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research topic on international business

60 Exceptional International Business Topics To Score High

International business is today one of the most eyed professions in the world. As businesses continue to invest globally, it becomes necessary to explore markets in other parts of the world. But i t is not easy to write a research paper for a high grade. With that in mind, we explore global business topics to help you complete your business paper in no time.

What Is International Business?

It is an academic field that gives students an understanding of globalization in the different business management practices found worldwide. International business also prepares the students for graduate careers working abroad or in organizations engaged in business on a global scale.

How To Write International Business Topics

To outsmart your peers in such a paper, following the guidelines below in choosing a top-notch topic:

Have a topic that you have an interest in Avoiding picking narrow or broad-based topics Choose one that is based on the current affairs in the world of business Explore annual reports, periodicals, and news articles for unique topic ideas Ensure that the topic has sufficient sources

The structure of your topic will also determine whether it is viable or not. Reading previous international business topics will also give you an idea of coming up with a top-rated topic. However, we have 60 impressive ideas to jumpstart your international business paper.

Captivating International Business Topics

Why do most international companies prefer candidates with a Master’s degree?
The role of digitization in enhancing international businesses
How the coronavirus has made the international business a risky venture
Considerations when choosing to invest in developing countries
How e-commerce has made international business more accessible and manageable
Market segmentation as a factor in international business ventures

International Business Research Paper Topics For College Students

The impact of off-shore business accounts in combating corruption
How terrorism affects international businesses
The role of modern technologies in enhancing international businesses
What is the implication of the stock market exchange in international business?
How to strategically manage global business ventures in the technological age
How does cultural imperialism affect the effectiveness of the business in the international arena?

International Business Research Topics For High School Students

Discuss the impact of political upheavals in international business
Discuss the ethical dilemmas in conducting businesses globally
Why is Coca-Cola making inroads in the international world of business?
Evaluate the best HR management strategies for global businesses
Legislations and policies among countries that inhibit the performance of global companies
Does the presence of international companies on social media have an impact on their market?

Business Topics For Research Paper in Digital Marketing

The role of digital marketing in flourishing international businesses
Designing business strategies for international digital marketing
The impact of search engine optimization in increasing the online presence of international businesses
What is the effectiveness of email marketing for international businesses
The rise of site, video, and game advertising in international business marketing techniques.
The aggressiveness of paid reviews or articles and hiring influencers in digital advertising

Current Topics in International Business

How are mergers and acquisitions transforming international businesses?
Supply chain management and logistics in international companies – a case study of the risks involved
Training and development strategies in developing economies
Risks associated with global banking systems
How are regional trade blocks instrumental in international businesses?
How the World Bank and IMF are essential in facilitating international business ventures

International Business Research Papers For Master’s Students

How organizational culture is essential in innovation management
Impacts of employee turnover and measures of addressing them
How intercultural differences affect consumption patterns
How emerging small and medium business enterprises can get funding
Analysis of the Coca-Cola marketing strategy
The running of international non-governmental organizations: A case study of Red Cross

International Business Topics For Projects

Marketing strategies that have made KFC a global brand
The role of corporate leadership in international companies
How governments impact international trade
Impact of pandemics on international businesses
Effects of corruption on global business ventures
The success of Amazon as a global internet company

Hot Global Business Topics

Penetration of Chinese investors in Africa
An overview of the horticulture Industry
The rise of mask production companies
Impacts of crypto-currencies on international businesses
Who assesses the quality of products in the international markets?
The effect of BREXIT on global markets

International Business Research Topics List

Impact of war on global businesses
Economic consequences of Trump’s administration
How does artificial intelligence take part in the global market
A case analysis of companies that have succeeded and failed in the global arena
How labeling the country of origin on products affects its sales
Impacts of legislation on tobacco and marijuana globally

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International Business Dissertation Topics

Published by Owen Ingram at January 4th, 2023 , Revised On April 16, 2024

Most students find it difficult to select the perfect international business dissertation topic for their dissertation project. In fact, many students end up choosing very narrow and specific topics due to the vastness of the field and the growing issues within the field of international business.

We understand that choosing a suitable international business dissertation topic may not be a straightforward task for many students, so we have compiled a list of the perfect international business issues you can explore and address as part of your research.

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You may want to read about our business writers to see how we can help ease your workload.

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International Business Dissertation Topics For 2024

MNCs’ use of a standardised approach to business strategy
Impact of the coronavirus outbreak on global business operations
Management and globalisation governance appendix
Factors affecting MNCs’ decision about their corporate political approach in emerging economies
effects of corporate globalisation on their foreign business activities
MNCs and the consequences of culture
Effects of the evolving international legal environment on MNCs
MNCs’ methods for entering emerging markets
Challenges to the global banking system’s security brought on by Toyota’s Total Quality Management
Foreign workers’ challenges and opportunities in a global strategy
The value of English as an international business language and the reasons Chinese companies win contracts in Africa
A quantitative study of the Canadian Honey Industry
the US auto industry’s expansion under the Trump Administration
fake honey’s effects on the world’s honey business
Management quality in global markets
Coronavirus and BREXIT’s effects on the world’s aviation sector
Impact of corporate privatisation on worldwide marketplaces
Branding’s function in the global tourism sector
Information technology management for global businesses
Effects of efficient human resource management in global businesses
Impact of efficient channels for corporate communication in global companies
Acceptableness of government engagement in creating CSR restrictions
Result of senior management interference in a company’s plans
When accidents are every day, can the economic model for developing driverless cars still be viable?
How social media branding gives companies a competitive edge in the age of globalisation
Value ramifications of multinationals’ cross-border expansion trends in emerging markets
How do public disclosure policies affect corporate operations management in a more globalised society?
The elements affecting the success of building firms in the United Arab Emirates
Important aspects for Carrefour to succeed in the current global market
financial options for developing small and medium-sized businesses
The impact of legislation on the marketing and production of tobacco.
Is the government gaining revenue from the war?
Companies that are successful both nationally and internationally.
It is acquiring knowledge of the global IT market and sector.
The impact of artificial intelligence on the workforce.

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Choosing the best international business dissertation topic in your graduate programme is a prerequisite to writing a first class dissertation paper.

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80 International Business Management Research Topics

FacebookXEmailWhatsAppRedditPinterestLinkedInGreetings, ambitious scholars! If you find yourself on the exhilarating journey of seeking captivating research topics in international business Management, you’ve landed in the perfect haven. Our treasure trove of comprehensive topics awaits, tailored to fuel your academic aspirations, whether pursuing a bachelor’s, master’s, or even a doctoral degree. The dynamic landscape of international business […]

Greetings, ambitious scholars! If you find yourself on the exhilarating journey of seeking captivating research topics in international business Management, you’ve landed in the perfect haven. Our treasure trove of comprehensive topics awaits, tailored to fuel your academic aspirations, whether pursuing a bachelor’s, master’s, or even a doctoral degree.

The dynamic landscape of international business offers a tapestry of uncharted territories waiting to be explored. From dissecting the intricacies of global market expansions to unravelling the complexities of cross-cultural negotiations, each topic opens a gateway to new horizons of knowledge. Allow our curated list to be your guiding compass, steering you through the boundless opportunities for research and discovery. As you delve into these thought-provoking subjects, you’re not just unravelling research ideas but unearthing insights that could shape the global business arena. So, fellow scholars, embark on this exciting odyssey, let curiosity be your compass, and set sail into international business research together. Happy exploring!

A List Of Potential Research Topics In International Business Management:

The role of social media in international branding and marketing.
Digital transformation and global trade: opportunities and challenges in the new normal.
Tourism recovery in a post-covid world: international business implications and strategies.
Strategies for managing political and economic risks in international business.
Cross-border investment strategies in uncertain times: assessing risks and returns.
Remote work and cross-border management: navigating cultural and operational challenges.
A meta-analysis of foreign direct investment patterns and economic growth in developing countries.
The influence of cultural norms on international marketing campaigns.
International business strategies for market entry into African economies.
The role of multinational corporations in promoting corporate social responsibility globally.
International business strategies for navigating trade disputes.
Analyzing the evolution of international business models: a comparative literature review.
Global consumer behaviour: trends and implications for marketing strategies.
International investment in renewable energy: opportunities and challenges.
Emerging trends in global supply chain sustainability.
The role of trade facilitation in enhancing cross-border business activities.
International business ethics in the age of corporate social responsibility.
Cross-cultural negotiation strategies in global business deals.
Technology transfer and innovation diffusion in global business networks.
The impact of geopolitical factors on international trade and investment.
Literature review on the role of cultural intelligence in international business success.
Foreign direct investment in emerging markets: risks and rewards.
The rise of emerging market multinationals: strategies and implications.
The challenges and strategies of managing multicultural teams.
A systematic review of international market entry modes: trends, challenges, and success factors.
The role of cultural diversity in enhancing global team creativity.
Global talent management: strategies for attracting and retaining top talent.
Reviewing the effects of geopolitical factors on international trade and investment decisions.
The role of UK multinational corporations in global supply chains: strategies and contributions.
The impact of Globalization on labour practices and workers’ rights.
International marketing strategies for cultural adaptation and brand localization.
Technological innovation and competitive advantage in global markets.
Comparative analysis of international business laws and regulations.
A comprehensive review of global supply chain disruptions and resilience strategies.
International joint ventures and strategic alliances: success factors and challenges.
Digital transformation of UK retail: navigating consumer behaviour changes and e-commerce expansion.
Crisis management in the tourism industry: adapting strategies for post-pandemic recovery.
Digital transformation in international supply chain management .
The digital divide and global e-commerce accessibility.
Strategies for managing ethical dilemmas in international business.
The role of international trade in economic development.
Literature review on the impact of trade agreements on international business performance.
Reconfiguring global value chains: impacts of the pandemic on manufacturing and distribution.
Internationalization of UK fintech startups: strategies, challenges, and global market entry.
Expatriate management and cross-border talent mobility.
The role of international financial institutions in promoting economic development.
Market entry modes for international expansion: a comparative analysis.
Sustainability practices in international business post-covid: balancing health and environment.
Cross-cultural communication in virtual international business environments: lessons from the pandemic.
Globalization and cultural identity: challenges and responses.
Intellectual property protection in international business ventures.
The role of microfinance in promoting entrepreneurship in developing countries.
Corporate ethics and anti-corruption measures in international business.
Cross-border mergers and acquisitions involving UK companies: impact on business performance.
Sustainable sourcing and supply chain resilience in international business.
The role of e-government initiatives in facilitating international trade.
Brexit’s impact on UK-EU trade relations: trade barriers, opportunities, and implications for international business.
Global supply chain resilience after COVID-19: strategies for adaptation and recovery.
Cultural intelligence and its role in international business success.
Reviewing sustainability practices in international business: trends, drivers, and outcomes.
Sustainability certification and consumer perceptions in global markets.
Global e-commerce trends: consumer behaviour and cross-border online shopping.
Corporate governance practices in multinational corporations.
International retailing and omnichannel customer experience.
A systematic review of cross-cultural communication challenges in international business.
International entrepreneurship and start-up ecosystems.
The UK’s role in global energy transition: renewable energy investments and international partnerships.
Global health and safety standards in international business operations.
Cultural adaptation of human resource practices in multinational companies.
Review of digital transformation strategies in international business: lessons from global companies.
E-commerce growth and consumer behaviour shift in a post-pandemic global market.
Sustainability practices in international supply chains: trends and barriers.
Managing cross-border technology transfer and innovation.
Global outsourcing and offshoring: benefits and risks.
The impact of trade agreements on international business activities.
International business strategies for crisis management and resilience.
Sustainable business practices in the UK fashion industry: balancing ethical values and profitability.
Supply chain localization vs. Globalization: reshaping strategies after disruptions.
Impact of currency fluctuations on international business performance.
Green logistics and environmental sustainability in international supply chains.

In international business Management, our curated list of research topics awaits your exploration at every academic level. From undergraduate to doctoral studies, these topics unveil a world of potential. Dive into cross-border trade intricacies, dissect cultural communication dynamics, or analyze global supply chain shifts. This list is your compass for groundbreaking research that resonates globally. Your academic journey starts here, where possibilities are limitless, and discoveries are transformative. Begin your international business odyssey today and shape tomorrow’s global landscape. Happy researching!

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International Business Dissertation Topics (28 Examples) For Research

Mark May 31, 2020 Jun 5, 2020 Business , International Business No Comments

With time, the business world has evolved, and globalisation has contributed to bringing revolutionary changes in the field of business. With the increasing internationalisation, the scope and area for research in the field of international business have increased. We have listed down some very interesting and unique international business dissertation topics to help you in […]

We have listed down some very interesting and unique international business dissertation topics to help you in choosing a workable topic. The following list of research topics on international business are developed to help students in finding the best topic for their research project.

You can also check our other business related topics posts to have further options.

Business Management Research Topics
Research Topics on Business
Business Administration Research Topics

List of International business dissertation topics

An analysis of global migrants studying the implications for international business and management.

An overview of the recent trends and future challenges in international business, cities, and competitiveness.

Exploring the international business in the information and digital age.

A systematic review of the issues of international entrepreneurship.

Exploring the competitive advantage strategies based on network analysis.

Studying the internationalisation of African firms based on opportunities, challenges and risks.

An investigation of the changing retail trends: emerging opportunities and challenges in Asian countries.

A review of protectionism, state discrimination, and international studies onset of the global financial crisis.

Examining the evolution of entrepreneurial finance in the last 10 years.

A study of the emergence of impacts of mobile commerce – an exploratory study.

Evaluation of the emergence and evolution of blue ocean strategy through the lens of management fashion theory.

Studying the impact of organisational performance on the emergence of Asian American leaders.

The importance of designing a closed-loop supply chain for improving the sustainability of global business practices.

A literature review of strategies for winning and competing in the global market.

Exploring the concepts of populism and the economics of globalisation.

An analysis of how effective leadership can contribute to facilitating change in the international business context.

Studying the influence of cross-cultural differences on international marketing.

Analysing the implications of domestic reforms and international relations on international businesses.

A review of the effects of globalisation on Asian international retailing taking the case of IKEA.

An analysis of technology trends and their impact on the internationalisation of businesses.

A study of emerging trends in global business and its implications for economies.

Identifying the five major trends that are dramatically changing work and the workplace in this era.

The emergence of corporate social responsibilities and its importance for international businesses.

An analysis of the trade challenges at the world trade organisations .

Analysing the strategic challenges of outsourcing innovation in the global market.

Studying the evolving global strategic trends.

Exploring the policy challenges from closer international trade and financial integration.

Why do businesses internationalise? – a review of factor influencing the decisions to internationalise.

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Research methods in international business: The challenge of complexity

Lorraine eden.

1 Department of Management, Mays Business School, Texas A&M University, TAMU 4221, College Station, TX 77843-4221 USA

Bo Bernhard Nielsen

2 Discipline of International Business, The University of Sydney Business School, Abercrombie Building H70, Corner Abercrombie Street and Codrington St, Darlington, NSW 2006 Australia

3 Department of Strategy and Innovation, Copenhagen Business School, Kilevej 14, 2000 Frederiksberg, Denmark

International business (IB) research is designed to explore and explain the inherent complexity of international business, which arises from the multiplicity of entities, multiplexity of interactions, and dynamism of the global economic system. To analyze this complexity, IB scholars have developed four research lenses: difference, distance, diversity, and disparity. These four lenses on complexity have created not only unique research opportunities for IB scholarship but also unique research methodological challenges. We therefore view complexity as the underlying cause of the unique methodological challenges facing international business research. We offer several recommendations to help IB scholars embrace this complexity and conduct reliable, interesting, and practically relevant research.

Résumé

La recherche en international business (IB) est conçue pour explorer et expliquer la complexité inhérente aux affaires internationales qui découle de la multiplicité des entités, de la multiplexité des interactions et du dynamisme du système économique mondial. Pour analyser cette complexité, les chercheurs en IB ont développé quatre optiques de recherche - différence, distance, diversité et disparité - qui créent non seulement des opportunités de recherche uniques pour les chercheurs en IB, mais aussi des défis méthodologiques uniques de recherche. Par conséquent, nous considérons la complexité comme la cause sous-jacente des défis méthodologiques uniques auxquels est confrontée la recherche en international business . Nous proposons plusieurs recommandations pour aider les chercheurs en IB à appréhender cette complexité et à mener des recherches fiables, intéressantes et pertinentes sur le plan pratique.

La investigación en negocios internacionales está diseñada para explorar y explicar la complejidad inherente a los negocios internacionales, la cual surge de la multiplicidad de entidades, multiplejidad de interacciones y dinamismos del sistema económico global. Para analizar esta complejidad, los académicos de negocios internacionales han desarrollado cuatro lentes de investigación -diferencia, distancia, diversidad y disparidad- que crean no solamente oportunidades de investigación únicas para el conocimiento académico de negocios internacionales, pero también retos metodológicos de investigación únicos. Por lo tanto, vemos la complejidad como la causa subyacente de los retos metodológicos únicos enfrentados en la investigación de negocios internacionales . Ofrecemos varias recomendaciones para ayudar a los académicos de negocios internacionales a adoptar esta complejidad y llevar a cabo investigaciones confiables, interesantes y prácticamente relevantes.

A pesquisa em negócios internacionais (IB) é projetada para explorar e explicar a complexidade inerente aos negócios internacionais, que surge da multiplicidade de entidades, multiplexidade de interações e dinamismo do sistema econômico global. Para analisar essa complexidade, acadêmicos de IB desenvolveram quatro lentes de pesquisa - diferença, distância, diversidade e disparidade - que criam não apenas oportunidades de pesquisa exclusivas para a pesquisa em IB, mas também exclusivos desafios metodológicos de pesquisa. Portanto, vemos a complexidade como a causa subjacente dos desafios metodológicos únicos enfrentados pela pesquisa em negócios internacionais . Oferecemos várias recomendações para ajudar acadêmicos de IB a abraçar essa complexidade e conduzir pesquisas confiáveis, interessantes e relevantes na prática.

抽象

国际商务(IB)研究旨在探索和解释由实体多样性、互动多元复杂性和全球经济体系动态性引起的国际商业内在的复杂性。为了分析这种复杂性, IB学者开发了四个研究视角, 即差异、距离、多样化和不均衡视角, 这不仅为IB理论创造了独特的研究机会, 而且带来研究方法上独特的挑战。我们因此将复杂性视为国际商务研究所面临的独特的方法论挑战的根本原因。我们提出了一些建议, 以帮助IB学者拥抱这种复杂性并进行可靠的、有趣的和切实的研究。

INTRODUCTION

It is a well-accepted fact that high-quality research methods are a necessary building block for strong scholarship in international business (IB) research. Many scholars have written about the methodological challenges that can bedevil scholarship in IB and other disciplines and have recommended best practices for dealing with these challenges. For example, see the wide variety of methodology challenges discussed in Eden, Nielsen and Verbeke ( 2020 ) and recent papers by Aguinis and co-authors (Aguinis, Cascio & Ramani, 2017 ; Aguinis, Hill & Bailey, 2019 ; Aguinis, Ramani & Alabduljader, 2018 ; Bergh, Sharp, Aguinis & Li, 2017 ).

The new JIBS Point article by Aguinis, Ramani and Cascio ( 2020 ) follows in this tradition, providing a useful analysis of the “four most pervasive contemporary methodological choices faced by international business (IB) researchers.” Our interest lies in the unique aspects of IB research and thus our paper is designed to serve as a Counterpoint and complement to their JIBS Point article. We argue that IB research questions are designed to explore and explain the inherent complexity of the global economy, which is generated by three factors: multiplicity of entities (i.e., number and variety of actors, industries, countries, institutions, etc.), multiplexity of interactions (i.e., number and variety of ties or relationships among these entities), and dynamism over time (i.e., changing nature of the international business system). To analyze the complexity of the IB system, scholars have developed four lenses of research, which we refer to as the “four D’s” (difference, distance, diversity, and disparity). These four lenses on complexity have created unique research opportunities for IB scholars but have also presented unique research methodology problems. We therefore argue that complexity is the underlying cause of the unique methodological problems facing international business research.

Our Counterpoint article first highlights Aguinis et al.’s ( 2020 ) helpful advice for improving the quality of IB research and discusses some of the article’s limitations. We then turn to developing our thesis on the complexity of IB research, the four research lenses that can be used to analyze complexity, their resulting methodological problems, and proposed methodology solutions.

A BRIEF ASSESSMENT OF AGUINIS ET AL. ( 2020 )

Contributions.

Aguinis et al.’s ( 2020 ) article on challenges and recommended best practices in IB research methodology is a welcome addition to the literature on this topic. The authors identified the most pervasive methodological challenges faced by IB researchers by counting the self-reported research methodology problems in the 43 empirical articles published in the 2018 volume of the Journal of International Business Studies ( JIBS ). Using this method, Aguinis et al. ( 2020 ) identified four methodological challenges (percentage of JIBS articles in brackets): psychometrically deficient measures (73%), idiosyncratic samples or contexts (62%), less-than-ideal research designs (62%), and insufficient evidence about causal relations (8%). The authors explored each challenge and proposed some solutions.

