physical fitness thesis paper

• USF Research
• USF Libraries

Digital Commons @ USF > Theses and Dissertations

Physical Education and Exercise Science Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2021 2021.

Warming Up and Cooling Down: Perceptions and Behaviors Associated with Aerobic Exercise , Balea J. Schumacher

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

An Examination of Changes in Muscle Thickness, Isometric Strength, and Body Water Throughout the Menstrual Cycle , Tayla E. Kuehne

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Psychological Responses to High-Intensity Interval Training Exercise: A Comparison of Ungraded Running and Graded Walking , Abby Fleming

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

The Effects of Music Choice on Perceptual and Physiological Responses to Treadmill Exercise , Taylor A. Shimshock

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

The Effect of Exercise Order on Body Fat Loss During Concurrent Training , Tonya Lee Davis-Miller

Anti-Fat Attitudes and Weight Bias Internalization: An Investigation of How BMI Impacts Perceptions, Opinions and Attitudes , Laurie Schrider

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

The Effect of Music Cadence on Step Frequency in the Recreational Runner , Micaela A. Galosky

The Hypertrophic Effects of Practical Vascular Blood Flow Restriction Training , John Francis O'halloran

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

The Effects of Exercise Modality on State Body Image , Elizabeth Anne Hubbard

Perceptual Responses to High-Intensity Interval Training in Overweight and Sedentary Individuals , Nicholas Martinez

Comparisons of acute neuromuscular fatigue and recovery after maximal effort strength training using powerlifts , Nicholas Todd Theilen

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

The Impact of Continuous and Discontinuous Cycle Exercise on Affect: An Examination of the Dual-Mode Model , Sam Greeley

Systematic review of core muscle electromyographic activity during physical fitness exercises , Jason Martuscello

Theses/Dissertations from 2011 2011

The Effect of Unexpected Exercise Duration on Rating of Perceived Exertion in an Untrained, Sedentary Population , Lisa M. Giblin

The Effect of Various Carbohydrate Supplements on Postprandial Blood Glucose Response in Female Soccer Players , Nina Pannoni

Middle School Physical Education Programs: A Comparison of Moderate to Vigorous Physical Activity in Sports Game Play , Marcia Ann Patience

The Effects of Pre-Exercise Carbohydrate Supplementation on Resistance Training Performance During an Acute Resistance Training Session , Kelly Raposo

Theses/Dissertations from 2010 2010

Effects of Fat-Free and 2% Chocolate Milk on Strength and Body Composition Following Resistance Training , Ashley T. Forsyth

Relationship Between Muscular Strength Testing to Dynamic Muscular Performance in Division One American Football Players , Johnathan Fuentes

Effects of Ingesting Fat Free and Low Fat Chocolate Milk After Resistance Training on Exercise Performance , Breanna Myers

Theses/Dissertations from 2009 2009

Effects of a Commercially Available Energy Drink on Anaerobic Performance , Jason J. Downing

The Impact of Wearable Weights on the Cardiovascular and Metabolic Responses to Treadmill Walking , Kristine M. Fallon

Six Fifth Grade Students Experiences Participating in Active Gaming during Physical Eduction Classes , Lisa Witherspoon Hansen

The impact of wearable weights on perceptual responses to treadmill walking , Ashley T. Kuczynski

The Preference of Protein Powders Among Adult Males and Females: A Protein Powder Taste Study , Joshua Manter

Caloric Expenditure and Substrate Utilization in Underwater Treadmill Running Versus Land-Based Treadmill Running , Courtney Schaal

Theses/Dissertations from 2008 2008

A Survey of NCAA Division 1 Strength and Conditioning Coaches- Characteristics and Opinions , Jeremy Powers

Theses/Dissertations from 2007 2007

Perceptions of group exercise participants based on body type, appearance and attractiveness of the instructor , Jennifer Mears

Theses/Dissertations from 2006 2006

Be active! An examination of social support's role in individual vs. team competition in worksite health promotion , Lauren Kriz

Advanced Search

• Email Notifications and RSS
• All Collections
• USF Faculty Publications
• Open Access Journals
• Conferences and Events
• Theses and Dissertations
• Textbooks Collection

Useful Links

• Rights Information
• SelectedWorks
• Submit Research

Home | About | Help | My Account | Accessibility Statement | Language and Diversity Statements

Privacy Copyright

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• PubMed/Medline
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Physical activity and physical fitness among university students—a systematic review.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. literature identification, 2.2. inclusion criteria, 2.3. risk of bias assessment, 2.4. data extraction, 3.1. quality of the studies, 3.2. selection and characteristics of studies, 4. discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

