Nglish: Translation of speech for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of speech for Arabic Speakers

Britannica.com: Encyclopedia article about speech

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Definition of speech noun from the Oxford Advanced American Dictionary

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Speech and Language Definitions, What Is The difference between them?

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Last Updated on December 20, 2021 by Bilingual Kidspot

What is the Difference between Speech and Language?

Speech and Language can sometimes be confused and their definitions are often confused as the same thing.

However, there are many differences between Speech and Language.

Christina Evangelou, Speech Therapist who specializes in Bilingualism explains the Speech definition and Language definition, and the difference between the two:

Speech and Language – Is there a difference?

This is a question that many parents ask when I introduce myself as a Speech & Language Pathologist. They ask: “But aren’t speech and language the same thing?”

The answer is that they both fall under the umbrella of communication, but both language and speech are different communication tools.

Language can be conveyed/communicated through different modes, it can be spoken, written or signed!

All of these modes can be broken down to sentences, words, syllables and ultimately the smallest units- sounds.

Sounds combined make up speech and speech refers only to the spoken mode of communication .

The Iceberg of Speech and Language

This is best viewed as an iceberg analogy, where communication forms the entire iceberg.

Language Definition

Definition of Language: Language forms the base or submerged part of the iceberg. Language is composed of language:

• content/meaning which is also referred to as Semantics of language. For example “ rose ” refers to a flower but is also the past tense of the verb rise . This shows that the same word can have different meanings.
• form/structure which is also referred to as Syntax and morphology. For example: “ give ” “ gave ” and “ given ” all refer to the same action, but the meaning of sentence will change according to which form of the verb is used.
• use which is also referred to as Pragmatics. This is how language is used socially; asking and responding to questions, following a conversation and staying on topic

Speech definition

Definition of speech: Speech constitutes the surface or visible structure of the iceberg. Speech is the production of sounds that make up words and sentences.

These sound units are combined so that they make up words and sentences.

Speech involves the co-ordination of our breathing, vocal cords, vocal tract, nasal tract tongue, jaw, tongue and lips; it is comprised of three main components:

• Voice ( the use of our breath and vocal cords to make sounds)
• Articulation (the way sounds are produced by the structures in our vocal tract)
• Fluency ( the rhythm that is required so that we speak without hesitation or repetition of sounds, syllables, words or sentences)

So far we have talked of speech and language as different skills; and they are two different skills that work together so that a message is clearly communicated.

So what happens when things go wrong?

If one of the two is not fully developed it can have an impact on the other.

A child who might have trouble with speech sounds might be difficult to understand; on the other hand a child that might be experiencing problems with language might be able to pronounce words clearly, but understanding the meaning of what they are saying might be difficult.

Clearly there is a lot of overlap among the definition of language and speech!

Recommended: Speech and Language Milestones Late Talkers

What about a bilingual child?

Many parents also ask how this iceberg analogy applies to their bilingual child.

The answer is that bilingual language development is best viewed as two separate icebergs that are joined at the base where languages and ideas come from a common source;

This means that the surface structures of the two icebergs are speech systems of two different languages, which often have different sound systems.

Speech and Language Development

If you are interested in learning more about speech and language development check out our Expert Advice section with a range of articles written by Speech Therapists and Speech Pathologists who specialise in bilingualism.  

Subscribe  for related articles. Follow Bilingual KidSpot on  Facebook  and join our  online community and support group .

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Losing her speech made her feel isolated from humanity.

Synonyms: communication , conversation , parley , parlance

He expresses himself better in speech than in writing.

We waited for some speech that would indicate her true feelings.

Synonyms: talk , mention , comment , asseveration , assertion , observation

a fiery speech.

Synonyms: discourse , talk

• any single utterance of an actor in the course of a play, motion picture, etc.

Synonyms: patois , tongue

Your slovenly speech is holding back your career.

• a field of study devoted to the theory and practice of oral communication.
• Archaic. rumor .

to have speech with somebody

speech therapy

• that which is spoken; utterance
• a talk or address delivered to an audience
• a person's characteristic manner of speaking
• a national or regional language or dialect
• linguistics another word for parole

Other Words From

• self-speech noun

Word History and Origins

Origin of speech 1

Synonym Study

Example sentences.

Kids are interacting with Alexas that can record their voice data and influence their speech and social development.

The attorney general delivered a controversial speech Wednesday.

For example, my company, Teknicks, is working with an online K-12 speech and occupational therapy provider.

Instead, it would give tech companies a powerful incentive to limit Brazilians’ freedom of speech at a time of political unrest.

However, the president did give a speech in Suresnes, France, the next day during a ceremony hosted by the American Battle Monuments Commission.

Those are troubling numbers, for unfettered speech is not incidental to a flourishing society.