The most frequently mentioned challenge (in almost three-quarters of the JIBS articles) was that the measures used were psychometrically deficient; i.g., the measures did not fully capture the construct or were not sufficiently reliable. Aguinis et al. ( 2020 ) proposed three solutions. IB scholars should: (1) determine whether the measure has been used previously to represent a different construct and, if so, demonstrate why their conceptualization is appropriate; (2) specify whether the construct is reflective or formative and, depending on the answer, apply the appropriate analytical technique; and (3) use multiple indicators to measure the construct.

The second and third challenges were reported in identical percentages of JIBS papers (62.2%), suggesting that JIBS authors coupled the two challenges together. Examples of the second challenge, idiosyncratic samples or contexts, included testing IB theories in a single country or market or during a particular time period. Solutions proposed by Aguinis et al. ( 2020 ) were to (1) treat the sample as an opportunity to go deeper, rather than as a limitation, and (2) choose unique or extreme samples or contexts. The third challenge, less-than-ideal research designs, involved questions such as multiple levels of analysis and common method variance. Recommended solutions were to (1) use Big Data to create unique insights and (2) leverage Big Data techniques to re-analyze currently available data.

The fourth challenge, insufficient evidence to infer causal relations, was reported by very few JIBS authors. Those who mentioned this issue referenced comments regarding distinguishing causality from correlation and the inability of current research methods to answer causality. To address this issue, Aguinis et al. ( 2020 ) proposed that JIBS authors use (1) quasi-experimental designs and (2) necessary-conditions analysis.

Limitations

The JIBS Point article by Aguinis et al. ( 2020 ) addresses important methodological issues. The article, however, suffers from at least three limitations, which we discuss below.

First, only one year of JIBS (2018) empirical articles was analyzed. While there is no reason to think that 2018 was an outlier year, there would have been several benefits to analyzing a longitudinal dataset. Longitudinal data allow for a more informed discussion of the limitations over time (and hence potential changes/evolutions) and provide potentially deeper insights into the importance of these limitations.

Table 1 provides some information on the general types of research methods employed by JIBS authors during the first 50 years of the journal. Of the 1265 empirical articles, nearly 30% (372 articles) were published in the most recent decade (2010–2019). Most of these 372 articles (86%) used quantitative methods (archival or survey); another 9% used qualitative methods; and the remainder (5%) used mixed methods. Clearly evident over the 50-year time period are the shifts in the relative importance of different research methods. Notable has been the growing importance of archival methods, which almost doubled from 37% as a proportion of all JIBS empirical papers in the 1970s to 62% in the 2010s, and the decline of survey methods, which fell by almost half (from 40% to 24%) of empirical papers over the same years. Papers using qualitative methods fell from 16% in the 1970s to a low of 3% in the 1990s and have now rebounded to 9% in the 2010s.

Table 1

Distribution of JIBS articles by research methodology, 1970–2019.

Source : Authors’ calculations based on data provided by Nielsen et al. ( 2020 )

Italicized numbers represent share of the total

a This table only includes JIBS publications using quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods. The table excludes articles that are, for example, conceptual, theoretical, or editorial in nature.

It is therefore possible that examining one year rather than several years may have affected the relative shares of methods used and the resulting methodological challenges, or at least the frequencies of reports, identified in Aguinis et al. ( 2020 ). For example, the relatively low percentage given to challenge #4 (inference of causality) may have been due to the few survey papers in JIBS that year. Following the example of Brutus, Aguinis, and Wassmer ( 2013 ), which according to the authors was influential for their article methodologically, we conclude that at least five and preferably 10 years of data would have been helpful for understanding why JIBS authors identified particular research challenges and not others.

A second limitation is that the method used by Aguinis et al. ( 2020 ) was counting self-reports by JIBS authors. This is problematic for several reasons. First, the simple yardstick used (counting zero or one for whether the authors of a JIBS article mentioned a methods problem or not) is a coarse measure and not very informative. For example, it would have been useful to know whether, after having listed a methodological problem, the JIBS authors also explained whether and how they tried (or did not try) to address the problem. Second, the JIBS authors’ own assessment of the problem would have been helpful. Did they see the methodological challenge as material (i.e., could it have substantially affected the outcome of the paper) and, if so, did they assess what the likely impact would have been? Third, perhaps the JIBS authors may have gone further and identified in their paper why they had not addressed the challenge (e.g., they saw the issue as non-material, appropriate data did not exist at this point in time, or there was no method available to handle this particular problem). Fourth, a deeper analysis could have looked at whether there really was a problem or not, in other words, did the JIBS authors list too many or too few problems? Lastly, JIBS authors know they are expected to have a Discussion section where they discuss the limitations of their paper (e.g., Aguinis and his co-authors also follow this convention). Were the JIBS authors simply “checking the box” in their Limitations section? In sum, a comprehensive analysis of the research methodology problems in current JIBS articles would have benefitted from a much deeper assessment of the original JIBS articles. Given the focus on a single year and resulting limited number of articles (43), the “case study” approach (Aguinis et al., 2020 ) to analyzing JIBS methodological challenges falls somewhat short of meeting its goals.

A third and perhaps the most important limitation of Aguinis et al. ( 2020 ) from our perspective is that their four identified core research methodology issues are not unique to IB research. While the percentages may differ across disciplines (see their discussion regarding Brutus et al.’s ( 2013 ) assessment of management journal articles), the identified methodological problems and proposed solutions appear to be common across business and psychology journals rather than unique to IB research. The authors acknowledge this, noting that they used JIBS as a case study: “Secondly, our focus on recent JIBS articles is not intended to target this journal, or more broadly, the field of IB. For example, authors of articles published in Academy of Management Journal (AMJ), Strategic Management Journal (SMJ), Journal of Management (JOM), and Journal of Applied Psychology (JAP) have identified some of the challenges also referred to by JIBS authors” (Aguinis et al., 2020 ).

Self-reports by JIBS authors in 2018, as identified in Aguinis et al. ( 2020 ), suggest that IB research currently faces four major methodological challenges: measures, samples, research design, and causality. We applaud the authors’ efforts to address these important issues but have some concerns about the methods used in their paper and the lack of adequate attention to contextual influences resulting from the complexity of IB phenomena. Moreover, some of their challenges and solutions appear to be “micro” in nature, focusing on issues that may present major problems for scholars engaged in predominantly quantitative (survey) studies with particular psychometric properties (e.g., reflective versus formative measures and multiple versus single indicators to measure constructs). We conclude that their article makes a valuable contribution but should be treated with caution and recommend that IB scholars read both the JIBS Point and Counterpoint articles together.

Other Studies

For comparison purposes, we searched for other studies that have used methods similar to Aguinis et al. ( 2020 ) and Brutus et al. ( 2013 ) to identify methodology challenges relevant to IB research. We highlight two below and also acknowledge Andersen and Skaates ( 2004 ).

Peterson ( 2004 ) examined the research methods used in 124 international management (IM) articles published in three journals ( JIBS , AMJ, and Administrative Sciences Quarterly (ASQ) ) between 1990 and 1999. His analysis identified five methodological concerns in IM research: (1) non-representative or within-country samples, (2) limited data sources (only one or two countries), (3) lack of author diversity (one or two authors from the same country), (4) lack of examination of cross-cultural/national differences, and (5) excessive reliance on one research method (typically correlations and regressions), so that neither causality and nuances could be addressed. His proposed five solutions, respectively, were: (1) samples drawn from the whole country, (2) larger sample populations with more countries over at least 5–10 years, (3) cross-national research teams that meet periodically, (4) the use of standardized survey and research methods across countries, and (5) the use of multiple (mixed) research methods.

A second comparative study is Coviello and Jones ( 2004 ), which used content analysis to examine 55 articles on international entrepreneurship (IE) published in ten business journals (including JIBS ) between 1989 and 2002. The authors assessed the articles in terms of four methods issues: (1) time frame and content, (2) sample, (3) data collection and analysis, and (4) cross-national equivalence. Their key criticisms were that most articles involved static cross-country or cross-industry comparisons, had inconsistent definitions and measures of key variables, used idiosyncratic samples that led to results that were difficult to generalize, and did not capture complex processes well. Coviello and Jones ( 2004 ) argued that these methodological problems were inherent in the complexities involved in doing IE research. The authors concluded that IE scholars needed to take a multidisciplinary approach, adopt dynamic research designs that integrated positivist and interpretivist methodologies, and incorporate time as a key dimension.

Both Peterson ( 2004 ) and Coviello and Jones ( 2004 ) highlight similar complexities involved in doing IB research, despite their focus on different disciplines (management vs. entrepreneurship). Both articles stress that core methodological problems are caused by differences and diversities in cultures and contexts that are dynamic not static in nature. We concur with their assessment and go further to argue below that complexity is the underlying source of the unique methodological challenges faced by international business scholars .

THE COMPLEXITY OF IB RESEARCH

We of course agree with Aguinis et al. ( 2020 ) that IB researchers face many methodological problems and choices. Our interest lies, however, less in the commonalities of these problems with other disciplines and more with the unique methodological concerns that are specifically “IB”; i.e., caused by research questions and cross-border contexts typically studied by IB scholars and published in JIBS , some of which are highlighted in Peterson ( 2004 ) and Coviello and Jones ( 2004 ).

Complexity in IB Research

We start with a simple metaphor explaining why IB is different from mainstream disciplines like management and psychology. Eden ( 2008 ) suggested that a helpful way to understand IB research is to conceptualize a matrix where the columns are the disciplines or functional areas of business (e.g., management, entrepreneurship, finance) and the rows are the topics typically covered in these disciplines (e.g., markets, firm strategy, performance, international). IB research can therefore be viewed as the “international” row that cuts across the “discipline” columns.

Eden ( 2008 ) argued that JIBS researchers are boundary-spanners; they emphasize the adjective “international” over the noun of their particular discipline or university department. Implicit in this approach is the insight that IB researchers are not only engaged in studying business in cross-border contexts but also in cross-cultural and cross-disciplinary contexts. The domain of IB research is, in effect, a big umbrella covering the international/cross-border aspects of all business disciplines. Thus, IM and IE can be viewed as subfields of IB (see also discussions in Eden, Dai and Li ( 2010 ) on IM and IB and in Verbeke & Ciravegna ( 2018 ) on IE and IB).

The variety and breadth of research topics in the IB domain is therefore huge, ambitious, and challenging (Table 2 ). As a result, there is an inherent complexity to IB research that is different from domestically focused scholarship, and the research methodology challenges faced by IB researchers should not be simply conflated with methodological issues facing scholars in mainstream disciplines.

Table 2

The domain of international business studies.

Source : Eden ( 2008 : 3)

We believe there are three key sources to the complexity of IB research, which we illustrate in Figure Figure1: 1 : multiplicity, multiplexity, and dynamism. The first source of complexity is the multiplicity (i.e., the number and variety) of entities (e.g., actors, industries, countries, contexts, cultures, institutions) in the global economic system. While often pictured as a dyad (home versus foreign), in reality most IB studies involve multiple actors in multiple countries in multiple contexts. Multiplicity creates both opportunities and problems for IB research; see, for example, the discussions in Buckley and Casson ( 2001 ), Peterson ( 2004 ), Coviello and Jones ( 2004 ), and Teagarden, Von Glinow and Mellahi ( 2018 ).

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The complexity of international business research.

Multiplicity, which Buckley and Casson ( 2001 ) refer to as “combinatorial complexity”, can be addressed in many ways. Buckley and Casson recommend using parsimony and simplifying, rational-actor techniques such as real options and game theory; they provide several examples of how these techniques can be used to analyze problems such as mode of entry and location choice. Applying rational-actor economics to multiplicity has clear benefits but also some costs (Samuels, 1995 ). Other possible approaches focus more on how cross-border activities exacerbate the joint challenges of managing bounded rationality, unreliability, and investments in specific assets. Here conceptual tools from comparative institutional analysis and empirical tools such as fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis, as well as a variety of multi-level analysis tools, can be helpful (see Eden et al. ( 2020 ) for discussions of appropriate techniques).

The second factor contributing to complexity of the global economy and thus of IB research is the multiplexity of interactions (the number and variety of relationships and interdependencies) among these entities, which Buckley and Casson ( 2001 ) refer to as “organic complexity.” IB scholars have studied multiplexity for many years in contexts such as the MNE’s inter- and intra-organizational networks, buyer–supplier networks using lean production technologies, and international strategic alliances (Cuypers, Ertug, Cantwell, Zaheer & Kilduff, 2020 ). Multiplexity is created when there are “networks of networks” (D’Agostino & Scala, 2014 ), generating systemic problems such as cross-level effects, feedback loops, diffusion, and contagion. See, for example, Cardillo et al.’s ( 2013 ) analysis of the multiplexity of the international air transportation network and Gemmetto et al.’s ( 2016 ) study of the relationships and interdependencies of world trade flows; both papers use network theory to analyze the multiplexity of cross-border flows.

Buckley and Casson ( 2001 ) argues that rational actor approaches can be used to address multiplexity, pointing to information costs, dynamic optimization, real options, and game theory as appropriate techniques for handling the dynamism of the IB system. Other approaches to multiplexity include fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis, multi-level analysis techniques, and qualitative research (Eden et al., 2020 ; D’Agostino & Scala, 2014 ; Ferriani, Fonti & Corrado, 2012 ).

The third factor generating complexity for IB research is the global economy’s inherent dynamism (dynamics over time). By dynamism, we mean the various ways that time and history can affect a system such as trends, hysteresis, business cycles, crises, and other instabilities. The dynamism of the international business system generates risk, uncertainty, volatility, and ambiguity, providing both challenges and opportunities for decision-makers. Many scholars have stressed the importance of history and time to IB research (e.g., Jones & Khanna, 2006 ; Coviello & Jones, 2004 ; Eden, 2009 ). Bringing dynamism into IB research can be done using a variety of research methods, including longitudinal case studies, real options approaches, event studies, and event history analysis. Each of these approaches also raises its own methodology challenges, some of which are discussed in Eden et al. ( 2020 ).

Four Research Lenses on Complexity

To analyze the complexity of the international business system, IB scholars have developed four research lenses, which we refer to as the “four D’s” (difference, distance, diversity, and disparity) and illustrate in Figure Figure1. 1 . The first – “Difference” – involves the relatively simple matter of comparing how “here” is different from “there” (e.g., cross-border comparisons of domestic with foreign). Early research in IB (e.g., the Ownership-Location-Internalization (OLI) paradigm) focused on the differences that businesses faced when they crossed national borders and one still regularly hears IB research referred to as “cross-border” or “cross-cultural” studies. The focus of “Difference” is on the border as a metaphor for separating “here” (the known or us) from “there” (the unknown or them). Research on topics varying from offshore production to liability of foreignness to insiders and outsiders all share this crossing-a-border “Difference” lens.

“Distance” became a second important research lens for IB scholars after the introduction of new datasets and metrics that could be used to measure the cultural and institutional distances between countries. Early users of Hofstede’s ( 1980 ) cultural dimensions, for example, explored the impact of cultural distance on foreign mode of entry (e.g., Kogut & Singh, 1988 ). Distance studies, using these new datasets and metrics, have been a dominant theme of IB research for nearly 30 years (see reviews in Beugelsdijk, Ambos & Nell ( 2018 ) and Maseland, Dow & Steel ( 2018 )).

“Diversity” – the third “D” – is a newer focus of IB researchers interested in exploring, for example, varieties of capitalism and variations within and across countries (see also Stahl, Tung, Kostova & Zellmer-Bruhn, 2016 ). Diversity pays attention to the multiplicity of actors and networks and the multiplexity of their interactions. Diversity is inherent in multiplexity and may involve new research metrics and methods. Dai, Eden and Beamish ( 2013 ), for example, show how Coulombe’s Law can be used to calculate the dynamic exposure faced by a foreign subsidiary surrounded by multiple war zones of different sizes at different distances and points of time. Peterson, Arregle and Martin ( 2012 ) provides a useful introduction to multilevel models that can be used to analyze diversity issues.

We believe that the fourth “D” – “Disparity” – is on the horizon and will become an important topic for IB researchers in the 2020s and 2030s. The call for IB researchers to engage more with global societal challenges (Buckley, Doh & Benischke, 2017 ), the growing importance of the new group Responsible Research in Business and Management ( http://www.rrbm.network ), and the launch of the Journal of International Business Policy , all suggest more attention is being paid by IB scholars to the massive inequalities that exist across and within countries. The current global pandemic caused by COVID-19 is likely to exacerbate these cross-country disparities. We predict that more IB research in the future will examine the role that international business plays in society, in both ameliorating and exacerbating disparity and inequality, bringing their own research methodology challenges (Schlegelmilch & Szöcs, 2020 ; Crane, Henriques & Husted, 2018 ).

We therefore conclude that complexity – generated by the multiplicity of entities, multiplexity of interactions, and dynamism of the global economy - is the underlying cause of the unique methodological challenges facing international business research. The four lenses on complexity – difference, distance, diversity, and disparity – offer unique research challenges and opportunities for IB scholars and, as a result, have also presented them with unique research methodology problems, to which we now turn.

COPING WITH THE COMPLEXITY OF IB RESEARCH

We view complexity as the keyword that best captures IB research; that is, what it means to put the adjective “international” together with the noun “business” in the matrix that defines the “IB” field. Below we discuss the implications of complexity for the methodology challenges facing IB scholars. We organize these challenges according to the timeline of a typical IB research process, building on Nielsen, Eden and Verbeke ( 2020 ): (1) problem definition and research question, (2) research design and data collection, and (3) data analysis and interpretation of results. In each phase, we focus on the complexity issues that are prevalent and/or unique to IB research, the methodology challenges they pose, and recommend possible solutions (see Figure Figure1 1 ).

Phase 1: Problem Definition and Research Question

In Phase 1, the researcher or research team must identify and define the problem and question(s) that will drive the project. Here, we see at least three methodological challenges.

Defining the research problem

IB requires attention to both the similarities and differences between and across domestic and foreign operations at multiple levels of analysis (e.g., firm, industry, country). Isolating the international (cross-border) aspects of a study requires a deep understanding of domestic and foreign environments. Thus, both the multiplicity of actors and multiplexity of interactions create complexity in defining the research problem. We suggest that looking at the research problem through the lenses of the “four D’s” (difference, distance, diversity, and disparity) can provide an fruitful avenue for attending to the complex set of issues across multiple contextual dimensions, including setting, unit, location, and time.

The (non)equivalency of concepts and theories used in different contexts

Much IB research involves applying “standard” theories (e.g., internalization, transaction cost economics, resource-based view) to particular types of firms. However, the assumptions of these theories and their applicability are likely to vary across countries. IB scholars need to identify and account explicitly for contextual influences and their potential impacts on the design and interpretation of outcomes of their study. Contextual issues are critical for determining the boundaries within which particular theories may be applicable. Studies of state ownership, for example, may yield very different results when the state-owned multinationals are from China, Norway or Brazil, given the different institutional contexts of these countries. Once again, an explicit focus on the sources of complexity may help IB researchers discern how, why, where, and when concepts and theories are equivalent (or not) in different contexts.

Promising too much and delivering too little

While most scholars start with a “big” research question (e.g., how distance or diversity affects a particular MNE strategy), in practice, their empirical study is much more narrowly defined. IB scholars may end up overestimating the generalizability of their results, leading to exaggerated claims that “promise too much.” Selection of the research question should drive the data collection and choice of methodology stages, and the way the results are reported and interpreted, not the other way around.

Phase 2: Research Design and Data Collection

In the second stage where researchers are engaged in research design and data collection, there are at least three core methodological challenges.

Appropriateness of the sample

IB scholars typically prefer to use data from secondary sources such as national and international (e.g., US and UN) statistical agencies and private firms (e.g., Thomson Reuters, Standard & Poor’s). However, particularly in developing countries, such data sources are either not available or are often of questionable quality. Moreover, IB researchers often assume implicitly that all sampled entities within-country share the same characteristics, with differences existing only across countries. This assumption may be wishful thinking as differences within countries (especially between rural and city areas in developing countries) may be larger than across countries, as noted by Peterson ( 2004 ). When the samples are inadequate, of course, the results will be problematic. Aguinis et al. ( 2020 ) identified idiosyncratic samples and contexts as a methodological concern in 62% of their sampled JIBS articles. We contend that a stronger focus on understanding the types of complexity during data collection may help prevent inadequate sampling in IB studies.

Appropriateness of the sample size

Typically, studies that examine the impact of independent variable X on the dependent variable Y must hold constant other variables that can also affect Y. Less attention is paid, however, to X itself. In an international context differences in X across countries may have many facets. For example, studying the influence of institutional distance (X) on the MNE’s mode of entry choice (Y) requires unbundling institutional distance into different components, which may warrant a large sample size or more careful sample selection.