• Strong, W.B.; Malina, R.M.; Blimkie, C.J.R.; Daniels, S.R.; Dishman, R.K.; Gutin, B.; Hergenroeder, A.C.; Must, A.; Nixon, P.A.; Pivarnik, J.M. Evidence based physical activity for school-age youth. J. Pediatr. 2005 , 146 , 732–737. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Warburton, D.E.R.; Nicol, C.W.; Bredin, S.S.D. Health benefits of physical activity: The evidence. CMAJ 2006 , 174 , 801–809. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Janssen, I.; LeBlanc, A.G. Systematic review of the health benefits of physical activity and fitness in school-aged children and youth. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 2010 , 7 , 1–16. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Petrović-Oggiano, G.P.; Damjanov, V.; Gurinović, M.A.; Glibetić, M.D. Physical activity in prevention and reduction of cardiovascular risk. Med. Pregl. 2010 , 63 , 200–207. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Ortega, F.B.; Ruiz, J.R.; Castillo, M.J. Physical activity, physical fitness, and overweight in children and adolescents: Evidence from epidemiologic studies. Endocrinol. Nutr. Engl. Ed. 2013 , 60 , 458–469. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Diethelm, K.; Huybrechts, I.; Moreno, L.; De Henauw, S.; Manios, Y.; Beghin, L.; Gonzalez-Gross, M.; Le Donne, C.; Cuenca-Garcia, M.; Castillo, M.J. Nutrient intake of European adolescents: Results of the HELENA (Healthy Lifestyle in Europe by Nutrition in Adolescence) Study. Publ. Health Nutr. 2014 , 17 , 486–497. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Mitić, D. Značaj fizičke aktivnosti u prevenciji i terapiji gojaznosti u detinjstvu i adolescenciji. Med. Glas. Spec. Boln. Boles Štitaste žlezde Boles. Metab. 2011 , 16 , 107–112. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mandarić, S. Effects of programmed exercising to music of female pupils. Facta Univ. Phys. Educ. Sport 2001 , 1 , 37–49. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bouchard, C.; Després, J.-P. Physical activity and health: Atherosclerotic, metabolic, and hypertensive diseases. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 1995 , 66 , 268–275. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Natl Cent Chronic Dis Prev Heal Promot. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/sgr/index.htm (accessed on 19 November 2021).
• Schipperijn, J.; Cerin, E.; Adams, M.A.; Reis, R.; Smith, G.; Cain, K.; Christiansen, L.B.; Van Dyck, D.; Gidlow, C.; Frank, L.D. Access to parks and physical activity: An eight country comparison. Urban For. Urban Green. 2017 , 27 , 253–263. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Sallis, J.F.; Conway, T.L.; Cain, K.L.; Carlson, J.A.; Frank, L.D.; Kerr, J.; Glanz, K.; Chapman, J.E.; Saelens, B.E. Neighborhood built environment and socioeconomic status in relation to physical activity, sedentary behavior, and weight status of adolescents. Prev. Med. 2018 , 110 , 47–54. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Franck, C.; Grandi, S.M.; Eisenberg, M.J. Taxing junk food to counter obesity. Am. J. Public Health 2013 , 103 , 1949–1953. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Kohn, M.; Golden, N.H. Eating disorders in children and adolescents. Paediatr. Drugs 2001 , 3 , 91–99. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Caia, J.; Weiss, L.W.; Chiu, L.Z.F.; Schilling, B.K.; Paquette, M.R.; Relyea, G.E. Do lower-body dimensions and body composition explain vertical jump ability? J. Strength Cond. Res. 2016 , 30 , 3073–3083. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Kubieva, S.S.; Botagariev, T.A.; Konisbaeva, S.I.; Mambetov, N.; Aralbayev, A.S.; Zhetimekov, Y.T.; Dairabayev, S.E.; Kaliyakbarova, S.K.; Sadykova, Z.L. Health promotion program for the students with regard to the level of their physical activity, physical fitness and health. J. Phys. Educ. Sport 2019 , 19 , 703–709. [ Google Scholar ]
• DeBar, L.L.; Schneider, M.; Drews, K.L.; Ford, E.G.; Stadler, D.D.; Moe, E.L.; White, M.; Hernandez, A.E.; Solomon, S.; Jessup, A. Student public commitment in a school-based diabetes prevention project: Impact on physical health and health behavior. BMC Publ. Health 2011 , 11 , 1–11. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Andersen, L.B.; Harro, M.; Sardinha, L.B.; Froberg, K.; Ekelund, U.; Brage, S.; Anderssen, S.A. Physical activity and clustered cardiovascular risk in children: A cross-sectional study (The European Youth Heart Study). Lancet 2006 , 368 , 299–304. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kwan, M.Y.; Cairney, J.; Faulkner, G.E.; Pullenayegum, E.E. Physical activity and other health-risk behaviors during the transition into early adulthood: A longitudinal cohort study. Am. J. Prev. Med. 2012 , 42 , 14–20. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Bray, S.R.; Born, H.A. Transition to university and vigorous physical activity: Implications for health and psychological well-being. J. Am. Coll. Health 2004 , 52 , 181–188. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Crombie, A.P.; Ilich, J.Z.; Dutton, G.R.; Panton, L.B.; Abood, D.A. The freshman weight gain phenomenon revisited. Nutr. Rev. 2009 , 67 , 83–94. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Vella-Zarb, R.A.; Elgar, F.J. The ‘freshman 5’: A meta-analysis of weight gain in the freshman year of college. J. Am. Coll. Health 2009 , 58 , 161–166. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Suminski, R.R.; Petosa, R.; Utter, A.C.; Zhang, J.J. Physical activity among ethnically diverse college students. J. Am. Coll. Health 2002 , 51 , 75–80. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Vuillemin, A.; Boini, S.; Bertrais, S.; Tessier, S.; Oppert, J.-M.; Hercberg, S.; Guillemin, F.; Briançon, S. Leisure time physical activity and health-related quality of life. Prev. Med. 2005 , 41 , 562–569. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• DeVahl, J.; King, R.; Williamson, J.W. Academic incentives for students can increase participation in and effectiveness of a physical activity program. J. Am. Coll. Health 2005 , 53 , 295–298. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Arzu, D.; Tuzun, E.H.; Eker, L. Perceived barriers to physical activity in university students. J. Sports Sci. Med. 2006 , 5 , 615. [ Google Scholar ] [ PubMed ]