There is no such thing as speech so hateful or offensive it somehow “justifies” or “legitimizes” the use of violence.

We need to recover and grow the idea that the proper answer to bad speech is more and better speech.

Tend to your own garden, to quote the great sage of free speech, Voltaire, and invite people to follow your example.

The simple, awful truth is that free speech has never been particularly popular in America.

Alessandro turned a grateful look on Ramona as he translated this speech, so in unison with Indian modes of thought and feeling.

And so this is why the clever performer cannot reproduce the effect of a speech of Demosthenes or Daniel Webster.

He said no more in words, but his little blue eyes had an eloquence that left nothing to mere speech.

After pondering over Mr. Blackbird's speech for a few moments he raised his head.

Albinia, I have refrained from speech as long as possible; but this is really too much!

Related Words

More about speech, what is speech .

Speech is the ability to express thoughts and emotions through vocal sounds and gestures. The act of doing this is also known as speech .

Speech is something only humans are capable of doing and this ability has contributed greatly to humanity’s ability to develop civilization. Speech allows humans to communicate much more complex information than animals are able to.

Almost all animals make sounds or noises with the intent to communicate with each other, such as mating calls and yelps of danger. However, animals aren’t actually talking to each other. That is, they aren’t forming sentences or sharing complicated information. Instead, they are making simple noises that trigger another animal’s natural instincts.

While speech does involve making noises, there is a lot more going on than simple grunts and growls. First, humans’ vocal machinery, such as our lungs, throat, vocal chords, and tongue, allows for a wide range of intricate sounds. Second, the human brain is incredibly complex, allowing humans to process vocal sounds and understand combinations of them as words and oral communication. The human brain is essential for speech . While chimpanzees and other apes have vocal organs similar to humans’, their brains are much less advanced and they are unable to learn speech .

Why is speech important?

The first records of the word speech come from before the year 900. It ultimately comes from the Old English word sprecan , meaning “to speak.” Scientists debate on the exact date that humanity first learned to speak, with estimates ranging from 50,000 to 2 million years ago.

Related to the concept of speech is the idea of language . A language is the collection of symbols, sounds, gestures, and anything else that a group of people use to communicate with each other, such as English, Swahili, and American Sign Language . Speech is actually using those things to orally communicate with someone else.

Did you know … ?

But what about birds that “talk”? Parrots in particular are famous for their ability to say human words and sentences. Birds are incapable of speech . What they are actually doing is learning common sounds that humans make and mimicking them. They don’t actually understand what anything they are repeating actually means.

What are real-life examples of speech ?

Speech is essential to human communication.

Dutch is just enough like German that I can read text on signs and screens, but not enough that I can understand speech. — Clark Smith Cox III (@clarkcox) September 8, 2009

I can make squirrels so excited, I could almost swear they understand human speech! — Neil Oliver (@thecoastguy) July 20, 2020

What other words are related to speech ?

• communication
• information

Quiz yourself!

True or False?

Humans are the only animals capable of speech .

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Chapter 1: The Speech Communication Process

What do we mean by Public Speaking?

Before we go any further, though, what do we mean by “public speaking?”

The most obvious answer is “talking in front of a group of people.” For the purposes of this class and this book, public speaking is more formal than that. Public speaking is an organized, face-to-face, prepared, intentional (purposeful) attempt to inform, entertain, or persuade a group of people (usually five or more) through words, physical delivery, and (at times) visual or audio aids. In almost all cases, the speaker is the focus of attention for a specific amount of time. There still may be some back-and-forth interaction, such as questions and answers with the audience, but the speaker usually holds the responsibility to direct that interaction either during or after the prepared speech has concluded.

Garber (2010) cites two scholars of public speaking from the early 20th century, Edwin Du Bois Shurter and James Albert Winans, who wrote of public speaking as an “enlarged conversation,” and as such it has some similarities to conversations but some major differences, too. As a conversation, it has elements of: • awareness of and sensitivity toward your audience (in this case, more than one person); • an exchange of explicit messages about content (facts, ideas, information) and less explicit ones about relationship (how you relate to one another, such as trust, liking, respect);[this content/relationship dichotomy will come up again in this book and is characteristic of all communication]; • a dependence on feedback to know if you are successful in being understood (usually nonverbal in public speaking, but still present); • the fact that the public speaking communication is (almost always) face-to-face rather than mediated (through a computer, telephone, mass media, or writing).

As an “enlarged conversation” public speaking needs to be more purposeful (to entertain, inform, or persuade); highly organized with certain formal elements (introduction and clear main points, for example); and usually dependent on resources outside of your personal experience (research to support your ideas).