Avoiding non-sampling errors

Large multi-country datasets constructed from responses to governmental and private surveys are attractive to IB researchers because these datasets offer the opportunity to test IB research questions on much larger cross-country and cross-cultural samples. These datasets however can be problematic for IB research. First, more often the “breadth” (number of countries and number of constructs) of multi-country/culture surveys far exceeds their “depth” (number of years). Many may be single year surveys, raising reliability issues. Second, multi-country datasets – even when constructed with care – may be prone to non-sampling errors. Low measure reliability, for example, can arise from differences in assessment methods used “on the ground” across countries. Differences in how various cultures understand different constructs (e.g., what “gender equality” means) are also a problem. To this end, Chidlow, Ghauri, Yeniyurt and Cavusgil ( 2015 ) reported that establishment of translation equivalence in cross-cultural studies remains sparse with regards to whether (a) the instrument used to collect the required data is translated appropriately across different cultures and (b) the data collection procedures are comparable across different cultures. A third challenge is that IB researchers may be either unaware (or choose to ignore) changes in methods and sources used by national and international agencies to collect and publish their datasets. Lacking in-depth knowledge of a dataset raises the likelihood of its misuse and misinterpretation of the results.

In sum, non-sampling errors may bedevil IB research simply because IB research questions do not “travel well” cross-nationally and cross-culturally due to multiplicity, multiplexity, and dynamism. One solution to the problem of possible measurement non-equivalence is to test for this issue before using the datasets. Nielsen et al. ( 2020 ) provides examples of statistical methods that can test for measurement equivalence on a cross-national/cultural basis. Aguinis et al. ( 2020 ) provides more generic examples of how data collection and research design challenges may be dealt with; for example, they focus on the potential virtues of Big Data, though such approaches should be used carefully so they do not confound rather than resolve non-sampling errors in IB research.

Phase 3: Data Analysis and Interpretation of Results

IB scholars also face special issues when they are engaged in data analysis and interpretation of results. We briefly discuss three research methodology challenges which can be added to the more general issue of establishing causality (across contexts, levels, and time) raised by Aguinis et al. ( 2020 ).

Addressing anomalies and inconsistencies

Outliers and other anomalies and inconsistencies may be more prevalent in multi-country than in single country studies due to the complexity of IB research. Rare events and asymmetric, long-tailed distributions may be more prevalent in international settings, necessitating research methods designed to handle these anomalies (Andriani & McKelvey, 2007 ). For instance, ignoring the “elephant in the room” (e.g., the dominance of one country such as China or the United States in a multi-country dataset) can lead to erroneous conclusions based on Gaussian averages (e.g., about the average scale and scope of internationalization). Moreover, as datasets span multiple countries and contexts – often relying on combining data sources from different entities and countries – the likelihood of errors due to anomalies and inconsistencies in data collection methods, cleaning, and handling, including translational and equivalence issues, increases. IB researchers must take appropriate steps to correct for such biases, for example, by using investigator triangulation ex ante during data collection and ex post during analysis and reporting (Nielsen et al., 2020 ).

Choosing the level(s) of theory, data, and analysis

IB studies, as we have stressed above, involve multiplicity and multiplexity. They are typically not only multi-country and multi-context but also multi-level. Employees are nested (and may be cross-nested) within subunits of an MNE (e.g., parent, regional headquarters, plants, branches, subsidiaries); the MNE itself is cross-nested within multiple national and institutional contexts depending on its global footprint. Thus, studying an MNE – let alone a comparison across MNEs – is an exercise in studying and understanding multi-level heterogeneity (individual, plant, firm, industry, country) as well as cross-nested embeddedness at each of these levels (Nielsen & Nielsen, 2010 ). Not surprisingly, determining the “right” level or levels of theory, data, and analysis needed to address a particular research question is not easy. An extension of this research problem arises from ecological fallacies where a construct developed for use at one level of analysis (e.g., country) is used at a different level (e.g., firm), without attention paid to the possible consequences. The “four D’s” may provide useful lenses through which to examine the multiplicity and multiplexity inherent in issues of levels of theory, data, and analysis, that give rise to additional layers of interdependence and nesting.

Avoiding personal bias in interpreting and reporting results

We all “see through our own lenses.” IB researchers, given their interest in the four D’s, are likely to be more contextually aware than domestically focused but are still likely to suffer from personal and institutional biases. Working with diverse teams of scholars from other countries, cultures, and disciplines can help reduce the influence of personal biases. Multi-country/cultural research teams can also provide benefits to IB research by improving the ability of concepts and theories to “travel” across countries, as argued in Peterson ( 2004 ).

CONCLUSION: WORDS TO LIVE BY

We agree with Aguinis et al. ( 2020 ) that IB scholarship suffers from methodological challenges. IB research, by its nature, involves a high degree of complexity generated by the multiplicity, multiplexity, and dynamism of the global economy. IB scholars can use the four D’s (difference, distance, diversity, and disparity) as useful lenses for understanding and analyzing this complexity. Complexity, of course, is one of the reasons that so many scholars study IB research questions but it also brings a set of methodological challenges unique to IB research.

We end with four pieces of advice that we hope provide useful guidance for IB researchers. We note that these guiding principles are complementary to the solutions proposed in Aguinis et al. ( 2020 ) and to our methodology recommendations above.

Learn to Live with (and Embrace) Complexity in Research Design

Complexity is a word that strikes fear and dread into the heart of most researchers; the more complex the problem, the more difficult the research tasks that lie ahead. We argue that IB researchers must learn to live with (and embrace) complexity. They must be comfortable with the multiplicity, multiplexity, and dynamism that characterize the global economy. Deconstructing a research question to examine its complexity through the lens of one or more of the four D’s (difference, distance, diversity, and disparity) is, we argue, critically important for developing interesting, useful, and impactful research. Using these lenses can help the IB researcher understand how multiple parameters affect his or her variable(s) of interest, often in non-linear and interdependent ways. As a result, relying on secondary data sources and conventional research methods such as OLS regression are likely to be insufficient or inappropriate to understand the complexity of IB research. Rather, embracing complexity naturally leads to more experimental research designs, as well as mixed methods, and/or multilevel analyses. Research designs that explicitly acknowledge complexity are likely to better answer the “big” questions that IB faces now and in the future.

Use Triangulation Actively to Increase Rigor and Relevance

Looking at a phenomenon or issue from multiple angles – not the least methodological – can address the biases, errors, and limitations introduced by any single approach (Denzin, 1978 ; Jick, 1979 ). Most of the IB-specific challenges we have raised above can be directly addressed by incorporating various types of triangulation strategies into the research design. For instance, theoretical triangulation may lead to new research questions by juxtaposing different theoretical perspectives. Similarly, data source and data collection triangulation may be seen as “an opportunity to go deeper, rather than as a limitation” (Aguinis et al., 2020 ) while also increasing sample reliability and reducing non-equivalence biases. Analytical triangulation helps ensure validity and reliability of results by comparing and contrasting results using multiple analytical techniques. Investigator triangulation may reduce personal biases in both data collection, analysis, and interpretation processes (Nielsen et al., 2020 ). Indeed, we would argue that the four D’s (difference, distance, diversity, and disparity) may best be attended to by carefully building triangulation into the research design process.

Exercise Due Diligence and Good Judgment

IB researchers should spend time, up front, understanding their research question and their unit of analysis, mapping and graphing the hypothesized relationships among their variables, and taking account of previously theorized relationships. Investment in building a thorough understanding of the research problem will help point the way to the most appropriate research method(s) and technique(s) for tackling the problem. Rules of thumb as to what constitutes an “acceptable” methodological approach are a poor substitute for the due diligence necessary to enable the researcher to exercise his or her good scholarly judgment. This piece of advice also requires IB researchers to have a good command of the available different research methods, of where they work well and where they do not.

Engage in Ethical and Responsible Research Practices

There have been many articles on best practices in responsible research, including several by Herman Aguinis that are particularly appropriate for IB researchers (Aguinis et al., 2017 , 2018 , 2019 ; Bergh et al., 2017 ). In addition, Anne Tsui and colleagues have been actively encouraging business and management scholars to join RRBM (Responsible Research in Business and Management; https://www.rrbm.network ) and adopt RRBM best practices for their research. The editors of JIBS have also led the way for many years in articulating best ethical and responsible practices for IB research, e.g., through the AIB Journals Code of Ethics, JIBS editorials at https://www.palgrave.com/gp/journal/41267/volumes-issues/editorials , and the new JIBS Special Collections books, in particular, Research Methods in International Business (Eden et al., 2020 ). We conclude that “ethical” and “responsible” are good words to live by. Words that when practiced by the global community of IB scholars will build knowledge for a more prosperous, just, and sustainable world.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Alain Verbeke and Stewart Miller for helpful comments on earlier drafts of this paper.

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Accepted by Alain Verbeke, Editor-in-Chief, 4 September 2020. This article was single-blind reviewed.

Contributor Information

Lorraine Eden, Email: ude.umat@nedel .

Bo Bernhard Nielsen, Email: [email protected] .

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200 International Business Topics

Exploring international business can unlock a world of opportunities and challenges for companies ready to expand their horizons. In this article, we’ll dive into 200 dynamic topics that will give you a comprehensive insight into the global business landscape.

The Impact of Globalization on Small Businesses
Understanding International Trade Laws
The Role of the World Trade Organization in Global Commerce
The Rise of Emerging Markets in the Global Economy
The Effects of Currency Exchange Rates on International Business
The Importance of Cross-Cultural Communication in International Business
Outsourcing: Boon or Bane for the Global Economy?
The Impact of Digital Transformation on Global Business Strategies
Analyzing the Global Supply Chain Management Challenges
The Influence of Political Instability on International Trade
Multinational Corporations: Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility
The Role of International Financial Institutions in Economic Development
Emerging Trends in International Marketing
Protectionism vs. Free Trade: Which is the way forward?
The Effect of International Sanctions on Trade Relations
E-Commerce: Changing the Face of International Business
The Challenges of International Human Resources Management
Corporate Governance in the Context of Global Business
Foreign Direct Investment: Trends and Impacts
The Relationship between International Business and Environmental Sustainability
Climate Change: A New Frontier for International Business Strategy
The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on International Business
The Dynamics of International Joint Ventures and Strategic Alliances
The Role of Multilateral Trade Agreements in Shaping Business
The Effect of Brexit on International Business in the UK and EU
Crisis Management in International Business
International Business Negotiation Strategies and Tactics
The Growth of International Franchising
Cross-Border Mergers and Acquisitions: Opportunities and Challenges
The Role of Cultural Intelligence in International Business Success
The Competitive Advantage of Nations: A Study of Porter’s Diamond Model
The Influence of International Business on Global Politics
The Effects of Global Pandemics on International Trade and Investment
Big Data and Analytics in International Business Decision Making
The Role of Expatriates in International Business Development
The Significance of International Trade Blocks and Economic Unions
The Impact of Social Media on International Brand Management
Women in International Business: Challenges and Opportunities
Legal and Ethical Issues in International Business
The Importance of Intellectual Property Rights in Global Business
Sustainable Development Goals and International Business Practices
The Future of International Business Post COVID-19
The Role of International Entrepreneurship in Economic Growth
The Challenges of Managing a Global Workforce
The Importance of Logistics and Transportation in International Trade
The Impact of Technological Innovation on Global Business Operations
The Advantages and Disadvantages of Offshoring
International Business and the Fight Against Corruption
The Emergence of China as a Global Business Powerhouse
The Role of International Affairs in Business Education
The Use of International Business Simulation Games in Learning
The Effects of Terrorism on International Business Strategies
Regulation of International Business: A Comparative Analysis
The Role of Language in International Business Expansion
The Influence of International Business on Culture and Society
The Significance of BRICS Countries in the World Economy
The Role of Innovation in Sustaining Competitive Advantage Internationally
The Impact of Exchange Rate Volatility on Global Business
The Importance of Ethical Supply Chains in International Business
The Challenges of International Business in the Aerospace Industry
The Significance of Trade Missions in Expanding International Business
The Role of Governments in Promoting International Trade
The Impact of International Business on Local Economies
The Role of Diaspora in International Business Expansion
Cybersecurity Challenges in International Business Operations
The Impact of International Sporting Events on Local Businesses
The Role of International Business in Reducing Global Poverty
The Influence of Non-Governmental Organizations on International Trade Policies
International Business and the Rise of the Gig Economy
Cross-Border E-commerce: Trends and Regulatory Challenges
The Role of Immigrant Entrepreneurs in International Business
The Impact of Multicultural Teams in Global Organizations
The Challenges and Benefits of Doing Business in Africa
Foreign Exchange Risk Management in International Business
The Role of Microfinance in International Development
Analyzing the Business Models of International E-commerce Giants
The Impact of International Trade on Agriculture
The Role of Corporate Diplomacy in International Business Relations
International Business and the Rise of Consumerism
The Impact of International Business on Global Healthcare
The Challenges of Sustainable Tourism in International Business
The Influence of Religion on International Business Practices
The Role of International Business in Promoting Gender Equality
The Impact of International Business on Education and Knowledge Transfer
The Influence of International Trade on Food Security
Digital Currency and Its Impact on International Trade
The Rise of International Business Incubators and Accelerators
The Role of International Business in Urban Development
The Impact of Globalization on Indigenous Cultures and Businesses
The Effect of International Business on Peace and Security
The Role of International Business in Renewable Energy Development
The Significance of Bilateral Investment Treaties in International Business
The Challenges of Managing International Business Ethics across Cultures
Global Sourcing Strategies and Their Impact on Businesses
The Role of International Business in Combating Climate Change
The Challenges Facing International Business in the Retail Sector
The Importance of International Certifications and Standards in Business
The Role of Trade Unions in International Business Environments
The Impact of International Business on Rural Development
The Role of SMEs in International Economics and Trade
The Challenges of Building a Global Brand Identity
International Business Education: Curriculum and Pedagogy
The Influence of Digital Payments on International Business Transactions
The Role of International Business in the Pharmaceutical Industry
The Impact of Cultural Differences on Product and Service Design
The Economics of International Business and Foreign Exchange Markets
The Role of Commodity Markets in International Business
The Ethics of Data Privacy in International Business
The Challenges of Due Diligence in International Business
The Role of International Standards in Quality Assurance
The Impact of International Lobbying on Business Regulations
The Challenges of International Business in Conflict Zones
The Influence of Global Demographic Trends on International Business
The Impact of Political Relations on International Business Strategies
The Effect of Natural Disasters on International Supply Chains
The Importance of Business Incubators in International Entrepreneurship
The Role of Technology Transfer in International Development
The Challenges of International Business in the Textile and Garment Industry
The Impact of Intellectual Property Theft on International Business
The Role of Global Environmental Agreements in Business Operations
The Influence of National Culture on Corporate Governance Practices
The Significance of Social Entrepreneurship in International Business
The Challenges of Foreign Market Entry Strategies
The Role of Bilateral Trade Agreements in Shaping Global Business
The Impact of Telecommuting on International Business Operations
The Influence of Social Impact Investing on International Business
The Role of International Business in Global Food Distribution
The Impact of Corporate Social Investing on International Relations
The Importance of Transparency in International Business Conduct
The Role of Blockchain Technology in International Business Transactions
The Impact of Aviation on Global Business Connectivity
The Challenges of International Business Negotiations with Sovereign States
The Role of International Markets in Commodities Trade
The Influence of National Policies on International Business Operations
The Challenges of Scaling Small Businesses Internationally
The Importance of Global Regulatory Compliance in Business
The Role of International Collaboration in Science and Technology
The Impact of Sovereign Wealth Funds on International Investment
The Influence of Language Barriers on Global Business Expansion
The Importance of Cultural Diplomacy in International Business Relations
The Impact of International Business on Global Economic Inequality
The Role of International Business in Combating Counterfeiting and Piracy
The Importance of Location in Global Business Strategy
The Influence of Consumer Behavior on International Marketing
The Challenges of Running a Multinational Corporation
The Role of Export Credit Agencies in International Trade
The Impact of Automation on Global Employment and International Business
The Importance of International Trade Exhibitions and Fairs
The Role of Global Cities as Hubs of International Business
The Impact of Globalization on National Identity and Business Practices
The Influence of Trade Protectionism on Global Supply Chains
The Challenges of International Business in the Luxury Goods Sector
The Role of Trade Embargoes in International Relations
The Impact of Corporate Acquisitions on International Market Dynamics
The Importance of Cultural Adaptation in International Business Strategy
The Influence of Exports on National Economies
The Role of Consumer Advocacy in International Business Regulation
The Impact of International Business on the Development of Technology
The Challenges of International Taxation and Business Finance
The Importance of Social Responsibility in International Business Expansion
The Role of International Economic Organizations in Global Governance
The Impact of Foreign Labor Policies on International Business
The Influence of Nationalism on Global Business Practices
The Role of International Business in Promoting Fair Trade
The Impact of Cyber Espionage on International Business Confidence
The Importance of Global Partnerships in Business Innovation
The Role of International Arbitration in Business Disputes
The Influence of Global Media on International Business Perception
The Role of International Sales and Operations Planning
The Challenges and Opportunities of International E-learning Businesses
The Importance of Cross-Border Data Flow in International Business
The Role of International Business in the Circular Economy
The Impact of Space Commerce on International Business Strategies
The Influence of Emerging Technologies on Global Trade
The Role of International Mergers in Industry Consolidation
The Impact of Cultural Heritage on International Tourism Business
The Importance of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in International Market Research
The Role of International Environmental Agreements in Business Sustainability
The Influence of Digital Transformation on International Supply Chain Management
The Role of Digital Platforms in International Trade Efficiency
The Impact of Language Translation Technology on Global Business Communication
The Importance of Business Analytics in International Expansion
The Role of Corporate Philanthropy in International Business Reputation
The Impact of Social Innovation on International Business Models
The Influence of International Business on Global Urbanization Patterns
The Role of Ethical Investment in International Business Development
The Impact of International Product Standards on Consumer Choice
The Importance of Brand Protection in the Global Marketplace
The Role of International Expositions in Promoting Trade and Industry
The Impact of Political Campaigns on International Business Decisions
The Importance of Global Trade Compliance in Corporate Strategy
The Influence of International Recruitment and Talent Acquisition
The Impact of Demographic Changes on Global Business Strategies
The Role of Global Risk Management in International Business
The Importance of Sustainable Finance in International Business Growth
The Role of Digital Identification in Global Commerce
The Impact of Connectivity on International Business Collaboration
The Influence of Cultural Norms on Business Operations and Etiquette
The Role of Big Data in Understanding International Market Dynamics
The Impact of Global Economic Shifts on International Business Strategy

Research Topics & Ideas: Business

50+ Management Research Topic Ideas To Fast-Track Your Project

Finding and choosing a strong research topic is the critical first step when it comes to crafting a high-quality dissertation, thesis or research project. If you’ve landed on this post, chances are you’re looking for a business/management-related research topic , but aren’t sure where to start. Here, we’ll explore a variety of research ideas and topic thought-starters for management-related research degrees (MBAs/DBAs, etc.). These research topics span management strategy, HR, finance, operations, international business and leadership.

NB – This is just the start…

The topic ideation and evaluation process has multiple steps . In this post, we’ll kickstart the process by sharing some research topic ideas within the management domain. This is the starting point, but to develop a well-defined research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , along with a well-justified plan of action to fill that gap.

If you’re new to the oftentimes perplexing world of research, or if this is your first time undertaking a formal academic research project, be sure to check out our free dissertation mini-course. In it, we cover the process of writing a dissertation or thesis from start to end. Be sure to also sign up for our free webinar that explores how to find a high-quality research topic.