• Moher, D.; Liberati, A.; Tetzlaff, J.; Altman, D.G.; Group, P. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. PLoS Med. 2009 , 6 , e1000097. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• de Morton, N.A. The PEDro scale is a valid measure of the methodological quality of clinical trials: A demographic study. Aust. J. Physiother. 2009 , 55 , 129–133. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Maher, C.G.; Sherrington, C.; Herbert, R.D.; Moseley, A.M.; Elkins, M. Reliability of the PEDro scale for rating quality of randomized controlled trials. Phys. Ther. 2003 , 83 , 713–721. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Jourkesh, M.; Sadri, I.; Ojagi, A.; Sharanavard, A. Determination of fitness level in male and female college aged students. Arch. Appl. Sci. Res. 2011 , 3 , 326–333. [ Google Scholar ]
• Irena, K.; Anna, M.; Anda, B. Physical activity and its relation to health-related physical fitness in students. Ovidius Univ. Ann. Ser. Phys. Educ. Sport Mov. Health 2012 , 12 , 256–264. [ Google Scholar ]
• Adriana, S.; Mihaela, G. Physical ability of the students practicing basketball games-Comparative study. Ovidius Univ. Ann. Ser. Phys. Educ. Sport Mov. Health 2012 , 12 , 227–233. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ribeiro, A.; Silva, D.; Carvalho, F.; Schiavoni, D.; Jesus, B.; Cyrino, E. Health-related physical fitness in men and women aged 17-26 years. Rev. Bras. Ativid. Física Saúde 2013 , 18 , 197. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Elamaran, M. Effect of different methods of strength training on selected motor fitness components of women college students. Int. J. Inf. Res. Rev. 2014 , 1 , 173–175. [ Google Scholar ]
• Çitozi, R.; Kasa, A.; Peja, E. The role of hiking activities in improving balance skills to the students of Sports University of Tirana. Arena J. Phys. Act. 2016 , 5 , 69–78. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mitrović, B.; Janković, R.; Dopsaj, M.; Vučković, G.; Milojević, S.; Pantelić, S.; Nurkić, M. How an eight-month period without specialized physical education classes affects the morphological characteristics and motor abilities of students of the Academy of Criminalistic and Police Studies. Facta Univ. Phys. Educ. Sport 2016 , 14 , 167–178. [ Google Scholar ]
• Moskovljević, L. The relations between certain motor abilities and success in rhythmic gymnastics in the students of different genders. Fizička Kult. 2016 , 70 , 155–163. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Skurikhina, N.V.; Kudryavtsev, M.D.; Kuzmin, V.A.; Iermakov, S. Fitness yoga as modern technology of special health groups’ girl students’ psycho-physical condition and psycho-social health strengthening. Phys. Educ. Stud. 2016 , 2 , 24–31. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Zou, L.; Zeng, N.; He, J. The effect of bamboo dance on motor fitness in Chinese college students. Int J. Phys. Educ Sport Health 2016 , 3 , 193–199. [ Google Scholar ]
• Özcan, R.; İrez, G.B.; Saygin, Ö.; Ceylan, H.İ. Aqua-pilates exercises improves some physical fitness parameters on healthy young women. J. Phys. Educ. Sport Sci. Egit. Sport Bilim. Derg. 2018 , 12 , 160–175. [ Google Scholar ]
• Suri, M.; Sharma, R.; Saini, N. Effect of physical education and physical activity on anthropometric measurements and flexibility among college going girls. Eur. J. Phys. Educ. Sport Sci. 2018 , 4 , 62–72. [ Google Scholar ]
• Pituk, C.S.; Cagas, J.Y. Physical Activity and Physical Fitness among Filipino University Students. J. Phys. Educ. 2019 , 30 , 1–10. [ Google Scholar ]
• Spiliopoulou, P.; Zaras, N.; Methenitis, S.; Papadimas, G.; Papadopoulos, C.; Bogdanis, G.C.; Terzis, G. Effect of concurrent power training and high-intensity interval cycling on muscle morphology and performance. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2019 , 35 , 2464–2471. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Wang, J. The association between physical fitness and physical activity among Chinese college students. J. Am. Coll. Health 2019 , 67 , 602–609. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Griban, G.; Yahupov, V.; Svystun, V.; Dovgan, N.; Yeromenko, E.; Udych, Z.; Zhuravlov, I.; Kushniriuk, S.; Semeniv, B.; Konovalska, L. Dynamics of the students’ physical fitness while studying at higher educational institutions. Int J. Appl Exerc Physiol. 2020 , 9 , 147–156. [ Google Scholar ]
• Griban, G.; Dovgan, N.; Tamozhanska, G.; Semeniv, B.; Ostapenko, A.; Honcharuk, N.; Khurtenko, O.; Kozibroda, L.; Husarevych, O.; Denysovets, A. State of physical fitness of the students of Ukrainian higher educational institutions. Int. J. Appl. Exerc. Physiol. 2020 , 9 , 16–26. [ Google Scholar ]
• Osipov, A.Y.; Potop, V.; Nagovitsyn, R.S.; Zemba, E.A.; Knyazev, A.P.; Orlova, I.I.; Ratmanskaya, T.I.; Iermakov, S.S. Indicators of physical activity and fitness of male students at Russian universities. Phys. Educ. Stud. 2020 , 24 , 40–46. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Zhai, X.; Ye, M.; Gu, Q.; Huang, T.; Wang, K.; Chen, Z.; Fan, X. The relationship between physical fitness and academic performance among Chinese college students. J. Am. Coll. Health 2020 , 5 , 1–9. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kang, M.; Joo, M.; Hong, H.; Kang, H. Eating Speed, Physical Activity, and Cardiorespiratory Fitness Are Independent Predictors of Metabolic Syndrome in Korean University Students. Nutrients 2021 , 13 , 2420. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Shimamoto, H.; Suwa, M.; Mizuno, K. Relationships between depression, daily physical activity, physical fitness, and daytime sleepiness among Japanese university students. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021 , 18 , 8036. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rowe, D.A.; Benson, J.; Baumgartner, T.A. Development of the body self-image questionnaire. Meas. Phys. Educ. Exerc. Sci. 1999 , 3 , 223–247. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Dinger, M.K.; Behrens, T.K.; Han, J.L. Validity and reliability of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire in college students. Am. J. Health Educ. 2006 , 37 , 337–343. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sasaki, S.; Katagiri, A.; Tsuji, T.; Shimoda, T.; Amano, K. Self-reported rate of eating correlates with body mass index in 18-y-old Japanese women. Int. J. Obes. 2003 , 27 , 1405–1410. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Ayabe, M.; Aoki, J.; Kumahara, H.; Tanaka, H. Assessment of minute-by-minute stepping rate of physical activity under free-living conditions in female adults. Gait Posture 2011 , 34 , 292–294. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Aoyagi, Y.; Shephard, R.J. Habitual physical activity and health in the elderly: The Nakanojo Study. Geriatr. Gerontol. Int. 2010 , 10 , S236–S243. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Meredith-Jones, K.; Waters, D.; Legge, M.; Jones, L. Upright water-based exercise to improve cardiovascular and metabolic health: A qualitative review. Complementary Ther. Med. 2011 , 19 , 93–103. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kantyka, J.; Herman, D.; Roczniok, R.; Kuba, L. Effects of aqua aerobics on body composition, body mass, lipid profile, and blood count in middle-aged sedentary women. Hum. Mov. 2015 , 16 , 9–14. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ortega, F.B.; Artero, E.G.; Ruiz, J.R.; España-Romero, V.; Jiménez-Pavón, D.; Vicente-Rodríguez, G.; Moreno, L.A.; Manios, Y.; Beghin, L.; Ottevaere, C. Physical fitness levels among European adolescents: The HELENA study. Br. J. Sport Med. 2011 , 45 , 20–29. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Wieczorek, A.; Adrian, J. The level of motor abilities in consideration of health conditions of selected youth groups. Stud. Phys. Cult. Tour. 2006 , 13 , 85–92. [ Google Scholar ]
• Toole, T.; Kretzschmar, J.C. Gender differences in motor performance in early childhood and later adulthood. Women Sport Phys. Act. J. 1993 , 2 , 41–71. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Roberts, S.; Reeves, M.; Ryrie, A. The influence of physical activity, sport and exercise motives among UK-based university students. J. Furth. High. Educ. 2015 , 39 , 598–607. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Essaw, E.; Moses, M.O.; Afrifa, D.; Acheampong, I.K.; Mensah, W.; Owusu, L. Physical activity patterns and dietary habits of undergraduate students. Balt. J. Health Phys. Act. 2019 , 11 , 115–123. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Tinazci, C.; EAlrefai, S.; Musa, O. Patterns of physical activity of Libyan undergraduate students at the university of Tripoli using international physical activity questionnaire (IPAQ). Sport Mont. 2019 , 17 , 103–106. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bednarek, J.; Pomykała, S.; Bigosińska, M.; Szyguła, Z. Physical activity of Polish and Turkish university students as assessed by IPAQ. Cent. Eur. J. Sport Sci. Med. 2016 , 16 , 13–22. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Heravi, M.D.; Moeini, B.; Hazavehei, M.M.; Moghimbeigi, A.; Homayonfar, S.; Moslem, A.; Mirmoosavi, S.J. Relationship between blood pressure and physical activity in adults 20 to 65 years old. Amaz. Investig. 2018 , 7 , 285–294. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bergier, J.; Tsos, A.; Popovych, D.; Bergier, B.; Niźnikowska, E.; Ács, P.; Junger, J.; Salonna, F. Level of and factors determining physical activity in students in Ukraine and the Visegrad countries. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018 , 15 , 1738. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Bergier, B.; Bergier, J.; Niznikowska, E.; Junger, J.; Salonna, F.; Acs, F.; Fromel, K. Differences in physical activity and nutritionand silhouette-related behaviours in male and female students in selected European countries. Ann. Agric. Environ. Med. 2018 , 25 , 176–181. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Jagiello, W. Differentiation of the body composition in taekwondo-ITF competitors of the men’s Polish national team and direct based athletes. Arch. Budo 2015 , 11 , 329–338. [ Google Scholar ]
• Paluska, S.A.; Schwenk, T.L. Physical activity and mental health. Sport Med. 2000 , 29 , 167–180. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Peluso, M.A.M.; de Andrade, L.H.S.G. Physical activity and mental health: The association between exercise and mood. Clinics 2005 , 60 , 61–70. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Miller, J.M.; Street, B.D. Metabolic syndrome and physical activity levels in college students. Metab. Syndr. Relat. Disord. 2019 , 17 , 431–435. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• López-Martínez, S.; Sánchez-López, M.; Solera-Martinez, M.; Arias-Palencia, N.; Fuentes-Chacón, R.M.; Martínez-Vizcaíno, V. Physical activity, fitness, and metabolic syndrome in young adults. Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. 2013 , 23 , 312–321. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Díez-Fernández, A.; Martínez-Vizcaíno, V.; Torres-Costoso, A.; Cañete García-Prieto, J.; Franquelo-Morales, P.; Sánchez-López, M. Strength and cardiometabolic risk in young adults: The mediator role of aerobic fitness and waist circumference. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sport 2018 , 28 , 1801–1807. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Salonen, M.K.; Wasenius, N.; Kajantie, E.; Lano, A.; Lahti, J.; Heinonen, K.; Räikkönen, K.; Eriksson, J.G. Physical activity, body composition and metabolic syndrome in young adults. PLoS ONE 2015 , 10 , e0126737. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lee, J.; Kim, S.-U.; Kang, H.-S. Low cardio/respiratory fitness as an independent predictor of metabolic syndrome in Korean young men. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2010 , 108 , 633–639. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kim, D.; Kim, J.Y.; Lee, M.K.; Lee, H.-D.; Lee, J.-W.; Jeon, J.Y. The relationship between fitness, BMI and risk factors of metabolic syndrome among university students in Korea. Korean J. Obes. 2012 , 21 , 99–107. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ahn, S.-H.; Um, Y.-J.; Kim, Y.-J.; Kim, H.-J.; Oh, S.-W.; Lee, C.M.; Kwon, H.; Joh, H.-K. Association between physical activity levels and physical symptoms or illness among university students in Korea. Korean J. Fam. Med. 2016 , 37 , 279. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ] [ Green Version ]
• Collingwood, T.R. Physical fitness leadership in law enforcement. Pol. Chief 1988 , 55 , 30–37. [ Google Scholar ]
• Rossomanno, C.I.; Herrick, J.E.; Kirk, S.M.; Kirk, E.P. A 6-month supervised employer-based minimal exercise program for police officers improves fitness. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2012 , 26 , 2338–2344. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]

