part of speech not appropriate in formal writing

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• Formal and Informal Style

Whether you use formal or informal style in writing will depend on the assignment itself, its subject, purpose, and audience.

Formal language is characterized by the use of standard English, more complex sentence structures, infrequent use of personal pronouns, and lack of colloquial or slang terms.

Informal language allows the use of nonstandard English forms, colloquial vocabulary and typically shorter sentence structures.

The choice of formal or informal style will affect the following areas:

• standard or nonstandard English
• choice of vocabulary
• use of contractions
• use of pronouns

Rule to Remember

Formal style affects the form of English, the choice of vocabulary, and the use of contractions and pronouns.

Standard or Nonstandard English

Standard English is the language used in professional and business communication. It is the form of English that follows the formal rules of the language.

Nonstandard English uses regional or social language variations. Nonstandard English should only be used when there is a purpose for it in writing. For example, it can be used in a narrative to describe a person with a specific regional dialect. Otherwise, the standard form of English should be used.

Choice of Vocabulary

Vocabulary  needs to be adjusted depending on the level of formality of any written work.

Consider the following words: investigate, examine, check out . Each of them has a different level of formality. While check out can be used in informal writing and speech, using it in a formal research paper would not be appropriate.

Use more formal vocabulary and avoid the use of contractions in formal writing.

Sometimes the whole sentence needs to be rephrased:

Contractions are more casual, and if you are striving for more formal style, they should not be used. Contractions in negative sentences should be especially avoided since they are easy to miss.

The Use of Pronouns

Formal language tends to be impersonal and precise. The use of pronouns , therefore, is restricted. In formal writing, when addressing the audience, you may use the passive voice or an adverbial clause in place of the personal pronoun:

Restrict the use of personal pronouns in formal writing.

The writer's presence, signaled by the use of the personal pronoun I , or we (if there are several authors), can also make writing more informal and less credible.

The second sentence is more formal and can be perceived by the audience to be more credible.

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• Sentence Structure

Informal Vs. Formal Writing: What’s The Difference?

• What Is Formal Writing?
• What Is Informal Writing?
• Formal Vs. Informal Writing
• Formal Example
• Informal Example

As a writer, you’re faced with a lot of choices related to your writing: how long should your essay be ? Who should be addressed in a cover letter ? What is a thesis statement ? But there’s one question that also applies to every composition: how do you distinguish writing that’s informal vs. formal?  

That’s right. Whether a piece is informal or formal will influence everything down to the smallest comma and period. But what, exactly, is the difference between formal and informal writing? When do you use one over the other? Are they really that different? If you are wondering the answers to those questions, then read on as we explore the many different features between formal and informal writing. 

What is formal writing ?

First, you should know that it is the intended readers that will determine if a writer should use formal writing or informal writing . Generally, formal writing is defined as writing targeted toward an audience that a person doesn’t personally know. Typically, formal writing is used when a person wants their writing to be viewed as professional, polite, authoritative, or some combination thereof. For this reason, formal writing is often used in professional settings. For example, formal writing is often the form of writing used in research and academic papers, corporate memos and emails, press releases, and job applications. 

What is informal writing ?

Informal writing is the inverse of formal writing . In a manner of speaking, informal writing is the T-shirt-and-jeans counterpart to formal writing’s dress coat and pants. In general, informal writing is defined as writing targeted toward an audience that the writer knows personally or with whom the writer wants to establish a friendly tone. Informal writing may include inside jokes, slang, abbreviations, and local colloquialisms . 

As you might expect, informal writing is common in casual settings such as social media and in texting between friends. However, you will often see informal writing used in other situations, such as in literature or in lighthearted feature stories in newspapers and magazines. 

Formal vs. informal writing

There are many differences between formal and informal writing. We will cover a large number of them here, but this list won’t be exhaustive. Still, you should have a good idea how formal and informal writing differ after looking at these different features.

Grammar, spelling, and punctuation

In almost all cases, formal writing adheres to the proper rules of grammar, spelling, and punctuation . Informal writing, on the other hand, may not. A person may not intentionally break the rules of grammar in informal writing, but they know that a reader is unlikely to care about errors or nonstandard sentence structure. 

• Formal writing: The writing was clear but had several mistakes; you should revise and redraft the article.
• Informal writing: The writing was clear, but had alot of mistakes… u should revise and redraft the article.  

Formal writing doesn’t always have to follow stuffy, antiquated rules. Check out 5 formulaic writing rules you can explore breaking.

Sentence length

Generally speaking, formal writing often uses long, complex sentences that are connected using transitions. Informal writing often includes shorter sentences that may abruptly move from topic to topic. 

• Formal writing: Surprise inspections will be performed on a regular basis as determined by the acting supervisor, who has the authority to request them as needed. Furthermore, employees should be prepared to submit their work for review in a timely fashion. 
• Informal writing: I love my new sweater! Thank you!! Where do you want to meet for lunch?

Vocabulary and tone

Typically, formal writing has a serious tone and uses a sophisticated vocabulary that often includes large, complex words. Additionally, formal writing often uses technical terms that match the topic being discussed. For example, a medical text using formal writing will often use the term tibia rather than shinbone or a similar term. Informal writing will often instead have a lighter tone that uses simpler, commonly used words.

• Formal writing: The research team expeditiously and meticulously analyzed the findings in order to identify the origin of the Staphylococcus infection.  
• Informal writing: We were out back chopping down some trees when Mom called.

Third person vs. first person/second person

In general, formal writing is usually written from the third person . Formal writing typically avoids using first- or second-person pronouns such as I, me, we, us, and you . By contrast, informal writing often uses first-, second-, and third-person perspectives while making frequent use of personal pronouns. Because of this difference, formal writing is also more likely to use the passive voice in order to avoid using a first- or second-person perspective.

• Formal writing: The data were gathered by using sorting algorithms. 
• Informal writing: I used sorting algorithms to gather the data. 

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Word choice

In general, formal writing will most likely avoid using many of the words or phrases that our dictionary has tagged as being informal. This includes terms such as wanna , gotta , gonna , ‘nuff , kerfuffle, cept, ’Merica, thingamajig , and many other examples of informal language. Relatedly, phrasal verbs are also often typically not used in formal writing . Formal writing will also typically avoid using slang, euphemisms , colloquialisms, expletives, vulgarities, nonstandard abbreviations, jargon , and online acronyms.  

• Formal writing: Gregory wanted to remove the items from the box, but it was sealed tightly. Being unable to find scissors, he admitted defeat and ate a sandwich. 
• Informal writing: Greg was dying to get the stuff outta the box, but the box was like it ain’t happening bro lol. He couldn’t find the damn scissors, so he said the hell with it and bounced to go scarf a hoagie.

Interjections

Typically, interjections are not used in formal writing . Going further, exclamation points usually don’t appear very often in formal writing. Both interjections and exclamation points are used in informal writing. 

• Formal writing: The mixture violently erupted, catching bystanders unaware. 
• Informal writing: The stuff exploded! Wow! 

Contractions

Typically, contractions are avoided in formal writing , and the words are instead spelled out. In informal writing, contractions are commonly used. 

  Examples: 

• Formal writing: The team would have purchased extra materials, but the store was not open. 
• Informal writing: The team would’ve purchased extra materials, but the store wasn’t open. 