Overview: Business Research Topics

Business /management strategy
Human resources (HR) and industrial psychology
Finance and accounting
Operations management
International business
Actual business dissertations & theses

Strategy-Related Research Topics

An analysis of the impact of digital transformation on business strategy in consulting firms
The role of innovation in transportation practices for creating a competitive advantage within the agricultural sector
Exploring the effect of globalisation on strategic decision-making practices for multinational Fashion brands.
An evaluation of corporate social responsibility in shaping business strategy, a case study of power utilities in Nigeria
Analysing the relationship between corporate culture and business strategy in the new digital era, exploring the role of remote working.
Assessing the impact of sustainability practices on business strategy and performance in the motor vehicle manufacturing industry
An analysis of the effect of social media on strategic partnerships and alliances development in the insurance industry
Exploring the role of data-driven decision-making in business strategy developments following supply-chain disruptions in the agricultural sector
Developing a conceptual framework for assessing the influence of market orientation on business strategy and performance in the video game publishing industry
A review of strategic cost management best practices in the healthcare sector of Indonesia
Identification of key strategic considerations required for the effective implementation of Industry 4.0 to develop a circular economy
Reviewing how Globalisation has affected business model innovation strategies in the education sector
A comparison of merger and acquisition strategies’ effects on novel product development in the Pharmaceutical industry
An analysis of market strategy performance during recessions, a retrospective review of the luxury goods market in the US
Comparing the performance of digital stakeholder engagement strategies and their contribution towards meeting SDGs in the mining sector

Topics & Ideas: Human Resources (HR)

Exploring the impact of digital employee engagement practices on organizational performance in SMEs
The role of diversity and inclusion in the workplace
An evaluation of remote employee training and development programs efficacy in the e-commerce sector
Comparing the effect of flexible work arrangements on employee satisfaction and productivity across generational divides
Assessing the relationship between gender-focused employee empowerment programs and job satisfaction in the UAE
A review of the impact of technology and digitisation on human resource management practices in the construction industry
An analysis of the role of human resource management in talent acquisition and retention in response to globalisation and crisis, a case study of the South African power utility
The influence of leadership style on remote working employee motivation and performance in the education sector.
A comparison of performance appraisal systems for managing employee performance in the luxury retail fashion industry
An examination of the relationship between work-life balance and job satisfaction in blue-collar workplaces, A systematic review
Exploring HR personnel’s experiences managing digital workplace bullying in multinational corporations
Assessing the success of HR team integration following merger and acquisition on employee engagement and performance
Exploring HR green practices and their effects on retention of millennial talent in the fintech industry
Assessing the impact of human resources analytics in successfully navigating digital transformation within the healthcare sector
Exploring the role of HR staff in the development and maintenance of ethical business practices in fintech SMEs
An analysis of employee perceptions of current HRM practices in a fully remote IT workspace

Topics & Ideas: Finance & Accounting

An analysis of the effect of employee financial literacy on decision-making in manufacturing start-ups in Ghana
Assessing the impact of corporate green innovation on financial performance in listed companies in Estonia
Assessing the effect of corporate governance on financial performance in the mining industry in Papua New Guinea
An evaluation of financial risk management practices in the construction industry of Saudi Arabia
Exploring the role of leadership financial literacy in the transition from start-up to scale-up in the retail e-commerce industry.
A review of influential macroeconomic factors on the adoption of cryptocurrencies as legal tender
An examination of the use of financial derivatives in risk management
Exploring the impact of the cryptocurrency disruption on stock trading practices in the EU
An analysis of the relationship between corporate social responsibility and financial performance in academic publishing houses
A comparison of financial ratios performance in evaluating E-commerce startups in South Korea.
An evaluation of the role of government policies in facilitating manufacturing companies’ successful transitioning from start-up to scale-ups in Denmark
Assessing the financial value associated with industry 4.0 transitions in the Indian pharmaceutical industry
Exploring the role of effective e-leadership on financial performance in the Nigerian fintech industry
A review of digital disruptions in CRM practices and their associated financial impact on listed companies during the Covid-19 pandemic
Exploring the importance of Sharia-based business practices on SME financial performance in multicultural countries

Free Webinar: How To Find A Dissertation Research Topic

Ideas: Operations Management

An assessment of the impact of blockchain technology on operations management practices in the transport industry of Estonia
An evaluation of supply chain disruption management strategies and their impact on business performance in Lithuania
Exploring the role of lean manufacturing in the automotive industry of Malaysia and its effects on improving operational efficiency
A critical review of optimal operations management strategies in luxury goods manufacturing for ensuring supply chain resilience
Exploring the role of globalization on Supply chain diversification, a pre/post analysis of the COVID-19 pandemic
An analysis of the relationship between quality management and customer satisfaction in subscription-based business models
Assessing the cost of sustainable sourcing practices on operations management and supply chain resilience in the Cocao industry.
An examination of the adoption of behavioural predictive analytics in operations management practices, a case study of the
Italian automotive industry
Exploring the effect of operational complexity on business performance following digital transformation
An evaluation of barriers to the implementation of agile methods in project management within governmental institutions
Assessing how the relationship between operational processes and business strategy change as companies transition from start-ups to scale-ups
Exploring the relationship between operational management and innovative business models, lessons from the fintech industry
A review of best practices for operations management facilitating the transition towards a circular economy in the fast food industry
Exploring the viability of lean manufacturing practices in Vietnam’s plastics industry
Assessing engagement in cybersecurity considerations associated with operations management practices in industry 4.0 manufacturing

Research Topic Kickstarter - Need Help Finding A Research Topic?

Topics & Ideas: International Business

The impact of cultural differences in communication on international business relationships
An evaluation of the role of government import and export policies in shaping international business practices
The effect of global shipping conditions on international business strategies
An analysis of the challenges of managing multinational corporations: branch management
The influence of social media marketing on international business operations
The role of international trade agreements on business activities in developing countries
An examination of the impact of currency fluctuations on international business and cost competitiveness
The relationship between international business and sustainable development: perspectives and benefits
An evaluation of the challenges and opportunities of doing business in emerging markets such as the renewable energy industry
An analysis of the role of internationalisation via strategic alliances in international business
The impact of cross-cultural management on international business performance
The effect of political instability on international business operations: A case study of Russia
An analysis of the role of intellectual property rights in an international technology company’s business strategies
The relationship between corporate social responsibility and international business strategy: a comparative study of different industries
The impact of technology on international business in the fashion industry

Topics & Ideas: Leadership

A comparative study of the impact of different leadership styles on organizational performance
An evaluation of transformational leadership in today’s non-profit organizations
The role of emotional intelligence in effective leadership and productivity
An analysis of the relationship between leadership style and employee motivation
The influence of diversity and inclusion on leadership practices in South Africa
The impact of Artificial Intelligence technology on leadership in the digital age
An examination of the challenges of leadership in a rapidly changing business environment: examples from the finance industry
The relationship between leadership and corporate culture and job satisfaction
An evaluation of the role of transformational leadership in strategic decision-making
The use of leadership development programs in enhancing leadership effectiveness in multinational organisations
The impact of ethical leadership on organizational trust and reputation: an empirical study
An analysis of the relationship between various leadership styles and employee well-being in healthcare organizations
The role of leadership in promoting good work-life balance and job satisfaction in the age of remote work
The influence of leadership on knowledge sharing and innovation in the technology industry
An investigation of the impact of cultural intelligence on cross-cultural leadership effectiveness in global organizations

Business/Management Dissertation & Theses

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a business-related research topic, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses to see how this all comes together.

Below, we’ve included a selection of research projects from various management-related degree programs (e.g., MBAs, DBAs, etc.) to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

Sustaining Microbreweries Beyond 5 Years (Yanez, 2022)
Perceived Stakeholder and Stockholder Views: A Comparison Among Accounting Students, Non-Accounting Business Students And Non-Business Students (Shajan, 2020)
Attitudes Toward Corporate Social Responsibility and the New Ecological Paradigm among Business Students in Southern California (Barullas, 2020)
Entrepreneurial opportunity alertness in small business: a narrative research study exploring established small business founders’ experience with opportunity alertness in an evolving economic landscape in the Southeastern United States (Hughes, 2019)
Work-Integrated Learning in Closing Skills Gap in Public Procurement: A Qualitative Phenomenological Study (Culver, 2021)
Analyzing the Drivers and Barriers to Green Business Practices for Small and Medium Enterprises in Ohio (Purwandani, 2020)
The Role of Executive Business Travel in a Virtual World (Gale, 2022)
Outsourcing Security and International Corporate Responsibility: A Critical Analysis of Private Military Companies (PMCs) and Human Rights Violations (Hawkins, 2022)
Lean-excellence business management for small and medium-sized manufacturing companies in Kurdistan region of Iraq (Mohammad, 2021)
Science Data Sharing: Applying a Disruptive Technology Platform Business Model (Edwards, 2022)
Impact of Hurricanes on Small Construction Business and Their Recovery (Sahu, 2022)

Looking at these titles, you can probably pick up that the research topics here are quite specific and narrowly-focused , compared to the generic ones presented earlier. This is an important thing to keep in mind as you develop your own research topic. That is to say, to create a top-notch research topic, you must be precise and target a specific context with specific variables of interest . In other words, you need to identify a clear, well-justified research gap.

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Effect of Leadership, computerized accounting systems, risk management and monitoring on the quality of financial Reports among listed banks

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Business research is an essential aspect of the modern corporate world. The ability to understand the latest trends, consumer behavior, and market dynamics is crucial for any firm looking to stay competitive. With this in mind, we've compiled a list of 250 business research topics that can serve as an inspiration for your next paper. From the impact of technology on the workforce to the rise of sustainable firm practices, these research topics in business cover a wide range of subjects that are relevant to today's business climate. Whether you're a student or a researcher, this list of topics related to business is sure to provide you with ideas for your next work or thesis. Stay with our business essay writing service to discover amazing ideas.

What Are Business Research Topics?

Business research topics are areas of study that pertain to the various aspects of running an organization, such as marketing, management, finance, as well as operations. These topics can cover a wide range of subjects. They also focus on specific industries or geographic regions. Business related topics can be studied using various methods, such as quantitative or qualitative ones.It is important to note that business topics for a research paper are frequently evolving and adapting to the current business environment, which makes them very dynamic. As a crucial part of the corporate world, they provide insights and understanding of various aspects of such an environment. These insights can help firms make informed decisions, develop new strategies, and stay competitive in the marketplace.

Characteristics of Good Business Research Topics

There are several characteristics that make business research paper topics good. Here are a few examples:

Relevance The chosen topic should be relevant to the present business environment. Therefore, it seeks to solve issues that are essential to both researchers and practitioners.
Feasibility Good research topics in business should be feasible to research. It means that there are readily available resources and information necessary for the project.
Significance: the topic should have practical implications for practitioners and companies.
Clarity It must be specific and clearly defined.
Originality It should contribute new perspectives or insights to the existing body of knowledge.

All of these characteristics together will make a good research topic, one that is valuable, informative, and useful for the corporate industry.

How to Choose a Business Topic for Research?

When writing your research, you should get your foundation right, which starts with choosing a good business related topic. Here are the steps you can use to select a business topic for research:

Identify your research area Find out the broad area of enterprise that you want to focus on.
Review the literature Conduct a literature review to identify current research trends, gaps, and issues in your chosen area.
Narrow down your focus Based on the literature review, narrow down your focus to a specific topic that is relevant, feasible, and original.
Assess feasibility Consider the time frame, resources, and data availability for the topic. Make sure that you have access to the necessary data and materials to conduct the research.
Finalize the topic Choose a topic that aligns with your interests and that you are passionate about. This will make the research process more enjoyable.
Consult with experts Seek advice from professionals in the field to get feedback on your topic and to make sure that it is relevant.

Business Research Topics List

A well-curated business research paper topics list can help researchers identify current trends, gaps in the literature, and emerging issues in the field. Here are some top business topics that are very useful.

How sustainable business practices affect a company’s financial performance.
Blockchain technology’s role in business.
Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on global supply chain management.
Impact of fintech on traditional financial institutions.
How digital transformation affects organizational culture.
Consequences of social media marketing for customer engagement.
Data analytics’ role in company performance and decision-making.
Impact of the gig economy on traditional employment model.
Abuse experienced by women in the workplace.
Revolution of firm operations and strategy due to artificial intelligence.

Interesting Business Topics for a Research Paper

We’ve compiled an interesting business topic list that can be helpful in your work. Before choosing research topics on business, you should understand the requirements, then select one that matches your interest from the list below.

Growth in tourism and its impact on the economy.
Limitations of global sanctions.
Determinants of consumer behavior.
Current changes in global labor unions.
History of economic thoughts.
Exploring trade embargo.
Comparative analysis of property rights.
Ways to maximize product profits.
Differences between tax bracket rates and fixed tax rate.
Factors to consider when choosing countries to invest in.
Relevant leadership styles for family-owned organizations.
Ways in which an organization can enter a foreign market.
Challenges of remote employment.
Advantages of franchising for the franchisee.
Languages used in international ventures.

These are just a few examples of the many topics that can be explored through research. The goal is to gain a deeper understanding of the factors that influence organizational performance and to develop strategies for addressing any challenges that arise.

Easy Business Research Paper Topics

Business research is an important aspect of understanding various factors that drive organizational success. However, some business research topics can be complex and time-consuming to investigate. Here are 15 great research paper business topics that may be researched quickly.

Storytelling’s role in marketing.
Impact of online communication tools on team productivity.
COVID-19 pandemic’s impacts on consumer buying behavior.
How virtual meetings enhance team collaboration.
Workplace diversity and employee satisfaction.
Telecommunications effects on employee morale.
Artificial intelligence’s role in personalization of marketing efforts.
Impact of gamification on employee training.
Green initiative’s impact on customer loyalty.
How branding affects consumer purchasing power.
How does mobile technology enhance customer service?
Customer reviews’ role in enhancing online sales.
How digital marketing drives sales for small businesses.
Importance of flexible working hours for employee productivity.
Characteristics of monopolistic markets.

>> View more: Marketing Research Topics

Unique Business Research Topics

Business paper topics listed below are unique and challenging in the sense that they offer new perspectives and angles on the research, and they are not widely studied. It's also important to note that this category of research topic about business can cover ideas in any sector related to corporate world.

Virtual reality’s role in enhancing customer experience in luxury retail.
Artificial intelligence and human resources recruitment.
Using virtual and augmented reality in real estate.
LMS software for small businesses .
Greenwashing’s effect on consumer purchasing behavior.
Applying Internet of Things in predictive maintenance.
Virtual reality’s application in team building.
How mindfulness practices impact decision-making and productivity.
Application of augmented reality in e-commerce and retail.
Using blockchain technology in supply chain management.
Barriers to entering monopolistic markets.
How chatbots lead to employee satisfaction.
Emotional intelligence’s impact on effectiveness of leadership.
Impact of AI-generated content on company sales.
Effective advertising techniques for SMEs.

Controversial Business Research Topics

There are some research topics related to business that are controversial and can challenge widely held beliefs or societal norms. We’ve created a list of controversial business topic ideas below. You can choose any that interests you.

Automation’s impact on job displacement.
Corporate social responsibility’s role in addressing social issues.
Income inequality’s effects on firm performance.
Influence of Artificial Intelligence on privacy and ethical concerns.
Big data’s role in decision-making and potential biases.
Multinational companies’ impact on developing countries.
Sharing economy’s consequences on traditional industries and regulations.
Using blockchain technology in financial privacy and security.
How companies can be responsible for political lobbying.
Cannabis industry’s role in Canada’s economic development.
Ethical implication of AI in corporate world.
How surveillance affects employee privacy.
Effects of automation on the future of work.
Digital currency’s role in financial inclusion.
Social media’s impact on political polarization.

Business Research Proposal Topics

Whether you are an investor or a customer at a local grocery store, everyone is involved in some form of venture that prompts them to develop business research proposal ideas. Students in different academic levels may also be required to write a proposal before their research. Below are some business proposal topics to research that can help you explore your ideas.

Reducing workplace stress using virtual reality.
AI's potential impact on organizations venturing in healthcare.
How the current digital revolution has affected the corporate world.
Importance of video surveillance to organizations.
Potential solutions that private firms can implement to be economically secure.
Reasons why low self-esteem is detrimental at workplace.
Small independent organizations: lifelines in a world of giant franchises.
Solutions to the world's joblessness problem and how to implement them.
How workers’ motivation affects productivity.
A social problem: how altering consumer behavior affects retail sales.
Factors that determine the length of paternity leave given to employees.
The present-day world's environmental problems and their implications for business management.
Importance of leadership abilities in maintaining authority.
A methodical survey of investment approaches in real estate industry.
Comparing direct marketing with other types of advertisement .

Business Research Paper Topics for Students

Research topic ideas for business students can cover a wide range of areas, including management, marketing, finance, and operations. These themes are meant to be used as inspiration for students to conduct research on the business field and can be tailored to meet the specific requirements of the assignment. Research paper topics related to business may also be chosen from areas of interest such as customer service, digital marketing, e-commerce, and green business practices.

Business Research Topics for College Students

Business topics for college students provide an opportunity to conduct research and gain a deeper understanding of the various factors that drive organizational success. Here are 15 potential business topics to write about.

Ways to ensure diversity in the workplace.
Virtual and augmented reality’s role in enhancing customer experience.
Effectiveness of various quality leadership styles in different industries.
Corporate governance’s impact on organizational performance.
Digitalization and its influence on the news industry.
Effectiveness of Artificial Intelligence in personalization of marketing efforts.
How virtual teams affect productivity and communication of employees in an organization.
How does the sharing economy affect traditional industries and regulations?
Ways in which privacy concerns influence consumer purchase behavior.
How the Internet of Things impacts supply chain management.
Digital currency’s role in financial inclusion and inequality.
Different insurance forms for a company.
Benefits of personalizing a firm website.
The future of virtual reality in organizations.
How greenwashing affects consumer purchasing behavior.

Business Research Topics for MBA Students

Business research project topics cover a wide range of areas and can be tailored to meet the specific requirements of the assignment or the student's area of interest. These topics are also relevant to the current business environment and can provide MBA students with a chance to explore the various challenges and opportunities that companies face today. Highlighted below is a list of business research paper ideas that you can consider.

Digitalization’s impact on the financial industry and its regulation.
Artificial Intelligence’s role in the healthcare industry.
How corporate social responsibility affects financial performance and reputation.
E-commerce’s effect on brick-and-mortar retail firms.
Big data’s role in marketing.
COVID-19 pandemic on global trade and investment.
Importance of time management in an organization.
Using virtual and augmented reality in real estate and construction.
Digital transformation’s impact on the public sector and government.
Applying blockchain technology in logistics and transportation.
What are the sustainable firm practices that an organization should adopt?
How social media affects consumer behavior and decision-making.
Digital marketing’s role in the B2B industry.
Artificial Intelligence’s impact on human resources management.
The impact of political and economic changes on renewable energy.

Research Topics on Business in Different Fields

Business research topics cover various industries and sectors, including finance, healthcare, marketing, as well as logistics. They can provide insight into the different business challenges and opportunities that different industries face today. Researchers dive deeper into specific fields to understand how business practices and strategies differ, as well as how they can be improved. These research business ideas can also be tailored to match the specific requirements of the assignment or the student's area of interest.

International Business Research Paper Topics

International business topics for research can encompass various aspects of cross-border trade as well as investment, including market entry strategies, cultural differences, and global supply chain management. Listed here are 15 potential research paper topics on international business.

How cultural differences affect international business negotiations.
An examination of the challenges and opportunities of international franchising.
The impact of currency fluctuations on international business performance.
Different forms of international business ownership.
Role of international trade agreements and their impact on companies.
Brexit’s impact on international business .
Corporate social responsibility and its effect on international business reputation.
Impact of language barriers on international business communication.
How international organizations promote sustainable development.
Most effective market entry strategies for emerging markets.
Political and economic instability’s role in international trade.
Role of technology in facilitating cross-border e-commerce.
Impact of international enterprise on host-country workers.
Influence of international ventures on environmental sustainability.
International business’ influence on local cultures and traditions.

Business Law Topics for a Research Paper

Business law research paper topic ideas can encompass various legal issues that organizations face, including contract law, intellectual property law, and corporate governance. Here are 15 potential research paper topics for business law class.

Effectiveness of different forms of alternative dispute resolution in business disputes.
Consumer protection laws.
Challenges and opportunities of cross-border litigation in international business.
The effects of corporate governance on organizational performance and accountability.
Securities laws on initial public offerings and capital raising.
The role of intellectual property law in protecting innovation and creativity in the digital age.
Challenges and opportunities of merger and acquisition regulation.
The impact of labor laws on human resources management and recruitment.
Effectiveness of different forms of corporate social responsibility in addressing social and environmental issues.
The role of competition law in promoting fair competition and protecting consumer welfare.
Limitations of international trade law and its impact on firms.
Data privacy laws on company operations and decision-making.
Contract law on e-commerce and online business.
The role of property law in real estate and construction enterprises.
Limitations and opportunities of corporate governance in family-owned firms.

Check more: Law Research Paper Topics

Research Topics in Business Administration

Business administration research topics can encompass various aspects of organizational management, including leadership, strategy, and operations. They are also relevant to the current business environment and provide an opportunity to explore challenges that companies face in the field of business administration. We’ve compiled a list of business administration topics for a research paper that can be helpful to you.

Effective leadership styles for different types of organizations.
The impact of organizational culture on employee engagement and performance.
Opportunities and limitations of virtual teams and remote work.
The effects of innovation management on organizational performance.
Digitalization’s impact on organizational structure and processes.
The role of project management in driving organizational success.
Reasons to implement mergers and acquisitions.
The impact of corporate social responsibility on organizational reputation and brand image.
Automation and machine learning influence organizational processes and decision-making.
Human resources management’s role in promoting a healthy and inclusive work environment.
Limitations of international expansion.
The impact of data analytics and big data on organizational decision-making and performance.
Effectiveness of different organizational change management forms.
Operations management’s role in driving efficiency and productivity.
Sustainable firm practices and their impact on organizational performance.

Business Management Research Topics

Are you specialized in management and looking for related business management research paper topics? This article lists business report topics below that can be useful to you.

Applying artificial intelligence in business management.
Gig economy and its impact on workforce management.
Innovative Human Resource practices to improve employee resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Ways to promote sustainable development in an organization.
How virtual reality impacts human behavior and well-being.
The use of technology in strategic management.
Gender disparity and discrimination in wages.
Strategies to encourage more women leaders in organizations.
Team building strategies.
Connection between labor productivity and salary.
Enhancing employee retention rate.
Conflict management in a company.
Ways to motivate employees.
Social media’s impact on business.
How do you ensure diversity in leadership?

These topics cover a wide range of areas and can be tailored to meet the specific requirements of the assignment or the student's area of interest. They provide insight into the field of business management and can help equip you with necessary skills needed in that study area.

Business Ethics Topics for a Research Paper

Business ethics research paper topics can encompass various issues related to moral and ethical principles in the business world, such as corporate social responsibility, diversity and inclusion, and integrity in decision-making. Highlighted below are topics for a business ethics essay or paper that you can consider.