Click here to enlarge figure

Share and Cite

Kljajević, V.; Stanković, M.; Đorđević, D.; Trkulja-Petković, D.; Jovanović, R.; Plazibat, K.; Oršolić, M.; Čurić, M.; Sporiš, G. Physical Activity and Physical Fitness among University Students—A Systematic Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022 , 19 , 158. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010158

Kljajević V, Stanković M, Đorđević D, Trkulja-Petković D, Jovanović R, Plazibat K, Oršolić M, Čurić M, Sporiš G. Physical Activity and Physical Fitness among University Students—A Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health . 2022; 19(1):158. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010158

Kljajević, Vidran, Mima Stanković, Dušan Đorđević, Drena Trkulja-Petković, Rade Jovanović, Kristian Plazibat, Mario Oršolić, Mijo Čurić, and Goran Sporiš. 2022. "Physical Activity and Physical Fitness among University Students—A Systematic Review" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 1: 158. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010158

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

Home > USC Columbia > Education, College of > Physical Education > Physical Education Theses and Dissertations

Physical Education Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2022 2022.

Elucidating the Interdependence of Motor-Cognitive Development and Performance , Thomas Cade Abrams

Evaluation of the Throw-Catch Assessment , Bryan Terlizzi

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

Develop or Diminish? An Exploration of Adolescent Athlete Flow Experiences , Hayes Mayfield Bennett

Three Studies Investigating Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program-Aligned Opportunities To Enhance Students’ Physical Education Learning , Jongho Moon

Relationship of General Athletic Performance Markers to Intra-Team Ranking Of Sport Performance , Steven Keith Scruggs II

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

Elementary Physical Education Teacher Perceptions of Motor Skill Assessment , Jenna Fisher

Motor Competence and Quality of Life in Youth with Cancer and Visual Impairments , Emily N. Gilbert

Two Studies of Inclusive and Augmented Physical Education , Matthew Patey

Functional Motor Competence and Physical Military Readiness , Kyle Silvey

The Tripartite Model of Efficacy Beliefs for Youth With Visual Impairments , Alexandra Stribing

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

United States Principals’ Involvement in Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs: A Social-Ecological Perspective , Karie Lee Orendorff

Multidimenstional Balance in Youth with Visual Impairments , Adam Pennell

Two Studies Conceptualizing Physical Literacy for Assessment of High School Students in the United States , Chelsee Shortt

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

New Insight For Activity Intensity Relativity: Metabolic Expenditure During Object Projection Skill Performance , Ryan S. Sacko

Three Studies Concerning Movement Integration In Low Socioeconomic Elementary School Classrooms , Gregory L. Stewart

The Effects of an Integrative Universally Designed Motor Skill Intervention across General, Inclusion, and Self-Contained Early Childhood Center Classrooms , Sally A. Taunton

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Two Studies of Partnership Approaches to Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programming: A Process Evaluation and a Case Study , Catherine A. Egan

Three Studies Of Service-Learning As An Approach To Movement Integration In Elementary Classrooms , Robert D. Michael, Jr.

Functional Motor Competence, Health-Related Fitness, and Injury in Youth Sport , Craig Elliott Pfeifer

Branded for Success: A Longitudinal Examination of Brand Associations as Drivers of Team Identification for a New Sport Brand , Henry Wear

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

Examing Supine-To-Stand As A Measure Of Functional Motor Competence And Health Across The Lifespan , Danielle Rene Nesbitt

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Hypertension Health Behavior Change and Older Adults: the effect of an Appreciative Education Approach , Mary Katherine Benya

Preservice Physical Education Teacher’s Value Orientations across the Student Teaching Semester , Heesu Lee

The Subjective Warrant for Teaching Physical Education in South Carolina , Matthew Blake Lineberger

Integration of Impulse-Variability Theory and the Speed-Accuracy Trade-Off in Children's Multijoint Ballistic Skill Performance , Sergio Lupe Molina

Two Studies To Inform Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programming: A Systematic Review of Program Effectiveness and the Development of an Observational Measure for Classroom-Based Physical Activity Promotion , Laura B. Russ

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

Impact of an Educational Gymnastics Course on the Motor Skills and Health-Related Fitness Components of Physical Education Teacher Education Students , Liana Webster

DESCRIPTION OF THE PRACTICE HISTORIES AND KNOWLEDGE STRUCTURES OF HIGH SCHOOL BASEBALL PLAYERS , Benjamin Joseph Wellborn

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

A Case Study Seeking Indicators of Coherence in a PETE Program , Robert John Doan

The Effects of Attentional Focus Cues and Feedback On Motor Skill Learning In Children , Melanie Elizabeth Perreault

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

Retrospective Practice Histories of Division I and Division II Female Basketball Players in the Carolinas , Anthony Steven Smith

Theses/Dissertations from 2011 2011

A Comparison of Selected Supervisory Skills of Content Specialist and Non-content Specialist University Supervisors , Kevin Paul Hunt

Developmental Trends In the Dance Performance of Children Age Six to Nine , Stephanie L. Little

Time to Sodium Absorption At Rest Between Three Different Beverages , Rachel Leanne Sharpe

Theses/Dissertations from 2010 2010

Retrospective Practice Histories of Expert and Novice Baseball Pitchers , Robert M. Cathey

An Examination of Student Situational Interest and Contextual Variable Preference in Physical Education , Rachel Lynn Harvey

Teaching Behaviors, Student Motivation and Achievement In the Learning Domains of Physical Education , Jody Leigh Langdon

Comparison of Instruments to Assess Clinical Behavior In Athletic Training Education , Joseph M. Murphy

The Coach-Athlete Dyad and the Basic Psychological Needs In American Collegiate Athletics , Raylene Ross

Theses/Dissertations from 2009 2009

The Effect of Uncompensable Heat Stress On Fatigue, Physiological, and Perceptual Measures , Charles C. Emerson

The Relationship Between Sodium Concentrations and Common Clinical Hydration Measures During Exercise , Dawn Marie Minton

Advanced Search

• Notify me via email or RSS
• Collections
• Disciplines

Submissions

• University Libraries

Home | About | FAQ | My Account | Accessibility Statement

Privacy Copyright

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• J Funct Morphol Kinesiol

The Effectiveness of a CrossFit Training Program for Improving Physical Fitness of Young Judokas: A Pilot Study

Arman v. avetisyan.

1 Armenian State Institute of Physical Culture and Sport, Yerevan 0070, Armenia

Ashot A. Chatinyan

Aspen e. streetman.

2 Department of Kinesiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA

Katie M. Heinrich

Associated data.

Data are available from the authors upon request.