Of course, the delivery would have to be “enlarged” or “projected” as well— louder, more fluid, and more energetic, depending on the size and type of room in which you are speaking—and you will be more conscious of the correctness and formality of your language. You might say, “That sucks” in a conversation but are less likely to do so in front of a large audience in certain situations. If you can keep in mind the basic principle that public speaking is formalized communication with an audience designed to achieve mutual understanding for mutual benefit (like a conversation), rather than a “performance,” you will be able to relate to your audience on the human and personal level.

Fundamentals of Public Speaking Copyright © by Lumen Learning is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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The 9 Parts of Speech: Definitions and Examples

• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

A part of speech is a term used in traditional grammar for one of the nine main categories into which words are classified according to their functions in sentences, such as nouns or verbs. Also known as word classes, these are the building blocks of grammar.

Every sentence you write or speak in English includes words that fall into some of the nine parts of speech. These include nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, articles/determiners, and interjections. (Some sources include only eight parts of speech and leave interjections in their own category.)

Parts of Speech

• Word types can be divided into nine parts of speech:
• prepositions
• conjunctions
• articles/determiners
• interjections
• Some words can be considered more than one part of speech, depending on context and usage.
• Interjections can form complete sentences on their own.

Learning the names of the parts of speech probably won't make you witty, healthy, wealthy, or wise. In fact, learning just the names of the parts of speech won't even make you a better writer. However, you will gain a basic understanding of sentence structure  and the  English language by familiarizing yourself with these labels.

Open and Closed Word Classes

The parts of speech are commonly divided into  open classes  (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs) and  closed classes  (pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles/determiners, and interjections). Open classes can be altered and added to as language develops, and closed classes are pretty much set in stone. For example, new nouns are created every day, but conjunctions never change.

In contemporary linguistics , parts of speech are generally referred to as word classes or syntactic categories. The main difference is that word classes are classified according to more strict linguistic criteria. Within word classes, there is the lexical, or open class, and the function, or closed class.

The 9 Parts of Speech

Read about each part of speech below, and practice identifying each.

Nouns are a person, place, thing, or idea. They can take on a myriad of roles in a sentence, from the subject of it all to the object of an action. They are capitalized when they're the official name of something or someone, and they're called proper nouns in these cases. Examples: pirate, Caribbean, ship, freedom, Captain Jack Sparrow.

Pronouns stand in for nouns in a sentence . They are more generic versions of nouns that refer only to people. Examples:​  I, you, he, she, it, ours, them, who, which, anybody, ourselves.

Verbs are action words that tell what happens in a sentence. They can also show a sentence subject's state of being ( is , was ). Verbs change form based on tense (present, past) and count distinction (singular or plural). Examples:  sing, dance, believes, seemed, finish, eat, drink, be, became.

Adjectives describe nouns and pronouns. They specify which one, how much, what kind, and more. Adjectives allow readers and listeners to use their senses to imagine something more clearly. Examples:  hot, lazy, funny, unique, bright, beautiful, poor, smooth.

Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, and even other adverbs. They specify when, where, how, and why something happened and to what extent or how often. Many adjectives can be turned into adjectives by adding the suffix - ly . Examples:  softly, quickly, lazily, often, only, hopefully, sometimes.

Preposition

Prepositions  show spatial, temporal, and role relations between a noun or pronoun and the other words in a sentence. They come at the start of a prepositional phrase , which contains a preposition and its object. Examples:  up, over, against, by, for, into, close to, out of, apart from.

Conjunction

Conjunctions join words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence. There are coordinating, subordinating, and correlative conjunctions. Examples:  and, but, or, so, yet.

Articles and Determiners

Articles and determiners function like adjectives by modifying nouns, but they are different than adjectives in that they are necessary for a sentence to have proper syntax. Articles and determiners specify and identify nouns, and there are indefinite and definite articles. Examples of articles:  a, an, the ; examples of determiners:  these, that, those, enough, much, few, which, what.

Some traditional grammars have treated articles  as a distinct part of speech. Modern grammars, however, more often include articles in the category of determiners , which identify or quantify a noun. Even though they modify nouns like adjectives, articles are different in that they are essential to the proper syntax of a sentence, just as determiners are necessary to convey the meaning of a sentence, while adjectives are optional.

Interjection

Interjections are expressions that can stand on their own or be contained within sentences. These words and phrases often carry strong emotions and convey reactions. Examples:  ah, whoops, ouch, yabba dabba do!

How to Determine the Part of Speech

Only interjections ( Hooray! ) have a habit of standing alone; every other part of speech must be contained within a sentence and some are even required in sentences (nouns and verbs). Other parts of speech come in many varieties and may appear just about anywhere in a sentence.

To know for sure what part of speech a word falls into, look not only at the word itself but also at its meaning, position, and use in a sentence.

For example, in the first sentence below,  work  functions as a noun; in the second sentence, a verb; and in the third sentence, an adjective:

• Bosco showed up for  work  two hours late.
• The noun  work  is the thing Bosco shows up for.
• He will have to  work  until midnight.
• The verb  work  is the action he must perform.
• His  work  permit expires next month.
• The  attributive noun  (or converted adjective) work  modifies the noun  permit .