Corporate social responsibility and consumer trust.
Forms of corruption in private sector organizations.
Ways to promote sustainable development.
Diversity and inclusion policies.
How corporate governance impacts organizational integrity.
Forms of whistle-blower protection.
Organization’s role in addressing social and environmental issues.
Challenges of implementing a code of conduct.
Ways to enhance organizational reputation and brand image.
Different forms of corporate social responsibility reporting.
Principles of ethical management.
The impact of ethics on employee engagement and motivation.
How to address issues of social and environmental justice.
Business ethics’ impact on the financial performance of a company.
How do companies address human rights issues?

Business Communication Research Topics

The success of a business depends significantly on the communication between stakeholders. Business communication topics can include different aspects within and between organizations, including cross-cultural, digital, and crisis communication. If you want to study it, here are some business research topics ideas to consider.

Essential digital tools used in business communication.
Forms of multimedia communication in organizations.
Communication’s role in promoting a healthy and inclusive work environment.
Cross-functional communication in organizations.
Communication technology’s impact on networking and relationship building.
Forms of internal communication in different industries.
How communication promotes transparency and trust.
Ways of communicating during mergers and acquisitions.
How communication technology impacts the financial industry .
Nonverbal communication in firm interactions.
Using social media in organizational communication.
Enhancing team dynamics and collaboration through communication.
Crisis communication in the digital age.
Language barriers in international organizations.
Intergenerational communication in the workplace.

>> View more: Communication Research Paper Topics

Business Speech Research Topics

Research topics in business include various aspects of oral communication in the corporate world, such as public speaking, presentations, as well as pitch deliveries. Do you have a speech that you want to deliver related to enterprise and still not sure of the topic to choose? Here are general business research topic ideas you can use.

Types of corporate crimes you should look out for as our employees.
Never be afraid of your competitors.
How to deliberately think and plan for your success.
Moving your company a generation ahead.
How to ensure effective leadership in your company.
How to reward your employees.
Ways to motivate your employees.
Encouraging innovation in your firm.
Why should everyone have a business plan before starting one?
How we can deal with breach of contract.
Types of insurance cover we should consider for a company.
Ways to improve our company’s reputation in public.
How to write effective business letters.
Why we should actively participate in corporate social responsibilities.
How to increase our sales.

Read more: Demonstration Speech Ideas for Students

Business Debate Research Topics

Business research questions for debate involve various aspects of public discourse as well as arguments in the corporate world, such as ethical dilemmas, industry trends, and policy decisions. These themes can provide an opportunity to explore different perspectives and arguments on a particular issue and to evaluate their strengths as well as weaknesses. Some of the debatable business research project ideas include the following:

Is investing in stocks like taking a chance on the lottery?
Do you think cryptocurrencies should power the corporate world?
Is it true that men account for more successful company owners?
Do women fare better than men in the corporate world?
When it comes to commerce, how trustworthy are cryptocurrencies, and how does advertising them increase their customer base?
Are corporations with a global reach causing more harm than good?
If a company invests in advertisements, do they see a return on its investment?
Do jobs in cooperation constitute a new form of slavery?
Should it be possible to blend politics with corporations?
Do you think getting an MBA is worth the cost?
Does technology make people less productive?
Are companies overlooking the issue of cybersecurity?
Has the introduction of emails improved communication within companies?
Is artificial intelligence bad for the corporate world?
Unlike theft, infringing on copyright does not deprive the victim of the original product.

>> Read more: Political Science Research Questions

Bottom Line on Business Research Paper Topics

There are numerous categories of topics for business research paper. The chosen topic should be a reflection of your expertise. Before deciding on the research paper topic about business to write on, you must first establish your specialty besides ensuring you have the necessary facts as well as resources. Provided in this article are 250 business research ideas. Feel free to choose from any category depending on your area of interest. Don't forget to proofread as well as modify your final paper several times before submission. All the best! Just in case you need to conduct a study in another field, remember that we have a huge arsenal of topics in various disciplines. From psychology research topics to sociology research paper topics , you can spot any title idea for an A-grade work.

Contact our professional writers. They have extensive experience in different fields and deliver top-notch academic works written from scratch. Just leave a ‘ do my paper ’ request indicating all the requirements.

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Main Figures on Forced Labour

27.6 million

people are in forced labour.

US$ 236 billion

generated in illegal profits every year.

3.9 million

of them are in State-imposed form of forced labour.

of them are women and girls (4.9 million in forced commercial sexual exploitation, and 6 million in other economic sectors).

of them are children (3.3 million). More than half of these children are in commercial sexual exploitation.

3 times more

risk of forced labour for migrant workers.

Victims of forced labour include 17.3 million exploited in the private sector; 6.3 million in forced commercial sexual exploitation, and 3.9 million in forced labour imposed by State.
The Asia and the Pacific region has the highest number of people in forced labour (15.1 million) and the Arab States the highest prevalence (5.3 per thousand people).
Addressing decent work deficits in the informal economy, as part of broader efforts towards economic formalization, is a priority for progress against forced labour.

Source: 2022 Global Estimates

Forced Labour Observatory

The Forced Labour Observatory (FLO) is a database that provides comprehensive global and country information on forced labour, including on international and national legal and institutional frameworks; enforcement, prevention and protection measures, as well as information related to access to justice; remedies, and cooperation.

Global Reports

The silhouette of a man lifting a towel over his head, seen against the sunrise, near a lake.

2021 Global Estimates of Modern Slavery: Forced Labour and Forced Marriage

The latest estimates show that forced labour and forced marriage have increased significantly in the last five years, according to the International Labour Organization, Walk Free and the International Organisation for Migration.

Full Report
Executive Summary
Press Release
Third estimates: Modern Slavery (2017)
Second estimates: Forced Labour (2012)
First estimates: Forced Labour (2005)

Image of numbers against blue background

Profits and Poverty: The Economics of Forced Labour (2024)

The study investigates the underlying factors that drive forced labour, of which a major one is illegal profits.

Press release
First edition of the report and second estimates (2014)
First estimates of illegal profits from forced labour (2005)

Main Statistical Tools on Forced Labour

Hard to See, Harder to Count: Guidelines for Forced Labour Surveys
Ethical Guidelines for Research on Forced Labour
Evidence Gap Map on Forced Labour
Global Research Agenda (child labour, forced labour and human trafficking)

ICLS and forced labour

Young women picking cotton in a field in Pakistan

The International Conference of Labour Statisticians (ICLS) is the authoritative body to set global standards in labour statistics. During its 20th meeting, in October 2018, the ICLS adopted the "Guidelines concerning the measurement of forced labour". The intent of the guidelines is to facilitate the process of testing the measurement of forced labour in different national circumstances and/or measurement objectives.

Guidelines concerning the measurement of forced labour (ICLS 2018)
Measurement of forced labour: stocktaking and way forward (ICLS 2023 Room document 22)
All ICLS documents

Leveraging natural language processing techniques to explore the potential impact of the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)

Open access
Published: 25 April 2024

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Louise Curran 1 &
Carlos Carrasco-Farré 2

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Debates on controversial policies often stimulate extensive discourse, which is difficult to interpret objectively. Political science scholars have begun to use new textual data analysis tools to illuminate policy debates, yet these techniques have been little leveraged in the international business literature. We use a combination of natural language processing, network analysis and trade data to shed light on a high-profile policy debate—the EU’s recently enacted Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM). We leverage these novel techniques to analyze business inputs to the EU’s public consultation, differentiating between different types of organizations (companies, trade associations, non-EU actors) and nature of impact (direct, indirect, potential). Although there are similarities in key concerns, there are also differences, both across sectors and between collective and individual actors. Key findings include the fact that collective actors and indirectly affected sectors tended to be less concerned about the negative impacts of the new measure on international relations than individual firms and those directly affected. Firms’ home country also impacted on their positions, with EU-headquartered and foreign-owned companies clustering separately. Our research highlights the potential of natural language processing techniques to help better understand the positions of business in contentious debates and inform policy making.

Plain language summary

In recent years, the European Union (EU—a political and economic union of 27 European countries) has been striving for more openness and inclusivity in its policy-making process. Public consultations, which are opportunities for individuals and organizations to provide feedback on proposed policies, have become a crucial method for collecting stakeholder views and evaluating policy alternatives. The European Commission, the EU's executive branch, conducted 1744 public consultations between 2016 and 2021, generating a large amount of data on stakeholder positions in different policy areas. However, the size of these databases presents difficulties for analysis. Advances in textual analysis techniques, which involve examining and interpreting written or spoken language, now allow for detailed exploration of this data, providing insights into policy positions and their changes over time. This study analyzed responses to one such consultation on the EU's Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM - a policy that imposes a tariff on certain imported goods based on their carbon content), using natural language processing (a field of artificial intelligence that helps computers understand human language) and network analysis (a method for visualizing and analyzing complex systems) to examine business actors' inputs. The research reveals the main topics of concern for these stakeholders and how they differ across affected actors, offering nuanced insights into the perceived effects of the policy shift. The analysis identified groups of stakeholders with similar concerns and distinguished between types of actors, such as EU-owned companies, third-country actors (companies owned by non-EU countries), and collective actors like trade associations, providing a comprehensive view of business perspectives. The study also incorporated trade data to contextualize the analysis. The results show that EU-owned companies tended to group together in their responses, while those owned by third-country actors formed separate groups. Collective actors and indirectly affected sectors expressed less concern about the negative impacts of the CBAM on international relations and governance compared to individual firms and those directly affected. The research concludes that advanced data analysis techniques can significantly enhance our understanding of policy debates affecting international business. The study's findings suggest that the CBAM will have complex implications for international trade, potentially affecting competitiveness, trade relations, and the broader international business environment. The potential impact and future implications of this research are significant for both policymakers and international businesses. Leveraging advanced textual analysis can provide a comprehensive understanding of stakeholder positions to policymakers, enabling more informed decision-making. For international businesses, the findings highlight the importance of participating in public consultations to express concerns and influence policy outcomes. The study also opens avenues for future research to assess the actual impacts of regulatory innovations like the CBAM on trade, investment, and international business. As the world's first major economy to use trade policy to address international differences in carbon pricing, the EU's CBAM represents a pioneering step with far-reaching consequences for global trade and environmental policy.

This text was initially drafted using artificial intelligence, then reviewed by the author(s) to ensure accuracy.

Les débats sur les politiques controversées suscitent souvent des discussions foisonnantes, difficiles à interpréter de manière objective. Les chercheurs en science politique ont commencé à utiliser de nouveaux outils d'analyse de données textuelles pour éclairer les débats politiques, bien que ces techniques aient été peu exploitées dans la littérature en affaires internationales. Nous utilisons une combinaison de traitement du langage naturel, d'analyse de réseau et de données commerciales pour éclairer un débat politique de haut niveau - le Mécanisme d'Ajustement des Frontières Carbone (CBAM) récemment adopté par l'Union européenne (UE). Nous exploitons ces techniques novatrices pour analyser les contributions des entreprises à la consultation publique de l'UE, en différenciant entre différents types d'organisations (entreprises, associations commerciales, acteurs non-UE) et la nature de l'impact (direct, indirect, potentiel). Bien qu'il existe des similitudes dans les préoccupations clés, il y a aussi des différences, à la fois entre les secteurs et entre les acteurs collectifs et individuels. Les principales conclusions incluent le fait que les acteurs collectifs et les secteurs indirectement touchés avaient tendance à être moins préoccupés par les impacts négatifs de la nouvelle mesure sur les relations internationales que les entreprises individuelles et celles directement touchées. Le pays d'origine des entreprises a également influencé leurs positions, avec des entreprises basées dans l'UE et des entreprises étrangères formant des regroupements distincts. Notre recherche met en lumière le potentiel des techniques de traitement du langage naturel pour mieux comprendre les positions des entreprises dans des débats controversés et éclairer l'élaboration des politiques.

Los debates en torno a políticas controversiales suelen estimular largos discursos difíciles de interpretar objetivamente. Académicos de las ciencias políticas han comenzado a usar nuevas herramientas de análisis textual de datos para iluminar los debates políticos, aunque estas técnicas se han afianzado poco en la literatura de los negocios internacionales. Utilizamos una combinación de procesamiento del lenguaje natural, análisis de red y datos de mercado para arrojar luz en un debate de alto perfil político: La UE recientemente promulgó el Mecanismo de Ajuste en Frontera por Carbono (CBAM), por sus siglas en inglés. Nos apalancamos en estas técnicas novedosas para analizar los aportes de los negocios a la consulta pública de la UE, distinguiendo entre diferentes tipos de organizaciones (compañías, asociaciones de comercio y actores fuera de la UE), así como la naturaleza del impacto (directo, indirecto, potencial). Aunque hay similitudes en las preocupaciones esenciales también hay diferencias, tanto a través de sectores y colectivos, así como entre actores individuales. Entre los hallazgos principales están que los actores colectivos y los sectores afectados indirectamente tienden a preocuparse menos por los impactos negativos de la nueva medida en relaciones internacionales, que las compañías individuales y aquellos afectados directamente. El país anfitrión de la compañía también se impacta en sus posiciones con compañías asentadas en la UE y las de propiedad extranjera agrupándose separadamente. Nuestra investigación destaca el potencial de técnicas de procesamiento del lenguaje natural para ayudar a entender mejor las posiciones de los negocios en los debates continuos y la realización de políticas públicas informadas.

Debates sobre políticas controversas frequentemente estimulam um discurso extensivo, o qual é difícil de interpretar de maneira objetiva. Acadêmicos na área de ciências políticas começaram a usar novas ferramentas de análise de dados textuais para elucidar debates políticos, no entanto essas técnicas têm sido pouco aproveitadas na literatura de negócios internacionais. Usamos uma combinação de processamento de linguagem natural, análise de rede e dados comerciais para lançar luz sobre um debate político importante - o Mecanismo de Ajuste de Fronteira de Carbono (CBAM) recentemente promulgado pela União Europeia. Aproveitamos essas técnicas inovadoras para analisar contribuições empresariais para a consulta pública da UE, diferenciando entre diferentes tipos de organizações (empresas, associações comerciais, atores fora da UE) e natureza do impacto (direto, indireto, potencial). Embora haja semelhanças nas principais preocupações, também existem diferenças, tanto entre setores quanto entre atores coletivos e individuais. Os principais achados incluem o fato de que atores coletivos e setores indiretamente afetados tendem a estar menos preocupados com os impactos negativos da nova medida nas relações internacionais do que empresas individuais e aquelas diretamente afetadas. O país de origem das empresas também impactou as suas posições, com empresas com sede na UE e empresas de propriedade estrangeira se agrupando separadamente. Nossa pesquisa destaca o potencial das técnicas de processamento de linguagem natural para ajudar a entender melhor as posições dos negócios em debates contenciosos e informar a formulação de políticas públicas.

关于有争议的政策的辩论往往会激发广泛的讨论, 这很难客观地解读。政治学学者已经开始使用新的文本数据分析工具来阐明政策辩论, 然而这些技术在国际商务文献中很少得到利用。我们结合使用自然语言处理、网络分析和贸易数据来阐明备受瞩目的政策辩论——欧盟最近颁布的碳边界调整机制(CBAM)。我们利用这些新技术来分析欧盟公众咨询的商业投入, 区分不同类型的组织(公司、贸易协会、非欧盟参与者)和影响的性质(直接、间接、潜在)。尽管在关键问题上有相似之处, 但在行业之间以及集体和个人行为者之间也存在差异。主要发现包括, 集体行为者和间接受影响的行业往往比个别公司和直接受影响的行业更不关心新措施对国际关系的负面影响。公司的母国也影响了他们的位置, 总部设在欧盟的公司和外资公司分开聚集。我们的研究强调了自然语言处理技术的潜力, 它有助于更好地理解企业在有争议的辩论中的立场, 并为政策制定提供信息。

Zusammenfassung

Debatten über kontroverse politische Maßnahmen regen oft einen umfangreichen Diskurs an, der schwer objektiv zu interpretieren ist. Politikwissenschaftler haben begonnen, neue Instrumente der Textdatenanalyse zu nutzen, um politische Debatten zu beleuchten, jedoch wurden diese Verfahren in der Literatur zur internationalen Betriebswirtschaft bisher nur wenig genutzt. Wir verwenden eine Kombination aus natürlicher Sprachverarbeitung, Netzwerkanalyse und Handelsdaten, um eine hochrangige politische Debatte zu beleuchten—das kürzlich in Kraft getretene CO2-Grenzausgleichssystem (CBAM) der EU. Wir setzen diese neuen Verfahren ein, um die Beiträge von Unternehmen zur öffentlichen Konsultation der EU zu analysieren, wobei wir zwischen verschiedenen Arten von Organisationen (Unternehmen, Handelsverbände, Nicht-EU-Akteure) und der Art der Auswirkungen (direkt, indirekt, potenziell) unterscheiden. Obwohl es Ähnlichkeiten bei den zentralen Bedenken gibt, gibt es auch Unterschiede, sowohl zwischen den Sektoren als auch zwischen kollektiven und einzelnen Akteuren. Zu den wichtigsten Ergebnissen gehört die Tatsache, dass kollektive Akteure und indirekt betroffene Sektoren tendenziell weniger über die negativen Auswirkungen der neuen Maßnahme auf die internationalen Beziehungen beunruhigt sind als Einzelunternehmen und direkt Betroffene. Auch das Herkunftsland der Unternehmen wirkte sich auf ihre Position aus, wobei Unternehmen mit Hauptsitz in der EU und Unternehmen in ausländischem Besitz getrennt voneinander geclustert wurden. Unsere Forschung zeigt das Potenzial von Verfahren zur natürlichen Sprachverarbeitung auf, um die Positionen von Unternehmen in kontroversen Debatten besser zu verstehen und die politische Entscheidungsfindung zu unterstützen.

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Introduction

In recent years, the EU policy-making process has become more transparent and inclusive, with public consultations a particularly popular means of accessing stakeholder opinion and testing policy options. The European Commission launched 1744 public consultations in the period 2016–2021 alone (Nørbech, 2023 ). These exercises provide a huge amount of quantitative and qualitative data about the positions of stakeholders on key policy areas. Although the sheer size of such databases can be challenging for analysis and interpretation, recent advances in textual analysis techniques facilitate detailed exploration.

In line with these advances, textual analysis has recently become popular in the political science literature as a means to better understand policy positions and their evolution (Abel & Mertens, 2023 ; Bail, 2016 ; Frelih-Larsen et al., 2023 ; James et al., 2021 ; Rule et al., 2015 ). Such analysis of EU consultations has yielded interesting insights into variations in positions and arguments, as well as coalition-building. Frelih-Larsen et al. ( 2023 ) used corpus analytics and software tools to identify clusters for and against key proposals on pesticide use, as well as variations in the arguments used to back up their positions. Abel and Mertens ( 2023 ) built on automated textual analysis of the consultation on the EU’s Emission’s Trading System (ETS) to identify similarities in belief systems and networks. Finally, James et al. ( 2021 ) leveraged quantitative textual analysis of responses to several consultations on financial regulation to identify networks based on text re-use and common submissions. This enables them to highlight the co-existence of national and cross-border coalitions.

In spite of their demonstrable potential to yield such insights, this data resource has yet to be widely exploited in the international business context. In this paper, we demonstrate how understanding of policy debates affecting international business can be informed by leveraging advanced data analysis techniques to explore textual input to policy debates. We focus on one recent consultation—that on the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)—and use a combination of natural language processing and network analysis to explore business actors’ inputs. This approach enables us to use text to identify the key topics of concern to these interests and how they differed across affected actors, providing detailed and nuanced insights on the perceived likely effects of the policy shift. We supplement this with data on trade flows to contextualize our analysis.

Insights on the positions of business interests are particularly useful in contexts where a proposed policy is very novel, such that there is a lot of uncertainty about the likely impacts. The CBAM—the world’s first effort to put a price on imported carbon—also referred to as a ‘carbon tariff’—is such a measure. It is the first time a major economy has sought to use trade policy to level the playing field on carbon pricing and it has been very controversial. It thus provides an ideal opportunity to leverage new analytical tools to explore policy debates.

As discussed below, the effects of CBAM in trade and trading partners are still largely unknown. The objective of the measure is to encourage other jurisdictions to follow the EU’s lead in making carbon more expensive, but it is unsure whether that will happen. In the face of such uncertainly, it is vital for policymakers to collect inputs from interested economic (and other) actors to supplement their own analysis. Yet the number of inputs provided is challenging for interpretation, especially those that use free text rather than answering closed questions. Indeed the Commission’s own analysis of the consultation only reports the findings of the closed questions (CEC, 2021a ). This represents a missed opportunity to mine such data to provide a more nuanced understanding of actor’s positions and how they cluster together.

The objective of this paper is to demonstrate how analysis of the textual data provided to the public consultation can inform understanding of the likely effects of novel policy proposals on international business. In general, only companies and sectors which consider their core interests to be affected engage in political debates in the EU (Curran & Eckhardt, 2022 ; Kinderman, 2021 ). Although inevitably biased towards exposed sectors, inputs nevertheless highlight the key concerns of stakeholders on proposed regulation and provide a rich source of data on the most salient issues.

Our approach allows us to identify clusters of stakeholders with similar concerns. In addition, by differentiating between types of actors (collective vs. individual; EU vs non-EU), we can more precisely identify variations in business positions on the regulation. Our key findings include the fact that EU-owned companies clustered together, while those owned by third-country actors clustered separately and that collective actors and indirectly affected sectors tended to be less concerned about the negative impacts of the new measure on international relations and governance than individual firms and those directly affected.