The aim of this pilot study was to examine the effectiveness of a CrossFit-based training program to enhance the general and sport-specific physical fitness of 10–12-year-old judokas. The study was conducted between September 2021 and February 2022. The pedagogical research experiment was designed to be one complete, annual macrocycle (September–June). The current study presents mid-point data. Twenty male participants (3 years average sports experience; age = 11 ± 0.64 years) were randomly assigned to one of two groups: CrossFit-based training (experimental, n = 10) and traditional training (control, n = 10). Baseline testing was conducted by the researcher and included tests for motor skills and general physical fitness domains including Sweden wall pull-ups and leg raises, push-ups, long jump, squats, burpees, shuttle run, and forward rolls. Judo-specific tests included O Soto Gari and O Goshi throws. CrossFit-based training was implemented twice per week for 15–20 min in the experimental group after usual training. The control group completed traditional methods of physical fitness training for judokas with the same training load regarding time. Experimental group participants significantly improved on leg raises ( p < 0.01), push-ups ( p < 0.05), and shuttle run ( p < 0.001); the control group improved their shuttle run ( p < 0.001). Only the experimental group improved on the O Soto Gari ( p < 0.01) and O Goshi throws ( p < 0.05). Results showed that the use of CrossFit-based trainings had a positive effect on 10–12-year-old judokas’ speed-strength abilities, speed-strength endurance, and muscular strength.

1. Introduction

In judo, as in all sports, athletes require a high level of physical fitness to be competitive. Given this need, much effort is focused on improving training protocols and the structure of individual training [ 1 ]. Coaches are compelled to look for innovative strategies that enhance training and recovery. Such strategies are especially critical in a landscape where competition rules often change each year, requiring the need for adapting training strategies to increase athlete competitiveness. As well, athletes are highly competitive at increasingly young ages. Some experts believe that traditional training systems are outdated and emphasize the requirement for obvious modernization using current methods and means [ 2 ]. For example, sports games, strength exercises with weights, gymnastics and acrobatic exercises, long-distance running, and jumping exercises are most often used for conditioning [ 2 ]. CrossFit is a relatively new training modality that many experts advocate to train young judokas [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ]. According to its founder, Greg Glassman, “CrossFit is constantly varied, high-intensity functional movement” that incorporates a variety of exercises together to train multiple energy systems and fitness domains [ 7 ].

Previous research demonstrates the physical benefits of CrossFit training for students [ 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ], police officers [ 14 ], military personnel [ 15 , 16 ], and athletes in various sports [ 3 , 7 , 17 ]. More limited research indicates CrossFit may be a promising training protocol among younger students. A randomized control trial of middle school aged students comparing CrossFit Kids (CFK) to traditional PE classes demonstrated physical and mental health improvements [ 18 ]. While students in both conditions increased in physical fitness over the course of the study, those in the CFK condition reported more strength and confidence gains [ 18 ]. In contrast, Eather et al. [ 19 ] determined that participation in the CrossFit Teens did not improve mental health outcomes. While the study did provide preliminary evidence for improving mental health in adolescents ‘at risk’ of developing psychological disorders, more research is needed to better understand the effects of CrossFit participation among youth.

One study demonstrated the effectiveness of regular CrossFit workouts on judokas aged 16–17 years [ 6 ]. In the research, emerging evidence suggests that the use of regular CrossFit-based trainings in the practice of young judokas significantly increased their combat activity in competitive matches. Athletes who used CrossFit training during the pre-competition and competitive training periods won a higher percentage of matches than athletes of the control group (with an average difference of more than 5%). CrossFit research on younger athletes aged 10–12 years is limited despite evidence that this is the best age to develop many motor skills [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]. Further research is required to understand the effectiveness of using CrossFit in this age category.

When assessing fitness among younger judo athletes, the use of tests reflecting multiple fitness components is recommended [ 23 , 24 ]. This more-comprehensive fitness approach allows for identifying weaknesses and for developing ways to improve them [ 23 ]. There are also recommended judo-specific tests, including the O Soto Gari throws, as suggested by Khomichev and Tarakanov [ 2 ].

This pilot study research aimed to examine the effectiveness of a CrossFit-based training program to enhance the general and sport-specific physical fitness of 10–12-year-old judokas. We hypothesized that young judokas randomly assigned to the CrossFit training condition would demonstrate greater improvements in general and sport-specific physical fitness compared to the control condition.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. experimental approach to the problem.

The pedagogical research experiment was held at the “Youth Sports and Cultural Training Center after Vahe Zakaryan” in Hrazdan, in the Republic of Armenia. The pilot study was conducted between September 2021 and February 2022. The intervention was designed to be one complete, annual macrocycle (September–June). However, the current study presents the mid-point data. By examining mid-point data, it was possible to identify the initial impact of CrossFit-based training on the level of general physical fitness of judokas, allowing us to adjust the last four months of the training process, if necessary. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee of the Armenian State Institute of Physical Culture and Sport (protocol code 2/2022).

Using personal and university connections of the first author, access was granted to recruit participants at a sports school. Prior to the study, the participants, their parents, and the sports school administration attended an informational session and provided oral consent to apply a new training approach during training and to participate in a social survey. The sports and cultural center regularly conducts medical evaluations, thus, prior to the study, all participants underwent a medical examination to ensure they were healthy and able to complete CrossFit-based training.

2.2. Participants

Twenty male participants were randomly assigned by drawing lots to one of two groups: CrossFit-based training (experimental) and traditional training (control). There were ten athletes in each group with an average of three years of sports experience. Participants’ average age in both groups was 11 years old ± 0.64. Participants’ judo experience ranged from one to three years, so it was critical to adjust the content and moderation of the intervention to their level of training. This was done by adjusting the difficulty and/or load of each exercise for each participant. Mid-point data were available for 8 participants in the experimental group (i.e., one student switched from judo to music and one student was unavailable for mid-point testing) and 9 participants in the control group (i.e., one student took a temporary leave of absence).

2.3. Measures

Before introducing the training program, baseline testing was conducted by the researcher in the experimental and control groups with standard conditions and at least three attempts for each exercise. Immediately prior to testing, a standardized set of warm-up exercise was performed (e.g., neck, arm, and elbow circles, hip rotation, body circles, lunge tap, sit static lunge, low lunge, butterflies, jumping jacks, etc.). The following assessments were used to test motor skills in general physical fitness domains specifically for the ages of participants included in the study: maximum repetitions of pull-ups and leg raises on the Sweden wall (both for testing muscular strength), maximum repetitions of push-ups in 10 s (for testing speed-strength skill), long jump for maximum distance (test for lower body power), maximum repetitions of squats in 60 s and maximum repetitions of burpees in 30 s (both for testing speed-strength endurance), and time to complete 4 × 10 m shuttle run and 5 forward rolls (for testing coordination ability) [ 4 , 25 , 26 ]. Participants took one attempt at each exercise other than the long jump, to allow for sufficient recovery between tests. O Soto Gari and O Goshi throws were used to test Judo-specific physical fitness on a separate day. The first exercise (O Soto Gari) was suggested by Khomichev and Tarakanov [ 2 ], and the second exercise was chosen by study investigators, taking into account the participants’ sports experience.