Learning the names and uses of the basic parts of speech is just one way to understand how sentences are constructed.

Dissecting Basic Sentences

To form a basic complete sentence, you only need two elements: a noun (or pronoun standing in for a noun) and a verb. The noun acts as a subject, and the verb, by telling what action the subject is taking, acts as the predicate. 

In the short sentence above,  birds  is the noun and  fly  is the verb. The sentence makes sense and gets the point across.

You can have a sentence with just one word without breaking any sentence formation rules. The short sentence below is complete because it's a verb command with an understood "you" noun.

Here, the pronoun, standing in for a noun, is implied and acts as the subject. The sentence is really saying, "(You) go!"

Constructing More Complex Sentences

Use more parts of speech to add additional information about what's happening in a sentence to make it more complex. Take the first sentence from above, for example, and incorporate more information about how and why birds fly.

• Birds fly when migrating before winter.

Birds and fly remain the noun and the verb, but now there is more description. 

When  is an adverb that modifies the verb fly.  The word before  is a little tricky because it can be either a conjunction, preposition, or adverb depending on the context. In this case, it's a preposition because it's followed by a noun. This preposition begins an adverbial phrase of time ( before winter ) that answers the question of when the birds migrate . Before is not a conjunction because it does not connect two clauses.

• What Are Word Blends?
• Figure of Speech: Definition and Examples
• Definition and Examples of Adjectives
• Subjects, Verbs, and Objects
• What Is a Rhetorical Device? Definition, List, Examples
• What Is The Speech Act Theory: Definition and Examples
• A List of Exclamations and Interjections in English
• What Is Nonverbal Communication?
• Examples and Usage of Conjunctions in English Grammar
• Linguistic Variation
• Definition and Examples of Interjections in English
• Definition and Examples of Jargon
• Understanding the Types of Verbs in English Grammar
• Complementary vs. Complimentary: How to Choose the Right Word
• Basic Grammar: What Is a Diphthong?
• Subordinating Conjunctions

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Tim Walz’s communal patriotism is a striking contrast to Trump's individualism

“We’re all here tonight for one beautiful, simple reason — we love this country,” Minnesota Gov. Tim Walz said at the beginning of his convention speech Wednesday night . He clearly means it — it turns out you can be a skilled politician carrying out a strategy to win an election and also be sincere. In his speech, Walz showed why he offers Democrats an opportunity to reclaim patriotism, and perhaps help redefine it along the way. 

It turns out you can be a skilled politician carrying out a strategy to win an election and also be sincere.

For as long as I’ve been writing about politics, I’ve argued against the idea that some of us are “real” Americans and the rest of us are something else, or that some American places are more American than others. Those are pernicious ideas in a country as large and varied as ours, and one built on its ability to constantly remake and renew itself. But let’s be honest: If we put a thousand voters in a mind-reading machine and asked them to picture a “patriotic American,” certain kinds of people would come to mind. They’d look more like Walz than Vice President Kamala Harris: rural rather than urban, from the country’s middle rather than the coasts, male rather than female, and yes, probably white. 

Problematic as it might be, the fact that Walz “codes” as the kind of person you just know has a flag flying from their porch means that when he talks about patriotism, he might be able to convince some people who haven’t been too open to Democrats to listen. Which is why Walz’s framing of patriotism as community is so important. 

The Harris campaign has put the word “freedom” at the heart of its campaign, and Walz even sometimes describes the campaign ethos as “ mind your own damn business .” But he also talks frequently about the nation as a web of commitments and obligations of care. “The family down the road — they may not think like you do, they may not pray like you do, they may not love like you do, but they’re your neighbors. And you look out for them, just like they do for you,” he said in his speech. “Everybody belongs, and everybody has a responsibility to contribute.”

It’s a striking contrast with the Republican ticket, whose understanding of patriotism doesn’t have much to do with neighborliness. Walz’s counterpart, Ohio Sen. JD Vance, said in his convention speech that “the source of American greatness” can be found where his family is from in Kentucky, not because it represents American ideals, but because it “is our homeland. People will not fight for abstractions, but they will fight for their home.” But Vance doesn’t have much to say about what it means to live in that home.

The contrast is even more stark when we consider what Donald Trump has to say about patriotism. He has a schtick he does in which he literally hugs and kisses an American flag, which always gets a laugh from the MAGA faithful. It’s supposed to communicate that he loves his country but his brand of patriotism is utterly hollow. America is our team, we hate all the other teams, and that’s about as deep as it goes. Trump substitutes nationalism for patriotism, insisting that love for America is found in fear and animosity toward the rest of the world.  