The paper is structured as follows, after a brief introduction to the debate on CBAM, we explore what we know about its operation. We then introduce our methodology for the analysis of perceived potential effects, providing details, in particular, on our novel approach to analyzing business positions on the proposal, before presenting the key findings which emerge. We conclude by highlighting the potential of leveraging sophisticated techniques for textual analysis in support of future research in IB and policy, as well as providing some tentative indications of the short- and long-term impacts of CBAM. We also suggest avenues for future research to assess the actual impacts of this regulatory innovation on trade, investment and international business more broadly.

A novel measure to deal with carbon leakage: the CBAM and its discontents

The CBAM has been a long time in the making. The EU first put a price on carbon in 2005 through the ETS, which capped emissions from the most carbon-intensive industries and allowed companies that produced less than their quota to trade unused emissions ‘credits’ with installations that found it harder to limit emissions. From the outset, there was much concern about the potential for such climate action to have negative effects on the competitiveness of EU industry, in particular if EU firms relocated production to less-regulated countries, exporting their carbon emissions—so-called ‘carbon leakage’ (Graichen et al., 2008 ). There were discussions at the time about a mechanism to adjust for carbon costs at the border (Curran, 2010 ). However, in the face of the operational and political difficulties of border tax adjustment, the compromise solution to address the risk of carbon leakage and level the playing field, was to provide ‘free’ ETS carbon allowances to carbon-intensive sectors subject to import competition (CEC, 2009 ). Probably as a result, analyses found that there was little evidence of carbon leakage during the roll out of the ETS (ECORYS, 2013 ).

The EU is now redoubling its efforts to reduce carbon emissions and carbon costs will need to rise if the region is to achieve its declared aims of carbon neutrality by 2050 and a 55% reduction in carbon emissions by 2030 (Böhringer et al., 2018 ; CEC, 2021b ). Although the complexities of border tax adjustment have not disappeared, this evolving context made such action more of a political imperative (Mehling et al., 2019 ). The von der Leyen Commission formally proposed the CBAM in 2021 (CEC, 2021c ).

After a long negotiating process, it was finally agreed in May 2023. It is controversial, not least because it is one of a raft of EU trade-related measures linked to sustainability concerns (Moens & Mathiesen, 2023 ). Economists are skeptical about the effectiveness of such measures (Böhringer et al., 2018 ). Other mechanisms to deal with carbon leakage have been proposed (Leal-Arcas, 2020 ), such as ‘Climate clubs’ of like-minded countries (Nordhaus, 2015 ), or a minimum carbon price, an idea supported by the IMF (Parry et al., 2021 ).

One of the key concerns of its critics is that CBAM will result in ‘resource shuffling’. This refers to a scenario where MNEs export their most carbon-efficient goods to the EU, while continuing to serve other markets with their carbon-intensive goods (Böhringer et al., 2018 ; Kardish et al., 2021 ). This practice will be difficult to police and has the potential to seriously undermine the utility of CBAM as an environmental tool. The fact that the EU has chosen to ‘go it alone’ on CBAM is likely to reduce its effectiveness (Perdana & Vielle, 2023 ). The hope is that other large traders will follow the EU’s lead and that CBAM-like policies will be globalized, but this outcome is by no means certain. There are also fears about negative impacts on relations with important geo-political allies like Ukraine (even before the invasion) and Turkey (Erixon, 2021 ), as well as the implications for certain developing countries (Böhringer et al., 2018 ; Curran, 2010 ; Erixon, 2021 ; Godin & Magacho, 2021 ).

It seems likely that it will be challenged in the World Trade Organization (WTO) (Overland & Sabyrbekov, 2022 ), although the Commission has argued that the measure is WTO-compatible. Some observers consider that it could not be justified under Article XX, the GATT article usually cited to secure exceptions for environmental measures which impact negatively on trade (Bacchus, 2021 ). There is concern about the wider impact on the WTO system of a key member implementing a measure which many consider to stretch interpretation of its rules (Bacchus, 2021 ; Erixon, 2021 ; Hufbauer et al., 2021 ). The wider impacts of CBAM on the international trading system are important, especially in a context of heightened political tensions post-COVID and the war in Ukraine, but any forthcoming WTO challenge will take several years to conclude.

A more immediate concern is that trade partners effected by CBAM will retaliate against EU products and tension could spill over into other sectors, with unpredictable results (Erixon, 2021 ). We have seen this in the past, with conflicts over aircraft subsidies impacting olive oil exports (Hammami & Beghin, 2021 ) and contentious steel tariffs spilling over to whiskey and motorbikes (Muhammad & Thompson, 2022 ). While a deterioration in trading relations with several partners following the implementation of CBAM is, to some extent, a given, exactly how this will affect trade and trading partnerships is impossible to predict with any precision at this stage. As discussed below, many important aspects of its operation are still being defined.

Given this context, we would expect international companies to be concerned about the potential effects of CBAM. From a business point of view, we would expect more short-term concerns on the potential effects on operations, trade, and production to dominate inputs. Prior research has found that threats to global trade governance from populism and the fragilization of WTO have attracted little concern from business actors, especially individual companies (Curran & Eckhardt, 2022 ). They tended to take the global trading system for granted and did not see the need to mobilize in defense of the status quo. However, in a more fractious geo-political context post-Covid, the importance of global governance may be more salient for companies. The nature of business concerns and their variation across stakeholders are explored in our detailed textual analysis below.

The operation of CBAM: coverage, practicalities, and likely impacts

A key question for the CBAM is what goods will be covered? The practical and methodological challenges of calculating embedded carbon are substantial. There are many products which are both carbon-intensive and heavily traded, and which could, therefore, be considered relevant for the measure (CEC, 2021b ). However, rather than seek to cover all goods from the outset, the Commission chose to focus on goods which are particularly carbon-intensive and, importantly, are covered by the EU’s own internal ETS (CEC, 2021c ). The exact tariff lines targeted were subject to some debate. They are detailed in Annex I of the Regulation. The decision to focus on ETS sectors meant that certain products which may be vulnerable to carbon leakage (like glass and plastics), although cited in early Commission analysis (CEC, 2021b ), were not included in the final proposal. The industries which the EU Commission proposed to include were cement, electricity, certain fertilizers, and most iron, steel, and aluminum intermediate products (CEC, 2021c ).

The scope of the regulation has been subject to extensive discussion between the European Parliament (EP) and Council during the legislative process and the final version (CEC, 2023a ) includes hydrogen (at the insistence of the EP) (EP, 2022 ) and some downstream products, especially some articles of iron and steel (at the insistence of the Council) (Council of the European Union, 2022 ). The scope may yet expand relatively quickly after adoption, as the Commission is committed to assessing whether further sectors can be included, even before the CBAM comes into force.

Another, equally important question is whether all non-EU countries will be affected by the CBAM? There is the potential for third countries to be exempted—Annex III countries in the Regulation (CEC, 2023a ). This is the case for countries where the ETS applies (primarily Norway and Iceland), but also for countries with a carbon price which exceeds that of the EU. The process of achieving such equivalence has not yet begun, and in early 2024 there were no such countries included in Annex III.

Enabling third-country accreditation is a key feature of the external aspect of the CBAM. In effect it is an effort to use ‘market power Europe’ (Damro, 2012 ) to force/encourage other countries to follow the EU’s lead and increase their domestic carbon prices. It has been credited with stimulating the upgrading of carbon pricing in Turkey (Konrat, 2021 ) and Russia, prior to the invasion of Ukraine (Zabanova, 2021 ). The Commission is now setting out, in detail, how this system will operate under a so-called ‘implementing regulation’.

As with other aspects of the system discussed below, the devil will often be in the details of these operational modalities (Chartier, 2023 ). Whether third countries will be excluded from the CBAM and on what basis, will clearly involve both technical and political assessments. The question of whether and how to provide a temporary exemption for Ukraine will be one of the first exercises in balancing these two factors (Merkus & Norell, 2023 ).

Although the Regulation will differentiate between countries on the basis of whether (and how) they regulate carbon emissions, there is also the possibility for individual companies which produce in a more carbon efficient manner than their country average to apply for carbon credits. Third-country installations can provide direct (and verified) data on their carbon emissions and costs to the CBAM registry, which importers can then use as default values. The system thus combines a country-based approach with flexibility under which some companies can secure more favorable conditions. This creates an incentive for MNEs and other exporters to reduce the carbon intensity of (some of) their facilities, differentiating themselves from others in the same jurisdiction. There are concerns, however, that this capacity to submit individual carbon tallies for more sustainably produced goods could encourage the ‘resource shuffling’ discussed above, as MNEs simply direct their ‘clean’ production to the EU market.

How will the system operate?

The new measure will not be fully applied until 2026, although from October 1, 2023, importers already had to detail the carbon content of their goods in customs declarations. This trial period is intended to give traders the opportunity to get used to the operation of the system before they actually have to pay for the cost of embedded carbon. However, there was little time for them to adapt before it entered into force. The Commission only published the details in mid-August 2023 (CEC, 2023b ).

EU importers of covered goods now have to submit a CBAM report every quarter to a special repository set up by the European Commission. The details required include the goods imported, where they were produced (the exact facility), the total embedded emissions (including those from the production of inputs to the goods and electricity used in the production process) and any carbon costs incurred in the producing country, as well as any rebates received. The methodology for converting third-country carbon costs to EU equivalents is defined in an implementing regulation (CEC, 2023c ), however only explicit carbon costs are credited. Policies which may have equivalent effects, like incentives to reduce emissions, are not currently included in the proposed methodology. This means that securing carbon credits for goods from countries with very different approaches, including the US, will likely be challenging (Benson et al., 2023 ). When fully operational, reporting will be annual, and reports will need to be accompanied by proof that the required value of CBAM certificates has been procured. The costs of these certificates will mirror the cost of carbon on the EU’s ETS market and will increase in line with the planned phasing out of free emissions to equivalent EU producers.

Finally, the system allows for the possibility that the actual emissions related to the production of some goods cannot be determined. In this case, a default value will be applied, based on either average emissions data for the country of production, or the average emission intensity of the worst performing EU installations. There are concerns that using averages will disincentivize decarbonization, as more advanced companies may have to pay twice—once for decarbonizing investment and again at the EU border (Benson et al., 2023 ). The system will include penalties for non-conformity and fraud.

Impacts on EU companies

Although the prime objective of the CBAM is to level the playing field between EU and non-EU producers, the impact on EU industry will be non-negligible. Firstly, because free ETS allowances will simultaneously be phased out. Most observers consider that the effectiveness (and WTO compatibility) of the CBAM depends, at least in part, on this linkage (Gisselman, 2020 ). These free allowances were instigated in the first place precisely because of the unlevel international playing field created by higher carbon pricing in the EU through the ETS (CEC, 2009 ). Nevertheless, the EU industry is lobbying hard to avoid their elimination. A trade association representing energy-intensive industries, AEGIS, commissioned an ‘independent’ study that purported to show that such free allowances can be maintained in a WTO-compatible manner (King & Spalding, 2021 ).

Secondly, there are concerns about the negative impacts of CBAM on EU exports. While the measure will protect EU goods sold within the community from unfair competition from goods which do not pay carbon costs, EU exports will need to compete globally despite these costs. Although there are mechanisms to deal with this, such as providing rebates, or giving free carbon allowances to exports, these are judged to be problematic from the point of view of WTO compatibility. The Commission has been tasked with assessing the risk of such export-related carbon leakage by 2025 and, if necessary, developing a WTO-compatible means of addressing the problem.

Thirdly, there will be supply chain effects in downstream industries in the EU. Carbon-intensive inputs to sectors like cars, bicycles, and even agriculture will become more expensive, pushing up the costs of EU production. These goods will compete with those from other jurisdictions that do not have to pay for the embedded carbon in intermediate goods, both in the EU and in third-country markets. There is a concern that this situation will greatly disadvantage the EU’s downstream industries at home and abroad. These wider supply chain effects were certainly one of the reasons why, as we will see below, many sectors that were not directly impacted by the CBAM nevertheless provided inputs to the public consultation.

Analyzing the potential impacts of the CBAM

Approach and methodology.

To explore the likely impact of these proposals we took a two-pronged approach. Firstly, we identified the most affected sectors and actors by looking at historical trade flows. Based on the Harmonized System (HS) codes in the final text defined as covered by the CBAM (CEC, 2023a ), we extracted figures from the International Trade Center (ITC) on EU trade Footnote 1 in recent years. This enabled us to specify which sectors and trade partners would be most heavily affected by the policy. As 2020–2022 were quite atypical years for trade in these products, both because of the pandemic and the war in Ukraine, we present averages both for the last 3 year and over a longer period (2015–2019).

It quickly became clear from the data that the inclusion of electricity (HS 2716) distorts the figures considerably for two reasons. Firstly, there was a huge surge in electricity imports by value and volume in 2021–2022 because of the energy crisis caused by the war in Ukraine, which increased demand and, especially, price. Footnote 2 Total EU imports amounted to over $100 billion in 2022 (compared to $22 billion in 2019), making up a fifth of CBAM imports. Secondly, most of the electricity imported into the EU comes from within the block (71% in 2022), or neighboring countries, linked to the EU grid, which are unlikely to be strongly affected by CBAM (another 17% comes from UK, Switzerland, and Norway). We therefore present the trade figures excluding electricity, to get a more realistic view of the most affected countries exporting CBAM goods to the EU.

Secondly, we explored business attitudes through the analysis of inputs provided to the EU’s public consultation on the proposed regulation. Footnote 3 In general, EU business reacts to regulatory proposals based on their perceived interests and industry mobilization is a good indicator of the extent of concerns/support. As discussed above, academic researchers have only recently begun to mine these sources to better understand political debates (Abel & Mertens, 2023 ; Frelih-Larsen et al., 2023 ; James et al., 2021 ; Langhof et al., 2016 ).

Much of the input to the consultation on CBAM was provided in an on-line questionnaire with closed questions, which the Commission analyzed in its own document in 2021 (CEC, 2021a ). This summary combined inputs from all respondents, such that the outcome was very general, and it does not give us a sense of the variation across actors with different interests. Most importantly civil society inputs were combined with those of business and non-EU actors were combined with those from the EU. In addition, only the responses to the closed questions were analyzed. These were generally on a Likert scale from 0 to 3. Thus, concerns on the unnecessary burden on business had a score of 1, although there are certainly some businesses for which this is a major issue. Despite the variation in interests responding to the questionnaire, most agreed that the most important economic impact of CBAM would likely be the increase in costs for downstream sectors (2.24/3).

Our objective was to explore the concerns of business, as well as the differences across business interests. To do this, we focused our attention on the specific submissions to the consultation, which were usually submitted in parallel with the questionnaire. These used free text and went into much more detail about the positions and concerns of the actors in question than was possible in the questionnaire. They also provided the possibility to highlight issues that had not been addressed in the closed questions. There were 224 such inputs altogether. As 600 respondents filled in the questionnaire, this implies that quite a large share of respondents thought it useful to provide supplementary information. We focused on feedback from business and differentiated between different types of actors to get a more nuanced view. There were inputs from 45 individual EU companies, 24 non-EU organizations (both companies and trade associations) and 80 EU trade associations. These submissions were often very detailed and ran to several pages. By focusing only on those business interests which were sufficiently engaged to provide additional position statements we are clearly exploring the attitudes of the most affected economic actors. However, we believe that this choice is justified, given our interest in mobilizing the text to highlight the key perceived impacts.

Our methodological approach is based on network analysis, which is not an uncommon method in international business studies (Buchnea & Elsahn, 2022 ; Kurt & Kurt, 2020 ). For example, longitudinal datasets of formal linkages between firms have been leveraged to explore how connectedness between company clusters improves innovation performance (Turkina & Van Assche, 2018 ). Others have explored how cross-border relationships impact the social capital, power, and social influence of international businesses (Sultana & Turkina, 2020 ). Network analysis has also been used to analyze the centrality of organizations in institutional networks using qualitative data collected through questionnaires (Monaghan et al., 2014 ). While our method does share some similarities with this prior scholarship, our data is very different. Instead of using relational data, we start from textual data to identify clusters of organizations and companies with similar concerns, as well as the topics discussed within each cluster.

To do this, we employ a combination of natural language processing and network analysis. In recent years, these techniques have built on seminal early work (Bail, 2016 ; Rule et al., 2015 ) to enable new approaches to understanding how text helps us to illuminate policy positions and their evolution over time. The sheer size of the data provided to EU consultations is challenging for manual analysis, such that some early work analyzed a random sample of submissions (Langhof et al., 2016 ). The more sophisticated techniques now available enable us to integrate all inputs into our analysis.

The first step in the process involved excluding non-informative content such as stop-words and infrequent words (occurring less than twice). Lemmatization was then applied to group inflected word forms together, enabling the consolidation of words with common roots (e.g., “imported” and “imports” are combined as “import”). The resulting selection comprised a total of 63,326 words with the following distribution: 22,257 observations from companies, 9618 from non-EU organizations, and 31,451 from trade associations. Figure 1 provides details on the top 20 most frequently occurring words in the different submissions. We excluded uninformative words occupying the first positions like “carbon”, “eu”, “cbam”, “border” and “mechanism”. In terms of the other words, (carbon) leakage was a key concern in all submissions, especially those from companies. ‘Risk’ was also important for both companies and trade associations, while ‘climate’ was important for all. Concerns about WTO compatibility were expressed more by companies, although non-EU actors highlighted ‘international’. ‘price’ and/or ‘costs’ were important for all, as was the link to the ETS.

(Source—Own analysis based on inputs to the EU consultation)

Most common words in submissions, by type of actor.

In the next step of our analysis, we applied a method that involves creating connections between documents using a two-mode network projection, which is based on the words appearing in the texts. The result of this process is a weighted adjacency matrix, obtained by applying the term-frequency inverse-document frequency (TFIDF) to overlapping terms between pairs of documents (Bail, 2016 ). There, each cell counts how many times a word appears in each pair of documents. This matrix not only represents the co-occurrence, but also the strength of relationships between words in the dataset.

Using this matrix, we can create a two-mode network where nodes can either be documents or words. In the first case, nodes represent documents and edges represent the number of words co-appearing in both documents. In the second case, we use words as nodes and the edges represent the co-appearing of other words within the same document. As indicated, the co-occurrence of words is a continuous variable, allowing us to quantify not only who is similar to whom, but also the strength of this similarity. Therefore, larger edge weights indicate greater association between organizations (Neal, 2022 ). For example, if two documents have only one word in common, their relationship strength will be lower than another pair of documents with hundreds of words in common. Similarly, if two words appear together in a single document, their association will have lower weight compared to words that co-appear in several documents. However, since we are dealing with text networks, every word has a high probability to appear in all documents, therefore we need to extract statistically significant connections. To do so, we applied the backbone extraction technique (Neal, 2022 ), which reduces network complexity by isolating a subgraph containing only the significant edges. The disparity filter (Serrano et al., 2009 ) was employed to retain edges with weights that significantly deviate from a null model, using a statistical significance level of α = 0.05.

The process is as follows. First, we prepare the data. This step involves tokenizing the text into words, deleting stop words, and lemmatizing them. Then, we create a document-term matrix (DTM) and a term-document matrix (TDM) where rows represent documents/terms, columns represent terms/documents, and the matrix elements represent term frequencies of co-occurrence. Secondly, we create a weighted adjacency matrix, where each cell represents the strength of the relationship between two documents or words based on the overlapping between them (either by document or by word). The third step involves the two-mode network representation. For the document-node network, each document is a node, and the edges represent the strength of the relationship based on the number of words co-occurring in both documents. For the word-node network, each word is a node, and edges represent co-occurrence of words within the same document. Our next step involves applying the backbone extraction technique to isolate a subgraph containing only statistically significant edges, retaining edges with weights significantly deviating from a null model ( α = 0.05). After doing so, we obtain two types of networks. In the case of the documents network, it allows us to analyze similarities between organizations, while the case of the words network allows us to identify topics being discussed in the documents.

This method differs from previous alternative approaches to textual analysis of public consultations (James et al., 2021 ). First, our approach provides a network representation, offering a visual and quantitative understanding of the relationships between organizations based, not only on the presence –or not—of common topics, but also accounting for the strength of these shared concerns. Secondly, the use of backbone extraction and the disparity filter introduces statistical significance measures, contributing to a more robust identification of meaningful connections. This ensures that the extracted connections are not merely coincidental but are statistically significantly different from the null model, contributing to the reliability of the results. Third, our method not only facilitates the identification of clusters of organizations but also enables the discernment of relevant topics within each cluster. This is achieved through the same process by modifying the bipartite projection under analysis (nodes as organizations or nodes as words).

Identifying clusters of organizations

The Louvain algorithm is a popular and efficient method used for community detection or clustering in network analysis. Since first introduced in 2008 (Blondel et al., 2008 ), it has gained widespread recognition for its ability to identify cohesive subgroups or communities within complex networks. The algorithm operates in a two-step iterative process. In the first step, it optimized the modularity of the network by iteratively moving nodes between communities to increase the overall modularity score. Modularity is a measure of the density of connections within communities compared to connections between communities, indicating the strength of community structure in a network. In the second step, the communities identified in the first step were treated as individual nodes, and a new network was constructed based on the community structure. The same modularity optimization process was applied again to further refine this structure. This iterative process of moving nodes between communities and optimizing modularity was repeated until no further improvement in modularity could be achieved.