In December 2021, a sociological survey was conducted among athletes of the experimental group to explore the athletes’ attitudes towards CrossFit-based training protocol using researcher-developed questions. The survey aimed to explore each athlete’s attitudes about the availability, uniqueness, and effectiveness of the CrossFit-based training. All athletes in the experimental group completed the sociological survey via Google Forms. There were nine questions in the survey (see Supplementary Materials   Table S1 ). Questions were aimed to elucidate the athlete’s attitudes regarding the methods, means, and modalities which were used in the workouts (e.g., “Do you have difficulty doing CrossFit exercises?”, “What kind of exercises do you enjoy most in CrossFit-training?”, etc.). The survey was conducted in Armenian. Closed questions were used.

In order to control the athletes’ feeling towards the training load, their pulse rate was measured manually at the wrist during all the training sessions: before training, during training, and immediately after training. Athletes pressed the index and middle fingers of one hand on the opposite wrist counting the number of beats in 15 s and multiplied that number by four [ 27 , 28 ].

2.4. Training Programs

Participants in both groups had three days per week of judo training for 90 min. This was followed by 15–20 min of conditioning training. During the implementation of the training program, there were athletes who were absent from some workouts. In such cases, additional make-up trainings were conducted in accordance with the content of the training program.

During conditioning, the control group completed traditional methods of physical fitness training for judokas twice per week for 15–20 min. For example, they completed 100 repetitions of push-ups, sit-ups, and squats, or might complete 50 repetitions of pull-ups, 100 bridge exercises for the neck, and complete 10 rope climbs, etc.

CrossFit-based conditioning was implemented twice per week for 15–20 min in the experimental group after usual training. The CrossFit-based training was held at the end of each Judo training session, mainly after technical-tactical training. All CrossFit-based training was conducted by a trained sports professional with specific judo training.

CrossFit-based workouts included Tabata, “as many rounds/repetitions as possible” (AMRAP), and for-time workouts with a 21-15-9 repetition scheme performed at 60–70% intensity. Tabata training is a form of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) named after the Japanese scientist Dr. Izumi Tabata and lasts for only four minutes [ 29 ]. Each Tabata training interval involved 20 s of extremely intense exercise, followed by 10 s of rest. These exercises were primarily used to develop speed-strength endurance. A wide variety of push-ups, pull-ups, sit-ups, squats, metabolic exercises, handstand push-ups, shuttle runs, long jumps and other varieties of running, as well as exercises from weightlifting, such as cleans and snatches, were used.

The content of one Tabata training session was as follows:

• Push-ups with Tabata method (8 rounds of 20 s of exercise, then 10 s of rest).
• Squats with Tabata method.
• Sit-ups with Tabata method.

After each exercise, the athletes rested for one minute.

AMRAP workouts involved doing as many rounds and repetitions of a set of exercises as possible during a set amount of time, without designated rest. AMRAP workouts are often done as a circuit, which involves cycling through multiple types of exercises that use different parts of the body. AMRAP workouts can be performed with bodyweight exercises, weights, or cardiovascular exercises [ 30 ]. This method was used to develop both general endurance and strength endurance.

The content of one AMRAP training session was as follows:

Do the maximum number of repetitions with the following exercises for 15 min:

• 1 Leg raises on Sweden wall.
• Handstand push-ups (legs on the wall).
• Elevated heels.

Timed workouts included completing “21-15-9” repetitions of specific exercises. Athletes performed each movement in the workout at a fixed intensity (e.g., by using body weight) for 21 repetitions, then 15 repetitions, and then 9 repetitions for the fastest time [ 31 ]. These workouts were used to develop young judokas’ speed and speed-strength ability using exercises such as jumping and rolling.

The content of one 21-15-9 training session was as follows:

• Burpees (21 repetitions, then 15 repetitions, and then 9 repetitions).
• Deep squats (21 repetitions, then 15 repetitions, and then 9 repetitions).
• Sit-ups (21 repetitions, then 15 repetitions, and then 9 repetitions).

After each circle, they completed 20 jumping jacks.

2.5. Analysis

Data analyses were conducted with SPSS 27 (IBM, Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). After checking the data for assumptions (e.g., normality), independent samples t -test were used to examine for baseline differences between groups. Next, paired samples t -tests were conducted to examine changes from baseline to midpoint within each group. Cohen’s d was used for effect size, with 0.2 = small, 0.5 = medium, and 0.8 = large [ 32 ]. To compare changes in performance between groups, a group by time repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted. Data are reported as mean ± standard deviation and statistical significance was set at p ≤ 0.05.

No statistically significant differences were found between groups for any fitness or judo-specific fitness tests at baseline (all p > 0.05).

3.1. Within Group Comparisons

As shown in Table 1 , the intervention group significantly improved from baseline to mid-point on push-ups repetitions ( t = 2.72, p = 0.030), leg raise repetitions ( t = 3.78, p = 0.007), and shuttle run time ( t = 8.32, p < 0.001).

Changes in physical fitness of 10–12-year-old judokas in the experimental group from baseline to mid-point test ( n = 8).

* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001; a = 7 participants.

Table 2 shows changes in physical fitness for the control group participants. The only statistically significant difference was an improvement in the shuttle run time ( t = 9.78, p < 0.001).

Changes in physical fitness of 10–12-year-old judokas in the control group from baseline to mid-point test ( n = 9).

*** p < 0.001.

To assess changes in judo-specific physical fitness, athletes in both groups did “O Soto Gari” and “O Goshi” throws for 10 repetitions each. Table 3 shows changes in specific physical fitness for the experimental and control group participants. Athletes in the experimental group significantly decreased the time to complete both the O Soto Gari ( t = 5.77, p = 0.001, 95% CI [−3.28, −0.77], Cohen’s d = 2.04) and the O Goshi throws ( t = 2.5, p = 0.04, 95% CI [−1.70, −0.04], Cohen’s d = 0.89).