Think about it this way: What exactly is it about America that Donald Trump loves? Have we ever heard him speak about the extraordinary diversity of our places and people, or our amazing achievements in science and culture, or the majesty of our national parks? Of course not. If you asked him why it is that people across the world dream of coming here, his only answer would be that we have to keep them out. 

And when he isn’t in power, he can’t help but describe the country in ways that drip with contempt. As far as Trump’s concerned, this is a land of mayhem and misery, full of losers and suckers who are worthy of nothing but scorn. And he has a particular affection for those who committed treason against America so they could keep other Americans enslaved.

That Trump can say the things he does and still claim to be patriotic only reminds liberals of how long they have been targeted with accusations of insufficient patriotism.

That Trump can say the things he does and still claim to be patriotic only reminds liberals of how long they have been targeted with accusations of insufficient patriotism. It was particularly acute in the years following the terrorist attacks of Sept. 11, 2001, and into the Iraq War, when anyone who raised questions about the unfolding disaster of American foreign policy was liable to be told they hated America and were siding with “the terrorists.” 

Which makes it all the more heartening to see an all-American guy like Tim Walz make a plea for a different kind of patriotism. At the end of his speech, Walz implored Democrats to work hard in the remaining time before the election. “That’s how we make America a place where no child is left hungry,” he said. “Where no community is left behind. Where nobody gets told they don’t belong.” If he and Harris keep emphasizing that this vision of inclusiveness, care and common fate is at the heart of patriotism, they might just convince a few people that it’s about more than whether you hug a flag.

Paul Waldman is a journalist and author whose writing has appeared in dozens of publications. He writes  The Cross Section , a newsletter about politics and culture, and co-hosts the "Boundary Issues" podcast. His latest book is "White Rural Rage: The Threat to American Democracy."

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Metaphor Definition

What is metaphor? Here’s a quick and simple definition:

A metaphor is a figure of speech that compares two different things by saying that one thing is the other. The comparison in a metaphor can be stated explicitly, as in the sentence "Love is a battlefield." Other times, the writer may make this equation between two things implicitly , as in, "He was wounded by love." The comparisons created by metaphor are not meant to be taken literally. Rather, metaphors are figurative —they create meaning beyond the literal meanings of their words. For instance, these examples are, of course, not saying that love is actually a field of battle or that the person actually got a physical injury from love. Instead, they capture how love can be painful, a struggle, even a showdown between opponents, and—as many good metaphors do—through their comparison they make description more vivid, more relatable, or reveal new ways of seeing the world.

Some additional key details about metaphor:

• Metaphor is one of the most common figures of speech , used by writers throughout history and across the world. They are common in everyday speech and all forms of writing, from narrative fiction, to poetry, to persuasive writing.
• Metaphor is a type of analogy : a comparison between two things or ideas. Take a look at the entry that covers analogy to learn more about the difference between analogy and metaphor.
• There are actually two accepted definitions of metaphor: one that's quite broad, and one that's more specific. The broader definition includes any type of comparison or association, and includes under its umbrella other figures of speech, such as simile . The other, more narrow definition is the one we focus on in this entry, and is limited to figures of speech that state one thing is the other.

Metaphor Pronunciation

Here's how to pronounce metaphor: met -uh-fore

The Anatomy of a Metaphor

Metaphors can be broken down into two elements: a tenor and a vehicle.

• The tenor is the thing a metaphor describes.
• The vehicle is the thing to which the tenor is compared.

For instance, in the metaphor " Love is a battlefield ," love is the tenor because it's the thing being described, while "battlefield" is the vehicle because it's the thing love is being compared to. The metaphor operates by borrowing key attributes from the vehicle and ascribing them to the tenor: love is violent, brutal, life-threatening.

A strong metaphor is one in which the attributes shared by the vehicle and the tenor are clear without further explanation. For example, "she's a gem" is a widely used metaphor whose meaning would probably be pretty clear even if we hadn't all heard it a thousand times: it's a way of saying someone is precious, treasured, lovely. "He's a peanut butter sandwich," on the other hand, is a pretty mystifying statement, since the vehicle—a peanut butter sandwich?—doesn't immediately call to mind any particularly vivid qualities or adjectives, let alone adjectives that would be used to describe a person. As a result, a weak metaphor such as this one leaves the mind searching for a basis of comparison between the tenor and the vehicle: is he... sticky? Unappetizing? A perfect combination of two things?