Objectivity

In general, formal writing is usually written objectively . In most cases, writers attempt to avoid stating subjective thoughts or presenting personal opinions in the main text of formal writing. When presenting arguments in formal writing, writers often calmly present their side backed by supporting evidence and trustworthy sources . Informal writing can include (strongly worded) personal opinions, emotional appeals, and inflammatory language presented without evidence or supporting facts. 

• Formal writing: As the evidence clearly shows, the director severely miscalculated production costs when initially presenting the film’s budget.
• Informal writing: The incompetent buffoon who claims to be a professional director blew the budget so badly that the studio should fire him as soon as possible. 

Formal writing often entails referencing or researching what others have written. Check out these tips to avoid plagiarism.

Example of formal writing

The following excerpt shows an example of formal writing that was used in a statement released by American president Joe Biden:

Love is love, and Americans should have the right to marry the person they love. Today’s bipartisan vote brings the United States one step closer to protecting that right in law. The Respect for Marriage Act will ensure that LGBTQI+ couples and interracial couples are respected and protected equally under federal law, and provide more certainty to these families since the Supreme Court’s decision in Dobbs . I want to thank the Members of Congress whose leadership has sent a strong message that Republicans and Democrats can work together to secure the fundamental right of Americans to marry the person they love. I urge Congress to quickly send this bill to my desk where I will promptly sign it into law.

Example of informal writing

The following example of informal writing is a review of the movie Fight Club by a user of the aggregator website Metacritic:  

Best movie of all time. Period. Seen it more than 28 times. Its a bible of what we have to learn. I say you are not your clothes. You are not the brands u wear, even when u think they re part of ur personality. Comb your hair. I ll tell everyone here the end of the movie, but that its not what this movie is about. First rule of fight club is… you do not talk about fight club. And if u havent seen this film then you are a hollow shell. Become human again and start by watching this lesson.

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• Contractions

When to Use (and Not Use) Contractions

Contractions, which are words in which some letters or sounds are omitted (e.g., don’t for do not ), are common in speech and informal usage but generally avoided in formal writing.

• Informal: We don’t know what happened.
• Formal: We do not have sufficient information yet to form a hypothesis.

Contractions are often used and completely acceptable in everyday speech.

• I’m happy to help.
• She’s here.
• I don’t know.
• What’s that?

Only if you want to stress a certain word would you not use a standard contraction in speech and informal usage.

• You do not want to get involved in this. The use of do not instead of the contraction don’t helps stress the adverb not .

In informal writing

In writing, contractions convey an informal tone and replace talking to the reader. They sound normal and natural in creative writing and personal communication.

• I’m on my way.
• That’s fine. Don’t worry.
• It’s all right.
• Sorry I couldn’t take your call.
• Maya knew she shouldn’t answer, but she did.

In ad copy, marketing slogans, and other signage, contractions can help save space and make your message sound conversational and friendly.

• Because you’re worth it. ( L’Oreal )
• Let’s go places. ( Toyota )
• There are some things money can’t buy; for everything else, there’s MasterCard. ( Mastercard )

In creative writing as well, contractions, which are common in speech, can make dialogue sound more natural.

• “Now you said you’d do it, now let’s see you do it.” “ Don’t you crowd me now; you better look out.” “Well, you said you’d do it—why don’t you do it?” — Mark Twain , The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876)

In formal texts

Avoid using contractions in academic and other formal writing. Using the complete instead of contracted form lends an appropriate air of formality to the document.

• Informal: We haven’t accounted for changes in pressure in this study. Formal: We have not accounted for changes in pressure in this study.
• Informal: We couldn’t collect sufficient real-world data. Formal: We could not collect sufficient real-world data.
• Informal: It’s important to account for bias. Formal: It is important to account for bias.
• Informal: We haven’t reviewed the financial statements of the subsidiaries yet. Formal: We have not reviewed the financial statements of the subsidiaries yet.

Avoid using contractions in cover letters, personal statements, academic papers, business proposals, and legal documents.

• Informal: I’d appreciate the opportunity to discuss this further with you. Formal: I would appreciate the opportunity to discuss this further with you.
• Informal: I’m hardworking and self-motivated. Formal: I am hardworking and self-motivated.

In negative questions

An exception is negative questions, in which contractions are used in both formal and informal usage.

• Shouldn’t / Should not we wait until morning? “Should not we wait until morning?” would sound odd and archaic, even in formal usage.
• Isn’t / Is not the sample ready yet?

Again, you may use the word not separately if you want to stress it.

• Unstressed not : Aren’t you listening? Stressed not : Are you not listening? But not “ Are not you listening?”

Finally, always use the contracted instead of full form in negative question tags.

• Poco said he’d call, didn’t he?
• We should call back, shouldn’t we?

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Standard contractions are common and sound natural in everyday speech.

Will not is generally used in its contracted form in speech and informal usage ( won’t ). To emphasize the word not , the full form is used instead.

Contractions sound natural in dialogue, which represents a real conversation.

Contractions, which lend an informal tone to writing, are generally avoided in formal texts.

Negative contractions are used in questions in both formal and informal usage.

Formal Vs Informal Speeches: An A-Z Guide

Hrideep barot.

• Public Speaking , Speech Writing , Workplace Communication

A speech is either formal or informal. Meaning, it can either be a formal address delivered to an audience or the daily use of grammar and words to communicate. The only purpose of either of those speeches is to put across a message well enough to invoke the desired response from your audience. Throughout history, humans all across the world cleverly inspired world-wide revolutions solely through the power of speech. Since then, a lot of tools and techniques of speeches have developed to ensure we use this power to its maximum capacity.  

The two broad classifications of events we use speeches are called formal events and informal events. Therefore, depending on the kind of audience, the situation, the message, the tone and the environment, the orator must decide whether they should address a formal speech or an informal speech. Working out where you use what kind of speech is the most important aspect of being a good communicator.

Formal Speeches

What are formal speeches.

Formal Speeches are made when you’re speaking to a sizable audience you don’t personally know. These are professional events where you’re expected to make a good impression on the audience. The nature of these events is often serious and decorous. These events therefore demand a similar respectable tone of language and speech.

For example, while at a job interview, speaking to an individual of authority, delivering a lecture, making a presentation, giving a pitch, motivating the audience, hosting a business event etc., you must ensure you speak formally. 

What makes a speech formal?

Formal speeches are also called orations. They are used in situations that are more ‘serious.’ They project a specific tone and specific characteristics. A few basic tools and attributes of formal speeches are:

The tone of a formal speech is always polite and respectful. Since formal speeches are mainly used to communicate with people in authority or strangers, it is important to structure your sentences suitably. The use of civilised words, appropriate grammar, complete sentences and enhanced vocabulary maintains the decorum of a formal speech.

Objectiveness

A formal communication style usually takes no stances. The sentence is spoken in a passive voice with a minimum use of personal pronouns. When we avoid using personal pronouns such as ‘I’, ‘We’ and ‘You’, the essence of the point changes from being an opinion to a fact. Therefore, the content of your speech sounds more objective than subjective.

Effectiveness

A formal speech is more effective than an informal speech because it comprises longer sentences and clear, non-colloquial phrases. It is well-spoken and the pronunciations are fathomable and precise. Its adherence to the Standard English language makes it comprehensible for the entire audience, even the non-native English speakers. It therefore proves to be extremely effective, suitable for a workplace or a business environment.

