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Tokyo Station City: The railway station as urban place

• Original Article
• Published: 25 October 2011
• Volume 16 , pages 242–251, ( 2011 )

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• John Zacharias 1 ,
• Tianxin Zhang 2 &
• Naoto Nakajima 3  

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Railway stations in Japan and elsewhere are undergoing redevelopment to accommodate new spaces of consumption and leisure. Tokyo Station redevelopment is a representative case illustrating the experiment of integrating new facilities into an existing spatial system. The station's image is being recast as an important urban centre in Tokyo with a particular mix of prestige business, shopping and unique entertainment venues. The walking network is being reconfigured in a larger space with a complex set of new land uses, leading to new spatial configurations and patterns of behaviour. These transformations support a new role for the station. The station redevelopment, along with related investments in the surrounding space represent a distinctly Japanese approach to transit-oriented development. This article examines the urban design strategy underlying these transformations.

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Introduction

Nowhere in the world can one find railway station complexes as large as in Japan. The railways themselves play a central role in urban transportation in Japanese cities, connecting suburb to centre, and city to city. The urbanization that Japan experienced in the twentieth century was accompanied by rapid development of the railway network within urban regions. At the same time, Japanese city centres were deeply affected by railway station development and redevelopment ( Onishi, 1994 ).

Transit-oriented development (TOD) in Japan is a fundamental characteristic of all central city urban development, and is almost exclusively rail-based and specifically not intermodal. TOD refers to the land use characteristics of areas where transit is being promoted ( Dittmar and Ohland, 2004 ; Lund et al, 2004 ). Higher density development and mixed land uses have been used in North America and elsewhere to promote public transit use. TODs in North America typically combine road-based transportation and one or more forms of public transit. After the Second World War, the railway became one of the most important tools for development in Japan, particularly in the context of a weak planning system ( Sorensen, 2002 ). As a result of suburbanization with relatively undeveloped road infrastructure, commuting by train and subway became the most effective way to travel for most people who live in the suburbs and work in city centres. This urban spatial development created unprecedented demand for railway services, which were then met by the railway companies. In the late 1990s, the train line density was 1.01 km of line for every square kilometre with 86 per cent of all travel in Tokyo by rail. The comparable figures were respectively 0.74 km/km 2 and 65 per cent in London and Paris, and 0.41 km/km 2 and 61 per cent in New York ( Focas, 1998 ). In spite of the large part of the travel market occupied by the railway and the intensity of the operations, the companies are involved in much more than rail operations. Since 2000, railway station redevelopment has become one of the most significant new urban regeneration programmes underway in major Japanese cities. The stations and adjacent railway properties are undergoing physical transformation to accommodate new urban functions and to enhance the passengers’ travel experience. The surrounding neighbourhoods are also involved due to their multi-layered connection with the stations as well as their close proximity. Railway stations are consequently performing a different role in the city than that of transport hub, becoming cultural symbols, social communication hubs and business centres.

These projects parallel similar investment programmes in Europe, but with characteristics that are particular to Japan. The layouts, designs and activities of these redesigned stations reflect the operational structure of the railway companies, the location and physical condition of the stations, the close relationship with the surrounding urban space and building complexes, as well as the importance of rail-based travel in Japanese cities. Railway stations in Europe seldom attract high-end business and retailing activity although serious efforts are being taken to correct this historical problem ( Bertolini and Spit, 1998 ). The trend in Japan is to combine commerce, leisure, media, fashion, information, as well as other advanced industries into a new ‘city’ within the city, so as to make the stations important spaces for creation and innovation. Such a focus on creative industry is hardly associated with TOD as practised in North America or Australia, for example. While continuing to serve the needs of travel within the city and beyond, the railway stations are becoming significant places in their own right and at or near the top of the hierarchy of such urban places.

The development of stations is in keeping with the TOD idea of attracting people from the nearby areas on foot. Major pedestrian facilities are then required to support the heavy flows of people through these local areas. In Japanese cities, as in European and North American examples, there is an immediately adjacent area which is in close relationship with the station. But uniquely in the Japanese case, the station building complexes are an accumulation of all kinds of functions, and not merely a point of distribution. Some private railway companies built station-based department store complexes before the Second World War. The Japan National Railways built many ‘station department stores’ after 1950. The pattern of new centres after 2000 is therefore in some continuity with earlier development practices, but at a higher level in quality, service and volume of clientele.