Types of Metaphors

There are a handful of varieties of metaphor that fall under the larger umbrella of "metaphor." Here are a few important ones:

• Conventional Metaphors are just what they sound like: metaphors that have become such a common part of speech that they no longer call attention to their status as metaphors. For instance, when we say that someone is an expert in his or her "field," field is a conventional metaphor for "area of study" or "profession," because it's been used so frequently that we don't even realize we're referencing a physical field. Some sources say that when a conventional metaphor has completely lost its "effectiveness" or ability to influence thought, it becomes a Dead Metaphor. The concept of "dead metaphors" is controversial however, because many people argue that simply because something becomes unconscious, doesn't mean it's dead.
• Creative Metaphors, in contrast to conventional metaphors, are novel comparisons that draw attention to their status as metaphors. The following Rita Rudner quote is a creative metaphor: "Before I met my husband, I'd never fallen in love. I'd stepped in it a few times." Rudner, here, is twisting and playing with the metaphor "falling love" to emphasize the fact that it is a metaphor, and then she's creating a new metaphor all her own. (Of course, she's a comedian so she's also doing it to get laughs.)
• Mixed Metaphor is a combination of two or more incongruous comparisons. These can occur accidentally, or a writer may string incompatible metaphors together for comedic effect. For example, the mixed metaphor, "He was born with a silver foot in his mouth" combines the metaphors "To be born with a silver spoon in one's mouth" (meaning: to be born privileged) and "To put one's foot in one's mouth" (meaning: to say something embarrassing) to create a puzzlingly humorous hybrid. Mixed metaphor is often referred to as catachresis.
• "In a sense we’ve come to our nation’s capital to cash a check. When the architects of our republic wrote the magnificent words of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, they were signing a promissory note to which every American was to fall heir. This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be guaranteed the “unalienable Rights” of “Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.” It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note..."
• Absolute metaphors are metaphors in which the tenor can't be distinguished from the vehicle. In other words, the content of the metaphor can't be stated explicitly, because the only way to express the content is through the metaphor itself. An example would be "Life is a journey." We're constantly equating life with a journey, often without realizing it, when we say things like "That kid is off to a good start" or "He's taken the road less travelled," because so much of life is unknown: we have no other way in our language to explain the complex, all-encompassing experience that life is. As a result, this metaphor starts to actually shape the way we see life, and the comparison it makes becomes a truth that's impossible to express without the metaphor itself.

These are the most common varieties of metaphor. Here's a great resource with information about still more types of metaphors.

The Debate Over Metaphor's Meaning

There are actually two accepted definitions of metaphor—one that's quite broad and one that's more specific—and people commonly confuse the two without even noticing, so it follows that there is some debate over which definition is correct . The truth is, both definitions are correct, and for that reason it's useful to have a solid understanding of both, as well as what makes them different. These are the two definitions given in the Oxford Companion to English Language —the first one broad, the other narrow:

• Metaphor: All figures of speech that achieve their effect through association, comparison, and resemblance. Figures like antithesis , hyperbole , metonymy , and simile are all species of metaphor.
• Metaphor: A figure of speech which concisely compares two things by saying that one is the other.

This entry focuses on the second, narrower definition of metaphor. To read more about the broader definition of metaphor, it may help to take a look at the entry on analogy —another broad category that encompasses many of the same figures of speech as the broader definition of metaphor.

Metaphor vs. Simile

Of all the different kinds of figures of speech that fit under the broader definition of metaphor (described above), simile is the one that is most often confused with the more specific definition of metaphor that we cover in this entry, since both simile and metaphor are figures of speech that involve the comparison of unlike things. However, simile and metaphor do not make comparisons in the same way. The most obvious difference between simile and metaphor can be summed up this way:

• Similes use the words "like" or "as" to establish their comparison: "The world is like your oyster."
• Metaphors state the comparison without such connecting words: "The world is your oyster."

While the presence of a connecting word, such as "like" or "as," is generally a good rule of thumb to identify similes versus metaphors, it doesn't get at the root of the difference between these two figures of speech. A deeper way to understand the difference is through the nature of the comparison each one makes:

• A simile makes an explicit comparison by asserting that two different things are similar . A simile sets thing A and thing B side by side to compare them. In the sentence "The world is like your oyster," the listener is asked to mentally visualize and compare "the world" and "an oyster"—as though he or she were holding one in each hand—and draw a comparison between the two.
• A metaphor asserts an implicit comparison by stating that one thing is the other thing . Instead of setting two entities A and B side by side through the use of connecting words, metaphor superimposes them. The metaphor "The world is your oyster" asks the reader to imagine his or her relationship to the world as being the relationship of an oyster to the space inside its shell.

This isn't to say that either a simile or metaphor is stronger or better than the other, just that they are subtly different in the sort of comparison they create, and this difference affects how a reader imaginatively interacts with the text.

Metaphor Examples

Examples of metaphor in literature.

Mastering the art of metaphor is essential to writing vivid, relatable poetry and prose. Furthermore, understanding a writer's use of metaphor will enable you to better understand the specific themes that run throughout works of literature.