Standard English Language

A formal speech naturally follows the standards and rules formally set by the language. Languages tend to have regional differences and additional local slang to them. Even within England, British English and Scottish English tend to have different dialects and colloquial. For example, maybe phrases like “sure-fire” or “works like a charm” are deemed normal at your workplace but you cannot expect a non-English speaking trader to know them. When we adhere to the Standard English prescribed by Oxford, everybody who has academically learnt the English language is able to understand what one is trying to say.

The generous use of long sentences, no contractions, minimum abbreviations, proper grammar, complex sentence structure, clear pronunciation and overall objectiveness of the information brings a lot of clarity to one’s speech. There is seldom any room for doubts or misunderstandings. The extensive use of impersonal and formal language brings out professionalism and makes your information more credible.

What should you NOT include in a Formal Speech

The obvious ways of distinguishing between a formal speech and an informal speech are determined through the process of elimination. The following are a few things that you shouldn’t include in a formal speech:

Casual Greeting

There are a number of ways you can greet a person. Each kind of greeting has formal and informal versions that you can use based on how well you know the person and what degree of professionalism you are required to maintain with that person. For example,

• Formal: Hello, how do you do?
• Informal: Hey, how are ya?
• Formal: Nice to meet you/ Pleased to meet you.
• Informal: Good to see you.
• Formal: How have you been?
• Informal: Long time no see!

Slangs and Colloquialism

Slangs include a language that’s peculiar to a particular group, a regional reference, or even curse words. It’s extremely important to keep slang words at bay when you’re delivering a formal speech. A formal tone prescribes standard, professional English language. For example,

• Informal: Stats say, stress is the reason why this workplace is always screwing up.
• Formal: According to statistics, stress is one of the most frequent factors that disrupts efficiency and encourages problems in the workplace.
• Informal: Know yourself honestly and well enough to find what stresses you out.
• Formal: Being candid with ourselves is the most effective way to establish the triggers of stress we experience.

Contractions

Contracting words and sentences assert an informal and casual tone. If you are aiming to sound professional and polished, avoiding contractions is recommended. For example,

• Informal: I’ve had enough, I don’t think I’m gonna let this slide the next time.
• Formal: Your limit has been surpassed, I do not think this mistake will go unpunished the next time.

Personal Pronouns

The main characteristics of a formal speech are its impersonal nature and the precise, passive and objective delivery of information. While writing a formal speech, avoid using pronouns altogether. However, if required, try using neutral pronouns such as ‘one.’ For example,

• Informal: I was alarmed when I found out the effects of stress.
• Formal: The effects of stress were found to be quite alarming.
• Informal: You shouldn’t stress out about the things you can’t control.
• Formal: One shouldn’t take stress about the things beyond one’s control.

Poor Vocabulary

Gather your thesaurus before you write your formal speech because the better your vocabulary, more formal the content of your speech sounds. While both your sentences would mean the same thing, the tone in which they are delivered would classify them as informal speeches or formal speeches. For example,

• Informal: He took the item back to the shop.
• Formal: He returned the item to the shop.
• Informal: The CEO of this company gave up his position because his mental health was being affected.
• Formal: The CEO of this company relinquished his position due to his mental health being compromised.

How should you structure a Formal Speech?

The basic structure of a formal speech is no different than the structure of an essay. Organising your speech not only improves the clarity of thought but also amplifies the effectiveness of your content. A formal speech includes an introduction, a body and a conclusion.

The Introduction

A formal introduction establishes a respectful contact between the speaker and the listener. The introduction should last for one minute at the most. It should sound deferential and strictly adhere to formal English. How should you begin a formal speech?

The Greeting

The introduction of a formal speech can typically begin with a greeting. After wishing ‘good morning’ or ‘good evening’ depending on the time of the day, you may introduce yourself humbly. You can thank the organisers of the event for inviting you to speak or compliment a senior member of the event to pay respect. 

Acknowledging the Audience

It is polite to thank the audience for gathering to hear you out. Greet them with a genuine smile and express what an honour it is to be speaking before them today. After all, they have sacrificed their precious time to be here today.

Placing your Claim

The introduction is the most crucial segment of your speech. The curiosity you are able to pique in this part decides how much audience you will retain throughout your speech. It is extremely important you place your claim in the most catchy manner. Even in a formal speech, you can use quotes, rhetorical devices, imagery, startling elements, stories or even silence. As long as the language used is respectful, professional and follows the formal English, it can be a good opener for a formal speech. 

In case you’re looking for a few creative ways you can open your speech, you can refer to our blogpost for help!

The body makes up everything you have to say about the claim you placed in the introduction. It can have additional facts, supporting arguments and other temporal modes of organising your information. The temporal modes of organising information can be:

• Cause-effect relation in past, present or future tense
• Effect-cause relation which is basically inverting it and highlighting the effects before you state how they are achieved.
• Compare and contrast your entities.
• Narrate your topics as a story by organising the flow of the speech by finding relation and joint-relevance between two topics.
• Subdividing a large chunk of information into headings and subheadings is also a good topical way to organise your information formally.

The Conclusion

How do you end a formal speech? The conclusion follows the transition that was laid down by the body. The two main aims of a conclusion are to summarise the ideas of the speech and provide a closure. The conclusion of any formal speech can include:

• A summary of the speech.
• A ‘Now-What?’ statement elucidating the takeaway of the speech for the audience.
• A reference back to the introduction of the speech.
• An open-ended question to ponder upon.

If the last line of your speech is as important as the introduction segment where you make the claim. The weight and impact of the last sentence decides how memorable your speech would be. If you don’t feel like dropping the mic after the last sentence of your speech, maybe it’s not as mind-blowing and impactful as it ideally should be. 

If you are looking to seek more advice on how you can structure your formal speeches more professionally , be sure to check out our guidelines.

Informal Speeches

Informal speeches are casual and relaxed. They are made while talking to friends, colleagues or people you personally know. There are no hard and fast rules while making an informal speech other than somehow conveying the message you want to convey. 

What makes a speech informal?

Informal speeches radiate a very comfortable and relaxed energy. They’re friendlier than formal speeches and they often carry the personality of the person addressing them. A few characteristics that can help you identify informal speeches are:

Since casual speeches don’t require a very strict preparation like formal speeches, they are often easygoing. Informal speeches are made sporadically and are mostly off the record. The level of ease informal speeches carry can differ from person to person given how extroverted they are, or how comfortable they are with the audience. 

Informal speeches sound colourful. In the sense, the speaker is given the liberty to express themselves as they truly are. They don’t have a monotonous tone like formal speeches. The speaker can add their own slang, phrases they normally use, their personality, their dialects and in general make the speech as entertaining and fun as they please. 

Informal speeches give you the artistic and comedic liberty to put forth your message. While formal speeches usually adhere to the strictness of sounding ‘serious’ and ‘professional’, informal speeches are like laid back and pleasurable conversations.

You do not normally talk in complex sentence structures or dramatically use vocabulary. Likewise, informal speeches are often simple and straightforward. They use short sentences and terms and references from day-to-day life. You may use words and phrases like ‘that’s dope’, ‘don’t be salty’, ‘bruh’, ‘I’m shook’, ‘No cap’ etc. 

Informal speech is used in day-to-day life. Unlike other languages, most English speakers tend to speak informally with strangers on the street. While they’re friendly, they might not necessarily be polite if the listener cannot interpret the tone of your speech. 