For example, in a network of documents, each node (document) is considered as its own group. Then, the algorithm looks at each node and asks, “Would moving this node to another group create a better-organized community?” This is assessed based on the density of connections within the community compared to connections between communities (modularity score). If moving a node improves the overall organization, it is relocated to another community. The process is repeated, with nodes continuously shifting to enhance the network's structure. Then, the entire process is repeated until no further improvement can be made, indicating that the network has reached a stable community structure. After several iterations, the identified communities are treated as individual entities in a new network, which in our case represents either communities of organizations sharing common concerns, or communities of words that represent latent topics in the documents. After applying the Louvain algorithm to our sample of organizations, we identified three clusters of EU companies, five clusters of non-EU organizations, and eight clusters of trade associations. These are represented visually in Figs. 2 , 3 and 4 .

Clusters of EU companies ( left ) and topics discussed by these actors ( right )

Clusters of non-EU organizations ( left ) and topics discussed by these actors ( right )

Clusters of EU trade associations ( left ) and topics discussed by these actors ( right )

Identifying topics

To identify topics, we used the same network created for identifying clusters of organizations. However, since it is a two-mode network, instead of focusing on organizations, we focused on words. The process began by subsetting each organization cluster and their associated documents. Then, we calculated a word co-occurrence matrix which captures the joint appearances of words within each cluster. This matrix was then used to compute a measure of word relatedness, resulting in a weighted network where nodes represent words and edges represent connections between these words, with weights reflecting their level of relatedness. Again, the backbone of each network was extracted using the method introduced by Serrano et al. ( 2009 ), which retains statistically significant links deviating from a null network model. Subsequently, the Louvain community detection algorithm was applied to identify cohesive subgraphs, referred to as “topics”. In this study, topics were labeled manually based on the words that constitute them. For example, topics featuring words like “CO 2 , import, increase, cost…” were categorized as “Import Costs,” while topics consisting of words such as “consumer, farmer, pesticide, plant protection, substance, treatment” were labeled as “Effects on Agriculture.”

Differentiating by impact

We know that business may hold quite heterogeneous positions on proposed policy change (Abel & Mertens, 2023 ), not least because regulatory shifts impact differently across sectors depending on their production structure and position in value chains (Curran & Eckhardt, 2018 ). This variation across companies and between firms and their trade associations seems to be increasing over time in the EU (Hanegraaff & Poletti, 2021 ). To explore the extent to which the position of business varied depending on their level of exposure to direct and indirect effects of CBAM, we differentiated between those directly affected by CBAM, as proposed by the Commission (steel, cement, etc.) and those indirectly affected through downstream effects on their supply chains (bicycles, cars, etc.). There were also several submissions from sectors like glass, ceramics, plastics, pulp and paper, not initially targeted by the Commission proposal, but discussed in their initial analysis as potentially subject to the CBAM because of their high emissions and high trade intensity (CEC, 2021b ). We labeled these “debated sectors”.

As the objective of CBAM is to level the playing field, one would expect those directly affected to be rather supportive, beyond the concerns about ‘losing’ free carbon credits and consequent potential negative effects on their export competitiveness. We would expect downstream sectors to be concerned about increased costs for their imported intermediates impacting their competitiveness both at home and abroad. Finally, “debated” sectors would be expected to be concerned about their exposure to competition from low-cost imports, as the increasing cost of their carbon use in EU production will not be offset by the CBAM.

To explore differences between collective and individual positions, and internal and external actors, we also differentiated between EU trade associations, EU companies, and non-EU actors (both companies and associations). As discussed below, differentiating between these latter two groups was not as straightforward as might be expected, as several ‘EU’ companies were subsidiaries of non-EU multinationals. Interestingly, the clustering exercise which we undertook clearly differentiated these from the other submissions. In terms of collective versus individual action, recent research on the reaction of EU industry to protectionism found that individual companies did not mobilize on more generic threats, such as that to the WTO, leaving this to their trade associations (Curran & Eckhardt, 2022 ). We would thus expect individual companies to be focused on the direct effects of CBAM on their business models, with trade associations taking a more holistic and wide-ranging approach, for example expressing concerns about the effects on international relations and trade governance.

Findings: which trade partners and products will be most affected by CBAM?

CBAM is a very targeted policy measure. To put our analysis into context, it is important to understand which trade flows will be affected. The ITC figures we extracted indicate that the average value of total EU imports of CBAM goods (minus electricity) was $254 billion in 2015–2019, rising to $332 billion in the period 2020–2022. The first insight from the figures is that most of the EU’s imports are from within the block. The post-Brexit EU27 has consistently made up over two-thirds of EU imports, with the average figure standing at 67.2% in 2020–2022. Obviously, EU internal trade will not be affected by CBAM, so we focus here on extra-EU imports, which averaged $109 billion in 2020–2022, up from $79 billion in 2015–2019.

The market share of the main suppliers of CBAM products is presented in Table 1 . The country that will be most affected by the CBAM is China, whose share of these EU imports was 14.7% in 2020–2022, similar to the 2015–2019 average. The next most affected country is Russia, whose exports to the EU have continued, despite the invasion of Ukraine, but at a lower level (10.6%, against 13.2% on average over the 5 years to 2020). Overall, the table indicates that, while China has long been an important supplier of these products to the EU, there has been some shifts in the importance of others. Historic suppliers like the UK, Norway, Switzerland, and the US are becoming less important, with an increase in the share of Turkey and India. The war in Ukraine had a major impact on trade, with Russia’s exports of CBAM products to the EU falling by 17.5% to $12 billion in 2022, while intra-EU trade increased by 13% and imports from China rose by 45% to $22 billion.

Vulnerability to policy change varies across the most important suppliers. Switzerland and Norway are integrated into the ETS and are included in Annex III of the Regulation (CEC, 2023a ), so will not be subject to the CBAM. The UK is not yet included in the Annex, but is seeking to avoid the mechanism and has launched a consultation on plans to set up its own equivalent (HMSO, 2023 ). It is likely that a solution will be found to exempt Ukraine (Merkus & Norell, 2023 ), while it is probably safe to say that the CBAM will not be the main sources of trade tensions with Russia in the near future.

Of the other key suppliers Turkey, as mentioned above, is redoubling its carbon reduction efforts and looks likely to seek to demonstrate regulatory equivalence, although whether this will be achieved is an open question (Konrat, 2021 ). South Korea has its own ETS, although there are substantial differences compared to the EU scheme, making equivalence challenging (Schott & Hogan, 2022 ). In Taiwan, several efforts to implement a carbon tax have failed in recent years (Chou & Liou, 2023 ), making equivalence highly unlikely.

The situation also varies widely in the other three key exporters—China, India, and the US. China has its own version of ETS, however its sectoral coverage is more limited than the EU’s, the carbon price is significantly lower and the carbon intensity of production of key CBAM products such as steel is far higher (Kardish et al., 2021 ). India has little hope of securing equivalence and has already signaled that they will challenge the measure in the WTO (Euractiv, 2023 ).

The question of how to deal with imports from the US is a highly political one. The idea of a transatlantic ‘climate club’ has been floated (Falkner et al., 2022 ) and the EU has agreed to work with the US towards a common approach to the decarbonization of the steel and aluminum sector, as part of an agreement to reduce punitive tariffs and reduce overcapacity (CEC, 2021d ). However, such cooperation is fraught with difficulties, not least because of the very different ways in which the two incentivize decarbonization (Leonelli, 2022 ). Any future deal is also dependent to a large extent on the outcome of forthcoming elections in 2024 (Jain et al., 2024 ). The assumption seems to be that US producers will rely on their declared emissions being relatively low, rather than blanket country level exemptions, although this will disadvantage smaller producers who lack the capacity to provide the required verified certification (Benson et al., 2023 ). Indeed, these same difficulties will apply to other smaller producers worldwide.

Here we have focused on the main traders. Several observers have pointed out that certain small countries with relatively low absolute trade levels may suffer negative effects from CBAM. These include neighboring countries like those in the Western Balkans and the near East who rely on the EU market in several CBAM sectors (Erixon et al., 2023 ), as well as larger developing countries like South Africa and Brazil (UNCTAD, 2021 ). Our analysis indicates that Vietnam, whose CBAM exports have grown rapidly to reach $3.5 billion in 2022, is also vulnerable. These negative effects will certainly create trade tensions with the risk of retaliation and a WTO challenge.

In terms of the products that will be most affected by the CBAM, we extracted data on imports of the products listed in the EU’s Regulation (at the level of HS 4 product classification) which will be subject to CBAM. Given the variability of trade in recent years, we calculated average figures over the period 2020–2022. Trade flows of several covered products are relatively small, such that impacts will be minor. For example, the inclusion of hydrogen seems unlikely to be impactful, at least in the short term. Total extra-EU imports have averaged just over $2 million in the period. In other products, flows are far more significant and extra-EU sources are often key suppliers.

Table 2 reports data on the most important CBAM products in terms of the average value of total extra-EU imports over the period, as well as the share of total imports accounted for by these extra-EU sources. Clearly, iron, steel, and aluminum and their derivative products predominate, and this sector will feel the effect of the new measure most acutely. Electricity is also very significant, but as mentioned above, although over a quarter of imports come from outside the EU, this market is mainly dominated by suppliers in the EU neighborhood physically linked to its supply infrastructure several of which are covered by the ETS. The other key non-metal sector affected is fertilizers. Across these different products there are large differences in the importance of extra-EU trade. Unwrought aluminum, semifinished iron and steel products, and ammonia have particularly high dependence on non-EU production and therefore CBAM will be particularly impactful for these goods.

It is notable that most of the products in Table 2 are intermediate goods, used in downstream industries, from construction to automobiles to washing machines. In the case of fertilizers, indirect effects are likely in agriculture. Thus, it is clear that CBAM will have an impact, not just in the sectors that will be directly affected, but also in those that will experience increased prices for their key inputs. The nature of the effects of the CBAM therefore differ considerably depending on the stage in the value chain. While the mechanism provides protection from competition for the targeted sectors (and thus we could expect them to support the measure), it will inevitably increase costs for downstream users of the affected inputs, whether these are domestically produced or imported (we would thus expect these sectors to be more concerned about competitiveness effects). This is why we differentiated between directly affected sectors and indirectly affected sectors in our analysis. As we expected, we find their core topics of concern vary.

Although CBAM will obviously not be applied to exports, there are concerns that the new regime will nevertheless affect flows. The increased carbon costs within the bloc that the measure seeks to counterbalance will inevitably impact on the competitiveness of EU exports, especially in markets where carbon is not subject to pricing systems. This is not just an issue for carbon intensive products covered by CBAM, but also for products which rely on these intermediate inputs. However, one would expect CBAM products to be the most heavily affected. In addition, there is a risk of retaliation from trade partners if they observe negative effects on their exports because of CBAM. Although, as mentioned above, such retaliation could affect non-CBAM sectors (Hammami & Beghin, 2021 ; Muhammad & Thompson, 2022 ), CBAM products would be amongst the most vulnerable.

To assess the extent to which EU exporters could be exposed to negative competitiveness and retaliation effects, we also extracted EU exports of CBAM products (minus electricity for the same reasons indicated above). The EU exported $324 billion such products on average between 2020 and 2022, up from $267 billion in the 2015–2019 period. Again, intra-EU trade accounts for most of these flows—over 74% in the most recent years. Extra-EU trade is presented in Table 3 . The most important markets are the US (15.2% on average, worth $13 billion) and the UK (14.7%, worth $12 billion). The neighboring markets of Switzerland, Turkey, and Norway are also important, as is China. The EU has been increasing its dependence on traditional markets for CBAM products, like the US, Switzerland, and Norway, with a fall in the importance of the UK since Brexit, while some emerging markets like China, Mexico, and Brazil have seen slight increases in shares.

Although agreements on equivalence may be found with some key trade partners, calming trade tensions, it is unlikely to be the case for all. Exports to the US and China are probably the most vulnerable to negative repercussion from the new EU carbon regime, both because neither have equivalent carbon costs (thus production should be cheaper) and because they have not hesitated in the past to retaliate against perceived discrimination against their exports (Furceri et al., 2023 ; Li et al., 2018 ). Combined exports to the two markets were worth an average of $18 billion in the period 2019–2022.

Finally, these figures represent the flows in sectors currently covered by the measure. The impact of the CBAM would become more significant if the Commission expands its scope. One of the largest sectors which had been proposed for CBAM (by the EP), but not retained in the final version, is plastics (HS39). Its inclusion at a later stage would be very impactful, as extra-EU imports in this sector averaged $72 billion in 2020–2022, 40% of which came from China or the US. Other sectors mooted in the original impact assessment as carbon intensive, but excluded from the final proposal, include ceramics, glass and pulp and paper (CEC, 2021b ). While these products will not be subject to the CBAM in the short term, one would expect producers to be following the proposal closely, although they will likely have different concerns to those already directly or indirectly affected. Thus, we differentiate in our analysis between inputs from the latter sectors and those from ‘debated’ sectors.

Findings on business positions on the CBAM

Clusters and topics across different types of economic actors.

In this section, we delve into our findings in terms of the clusters of organizations categorized by type—EU companies, non-EU organizations and trade associations. Within each cluster, we will discuss the concerns highlighted in the inputs to the consultation from these entities. We also differentiate between those sectors where the CBAM would have direct or indirect effects and those sectors where its application was (and remains) debated. We will analyze the key topics and discussions surrounding each cluster, shedding light on the specific challenges and opportunities they face in relation to the use of this novel tool.

Figure 2 depicts the cluster of EU companies as identified by the Louvain algorithm Footnote 4 and the topics discussed by them. In the following we discuss each in turn. To clarify the results for the discussion, we provide summary tables on the key topics discussed by the different actors.

In terms of EU companies , the results are summarized in Table 4 . The first cluster consists of organizations primarily involved in the aluminum industry, especially subsidiaries of the Russian company Rusal. Two significant topics emerge for this group: carbon leakage and the need to address and mitigate it and carbon efficiency, focusing on minimizing the carbon footprint of specific processes or industries. Cluster 2 is the largest cluster. It encompasses a diverse range of EU companies (e.g., BASF, PwC, Repsol, Tata Steel, UPS) from industries including chemical manufacturing, energy production, consulting, logistics, and steel.

Their concerns focused on the potential for trade frictions and the implications of the CBAM in terms of its potential (in)compatibility with WTO. This topic encompasses a wide range of interconnected elements, including legal considerations, discriminatory practices, taxation, conservation efforts, and the assessment of environmental impacts of climate change. The need for consistent and effective measures and compatibility with WTO regulations was emphasized, with proposals to redesign the mechanism suggested. The potential for negative impacts on international relations was underlined. On another front, the impact on costs, including electricity costs was a concern, with discussions revolving around carbon prices, domestic policies, and the implications for EU competitiveness, especially for sectors like cement and chemicals. Thus, perhaps contrary to expectations (Curran & Eckhardt, 2022 ), EU companies expressed as much concern about the negative impacts of the CBAM on international relations and WTO, as on their own cost structures and industrial sectors.

Cluster 3 consists of subsidiaries of NLKM group, another Russian company, engaged in steel production, trading, and related activities. Eleven NLKM subsidiaries responded to the consultation, making essentially the same points. The notion of "avoid" takes center stage—with two key concerns—the threat of retaliation from trade partners and the negative impacts on steel users. It is notable that in terms of the company contributions, the nationality of the parent company was very influential in positioning interests. Most EU companies clustered together, whereas the EU subsidiaries of Russian companies clustered separately.

In the case of non-EU organizations , the results are summarized in Table 5 and Fig. 3 . Footnote 5 We found five different clusters of organizations. The first cluster includes a diverse range of organizations related to forestry products and fossil fuels (e.g., Brazil forestry products sector and UK oil and gas sector). Their inputs focused on the global impacts of the CBAM; the potential for carbon leakage and the need to ensure an effective design, with limited administrative burden; its relation to the ETS; the practicalities of its operation and its environmental impacts. Cluster number 2—organizations that are involved in the production and distribution of carbon-related products—also focused on global impacts, especially on emissions, as well as costs, highlighting the impacts on EU production.

Cluster 3 comprises organizations in the energy sector, including renewable energy and hydroelectric power. Examples include Energy Norway and Hydro Norway. Their key topics were related to aluminum production and emissions; carbon leakage; CO 2 costs of imports and the export impacts of the CBAM, including in downstream industries. Cluster 4 (Russian and Korean industry) focused on the CBAM’s impact on industry. Finally, cluster 5 consists of organizations in Ukraine, associated with transportation and steel and electricity generation. They highlighted carbon leakage and impact on imports, but also the relationship to the Association Agreement which links the EU and Ukraine, as well as the need to explore other options and accompany the transition. Overall, we see that non-EU actors also raised concerns about the CBAM’s global and bilateral impacts, as well as its impacts on costs, especially in downstream industries.

Finally, for EU trade associations we identified eight clusters, represented in Fig. 4 , Footnote 6 but only five contained enough words to enable interpretation. Footnote 7 The topics discussed within these clusters are summarized in Table 6 . Cluster 1 includes a diverse range of generic industry organizations, business services and representatives of energy intensive sectors, both those covered by the CBAM, like cement, potentially included, like chemicals, or indirectly affected, like rail.

Topics highlighted included those related to likely operational difficulties, including fraud, the administrative burden and impacts on consumers. Another set of concerns focused on the negative competitiveness effects of the CBAM, including market effects and the issue of phasing out free emissions permits, another addressed the potential negative impacts on investment. Concerns about value chain effects were also important, including issues related to carbon content, carbon leakage and market demand for metals as costs increase. Similarly, the topic of ‘downstream effects’, explored the implications of carbon border adjustment mechanisms on downstream industries, including allocation of emission allowances, measurement of carbon content, and support for renewable energy. Additionally, the specific topics of “Glass” and “Power” were also identified.

Cluster 2 comprises food and logistics industries. Here concerns focused on the indirect effects on agriculture, related to increasing pesticide costs and the undermining of the economic sustainability of the sector. Another key topic was the need to consider the agricultural sector in the context of CBAM and emissions reduction. The last topic focuses on considering the broader needs of the EU. Cluster 3 includes a range of industries related to steel and its downstream users (bikes, home appliances). Here key concerns related to the impact on exports and the difficulty to absorb the new costs; the indirect negative effects along the value chain; the risk of carbon leakage and consequent need for free allowances; production costs and negative downstream sectoral impacts, especially on the bicycle industry.

Cluster 7 comprises mainly mining and resource extraction. Here the key issues discussed related to whether the measure would have the assumed impact and the importance of understanding its consequences; the loss of free allowances; the negative effect on exports, potential negative effects on trade and competitiveness and increased administrative burden; national concerns about competitiveness and investment impacts; indirect competitiveness effects, especially through increasing metals prices and the impact on exports; downstream effects, especially on paper and chemicals. Finally, there was a separate topic on "Electricity Costs". Lastly, Cluster 8 includes France Chimie, and MEDEF, representing the mining, paper, chemicals, and wider business sector in France. The key issues they addressed were costs; monitoring impacts and application; coverage of the measure and impacts on energy costs.

Overall, we can see that the concerns of the trade associations are focused on the operation of the system, the administrative burden it represents, its effects on costs, trade, investment and competitiveness and the impacts of the loss of free allowances. Surprisingly, and in contrast to other recent research (Curran & Eckhardt, 2022 ), they seemed to be less concerned about the wider controversy that the CBAM has fostered and its potential negative impacts on international relations and the WTO. This topic seems to have had greater salience in the input from companies, as well as from non-EU actors. The latter is to be expected. Trading partners that will be hit by CBAM are likely to highlight concerns about its legality and negative externalities. That individual companies express concern about its legal basis and the potential unintended geo-political effects of the measure is more surprising.

Topics by level of exposure to the CBAM

In addition to our analysis of the topics discussed by type of organization, we also classified submissions in terms of the likely effect that CBAM will have on the sector in question as discussed above. We repeated the topic analysis for each of the three types of effects: directly affected, indirectly affected, or subject to debate.

Figure 5 shows the different topics discussed within each type of organizations in terms the extent to which they are directly affected by the CBAM. As the figure shows, perhaps unsurprisingly, directly affected organizations had the most extensive list of topics, while those sectors that were subject to debate had, both fewer topics and no interconnections between them, indicating very sector/company focused submissions. The key topics which emerged across these different sectors are summarized in Table 7 .

Topics discussed by level of impact of CBAM

For directly affected sectors , we could identify 14 different topics. These focused on various aspects related to carbon content and costs, including indirect impacts and pricing effects; support for reductions in carbon content, including in trade partners like Ukraine; challenges associated with the phasing out of free allowances and the need for gradual implementation of carbon pricing mechanisms and consultation; the effects on international relations and the institutional and regulatory frameworks governing international agreements, such as association agreements, dialogue, and cooperation between countries; questions about the effectiveness of the CBAM; the sectoral impact and potential alternative approaches.