The level of judo-specific physical fitness at baseline and midpoint for 10–12-year-old judokas ( n = 17).

* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.

3.2. Between Group Comparisons

Between group comparisons using repeated measures ANOVA found a significant group by time interaction for push-ups, ƒ(1, 15) = 11.82, p = 0.004, due to the experimental group increasing their push-up repetitions and the control group decreasing their push-up repetitions from baseline to mid-point. A significant main effect was found for both groups for improving their shuttle run times, ƒ(1, 15) = 161.0, p < 0.001, although no significant differences between groups were found. A significant main effect was found for improvements in the leg raises, ƒ(1, 15) = 12.15, p = 0.003, as well as a significant group by time interaction, ƒ(1, 15) = 6.43, p = 0.023, where the intervention group improved significantly more than the control group. A significant main effect was found for improvements in the O Soto Gari, ƒ(1, 15) = 14.84, p = 0.002, with both groups decreasing the time needed to complete the throws. Finally, there was a significant group by time interaction for changes in the O Goshi, ƒ(1, 15) = 8.07, p = 0.012, where the experimental group decreased their time, and the control group increased their time needed to complete the throws.

On the sociological survey, all participants ( n = 8, 100%) indicated participation in the CrossFit-based training with pleasure. Most preferred Tabata (85.7%) and for time “21-15-9” (42.9%) methods during CrossFit-based training. It was critical to understand if the participants felt bad or experienced pain during the CrossFit-based training. All participants mentioned that they rarely felt bad during training, but occasionally participants mentioned experiencing headaches (28.6%), dizziness (14.3%), and nausea (42.9%). These conditions were mostly associated with 21-15-9 (42.9%) and AMRAP (28.6%) training.

4. Discussion

This pilot study aimed to explore the effectiveness of a CrossFit training program to enhance the general and sport-specific physical fitness of 10–12-year-old judokas. The primary findings supported our hypothesis that CrossFit-based training would improve both general and sport-specific fitness more than traditional training methods for young judokas. Specifically, the experimental group significantly improved muscular endurance (i.e., push-ups and leg raise repetitions), speed (i.e., shuttle run), and judo-specific performance (i.e., O Soto Gari and O Goshi). The control group only significantly improved their speed (i.e., shuttle run). Between-group comparisons confirmed that the experimental group improved significantly more than the control group on muscular endurance (i.e., push-ups and leg raise repetitions) and judo-specific performance (i.e., O Goshi).

To compare results to previous research with 10-year-old judo athletes [ 4 ], we can note that the duration of CrossFit-based trainings was reduced for 10–12-year-old judokas. According to Khomichev’s [ 4 ] research, in weekly micro-cycle, CrossFit training lasted a total of 60 min, while with our training program, the maximum duration of these trainings was 40 min per week. We also minimized the number of Olympic weightlifting exercises to avoid unwanted side effects. One of the most important indicators throughout the implementation of the training program was the control of the athletes’ pulse rate. This was monitored by judo coaches to assess how athletes felt during the training by measuring the pulse rate so that they could determine the correct measurement of the training load.

While overall, participants reported liking the CrossFit-based training sessions, some reported experiencing pain and bad feelings during some sessions, mainly when using methods that required a high intensity. This information will help us change the training program’s content, e.g., reducing the number of 21–15-9 workouts, excluding some jumping exercises from the training program, and increasing time for rest between sessions. These results are similar to those with professional athletes who were more likely to have injuries and bad feelings in the presence of high-intensity training. For example, many authors note [ 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 ] that shoulder, knee, or spine injuries are common in CrossFit athletes, yet no injuries occurred among our participants.

Previous research has shown that CrossFit-based training is effective physical training for improving combat sports younger-aged athletes’ motor skills [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ]. The current study also demonstrated this effect. Specifically, we found that with a moderate load and accounting for age and experience, CrossFit-based training was effective for improving motor and sport-specific skills in 10–12-year-old judo athletes.

Study limitations include the specificity of the intervention population. As the pilot study aimed to reveal the uniqueness of using CrossFit to train 10–12-year-old male judokas, the obtained results can be related only to that age and sex and were conducted with a small sample size. As we mainly used exercises with body weight, the obtained results were predictable, as the most effective exercises, e.g., deadlift, shoulder press, and push press, were not used in the training system, considering the age of the athletes. We also used a simple manual measure of pulse rate, which could be subject to individual measurement error as compared to a device-based measurement, although the method has been considered a common and accessible method [ 27 , 28 ]. It is impossible to determine the underlying mechanisms that may have resulted in the fitness improvements observed in this study, which should be examined in future research [ 42 ]. As well, future research should examine changes in anthropometric characteristics along with changes in fitness.

As a result of the analysis of the mid-point test results, it was decided to make certain changes in the training program. Specifically, we will increase the number of exercises aimed at developing muscle strength and include running exercises in the content of training. We will increase the number of pull-ups exercises. With the improvement of weather conditions, outdoor workouts will be added, and finally, the number of running exercises will increase, which will be both aerobic and anaerobic in nature. Future research should identify the outcomes of CrossFit-based training in older and younger athletes as well as among athletes from other sports. Further research will be needed to use weightlifting, deadlift, squats, and more metabolic conditioning exercises in the process of physical training of older adolescents, and to find out the effect of the latter on changes in physical fitness of the athletes.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/jfmk7040083/s1 , Table S1: Sociological survey questions and answers (translated from Armenian).

Funding Statement

This research received no external funding.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.V.A. and A.A.C.; methodology, A.V.A. and A.A.C.; software, A.A.C. and K.M.H.; validation, A.V.A. and A.A.C.; formal analysis, A.V.A. and K.M.H.; investigation, A.V.A. and A.A.C.; resources, A.A.C.; data curation, A.V.A.; writing—original draft preparation, A.V.A., A.E.S. and K.M.H.; writing—review and editing, A.V.A., A.A.C., A.E.S. and K.M.H.; visualization, K.M.H.; supervision, A.A.C. and K.M.H.; project administration, A.V.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board (or Ethics Committee) of the Armenian State Institute of Physical Culture and Sport (protocol code 2/2022 approved 28 June 2022).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.