Since informal speeches are more often used in everyday life, they don’t really have a structure. They do not require an introduction, a body or a conclusion. Apart from the unspoken rules of exchanging pleasantries and courtesy, you do not need to ‘prepare’ anything formal, just have the idea of what you want to say in mind.

A few examples of informal speeches would be:

• A Best Man’s Speech for his Brother’s Wedding: In this example, the occasion is properly informal. The speaker is amongst friends and family, speaking about his brother and his new wife. It is hilarious and also contains a poem to deliver the message!

• A Valedictorian Speech for the Class of 2010: In this example, while the occasion is formal, the speaker has very cleverly added a subtle informal tone while still maintaining the collective polite structure. He framed all inside jokes in a way everybody could understand. It was overall confident, humorous, ingenious and a great valedictorian speech.

What are the Main Differences Between Formal and Informal Speeches?

The following table elucidates the main differences between formal and informal speeches, summarising all its characteristics.

Case Study: A Sales Pitch

Let’s study the an applied example of formal and informal speeches. The above video is a sales pitch for electric cars. There are two characters in this video, each used in informal speech and formal speech respectively. Let us analyse both their speeches to understand how you can implement the two styles in your communication. 

Informal Speech

The first man uses an informal style of speech. He begins his speech by saying, “Ladies and gentlemen, electric cars. They’re totally gay.” Naturally, in a work environment where formal tones are expected, the opening statement left all the members of the meeting stupefied. They found his speech disrespectful and all the faces around the room were either shocked, perplexed or disapproving. The casual tone could have easily been found offensive on the pretext of homophobia. He also says things like ‘rock-and-roll-ness’, ‘sexiness of the car’, ‘this model took more virginities than Francis Albert Sinatra’, which can come across as rather controversial in a formal business meeting. Gradually, the informal and blunt approach did work out for the salesperson. However, the chances of it being successful are bleak and you could just be overruled any time. Using a formal tone is therefore a safer option.

Formal Speech

The second man in the film, referred to as Nicholas, takes over and summarises the pitch using formal speech. He uses statements like, ‘We believe we can produce the technology to incorporate an electric motor in your current model.’ He said the exact same thing the first man was trying to communicate but in a far more classy manner. Instead of calling it ‘sexy’ or ‘rock-and-roll’, he refers to its features as ‘exhilarating’ and ‘aggressive’, making the experience ‘visceral’ and retaining a manly retro element of the car than making it look ‘gay’. 

This example distinguishing formal speech with informal speech hopefully gives you a thorough idea of what they are. However, when should you use formal speech? And when should you give an informal speech?

Should you use Formal Speech or Informal Speech?

Knowing what speech is best suited for the given situation always depends on the context. You should be intelligent enough to be able to recognize situations that demand a formal tone and situations that can be handled casually.

Generally, informal speeches are made at weddings while giving a toast or at birthdays to express love etc. Formal speeches are made in professional settings, work places, educational institutes, talking to authorities, job interviews, business meetings, negotiations, elders or people you don’t know.  

However, sometimes in job interviews, the interviewer can be looking for what your personality is like. In situations like this, you need to tone down how formally you talk. Some corporate cultures embrace a casual and informal tone in their business affairs while some companies prefer individuals who can maintain a strong formal and professional persona. 

When you are doubtful about what speech to use, always stick to formal speech. While informal speech is friendly, formal speech is polite. It establishes goodwill and credibility. Although it’s not good to be overly formal either. Saying “Greetings, let me guide you through the floorplans of this building so you can navigate the office easily.” is frankly absurd and foolish. Being too formal can also come across as cold, distant and ironically even impolite. You do not want to be a robot. Sometimes saying, “Good morning, allow me to give you an office tour.” does just the right thing.

To Conclude,

A good communicator can not only convey any kind of message to their audience but also convey their message to any kind of audience. And in order to achieve this, a good communicator is the master of the art of speech as well as the master of knowing the audience and what tone they would appreciate. 

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Formal and informal language

We use formal language in situations that are serious or that involve people we don’t know well. Informal language is more commonly used in situations that are more relaxed and involve people we know well.

Formal language is more common when we write; informal language is more common when we speak. However, there are times where writing can be very informal, for example, when writing postcards or letters to friends, emails or text messages. There are also examples where spoken English can be very formal, for example, in a speech or a lecture. Most uses of English are neutral; that is, they are neither formal nor informal.

Formal language and informal language are associated with particular choices of grammar and vocabulary.

Contractions, relative clauses without a relative pronoun and ellipsis are more common in informal language.

More formal vocabulary commonly involves longer words or words with origins in Latin and Greek. More informal vocabulary commonly involves shorter words, or words with origins in Anglo-Saxon. Most dictionaries indicate very informal and/or formal words.

We often choose to use certain modal verbs to be more formal and polite:

Can I suggest you try this new model? (neutral)

May I suggest you try this new model? (more formal)

Might I suggest you try this new model? (very formal)

Contractions

Speech into writing

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gyroscopically

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with the use of a gyroscope (= a device containing a wheel that spins freely within a frame, used on aircraft, ships, etc. to help keep them horizontal)

Varied and diverse (Talking about differences, Part 1)

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• WRITING SKILLS

Formal and Informal Writing Styles

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Writing Skills:

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The Essentials of Writing

• Common Mistakes in Writing
• Introduction to Grammar
• Improving Your Grammar
• Active and Passive Voice
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• Clarity in Writing
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• Coherence in Writing
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• When to Use Capital Letters
• Using Plain English
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• The Importance of Structure
• Know Your Audience
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Writing style is how a writer expresses themselves. It includes spelling, grammar and punctuation, as well as aspects like sentence length and word choice. Style may vary with the type or purpose of writing. For example, you may come across academic writing , journalistic writing and business writing , all of which have different purposes and characteristics. Style may also vary with period (age) and nationality.

However, all styles of writing can be described as either formal or informal.

This page covers the key aspects of formal and informal writing styles, to enable you to distinguish between the two, and use them appropriately.

Understanding Formal and Informal Styles

What do we mean by ‘formal’ and ‘informal’?

Some definitions

formal , adj . stiffly polite rather than relaxed and friendly; said of language: strictly correct with regard to grammar, style and choice of words, as distinct from conversational

informal , adj. without ceremony or formality; relaxed and friendly; said of language, clothes, etc: suitable for and used in relaxed, everyday situations.

Source: Chambers 21st Century Dictionary, online edition.

Informal language and writing, then, is suitable for use every day .

It is, effectively, how we speak and write to our friends and families. It will include slang and colloquialisms (defined as phrases that are used in informal but not formal language). The recipient may tolerate some spelling and grammar mistakes.

We are therefore likely to use an informal writing style when composing emails and letters to friends and family. Blogs and other online copy are also often written in a more informal, conversational style.

Formal writing needs much more care.

It is the style of writing used for business and other official purposes. It needs to be correct in terms of grammar, spelling, punctuation and usage.

A more formal style may also be appropriate for some letters, for example, if you are making a complaint to an organisation.

You may find our page on Writing Styles helpful. This is part of our study skills section, and summarises the main styles of writing that a student may encounter during their studies.

Characteristics of Formal and Informal Writing

When you look at a piece of writing, it is possible to distinguish whether it is written in a formal or informal style from several different aspects.

The main characteristics of an informal writing style are:

Colloquial language and terms. Informal writing is similar to a spoken conversation. It may therefore include slang, figures of speech, broken syntax, or asides.