In recent years, the design and functions of the new underground station facilities in Japan are increasingly the object of research (for example, Tanimoto et al, 2004 ). Visitor preferences in facility design, lighting and social ambiance are receiving increasing attention. How people find their way and understand such underground spaces is also an important topic of investigation ( Moriyama, 2009 ), for reasons of evacuation safety but also for the efficient functioning of commercial space. Scholars argue that rising rental rates and commercial benefits have encouraged projects to improve daily services for the white collar working population in the area ( Yoshida, 2007 ). However, the special features of Japanese station redevelopments have not received enough attention. For example, there are few studies touching on the organizational mechanism underlying the redevelopment of railway stations. Nor is there enough attention given to the features of the Japanese approach to TOD, which has had such powerful effects on urban structure and has achieved very high ridership for rail-based travel. It is apparent that this country-wide investment programme is worthy of investigation in its own right because it is at an early stage of innovation and experimentation. What is learned from the Japanese case will also be of interest to planners working on railway station developments in Europe, China and North America.

In recognition of the above, this article examines one such railway station redevelopment project, Tokyo station, from the urban design perspective. Firstly, we discuss why the railway companies operating at Tokyo station are making these particular investment decisions. Secondly, the programmes themselves are examined for their contribution to the making of a new urban place in the constellation of such places in the Tokyo metropolitan region. Thirdly, how the spaces and their associated activities are accommodated within the physical constraints of the stations and the surrounding environment is considered. Finally, we evaluate the effects of station restructuring on surrounding urban space, with particular attention to a pre-existing shopping facility adjacent the station.

Redevelopment of Railway Stations in Japan

A new phase of station redevelopment began in the 2000 decade, when railway companies themselves invested in their properties, together with financial partners. Major stations such as Tokyo, Yokohama, Nagoya and Fukuoka saw large-scale redevelopment. The projects included extensions to the pedestrian system, the provision of new commercial facilities and public leisure spaces, atmospheric effects, and high-rise office buildings.

The common goal of Japanese railway station redevelopment projects is to enhance the in-station commercial function among many others, making the station a powerful magnet for visitors. These projects are mostly initiated by the station companies, who need to diversify their operations under the Japanese railway system organization and operations.

There are roughly three types of railway companies: Japan Railways Group, which was founded as a result of the privatization and break-up of the Japanese National Railway in 1987, private companies and city-owned companies. Each company operates one or several lines. Most of the stations are also operated by the railway companies, whose railway lines pass through the station. When several lines of different companies intersect at a certain station, they normally share the intersection space and related facilities. The station is consequently operated collaboratively by several companies. In most cases, one of the companies acts as the chief owner. In order to interconnect with each other, the companies have to work together to achieve a reasonable spatial distribution plan that allows efficient interchange between the various lines. This often makes the station space very complex.

Until the 1970s, the Japan National Railways company operated many rail routes all over the country. They began to face economic difficulties in the late 1960s and had accumulated large debts by the beginning of the 1980s. To help the companies achieve financial health, the government began privatizing the railways, dividing JR into six passenger transportation companies according to their geographic locations. The privatization accompanied a change in regulation which allowed the newly privatized railway companies, like JR East, the major owner-operator of Tokyo station, to accumulate profits through commercial activities in addition to pure transportation uses ( Ieda et al, 2001 ). In exchange, railway companies became responsible for recovering capital investment through their operations and related investment decisions. Although rail-based travel in Japan, as a proportion of all travel, is the highest worldwide at about 36 per cent of all kilometers travelled, many observers consider the railway system in Japan to be underinvested. Railway companies hold territorial monopolies, which discourage them from making investments in railway services. To make such improvements in services, these private companies must either raise fares or derive benefits from other operations. Improving rail services has become increasingly difficult as the cost of providing infrastructure has risen very rapidly. Expected decline in passenger numbers, as a result of demographic decline, is an additional reason companies are reluctant to invest ( Ieda et al, 2001 ). On the other hand, their territorial monopolies encourage the companies to invest in ancillary services, which are also highly profitable, and represent an increasing proportion of the railway companies’ revenues ( Kanemoto and Kiyono, 1995 ). These services enhance the travel experience, do not add to travel cost and exploit the lands under control of the railway companies.