Metaphor in F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby

The Great Gatsby tells the story of Jay Gatsby, an ambitious young man from a poor background, and his pursuit of the wealthy, aristocratic Daisy Buchanan. Gatsby eventually amasses a fortune large enough to purchase a mansion across the water from Daisy's estate on Long Island, New York. Throughout the novel, Gatsby gazes longingly at the green light that shines from the end of Daisy's dock, and this light becomes a symbol for Gatsby's yearning for the unattainable Daisy. Fitzgerald concludes the novel by adding a further layer of meaning to the metaphor of the Green Light:

Gatsby believed in the green light, the orgastic future that year by year recedes before us. It eluded us then, but that's no matter—tomorrow we will run faster, stretch out our arms farther.... And then one fine morning—So we beat on, boats against the current, borne back ceaselessly into the past.

Here, the green light isn't simply a symbol for Daisy, but a metaphor for the "orgastic future that year by year recedes before us,"—for the ultimate, unattainable, and perhaps even unknowable goal of each individual's ambition. This use of metaphor is a bit subtler than an "X is Y" construction such as "she's a gem," since Fitzgerald never explicitly states that the green light is anything. Instead, he uses a comma to equate the green light with the "orgastic future" that he then describes in detail. He then broadens and extends the metaphor even further by introducing the image of "boats [beating on] against the current" to describe all people who pursue such a future, seeming to suggest that everyone experiences some version of Gatsby's struggle toward the "green light."

Metaphor in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet

Romeo uses the following metaphor in Act 2 Scene 2 of Romeo and Juliet , after sneaking into Juliet's garden and catching a glimpse of her on her balcony:

But, soft! what light through yonder window breaks? It is the east, and Juliet is the sun.

Romeo compares Juliet to the sun not only to describe how radiantly beautiful she is, but also to convey the full extent of her power over him. He's so taken with Juliet that her appearances and disappearances affect him like those of the sun. His life "revolves" around Juliet like the earth orbits the sun. The rest of the passage, which we haven't included here, is also an example of extended metaphor—since Romeo continues to speak about Juliet as though she were the sun throughout his brief monologue.

Metaphor in James Joyces' Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man

Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man is a bildungsroman — a novel that follows the journey of a young protagonist from childhood to adulthood. In Portrait, Joyce describes the growth and maturation of Stephen Daedalus, a young boy growing up in an impoverished Irish-Catholic household who ultimately aspires to become a writer. In Chapter 5, Stephen composes the following love poem (a villanelle ) to his beloved Emma Clery (whom he actually barely knows and seldom sees):

Are you not weary of ardent ways, Lure of the fallen seraphim? Tell no more of enchanted days. Your eyes have set man's heart ablaze And you have had your will of him. Are you not weary of ardent ways? Above the flame the smoke of praise Goes up from ocean rim to rim. Tell no more of enchanted days. Our broken cries and mournful lays Rise in one eucharistic hymn. Are you not weary of ardent ways? While sacrificing hands upraise The chalice flowing to the brim, Tell no more of enchanted days. And still you hold our longing gaze With languorous look and lavish limb! Are you not weary of ardent ways? Tell no more of enchanted days.

Stephen's expression of love is full of metaphors—he likens his lovestruck heart to a "blaze," and his words of praise to "smoke." The "chalice flowing to the brim" is similarly a metaphor for the strength of Stephen's feeling—which, in the context of the novel, might be either religious or sexual in nature.

Metaphors occur frequently in love poems such as this, one reason being that the lover or narrator seeks to express the singular, unique experience of love in terms that the reader can relate to. For instance, in the example above from Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare—through Romeo—compares Juliet to the sun, in part because he recognizes that most readers are familiar with the sun's awe-inspiring beauty, and therefore will be better able to imagine Romeo's profound admiration for Juliet through this metaphorical comparison.

However, the use of metaphors can sometimes cover up lack of knowledge about something, and this is particularly relevant to Stephen's poem. Stephen wrote his romantic villanelle to a woman he barely knows and hasn't seen for ten years. His somewhat cliché metaphor comparing love to a "heart ablaze" emitting "smoke of praise" may be interpreted not only as the first attempt of a young poet, but also as an indication that Stephen fully understands neither the woman to whom his poem is addressed, nor the complexity of his own feelings.

Metaphor in Kurt Vonnegut's Cat's Cradle

The title " Cat's Cradle " refers to a children's game in which the player makes an intricate pattern of X's by weaving a piece of string between his or her fingers. It also functions as an important metaphor in Vonnegut's novel, which follows the attempts of a nameless writer to research Dr. Felix Hoenikker: a scientist who (in the story in the book) helped invent the atomic bomb. The writer reaches out to Hoenikker's son, Newt, who tells him that on the day the Americans dropped the bomb—Dr. Hoenikker's invention—on Hiroshima, his father attempted to play cat's cradle with him. For some inexplicable reason, the game terrified Newt. The adult Newt explains:

"For maybe a hundred thousand years or more, grownups have been waving tangles of string in their children's faces... No wonder kids grow up crazy. A cat's cradle is nothing but a bunch of X's between somebody's hands, and little kids look and look and look at all those X's... No damn cat, and no damn cradle."