A personal tone as if you were speaking directly to your audience (readers). Informal writing is often very conversational in style. The writer often uses the first person (I and we), and will also address the reader directly using the second person (you and your).

A simple structure and approach. As in conversation, both sentences and paragraphs tend to be shorter in informal writing. This is especially true in writing for the internet. Writers may also use incomplete sentences or ellipses (…) to make points.

Contractions and abbreviations within the text. Just as in speech, words may be shortened or abbreviated in informal writing. You will therefore see contractions (for example, I’m, doesn’t, couldn’t, it’s) and abbreviations (e.g. TV, photos) used much more in this form of writing.

Empathy and emotion. In informal writing, a writer will often show more empathy towards the reader. They may, for example, explain a more complex thought more clearly. This is linked to the more personal style in informal writing, which is more suited to conveying emotions.

The main characteristics of a formal writing style are:

A more complex structure. Formal writing often uses longer sentences. However, this is changing slightly with a growing understanding that clarity is important. In formal writing, you will also see a more structured approach generally, with points clearly introduced, explained and concluded. Formal pieces of writing are often carefully planned, revised and reviewed several times to ensure that they are as clear as possible, and make all the necessary points.

Complex should not mean incomprehensible

Some people equate formal writing with the use of longer words and complex sentence structures.

It is true that formal writing can be like that. However, this is neither essential nor desirable .

Any writing needs to convey your point to the reader as clearly as possible.

Using simpler language and sentence structures is usually a better way to do this. Long words do not make you sound cleverer, especially if you use them incorrectly.

See our page on Using Plain English for more about this.

An objective approach. In formal writing, the writer uses a more objective approach. Main points are usually stated and then supported with arguments. Formal writing is less likely to be emotional in style. It therefore avoids emotive punctuation such as exclamation points or ellipsis, unless they are being cited from another source.

Use of full words rather than contractions. As a general rule, no contractions should be used to simplify words in formal writing. Abbreviations should generally be spelt out in full when first used. There are a few exceptions to this rule, for example, when the acronym is better known than the full name (BBC, ITV or NATO for example) or where it has become part of the language (for example, AIDS).

Writing in the third person. Formal writing is not a personal writing style. The writer often aims to sound dispassionate about the topic. It is usually not appropriate to use the first person (I or we) or second person (you). However, there are some exceptions to this (see box).

First or third person in academic writing?

In academic writing, it was traditional to use the third person and the passive voice. For example:

“The authors are not aware of any other studies that have used this approach.”

“The reagents were added together carefully to avoid any cross-contamination.”

However, this type of language is quite hard to read. Many academic journals therefore now encourage the use of the active voice, and the first person, but within a style that is considered formal.

Examples of this use of language are:

“As far as we are aware, no other studies have used this method.”

“In total, we enrolled 65 people onto the study over a period of six months. They completed the initial questionnaire during April 2021.”

When to Use Formal and Informal Writing

A formal writing style is not necessarily “better” or “worse” than an informal approach.

There is a time and a place for both. They have very different purposes. You should therefore take care to choose the most appropriate style to use. There are several factors that may affect your choice.

Two of the key factors dictating the choice of a formal or informal writing style are your audience and your medium.

You may therefore find it helpful to read our pages Know your Audience and Know Your Medium .

In general, writing for professional or work purposes is likely to require a formal style. However, you may be able to use a more informal style if you are writing to someone you know in person.

Emails also tend to use a less formal style than paper-based communications. However, this is changing slightly as more organisations use emails for all communications. You should therefore avoid the use of “text talk” or too much informality.

There is more about this in our page on Good Email Etiquette .

If in doubt as to how formal your writing should be, it is usually better to err on the side of caution.

Almost nobody is offended by too much formality. However, it is certainly possible to offend by being too informal in your approach.

Continue to: Know Your Audience Common Mistakes in Writing

See also: Active and Passive Voice Creative Writing How to Write a Report

Language Register

Formal, informal, and neutral.

Click Here for Step-by-Step Rules, Stories and Exercises to Practice All English Tenses

Formal Language Register

• Letters of complaint
• Some essays
• Official speeches
• Announcements
• Professional emails

Rules of the formal language register:

1. do not use contractions.

• cannot instead of can’t
• have not instead of haven’t
• will not instead of won’t
• could not instead of couldn’t
• is not instead of isn’t
• children’s classroom
• professor’s report
• elephant’s trunk

2. Spell out numbers less than one hundred

• seventy-eight

3. Write in third person point of view

• You can purchase a car for under $10,000. One can purchase a car for under $10,000. OR A car can be purchased for under $10,000.
• You will probably see an elephant on an African safari. One may see elephants on an African safari. OR Elephants are a common sight on African safaris.
• We decided to invest in the company. The group decided to invest in the company.

4. Avoid using too much passive voice

• The bone was eaten by the dog.
• The research was completed by the students in 2009.
• The dog ate the bone.
• The students completed the research in 2009.  In 2009, the students completed the research.

5. Avoid using slang, idioms, exaggeration (hyperboles) and clichés

• awesome/cool
• check it out
• in a nutshell
• too much of a good thing
• moment of truth
• Time is money.
• Don’t push your luck.
• Beauty is only skin deep.

6. Avoid abbreviations and acronyms

• National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
• Kansas Department of Transportation (KDOT)
• influenza => flu
• United States of America => U.S.A or USA
• tablespoon => tbsp.
• Kansas => KS
• LOL (laugh out loud)
• ttyl (talk to you later)
• b/c (because)
• w/o (without)

7. Do not start sentences with words like and, so, but, also

• Nevertheless
• Additionally
• In addition
• As a result of

8. Always write in complete sentences.

9. write longer, more complex sentences., informal language register.

• Personal e-mails
• Phone texts
• Short notes
• Friendly letters
• Diaries and journals
• Slang and clichés
• Figurative language
• Symbols and abbreviations
• Incomplete sentences
• Short sentences
• First person, second person, and third person
• Paragraphs or no paragraphs
• Personal opinions
• Extra punctuation (Hi Bob!!!!!!!)
• Passive and active voice

Neutral Language Register

• Some letters
• Technical writing

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Table of Contents

Ai, ethics & human agency, collaboration, information literacy, writing process, pronoun – guide to writing with pronouns.

• © 2023 by Jenifer Paquette - Hillsborough Community College , Barbara McLain - The Out-of-Door Academy , Joseph M. Moxley - University of South Florida

This Guide to Writing with Pronouns in 2022 provides everything you need to know about pronouns . The Guide defines the different types of pronouns in English, analyzes the function of pronouns in sentences , and explains how to identify and fix pronoun errors . Learn about correct pronoun usage so you can establish a professional tone in your communications and ensure your language is clear , concise , inclusive and gender-sensitive.

If these sentences seem ok , that may be because you may hear people say them in everyday discourse. Still, from the standard of British or American English, the first three sentences contain a pronoun error. The fourth sentence, which until recently would have been considered an error, is correct.

What Are Pronouns?

Pronouns  are words that substitute for other nouns. For instance, in the example below  Dr. Johansen  is a  noun  and  she  and  her  are pronouns:

• Dr. Johansen  would prefer that  she  be addressed using  her  title, rather than  her  first name.

Pronouns are also a way to communicate your gender preferences.  

• Dr. Johansen would prefer that they be addressed using their title, rather than their first name. 

This example uses the singular “they.” For more information, see our article on inclusive language.

Why Do Pronouns Matter?