In an early study of redevelopment of inner city areas in Japan, it was observed that the addition of a department store or shopping centre had a significant positive effect on land value. The great majority of such developments that resulted in increased numbers of shoppers in the last two decades were at railway station locations ( Onishi, 1994 ). However, the investments in ancillary services at railway stations are not evenly distributed over stations. One of the reasons for uneven investment is the availability of lands for such development. Another important reason is that commuters making non-work-related stops are most likely to make those stops at the commuting terminal and at the work place zone ( Nishii and Kondo, 1992 ). As a consequence, interchange stations with good accessibility in the railway network attract office development and related commercial and personal services. Among these interchange station areas, a limited number of stations with both good accessibility and connectivity between urban and regional transport infrastructure are developing as important places in the urban region. Examples in Tokyo include Tokyo, Shinjuku, Shibuya and Ueno stations. In the larger metropolitan region, new rail-based centres have sprung up in Yokohama, Chiba and Omiya. As a consequence, once-simple and direct daily travel patterns have become much more complex, multi-directional and multi-purpose.

The land development policies of the Japanese railway companies are not unique to Japan although they have particular characteristics that distinguish them from the parallel activities of the European railway companies. In France, for example, rail passengers were spending 22 per cent of their travel costs on products and services within the railway station in the late 1990s ( Perrin, 1998 ). The investment policies of the French, Dutch and German railway companies emphasize services related to travel and the improvement of the ambience of the station. The European railway station is increasingly an important place in the city, a destination in its own right and a magnet for related investment ( Reusser et al, 2008 ). Commercial space nevertheless remains highly oriented to travel, whereas in Japan the station hosts a comprehensive set of services and products, equivalent to city core shopping districts. The highly integrated development of real estate with railway services in the Japanese cases is in part due to structural differences in the railway companies. The French, Dutch and German railway companies have distinct and relatively autonomous real estate divisions ( Priemus and Konings, 2001 ). The European practice has been to hive off real estate no longer required for the core transport operations of the railway companies. The real estate developments on former railway lands are urban districts in their own right, accessible to the railway station but primarily a component of the city fabric. Developments have been designed to revitalize station-adjacent areas that suffer from poor connections to the rest of the city and a negative image ( Staudacher, 2001 ). In Japan, however, the railway lines are an integral component of the city fabric, as are the stations. As a consequence, the real estate operations are an increasingly important part of railway activity, within the stations, on lands owned by the railway companies and in the immediately adjacent urban space. In this respect, the redevelopment of stations is equivalent to city centre revitalization.

Tokyo Station Redevelopment Projects

The status of tokyo station in japan.

The redevelopment of Tokyo station is among the most prominent projects in the national trend of redevelopment. It is particularly important due to the station's symbolic status, important location, and its role in Tokyo’s transportation system. It has national and global status because of the important districts immediately adjacent the station. Regarded as the entrance to and the face of Tokyo, it is surrounded by such important areas as the Imperial palace, and the Ginza and Nihonbashi commercial areas ( Figure 1 ). On the west side of the station, the Marunouchi entrance leads to the Imperial palace and the office area. On the east, the Yaesu entrance leads to the important office buildings of Yaesu area.

Tokyo Station in the local environment of central Tokyo with other recent developments along the railway corridor.

Tokyo Station is the busiest railway station in Japan in terms of the number of trains. The number of passengers entering the station daily reaches 380 000, ranking fifth among stations where the East Japan Railway Company is an owner. In contrast, income earned by the company within its station premises reaches 260 million yen per day, which places Tokyo station first in terms of benefit, ahead of Shinjuku station, for example, which earns the company some 160 million yen per day ( Yoshida, 2007 ). On the other hand, Shinjuku station has far higher transiting passenger volumes than Tokyo station so that more space in the station is actually devoted to movement. The goods and services that would otherwise invest the station are displaced to neighbouring sites.