It's clear that even as an adult, cat's cradle retains a special significance for Newt: his father used the game as a diversion, lacking in substance and meaning, to distract himself and his son from the terrible reality of the bomb. Later on in the novel, Newt discovers that his sister, Angela, is abused by her husband. Referencing the way Angela hides her unhappiness and lies about her husband's behavior, Newt asks, "See the cat? See the cradle?" In doing so, he compares Angela's efforts to hide her husband's violence to their father's efforts to hide his own acts of violence (using cat's cradle as a distraction). Newt insightfully connects children's games to the games adults play with themselves. In short, cats cradle becomes an elaborate metaphor for evading the truth, and the way that people then become trapped and entangled in those evasions.

Examples of Metaphor in Song Lyrics

Metaphorical comparisons often make language more memorable and more powerful, and can capture and make vivid emotions and feelings in profound, new, arresting, and often concise ways. It's no wonder, then, that musicians across genres regularly use metaphor in their song lyrics.

Metaphor in Pat Benatar's "Love is a Battlefield"

In her most famous song, released on the album Live from Earth in 1983, Benatar compares love—in its dangerousness and its power—to a battlefield:

When I'm losing control Will you turn me away Or touch me deep inside And when all this gets old Will it still feel the same There's no way this will die But if we get much closer I could lose control And if your heart surrenders You'll need me to hold We are young Heartache to heartache we stand No promises No demands Love is a battlefield

Metaphor in Katy Perry's "Firework"

In "Firework" ( Teenage Dream , 2010), Perry uses extended metaphor to compare a firework to her lover's inner "spark" of resilience which, in the context of the song, stands in opposition to the dreary experience of life and the difficulty of communicating with others:

Do you know that there's still a chance for you? 'Cause there's a spark in you You just gotta ignite the light And let it shine Just own the night Like the Fourth of July 'Cause baby, you're a firework C'mon, show 'em what you're worth Make 'em go "Aah, aah, aah" As you shoot across the sky Baby, you're a firework C'mon, let your colors burst Make 'em go, "Aah, aah, aah" You're gonna leave them all in awe, awe, awe

Metaphor in The Eagles' "Life in the Fast Lane"

In the title phrase "Life in the Fast Lane" ( Hotel California , 1976), "the Fast Lane" is a metaphor for a lawless, limitless, risky mindset. If you live life in the Fast Lane, it means that you are edgy, daring, and impulsive, like the couple described in the song:

Life in the fast lane, surely make you lose your mind Life in the fast lane Life in the fast lane, everything all the time Life in the fast lane Blowin' and burnin' blinded by thirst They didn't see the stop sign; Took a turn for the worse She said, "Listen, baby. You can hear the engine ring. We've been up and down this highway; haven't seen a god-damn thing." He said, "Call the doctor. I think I'm gonna crash." "The doctor say he's coming but you gotta pay in cash." They were rushing down that freeway; Messed around and got lost They didn't care they were just dyin' to get off.

The Eagles extend the metaphor of "the fast lane" into the verse following the chorus: the "stop sign" and "engine ring" are metaphors for warning signs suggesting the couple's way of living is unsustainable.

Why Do Writers Use Metaphor?

Writers, and people in general, use metaphors for countless reasons:

• They create memorable images with language.
• They help communicate personal or imaginary experiences in terms to which readers can relate.
• By connecting different spheres of experience and language, they can lead the reader to surprising and important discoveries; the figurative meaning that metaphors create can help a reader to see the world or a concept in a new way.
• They can even sometimes hide a person's lack of knowledge about the things they're discussing.

It should be noted that metaphors aren't merely additive —in other words, they aren't just meant to embellish language or "spice it up." Metaphors actually shape our understanding of the relationships between things in the world. Without even knowing it, we constantly speak and think in metaphors.

Other Helpful Metaphor Resources

• The Wikipedia Page on Metaphor: An in-depth explanation of metaphor, its history, and how it relates to other figures of speech.
• The Dictionary Definition of Metaphor: A basic definition and etymology of the term—it comes from the Greek metaphora, meaning "a transfer."
• 99 Metaphors for Love: ThoughtCo's compendium of 99 love metaphors that span genres and centuries.
• A very worthwhile, very 1980s music video of Pat Benatar singing her metaphorically-titled song "Love is a Battlefield."
• The opening scene of Disney's Aladdin, in which Jafar learns he must find the "diamond in the rough"—a metaphorical riddle, the answer to which is Aladdin himself: a "gem" amongst the low-class riffraff.

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