Pronouns  are one of  the 9 parts of speech ; they are a critical building block for writing meaningful  sentences . Writers, speakers, knowledge workers . . .  

• use pronouns to introduce variety into their sentences, avoid awkward repetition, provide context and emphasis, and clarify relationships between ideas
• use pronouns to express their sense of identify, particular with regards to their gender preference (he/she/they) . 

Take a look at the following sample from a student paper, with and without pronouns:

McMurphy’s amiability to all — “wheelers and walkers and vegetables, hands that he has to pick up out of laps—” (23) regardless of their condition, is symbolic of the way Jesus spent time meeting the rich, poor, filthy, sinful, innocent, and all who he encountered, despite their status or loyalty to him . Additionally, by referring to the ward’s group meetings as a “pecking party,” (100) making the men aware of the metaphorical castration they undergo as Nurse Ratched strips them of their individuality, and telling the men that they “can’t let [Nurse Ratched] take over completely—” (100) McMurphy opens the eyes of his inmates (for the first time) to the fact that they are not reaching their full potential, which motivates them to become the men that they truly are.

Now with pronouns removed and replaced with their antecedents:

McMurphy’s amiability to the patients— “wheelers and Walkers and Vegetables, hands that McMurphy has to pick up out of laps—” (23) regardless of the patient’s condition, is symbolic of the way Jesus spent time meeting the rich, poor, filthy, sinful, innocent, and the people Jesus encountered, despite the person’s status or loyalty to Jesus. Additionally, by referring to the ward’s group meetings as a “pecking party,” (100) making the men aware of the metaphorical castration the men undergo as Nurse Ratched strips the men of the men’s individuality, and telling the men that they “can’t let [Nurse Ratched] take over completely—” (100) McMurphy opens the eyes of inmates (for the first time) to the fact that the inmates are not reaching the inmates’ full potential. McMurphy’s actions motivate the inmates to become the men the inmates truly are.

The paragraph without pronouns is repetitive, awkward, and unclear.

What Are the Different Types of Pronouns?

Personal Pronouns

• Personal Pronouns refer to specific individuals or group.
• Examples: I, me, you, they, them, she, her, he, him, it, we, us
• In a sentence: I am going to get coffee. Would you like some?

Indefinite Pronouns

• Indefinite Pronouns refer to nouns that have not been specifically identified.
• Examples: another, anyone, anybody, anything, each, either, enough, everyone, everything, everybody, other, one, something, much, nobody, few
• In a sentence: Does anyone need anything from the store when I go?

Possessive Pronouns

• Possessive pronouns show possession or ownership
• Examples: my, mine, ours, your, yours, his, her, hers, their, theirs
• In a sentence: The last slice of pizza is mine .

Demonstrative Pronouns

• Demonstrative pronouns reference or point to nouns or noun phrases that have already been mentioned.
• Examples: this, that, these, those
• In a sentence: You never listen. That is why I’m always nagging!

Reflexive Pronouns

• Reflexive pronouns refer back to the subject of the sentence. You use these pronouns when the subject and the object are the same.
• Examples: myself, yourself, himself, herself, oneself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
• In a sentence: I built this house myself .

Reciprocal Pronouns

• Reciprocal pronouns refer to a reciprocal or mutual relationship. 
• Examples: each other, one another
• In a sentence: We need to be kinder to each other.

Relative Pronouns

• Relative pronouns connect relative clauses to independent clauses
• Examples: which that what who whom
• In a sentence: The man who refused to acknowledge his own errors was soon promoted. (In this sentence, “who refused to acknowledge his own errors” is the relative clause—that is, a clause that tells us more about people and things).

Interrogative Pronouns

• Interrogative pronouns are used in questions
• Examples: who, whom (refer to people); what and which (refer to inanimate objects and animals); who (functions as a subject); whom (functions as an object of preposition or verb); whose (shows possession)
• In a sentence: Which shoes do you prefer?

How Do Pronouns Function in Sentences?

Subject and object pronouns.

Because pronouns replace nouns, they can function in sentences in the same way. This means that the pronouns listed above can act as both the subject and the object of a sentence.

Subject Pronouns

Subject pronouns act as the subject of a sentence, which means that they 

1) are what is doing the action 

2) usually appear at the beginning of the sentence.

Some subject pronouns are I, you, he, she, we, they, and who. In the sentence “Gene went to the movies,” Gene is the subject of the sentence and could be replaced with a subject pronoun: “ He went to the movies.”

Object Pronouns

Object pronouns act as the object of the sentence, which means that they 

1) are what is receiving the action 

2) usually appear at the END of the sentence.

Some object pronouns are: me, you, him, her, us, them, and whom. In the sentence “Gene went to the movies with Xavier,” Xavier is the object of this sentence and could be replaced with an object pronoun: “Gene went to the movies with him .”

Note: Who and whom work the same way—who is always the subject of a sentence and whom is always the object. You can rephrase a question and replace “who” and “whom” with “he” and “him” to help you determine which to use. For example, “Who is going to the movies with whom?” becomes “He is going to the movies with him.”

How Do I Correct Errors in Pronoun Usage?

The three most common errors with pronoun use are

• Mixing up subject and object pronouns
• Unclear pronoun placement (ambiguous antecedent)
• Pronouns that don’t agree with their antecedents

How Do I Correct Errors with Subject and Object Pronouns?

In many cases, it’s easy to choose the correct pronoun because the wrong choice sounds wrong. 

Example: Her went to the movies with him.

Most English speakers would recognize that sentence as wrong even without being able to articulate why. But when sentences contain multiple subject and objects, it can be a little trickier to make sure you’re using the right pronoun because the wrong pronoun won’t necessarily sound wrong.  

Example:  She and Jim went to the movies with Bob and I. 

The above example doesn’t sound wrong, but it is. It has a subject pronoun (“I”) acting as an object. A simple solution for determining whether you’ve subject and object pronouns correctly is to read the sentence without the other nouns, and see how the pronouns sound on their own. 

Original: She and Jim went to the movies with Bob and I.

With nouns removed:  She went to the movies with I. 

See? It sounds wrong (because it is!).

How Do I Correct Ambiguous Pronouns?

When using pronouns, it is important to make sure it’s clear what the pronoun is referring to. Pronouns whose antecedents are unclear are often referred to as ambiguous pronouns.

• Example: Drake’s brother wondered whether he had passed his driver’s test.

Who is “he”? It isn’t clear to readers whether this pronoun refers to Drake or Drake’s brother.

• Example: While trying to balance both her computer and notebook, Shelly felt it slip from her hand.

What is “it”? It isn’t clear to readers whether Shelly dropped her computer or her notebook.

• Example: Mr. Ball told his student he was needed in the office.

Who is “he”? It isn’t clear to readers whether Mr. Ball or his student are needed in the office.

Demonstrative pronouns like this, that, and those are also frequently used ambiguously. 

• Example: In the digital age, consumers are forced to give away privacy and security in exchange for the ability to participate in digital marketplaces. This is something most of us have learned to accept.

It isn’t clear in this example exactly what “this” refers to. Is it the loss of privacy? The loss of security? The fact that it is a requirement of participation? When using a demonstrative pronoun, especially when it follows a sentence where you’ve introduced complicated information, it’s best to pair that pronoun with a specific reference to the antecedent. 

• Example: In the digital age, consumers are forced to give away privacy and security in exchange for the ability to participate in digital marketplaces. This loss of privacy is something most of us have learned to accept.