The operational system of Tokyo station and its vicinity

Tokyo Station is primarily owned by East Japan Railway Company (JR Higashi Nihon or JR-EAST), the privatized company once part of Japan (National) Railways (JR). The Shinkansen high-speed railway through Tokyo Station, along with space above and below the tracks is owned and operated by the Central Japan Railway Company (JR Tokai).

The Marunouchi side of the station has long been Tokyo's most prestigious office district. From 2000, high-rise towers were added to the low-rise blocks with efforts to preserve the façades of many buildings, including several that predate the Second World War. To compensate for the higher density currently being practiced in Marunouchi, Tokyo Metropolitan Government required an extensive and generously dimensioned underground walking system that connects many of the renewed buildings to Tokyo Station ( Figure 2a ). The major owner of real estate in Marunouchi is the Mitsubishi company whose headquarters is immediately opposite Tokyo Station entrance. This company's extensive real estate holdings facilitated the development of the underground system, since most of the underground corridors connect their own buildings under the streets. The building of the underground system provided the opportunity to redesign the street environment as well. Today the streets of Marunouchi are traffic-calmed and tree-lined, hosting sponsored public events, public art and luxury retailing.

The pedestrian system of Tokyo Station ( a ) and the recorded pedestrian flows of First Avenue and Yaesu shopping centre ( b ).

On the east or Yaesu side of the station, major property owners include the Mitsui real estate company, the Kajima Yaesu development company, the International Tourism company and the Shinnihon Sekiyu (Nippon Oil Corporation, currently JX Nippon Oil and Energy Corporation). The Yaesu side has always been associated with everyday business, entertainment and living. The world-famous Ginza shopping district is within walking distance as is the Tsukiji wholesale fish market, the world's largest.

The configuration of Tokyo station area

Tokyo station is complex in configuration ( Figure 2a ). There are five platforms and 20 lines on the ground level; four platforms and eight lines underground serving urban railways; five platforms and 10 lines on the ground level for the Shinkansen; and finally, one platform and two lines for the subway lines. In addition, there are three station concourses and two layers of pedestrian system. There are three entrances from three main directions, namely Marunouchi at the west, Yaesu at the east, and Nihonbashi at the north-east, with the main pedestrian flow between the west and the east.

The ground level pedestrian system is at grade at its eastern, Yaesu entrance while elevated a few steps at the west exit, because of a slight declination toward the Imperial gardens and palace. The underground pathway system is entirely at the same level, immediately below the street and the three controlled station concourses. The underground level is linked to the ground with regularly spaced stairwells leading directly to uncovered sidewalks.

Despite the fact that the station offers one toll-free corridor that connects the east and the west, the huge volume and the complex space make Tokyo Station a major barrier between east and west, accentuating the different roles and character of Marunouchi and Yaesu. Bars and restaurants proliferate in the nearest reaches of Yaesu, supplying the Marunouchi business district which has little such activity of its own. As the railway companies begin to emphasize place-based activity and consumption, there is a new need to promote pedestrian linkage between the various components of the emerging underground system. Such underground facilities are exceedingly expensive to retrofit to existing station facilities, given the exiguity of the spaces and the abundance of complex underground infrastructure. It is important that the linkages work well and pedestrian flows are sufficient to support the costly commercial space created in this restructuring effort. The last section of this article examines one such linkage effort.

Redevelopment projects at Tokyo station

Considering the important status of Tokyo station in Japan and its role in the city, the key urban design challenge becomes firstly, to heighten the symbolic status of Tokyo station by emphasizing its unique identity; secondly, to make better links between the two sides of the station; thirdly, to make the station an integral part of the city.

There are two projects that show how Tokyo station responds to the above challenges. One is the Tokyo station city project for the whole station area, and the other is the First Avenue project for the underground pedestrian system.