Other topics included the need for a joint international approach and the relationship of the CBAM to the Paris Agreement; administrative and industry-specific issues related to carbon emissions and competitiveness; the need to take into account downstream effects and the importance of detailed measurement and data to assess this; alumina and aluminum, with a specific focus on carbon leakage, export impacts and loss of free allowances; the legality of the measure and potential retaliation by trade partners; the price impacts, especially in the power sector and policy options to deal with challenges; various sectoral challenges related to the cement industry, facility management, process innovation and the reduction of carbon emissions in specific sectors; the negative impacts on aluminum and steel production volumes. Finally, the last topic pertains specifically to carbon leakage and its implications in the context of Norway.

Overall, directly affected sectors focused on negative competitiveness and cost impacts across the value chain and operational challenges, as well as impacts on international relations. The prevailing narrative was not generally as supportive of the proposal as might be expected. Rather, even in business sectors which the CBAM aims to protect, stakeholders highlighted a wide range of concerns about its practicality and wider impacts. The system is quite revolutionary and there was a lot of concern about how it will work in practice and whether it will really help to protect EU producers of carbon-intensive goods. Indeed, affected sectors continued to express concerns as the regulatory process advanced. Eurofer, the EU streel trade association sent an open letter in May 2022 reiterating these concerns and criticizing: …a premature transition from the free allocation and indirect cost compensation system to a CBAM which has not yet been tested. (Eurofer, 2022 ).

Regarding indirectly affected organizations, we could identify 17 significant topics. These revolved around supply chain effects in manufacturing; carbon costs and exemptions for exporters; carbon leakage; the links to the ETS system; allocation of emission allowances and the need for reliable methods for calculation; the impacts on the agricultural sector; the impact on carbon intensive industries and efforts for carbon content reduction; the need to negotiate with neighboring countries, especially Switzerland; the exemption of certain jurisdictions from the CBAM, including legal aspects and design options; questions about the equivalence of other countries’ systems; concerns on the methodology and the need for transparency.

Other topics highlighted industrial effects, the risk to competitiveness and the need for compensatory measures; downstream industry risks and the availability and reshoring of raw materials and components, especially for the bicycle industry; the concerns of the forest and pulp and paper sectors; the need for gradual roll out of policy change and the importance of public consultation and transparency in decision-making processes. The final topic revolves around the sustainability of investments and the role of the financial sector in driving emission reduction efforts.

Overall, these indirectly affected organizations were concerned about the practical aspects of implementation, including the question of exemptions for certain trading partners, as well as cost and competitiveness issues, including along the value chain. Issues of potential negative geo-political fallout were not salient for this group of actors, whose core concerns were very much focused on their own interests. This could be related to the fact that indirectly affected sectors have not been heavily involved in the prior debates on the ETS and are thus less well aware of the international fallout from CBAM. It seems that they saw a complex and novel new system which will increase the cost of their inputs as THE key concern and reacted accordingly.

Finally, for those representing debated sectors , we could identify six significant topics. These focused on the glass sector and the need for consultation and different approaches to address carbon emissions in the EU container glass industry; competition from China and the implications for manufacturers and investment; product specific risks and the allocation of resources; the challenges in the flat glass industry; the need to assess the competitiveness impacts and the importance of understanding and addressing the impact of carbon taxes. Thus, it seems these organizations were very much focused on their own sectoral concerns, linked to the fact that, without the CBAM, these sectors are more exposed to the negative competitiveness effects which will emerge from higher carbon costs. Like the indirectly affected sectors, these industries were not, generally, subject to the ETS and thus less involved in prior debates about international implications. In addition, they are generally intensive users of electricity and were worried about the increased costs of power generation linked to reduced free credits.

Overall, these findings indicate that concerns about the CBAM were wide-ranging, with all actors expressing apprehension about its practical implementation, its impacts on competitiveness and on the wider EU value chain. The level of concern on its impact on the trading system and international relations varied, with directly affected companies, overseas actors and individual firms expressing greater unease on this issue than trade associations, or actors from indirectly affected or debated sectors. Of course, inputs to consultations are likely to be biased towards concerns. Companies and trade associations rarely fully support all aspects of a policy proposal and we see here that they use the consultation process to highlight issues they think need to be addressed in the revision process.

Conclusions and implications for international business research and policy

Policymakers are often faced with a multiplicity of different proposals and positions when seeking to develop new regulatory solutions, such that distilling commonalities and variations can be challenging. In this paper, we exploit the potential of the extensive text provided through public consultation and draw on novel techniques for textual analysis to provide new insights into the perceived impacts of the CBAM and how it could affect international business. Our approach enables us to analyze all the text provided by business actors, highlighting core concerns and how they differ across the business community. By leveraging textual inputs, rather than answers to closed questions, we can provide more extensive insights into perceptions, while also identifying similarities in topics of interest, which themselves reflect clusters of actors with common positions. This methodology allows us to present a much more nuanced picture of the position of EU industry on the proposal than that provided in the official summary from the Commission (CEC, 2021a ).

The analysis presented here demonstrates that public consultations can provide a useful source of information for understanding policy debates. Partly because of the extent and richness of the data, until recently they have rarely been exploited in depth in academic analysis of the regulatory process, while existing work is overwhelmingly concentrated in the literature on political science (Beyers & Arras, 2020 ; Frelih-Larsen et al., 2023 ; James et al., 2021 ; Langhof et al., 2016 ). New techniques for data analysis enable us to mine this data to highlight the key issues and differences between actors. Future work could build on this initial analysis, informing our understanding of key debates on proposed policy changes, including from an international business perspective.

Our analysis suggests that the nationality of the ultimate owner of EU based companies can be seen to affect their positions on policies with extra-territorial effects. The fact that some non-EU firms clustered together in our network analysis indicated that their concerns were similar. The extent to which a firm or trade association’s sector is exposed to direct or indirect effects of the policy measure also clearly impacted their positions. The highlighted topics can be seen to differ in line with these variations. For policy makers, the capacity to more clearly highlight how perceptions vary across the business community can help to ensure that these different constituencies are taken into account when refining policy proposals.

This research also illuminates debates on the non-market strategies which firms deploy in policy debates, especially the question of whether firms cooperate when lobbying on core issues (Curran & Eckhardt, 2022 ; Saha et al., 2023 ). We find that similar firms and trade associations clustered together around common topics of concern, while firms owned by non-EU companies clustered separately to EU firms. As one of the latter clusters was made up largely of subsidiaries of the same Russian company, it is safe to assume that the individual submissions were coordinated. In other cases, similarities in topics may reflect spontaneous common firm-level concerns, or more coordinated approaches. Prior research using different methodologies has identified such coordination in EU consultations (Abel & Mertens, 2023 ; James et al., 2021 ). Although our approach does not allow us to provide definitive evidence that it has occurred in this case, nevertheless, the similarities we find in topics of interest raise questions about the extent to which individual companies work together to push common policy positions. Supplementing quantitative analysis, such as that presented here, with qualitative research exploring company strategies could help to further our understanding of the extent to which firm-level lobbying on such regulations is collectively organized.

The methodology deployed here could also be used to contrast business submissions with those of a wider range of actors, including civil society, think tanks and even academics. Here we focus on one stakeholder—business—but similar approaches could inform our understanding on variations (and similarities) across inputs. Such methodologies could enable researchers and policymakers to more readily identify topics around which there is relative consensus across interest groups, as well as how and why positions on other topics differ. From the point of view of international business researchers, this approach could help illuminate core debates on how to regulate MNEs, as well as potentially identifying topics where concerns of the business community converge with those of other actors. Moreover, our method avoids assuming homogeneity in policy positions across ostensibly similar actors. The community detection approach challenges such assumptions by allowing for the identification of sub-communities or clusters with distinct characteristics, providing a more detailed understanding of heterogeneity within a given interest group.

The same methodology could also be used to explore variations in other large textual datasets which could inform key issues of concern to IB scholars. For example extensive text on MNE strategies will soon become available due to new EU reporting regulations on sustainability (CEC, 2022 ) and due diligence along their supply chains (CEC, 2023d ). In these cases, natural language processing techniques can help to identify patterns, commonalities, and contrasts, informing our understanding of how different types of companies are conceptualizing and operationalizing sustainability and whether and how clusters of similar companies emerge.

The methodology used here has much potential, however, it is also important to note some boundary conditions. First, the effectiveness of the network analysis and community detection relies on the availability and quality of the data. Its success is contingent on having comprehensive and accurate information from consultations or actor’s opinions regarding the policy. Secondly, the interpretation of results from community detection algorithms requires careful consideration. While clusters may represent similar concerns or coordinated efforts, they do not provide definitive evidence of coordination. Qualitative research or additional analysis may be needed to explore the nature of relationships within identified clusters and inform the question of whether the results reflect a coordinated strategy. Moreover, network analysis, especially with iterative algorithms and large datasets, may require significant computational resources. The scalability of the approach needs to be considered and researchers should ensure they have access to adequate computational power. Despite these limitations, we believe that this methodology can provide interesting contributions to international business studies.

In terms of the perceived impact of CBAM, our analysis finds that, despite differences, some core concerns emerge across the different actors, underlying a certain disquiet in the business community about the complexity of the measure, as well as the costs and risks associated with this innovative approach. Although not all actors were equally concerned about the impact on international relations, the extent to which topics related to these effects emerged in the data was both interesting and somewhat unexpected (Curran & Eckhardt, 2022 ). Clearly in the current conflictual international context in the midst of …geopolitical tensions that threaten to undermine the global rules-based trading system… (World Bank, 2023 , p. 9) companies are becoming concerned about the wider repercussions for international businesses of unilateral policymaking which creates negative externalities for foreign interests.

It is clear from our findings that the CBAM poses important challenges for MNEs (and smaller companies) involved in trading in and with the EU. It is a novel and complicated system, which will increase the costs of trade with the EU for many exporters. This is both because of the need to pay for CBAM certificates and as a result of the administrative requirements surrounding it, even for goods which already pay equivalent carbon prices. There will be impacts, not only within affected sectors, but also in those which are heavy users of the targeted goods, like construction and transport equipment. As discussed above, there may also be indirect effects on exports. Given the importance of carbon emissions reductions to achieving long-term global climate targets and the novelty of the EU’s approach, close scrutiny of the rollout by policy makers and scholars will be vital.

The consultation we analyzed was undertaken prior to the finalization of the Regulation. Now that it has been agreed and entered into force, we know more about its potential effects, some of which have been discussed above. The full costs of the CBAM will not be felt immediately, although the fact that importers already need to declare embedded emissions will create some additional trade costs. Once the system is operational, the price of CBAM certificates will increase over time, in line with the phasing out of EU industries’ own free allowances (assuming this occurs as planned). Importers will only pay all costs from 2034, by which time some key suppliers may have negotiated regulatory equivalence, or at least will be able to offset CBAM costs through certified low carbon intensity production systems, or accounting for national carbon pricing. Nevertheless, as our findings underline, the system will have both direct and indirect effects on international business and likely change incentives for both trade and investment in the EU in several affected sectors.

Like most regulation, the system also creates some opportunities. By its nature it creates several novel operators and thus new business opportunities for companies with expertise in the area. Firstly, importing CBAM goods and reporting on carbon emissions will be restricted to authorized CBAM declarants, registered with the European Commission. Companies need to apply to secure such status. Secondly, the market for CBAM certificates will inevitably vary over time, depending on the carbon price within the ETS. Certificates will be valid for 2 years from the date of purchase, so there is the potential for declarants to benefit from price fluctuations. Thirdly, there will be a need to independently verify the declared emissions on which CBAM certificate requirements are based and qualified actors can apply to be accredited to undertake such verification.

For IB scholars, this novel trade policy intervention provides several opportunities for academic inquiry. Like most important policy changes, it will likely have both intended and unintended consequences. Studies of the former abound, but the latter, by definition, will take time to emerge. MNEs are well versed in circumventing regulation and the CBAM will be no exception. For example, the effectiveness of the measure depends on ‘resource shuffling’ being limited. Research which informs the extent to which companies are diverting their ‘clean’ production to the EU, while continuing to supply other markets with ‘dirty’ products, could provide important inputs to the policymaking process. Case studies of how companies deal with this new regulation would also be informative, especially comparing approaches in differentially affected sectors or countries. In addition, the effects on some exporters have been relatively under researched—while a lot of attention has focused on the impacts on China (Kardish & al., 2021 ; Tang et al., 2015 ; Zhong & Pei, 2022 ), India has been largely ignored, although generic studies indicate impacts could be significant (Simola, 2021 ; Zhong & Pei, 2022 ).

The data which will be provided to the Commission in the context of the CBAM will also be a potential rich source of information. It will, by definition, provide details of the relative carbon intensity of different sources and products. It is not yet clear the extent to which this data will be made public. Certainly, proprietary data will be confidential, but, in the same way that aggregate trade flows pose no privacy issues, so it should be feasible to provide aggregate CBAM data. This could provide very useful insights, both for academics and for civil society organizations interested in assessing the impact of the measure on carbon emissions and carbon reduction targets more widely. Such analysis could also feed into wider efforts to develop effective policies to address climate change globally.

Figures were extracted in dollars, as it is still the main currency of exchange for international trade in CBAM goods.

For example, EU electricity prices rose by 222% in the last quarter of 2022 (Market Observatory for Energy DG Energy, 2022 ).

https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/better-regulation/have-your-say/initiatives/12228-EU-Green-Deal-carbon-border-adjustment-mechanism-_en .

Note: in the right figure, colors represent different topics. They key topics for each cluster are depicted in Table 4 .

Note: in the right figure, colors represent different topics. They key topics for each cluster are depicted in Table 5 .

Note: in the right figure, colors represent different topics. They key topics for each cluster are depicted in Table 6 .

Cluster 4 (Finish bioenergy); Cluster 5 (Czech industry and fruit and vegetables) and Cluster 6 (organizations in the industrial gases sector) were not analyzed as the topics identified were too generic for interpretation. These are the small, isolated nodes in Fig. 3 .

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Louise Curran would like to acknowledge support for this research under the TWINSEEDS EU project - HORIZON Research and Innovation Actions (Grant agreement ID: 101056793).

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Curran, L., Carrasco-Farré, C. Leveraging natural language processing techniques to explore the potential impact of the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM). J Int Bus Policy (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s42214-024-00185-4

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Research methodology in international business studies is experiencing a rise in visibility combined with an increase in its rigor and sophistication. Nearly every issue of the Journal of International Business ( JIBS) in 2020 features at least one article on research methods, such as offering methodological assessments of and new insights into ...
Innovation and international business: A systematic literature review
A classic topic in international business research is the multinational corporation. The widest theme of investigation studies the relationship between innovation and the multinational corporation because, as Venaik et al. [ 42 ] assert, the international business literature has placed ever-greater emphasis on the role that learning and ...
Research on international business: The new realities
The international business landscape has changed significantly since the 1990s. •. We highlight four sets of new realities for further research attention. •. Covid-19 leads to rising nationalism and slows down energy transition. •. Digital technologies have created some powerful firms and new business models.
Research methods in international business: The challenge of complexity
International business (IB) research is designed to explore and explain the inherent complexity of international business, which arises from the multiplicity of entities, multiplexity of interactions, and dynamism of the global economic system. To analyze this complexity, IB scholars have developed four research lenses: difference, distance, diversity, and disparity. These four lenses on ...
Emerging Research Themes in International Business
Abstract. This study presents an overview of emerging themes in the international business research. We analyze the special issues in two leading IB journals between 2015 and 2021— Journal of International Business Studies and Journal of World Business —to identify the themes that journal editors and thought leaders consider as important ...
80+ International Business Research Paper Topics With Samples
The list is quite impressive - more than 80 examples of research paper topics about business from our college paper writer. Good luck finding your perfect idea! Table of contents hide. 1 International business topics for research papers on general concepts. 2 International business research paper topics on companies.
International Business Dissertation Topics (28 Examples) For Research
Topic With Mini-Proposal (Paid Service) Undergraduate: £30 (250 Words) Master: £45 (400 Words) Doctoral: £70 (600 Words) Along with a topic, you will also get; An explanation why we choose this topic. 2-3 research questions. Key literature resources identification. Suitable methodology with identification of raw sample size, and data ...
Research methods in international business: The challenge of complexity
International business (IB) research is designed to explore and explain the inherent complexity of international business, which arises from the multiplicity of entities, multiplexity of interactions, and dynamism of the global economic system. ... Research on topics varying from offshore production to liability of foreignness to insiders and ...
Two Decades of International Business Research: A Review based on Topic
This study identifies and analyzes the intellectual structure of the international business research in the six leading IB journals (GSJ, MIR, IBR, JIBS, JIM and JWB) over the period from 1996 to 2015. To achieve this aim we apply a novel method of topic modelling, a machine learning approach, to extract 23 topics from 3696 articles. The quantitative nature of the method allows us to analyze ...
Research Methods in International Business
Showcasing methodological rigour and state-of-the-art methods as hallmarks of modern international business (IB) research, this book offers a collection of the most relevant and highly cited research methods articles from the Journal of International Business Studies (JIBS).Each piece is accompanied by a new Commentary written by experts in the field; some also include Further Reflections by ...
International business
W. Carl Kester. Human suffering is certainly our main concern in the immediate aftermath of Japan's 3/11 tragedy. But even as we focus on immediate human needs, we cannot avoid recognizing ...
200 International Business Topics
February 10, 2024 by Jessica Scott. Exploring international business can unlock a world of opportunities and challenges for companies ready to expand their horizons. In this article, we'll dive into 200 dynamic topics that will give you a comprehensive insight into the global business landscape. The Impact of Globalization on Small Businesses.
Research in International Business and Finance
Methodologies and conceptualization issues related to finance. Research in International Business and Finance (RIBAF) seeks to consolidate its position as a premier scholarly vehicle of academic finance. The Journal publishes high quality, insightful, well-written papers that explore current and new issues in international finance.
MBA Research Topics In Business (+ Free Webinar)
Here, we'll explore a variety of research ideas and topic thought-starters for management-related research degrees (MBAs/DBAs, etc.). These research topics span management strategy, HR, finance, operations, international business and leadership. NB - This is just the start…. The topic ideation and evaluation process has multiple steps.
Research Guides: International Business: Sources of Information
This guide is intended to provide resources for international business research. Included in the guide are resources for global company and industry data and statistics, periodicals, databases and guidance to finding more resources in the LC collections using the online catalog. The Country Information section offers resources for learning ...
250 Business Research Paper Topics: Best Ideas for Students
International Business Research Paper Topics. International business topics for research can encompass various aspects of cross-border trade as well as investment, including market entry strategies, cultural differences, and global supply chain management. Listed here are 15 potential research paper topics on international business.
International business research: The real challenges are data and
In a recent article in the Journal of International Business Studies, Eden and Nielsen (2020: 1610) write that "complexity is the underlying cause of the unique methodological problems facing international business research."For them, international business (IB) research is uniquely complex because of its multiplicity, multiplexity, and dynamism: IB researchers need to take into account ...
International Business Research
International Business Research. A central aspect of IB research is understanding how MNEs manage their geographically dispersed subsidiaries to optimize value-added activities (Kostova et al., 2016), and subsidiary autonomy is a crucial structural lever by which MNEs may do so. From: Journal of World Business, 2020. Related terms: Finance
Data and research on forced labour
The Forced Labour Observatory (FLO) is a database that provides comprehensive global and country information on forced labour, including on international and national legal and institutional frameworks; enforcement, prevention and protection measures, as well as information related to access to justice; remedies, and cooperation.
Celebrate Big Wins for National Small Business Week
National Small Business Week is an annual celebration of the small businesses and entrepreneurs across America who've made essential contributions to our economy and culture. Few figures are more fundamentally American in spirit than the small business owner. From a child opening a lemonade stand to gold prospectors striking it out West to seek riches, the independent mover-and-shaker is as ...
Leveraging natural language processing techniques to explore ...
The research reveals the main topics of concern for these stakeholders and how they differ across affected actors, offering nuanced insights into the perceived effects of the policy shift. ... Social network analysis in international business research: An assessment of the current state of play and future research directions. International ...

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Research methods in international business: The challenge of complexity

Bo Bernhard Nielsen

Résumé

抽象

INTRODUCTION

A BRIEF ASSESSMENT OF AGUINIS ET AL. ( 2020 )

Limitations

Table 1

Other Studies

THE COMPLEXITY OF IB RESEARCH

Complexity in IB Research

Table 2

Four Research Lenses on Complexity

COPING WITH THE COMPLEXITY OF IB RESEARCH

Phase 1: Problem Definition and Research Question

Defining the research problem

The (non)equivalency of concepts and theories used in different contexts

Promising too much and delivering too little

Phase 2: Research Design and Data Collection

Appropriateness of the sample

Appropriateness of the sample size

Avoiding non-sampling errors

Phase 3: Data Analysis and Interpretation of Results

Addressing anomalies and inconsistencies

Choosing the level(s) of theory, data, and analysis

Avoiding personal bias in interpreting and reporting results

CONCLUSION: WORDS TO LIVE BY

Learn to Live with (and Embrace) Complexity in Research Design

Use Triangulation Actively to Increase Rigor and Relevance

Exercise Due Diligence and Good Judgment

Engage in Ethical and Responsible Research Practices

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Contributor Information

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