How Do I Correct Errors in Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement?

An antecedent is the word that a pronoun is replacing.  Pronouns should agree with their antecedents in number, gender, and person. For example, if the antecedent is a singular noun, the pronoun should be singular. If the noun is a gendered noun referring to females, the pronoun also should be gendered appropriately. If a sentence is written in the second person, it should remain in that person.

Number Agreement

Pronouns should agree in number with their antecedents. Singular pronouns should follow singular antecedents, and plural pronouns should follow plural antecedents.

Common Singular Pronouns

I, me, mine, myself

she, her, hers, herself

he, him, his, himself

it, its, itself

they, them, theirs, themselves

Common Plural Pronouns

we, us, ours

Singular examples:

• Shelly wished that she was more outgoing. 
• The mailman his final package that day. He was tired and ready to go home. 

As you can see, a pronoun and its antecedent won’t necessarily appear in the same sentence.

Plural examples:

• The teachers decided to strike. They conferred with the union to draft a list of demands.
• As if waiting for this precise moment, the neighborhood dogs began to bark the moment he closed his eyes and no amount of shouting convinced them to stop.

Ensuring that your pronouns agree in number with their antecedents is usually pretty straightforward; however, it can be harder to spot errors in complex sentences where the pronoun and antecedent are far removed from each other. 

• Example: Mr. Brown has long argued that facilitating students’ access to non-academic resources like food and personal grooming products can improve (his/their) ability to perform well on tests. 

It can help to look at an example and ask yourself who the phrase in question must be referring to. In this case, you would ask: Who in this sentence would have the ability to perform well on tests? The answer in this case is the students, and so the correct answer is “their.”

Person Agreement

Pronouns also use “persons” as in the  first, second, or third person.  The first person assumes the writer or speaker is included in the pronoun (I, we, us, ours, we, etc.). The second person assumes the stance of you (you, your, yours). The third person assumes a more objective, distanced stance because the writer or speaker is not present in the pronoun (she, he, it, they, their, them, etc.). It’s important to maintain consistency in your writing. If you begin an essay writing in the third-person, you need to stay there.

Gender Agreement

Similar to number and person agreement, pronouns must also correspond to the gender of the antecedent. 

• Example: Mr. Green decided it was best to hide his evidence in the pantry.
• Example: Lady Germaine was a bear to deal with in the morning. She was much more tolerable after a little coffee.

Using “They” As a Gender-Neutral Singular Pronoun

A problem arises when a sentence begins with a singular gender-neutral common noun (like student, official, customer) because English does not have a singular gender-neutral pronoun to pair with these words. 

• Example: If a student wishes to be excused from physical education, ________ must submit an appeal to the school board. 

The solution is certainly not to bypass the pronoun and repeat the noun (e.g. If a student wishes to be excused from physical education, a student must submit an appeal to the school board).

At one time, students were instructed to default to male singular pronouns in these cases.

• Example: If a student wishes to be excused from physical education, he must submit an appeal to the school board.

Eventually, this evolved to the more inclusive but much clunkier “he or she.”

• Example: If a student wishes to be excused from physical education, he or she must submit an appeal to the school board.

Another option is to change the structure of the sentence to avoid the problem.

• Example: If students wish to be excused from physical education, they must submit an appeal to the school board. 

However, making gender neutral singular nouns plural is not always possible. The fact is that the lack of an ungendered singular pronoun is a failure of the English language, and the question of how to deal with it continues to be polarizing. However, more and more English speakers and writers agree that it is acceptable to use “they” as a gender-neutral singular pronoun in addition to its traditional use as a gender-neutral plural pronoun. 

• Example: If a student wishes to be excused from physical education, they must submit an appeal to the school board.

The same applies when writing about Individuals who identify as non-binary. 

• Example: Florence wants to have another look at the house before they make a decision.

An adherence to the rules of grammar shouldn’t ever supersede our humanity. There is no circumstance in which it is appropriate to refer to an individual by a pronoun that doesn’t correspond to their gender identity. In this case, however, the solution is wonderfully simple: Use whichever pronouns the individual has requested. 

Indefinite pronouns present a host of thorny agreement issues. Because indefinite pronouns do not refer to a specific noun, when they act as the antecedent it can be tricky to determine which pronouns should correspond.

Singular Indefinite Pronouns

Many indefinite pronouns are always treated as singular. Here are some: each, either, anybody, everybody, everyone, no one, nothing, something. In these cases, the corresponding pronoun will always be singular. 

But because these pronouns are all gender-neutral, this raises the same issue addressed above: there is no gender-neutral singular personal pronoun to pair with them. Again, the use of “they” as a singular gender-neutral pronoun has become a widely accepted solution.

• Example: Everyone deserves access to clean water to quench their thirst. 

The Chicago Manual of Style and the AP allow for the singular “they,” but recommend trying to write around the agreement issue first: 

• Example: All people deserve access to clean water to quench their thirst.

Plural Indefinite Pronouns

Some indefinite pronouns are always plural. These are generally easier to spot because in other contexts, they are words that can also serve as adjectives or adverbs that mean more than one. Here are some: both, few/fewer, many, others, several. In these cases, the corresponding pronoun should always be plural.

• Example: Both of my parents decided to cancel their gym memberships. 

Indefinite Pronouns That Can Be Singular or Plural

Some indefinite pronouns can be treated as singular OR plural. Here is a complete list of those pronouns: 

In the case of these indefinite pronouns, look at the object of the preposition to determine whether its use is singular or plural.

• Footwear = singular object of the preposition
• Shoes = plural object of the preposition

Agreement with indefinite pronouns that can be singular or plural is particularly challenging because we typically ignore the object of the preposition when making choices about agreement. The treatment of all, any, none, most, more, and some represents an exception to that rule.

Note: This exception also applies when choosing a verb that agrees in number to all, any, most more and some: 

All of your work is excellent.

Work= singular

All of the farmers are planting winter wheat.

Farmers= Plural.

Collective Nouns

Collective nouns (nouns that identify a group like class , team , and committee ) also get special treatment when it comes to agreement.

Collective nouns  are treated as plural when each member of the group is acting independently.

• Example: Before the match began, the team took their places on the field.

Each team member is acting independently and going to a different place. There are many actions taking place, so the pronoun is plural .

Collective nouns are treated as singular when the group is acting in unison.

• Example: The committee agreed to spend its surplus budget on yo-yos.

The committee is completing a single action as a group, so the pronoun is singular .

Named businesses, schools, and organizations are always treated as singular.

• Example: Southwest High School takes great pride in the service projects of its students.
• Neither the teachers nor the principal neglected (his/their) duties.
• Skydivers are taught that (you/they) should check their parachutes before even getting on a plane.
• The school board will present (its/their) proposed budget at the next meeting.
• Both Cheryl and Denise will bring (her/their) supplies.
• Some of the participants declined to sign (his or her/their) waivers.

Related Articles:

Pronouns and Inclusivity - How Are Pronouns Tied to Inclusive Language?

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Gender-neutral pronouns have been the subject of debate for hundreds of years. Find out how the debate began and where the writing community stands on inclusive pronoun use today.

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Grammar: Main Parts of Speech

Definitions and examples.

The name of something, like a person, animal, place, thing, or concept. Nouns are typically used as subjects, objects, objects of prepositions, and modifiers of other nouns.