Tokyo Station City project

As the main station company, JR East collaborated with other companies and launched a major re-investment programme known as ‘Tokyo Station City’ ( Figure 3 ). Its ambitious pursuit is to make Tokyo station a leading urban place in Tokyo. With this goal in mind, the redevelopment project has several components. The first is the restoration of the early twentieth-century station, damaged during the Second World War, to its original architectural form. This work accompanies the beautification project consisting of a tree-lined boulevard from the symmetrically arranged station through the Marunouchi district to the Imperial Palace. This vista is symbolically extended across the station to the Yaesu side by demolishing the Tetsudo Kaikan buildings on the Yaesu side, symbolically uniting the two sides of the station ( Figure 4 ).

Tokyo Station City project as proposed by the developer. Source : Gransta: Tokyo Station in Evolution and ‘Tokyo Station City’, Tetsudo Kaikan, 2009.

The proposed vista from the Imperial palace and gardens through Marunouchi to Yaesu, with the restored station façade. Source : Gransta: Tokyo Station in Evolution and ‘Tokyo Station City’, Tetsudo Kaikan, 2009.

High-rise office buildings were constructed around station facilities at the Yaesu side and connected directly with station entrances. By transferring development rights to Yaesu side from the Marunouchi side, the historical station building could be restored in place while promoting new development on the other side of the station site. These new buildings include the Sapia tower, and GranTokyo North and South towers, all connected directly with the station's Marunouchi and Nihonbashi entrances through the GranRoof facility ( Figure 5 ). The Sapia tower is owned by the station company, while the GranTokyo buildings are owned jointly by other companies. Tokyo Station City's office buildings are intended to be the most technically advanced in Japan. ‘Sapia’ derives from the Greek ‘sapience’, meaning knowledge or wisdom. More than merely a commercial venture, such buildings are intended to act as crucibles of research and education, with facilities devoted to university activities, for example. The GranSta facility opened in late 2007 and has become the main commercial space inside the station complex. A three-floor deck is under construction between the GranTokyo North and South towers, which will incorporate more shops and open spaces ( Figure 5 ). The Station Square at the Yaesu side will be renewed by 2013. A great deal of design effort characterizes these projects, intended to give Tokyo station a pre-eminent position in the city and contribute to a favourable national and international image.

The Gran Roof facility connecting the recently completed towers at the Yaesu side of the station. Source : Gransta: Tokyo Station in Evolution and ‘Tokyo Station City’, Tetsudo Kaikan, 2009.

First Avenue project

Along with the large-scale Tokyo Station City project, there are also big changes in the pedestrian system. For example, Tokyo Station Development Company Limited, a subsidiary of station owner Central JR, opened the first phase of its commercial development known as First Avenue in 2008 ( Figure 6a and b ). First Avenue is located parallel to and two levels below the Shinkansen tracks at the underground level, directly connected to the north side passage between the Marunouchi and Yaesu sides of Tokyo station and at the same level as the long-open passage. It is also directly connected to the Yaesu Shopping Centre with one existing and two new connections. Kitchen Street, also developed by Tokyo Station Development Company, is directly connected to the sole pedestrian link between the Marunouchi and Yaesu sides of the station. The ‘free’ passage leads directly to Kitchen Street, First Avenue and the new Daimaru department store. First Avenue runs the length of the station with two new tunnels cut through to the Yaesu shopping centre, to facilitate linkage between First Avenue and the existing shopping centre although the two facilities are owned and operated by different companies. The First Avenue facility currently houses 102 shops, about one-third of which are devoted to food services. Two blocks of First Avenue are known as Tokyo Character Street, where 15 shops sell signature goods related to popular television shows. Another segment of this development, known as Tokyo Ramen Street, will fully open in 2011 and house eight famous noodle restaurants.

First Avenue phase 1 opened in 2008 ( a ); Phase 2 under development in 2009 ( b ).

The case of First Avenue illustrates the place-based strategies of the railway station owners. The latest trends in products and services are finding their way into the stations, attracting a new clientele of younger people, countering the image of Tokyo Station as a somewhat staid, conservative business location. By specializing segments of the pedestrian walking system the companies have created a sense of place, even if place in this case is underground and connected to other places only with the pedestrian system.