• I = subject
• the dissertation = object
• in Chapter 4 = object of a preposition
• research = modifier

This expresses what the person, animal, place, thing, or concept does. In English, verbs follow the noun.

• It takes a good deal of dedication to complete a doctoral degree.
• She studied hard for the test.
• Writing a dissertation is difficult. (The "be" verb is also sometimes referred to as a copula or a linking verb. It links the subject, in this case "writing a dissertation," to the complement or the predicate of the sentence, in this case, "hard.")

This describes a noun or pronoun. Adjectives typically come before a noun or after a stative verb, like the verb "to be."

• Diligent describes the student and appears before the noun student .
• Difficult is placed after the to be verb and describes what it is like to balance time.

Remember that adjectives in English have no plural form. The same form of the adjective is used for both singular and plural nouns.

• A different idea
• Some different ideas
• INCORRECT: some differents ideas

This gives more information about the verb and about how the action was done. Adverbs tells how, where, when, why, etc. Depending on the context, the adverb can come before or after the verb or at the beginning or end of a sentence.

• Enthusiastically describes how he completed the course and answers the how question.
• Recently modifies the verb enroll and answers the when question.
• Then describes and modifies the entire sentence. See this link on transitions for more examples of conjunctive adverbs (adverbs that join one idea to another to improve the cohesion of the writing).

This word substitutes for a noun or a noun phrase (e.g. it, she, he, they, that, those,…).

• they = applicants
• He = Smith; that = ideas; those = those ideas

This word makes the reference of the noun more specific (e.g. his, her, my, their, the, a, an, this, these, … ).

• Jones published her book in 2015.
• The book was very popular.

Preposition

This comes before a noun or a noun phrase and links it to other parts of the sentence. These are usually single words (e.g., on, at, by ,… ) but can be up to four words (e.g., as far as, in addition to, as a result of, …).

• I chose to interview teachers in the district closest to me.
• The recorder was placed next to the interviewee.
• I stopped the recording in the middle of the interview due to a low battery.

Conjunction

A word that joins two clauses. These can be coordinating (an easy way to remember this is memorizing FANBOYS = for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) or subordinating (e.g., because, although, when, …).

• The results were not significant, so the alternative hypothesis was accepted.
• Although the results seem promising, more research must be conducted in this area.

Auxiliary Verbs

Helping verbs. They are used to build up complete verbs.

• Primary auxiliary verbs (be, have, do) show the progressive, passive, perfect, and negative verb tenses .
• Modal auxiliary verbs (can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would) show a variety of meanings. They represent ability, permission, necessity, and degree of certainty. These are always followed by the simple form of the verb.
• Semimodal auxiliary verbs (e.g., be going to, ought to, have to, had better, used to, be able to,…). These are always followed by the simple form of the verb.
• primary: have investigated = present perfect tense; has not been determined = passive, perfect, negative form
• The modal could shows ability, and the verb conduct stays in its simple form; the modal may shows degree of certainty, and the verb lead stays in its simple form.
• These semimodals are followed by the simple form of the verb.

Common Endings

Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs often have unique word endings, called suffixes . Looking at the suffix can help to distinguish the word from other parts of speech and help identify the function of the word in the sentence. It is important to use the correct word form in written sentences so that readers can clearly follow the intended meaning.

Here are some common endings for the basic parts of speech. If ever in doubt, consult the dictionary for the correct word form.

Common Noun Endings

Common verb endings, common adjective endings, common adverb endings, placement and position of adjectives and adverbs, order of adjectives.

If more than one adjective is used in a sentence, they tend to occur in a certain order. In English, two or three adjectives modifying a noun tend to be the limit. However, when writing in APA, not many adjectives should be used (since APA is objective, scientific writing). If adjectives are used, the framework below can be used as guidance in adjective placement.

• Determiner (e.g., this, that, these, those, my, mine, your, yours, him, his, hers they, their, some, our, several,…) or article (a, an, the)
• Opinion, quality, or observation adjective (e.g., lovely, useful, cute, difficult, comfortable)
• Physical description
• (a) size (big, little, tall, short)
• (b) shape (circular,  irregular, triangular)
• (c) age (old, new, young, adolescent)
• (d) color (red, green, yellow)
• Origin (e.g., English, Mexican, Japanese)
• Material (e.g., cotton, metal, plastic)
• Qualifier (noun used as an adjective to modify the noun that follows; i.e., campus activities, rocking chair, business suit)
• Head noun that the adjectives are describing (e.g., activities, chair, suit)

For example:

• This (1) lovely (2) new (3) wooden (4) Italian (5) rocking (6) chair (7) is in my office.
• Your (1) beautiful (2) green (3) French (4) silk (5) business (6) suit (7) has a hole in it.

Commas With Multiple Adjectives

A comma is used between two adjectives only if the adjectives belong to the same category (for example, if there are two adjectives describing color or two adjectives describing material). To test this, ask these two questions:

• Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written in reverse order?
• Does the sentence make sense if the word “and” is written between them?

If the answer is yes to the above questions, the adjectives are separated with a comma. Also keep in mind a comma is never used before the noun that it modifies.

• This useful big round old green English leather rocking chair is comfortable . (Note that there are no commas here because there is only one adjective from each category.)
• A lovely large yellow, red, and green oil painting was hung on the wall. (Note the commas between yellow, red, and green since these are all in the same category of color.)

Position of Adverbs

Adverbs can appear in different positions in a sentence.

• At the beginning of a sentence: Generally , teachers work more than 40 hours a week.
• After the subject, before the verb: Teachers generally work more than 40 hours a week.
• At the end of a sentence: Teachers work more than 40 hours a week, generally .
• However, an adverb is not placed between a verb and a direct object. INCORRECT: Teachers work generally more than 40 hours a week.

More Detailed Rules for the Position of Adverbs

• Adverbs that modify the whole sentence can move to different positions, such as certainly, recently, fortunately, actually, and obviously.
• Recently , I started a new job.
• I recently started a new job.
• I started a new job recently .
• Many adverbs of frequency modify the entire sentence and not just the verb, such as frequently, usually, always, sometimes, often , and seldom . These adverbs appear in the middle of the sentence, after the subject.
• INCORRECT: Frequently she gets time to herself.
• INCORRECT: She gets time to herself frequently .
• She has frequently exercised during her lunch hour. (The adverb appears after the first auxiliary verb.)
• She is frequently hanging out with old friends. (The adverb appears after the to be verb.)
• Adverbial phrases work best at the end of a sentence.
• He greeted us in a very friendly way .
• I collected data for 2 months .

Main Parts of Speech Video Playlist

Note that these videos were created while APA 6 was the style guide edition in use. There may be some examples of writing that have not been updated to APA 7 guidelines.

• Mastering the Mechanics: Nouns (video transcript)
• Mastering the Mechanics: Introduction to Verbs (video transcript)
• Mastering the Mechanics: Articles (video transcript)
• Mastering the Mechanics: Introduction to Pronouns (video transcript)
• Mastering the Mechanics: Modifiers (video transcript)

Writing Tools: Dictionary and Thesaurus Refresher Video

Note that this video was created while APA 6 was the style guide edition in use. There may be some examples of writing that have not been updated to APA 7 guidelines.

• Writing Tools: Dictionary and Thesaurus Refresher (video transcript)

Related Resources

Knowledge Check: Main Parts of Speech

Didn't find what you need? Email us at [email protected] .

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• Next Page: Sentence Structure and Types of Sentences
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