The First Avenue project is a link between the existing pedestrian system and the Yaesu shopping centre. Although a place in its own right, attracting long lines of customers to the new restaurant venues, for example, it is also connected to the Yaesu shopping centre through the two new underground connections. Although under separate ownership, the companies have an interest in connecting with each other and benefitting from each other’s trade. The pedestrian volumes recorded in 2009 in the First Avenue and Yaesu shopping centre show to what extent the visitors are shared among these different facilities ( Figure 2b ). The counts reveal strong flows between the facilities with inputs from the office buildings and from the Yaesu district, but also from the Marunouchi side.

Pedestrian volumes in this part of Tokyo station reach as high as 6000 persons per hour. High peak traffic is no longer restricted to mid day on working days, but is repeated in the late afternoon and early evening as visitors discover the Tokyo Station area as a place for consumption and educational activities. The success of the First Avenue project is leading a re-examination of the Yaesu shopping centre operation. That centre was positioned as a convenient service centre for business people in the vicinity and from the Marunouchi district, but also as a climate-controlled pathway into the station from the east. Traditionally, this centre paid much less attention to its place-based characteristics. The centre has a wide variety of affordable and readily available goods and services, mixed together in the various corridors. Until now, the operators have tried to identify the corridors thematically by colour and symbol, but not by the content of the operations or centre image. This approach seems likely to change as the visitors to Tokyo station gravitate to the newest venues. Already, the centre has begun to introduce new activities and design elements in the corridors nearest First Avenue in an attempt to capture more of the movement.

Overall, the various operators in Tokyo station compete and cooperate. Limited pedestrian access and the restrictions of building underground have forced the various property operators to consider how to use common facilities, including the pedestrian system, to their own advantage. While one of the greatest challenges of building in underground space is creating a viable and sustainable image in the long term, these experiments at Tokyo station illustrate one approach using activity themes concentrated at places with attention given to the connections between such places.

Conclusion and Discussion

Japanese station redevelopment projects show a distinctive approach to TOD, in which the central station complex becomes more multifunctional, and the linkage system is more thematic to satisfy a diversity of needs.

This change is made possible through close cooperation between the land owners. In the Tokyo station case, although JR East, Central JR and Mitsubishi are able to undertake their own redevelopment projects, the social and commercial success of the whole system depends to a considerable extent on cooperation among these companies. Cooperation includes the development of linkage between the various components of Tokyo Station, largely through the further development of the underground pedestrian system.

In these redevelopment projects, the stations are no longer taken as an exclusively transportation-oriented facility, but rather as integrated city space. They begin to represent the cutting edge of the city by including fashion trends and new ideas in an up-to-date physical setting. These developments are transforming the railway stations. From their beginnings as a pure transportation hub, the stations also became commercial operations designed to serve business travellers. These commercial operations expanded to serve a larger segment of the population, adding leisure facilities and reasons to remain in the space for longer periods. The station areas are evolving again into places for the exchange of ideas and the promotion of lifestyle, within a physical framework that incorporates innovations in building and space technology. The railway stations are in effect becoming nerve centres for the so-called ‘intelligent’ city, in which the transportation function plays a supportive role and no longer a central role. Such places have the particular advantage of being exposed to the highest volumes of foot traffic in the city.

To achieve these ends, all the new facilities and spaces are tightly interwoven within the pedestrian system. This makes for a richer pedestrian experience but also one where the whole space is highly accessible. Because of early attention to the connectivity between surrounding areas and the railway stations, achieved through pedestrian facilities on the surface, the station is assured a steady flow of inbound pedestrian traffic ( Figure 7a and b ). The indoor walkable ‘city’ is thus connected to the larger space around the station, which is also undergoing transformation in keeping with the new and expanded role of the station itself.

The Yaesu entrance and the new Daimaru department store ( a ); The Nihonbashi entrance to Tokyo station ( b ).

Western countries can learn from this Japanese redevelopment process in a number of ways. A different organizational system makes the Japanese case difficult to copy directly. Nevertheless, Japanese railway stations show a highly efficient land use model, which makes maximum use of the space under, over and beside the stations. Strapped by limited land resources, the necessary concentration of facilities became one of the most positive features of the redevelopment. In this way, Japanese railway stations have avoided the experience of European railway stations where there persists a zone of lower value and less accessible space in the immediate vicinity of the station. In the European case, this persistent problem has delayed redevelopment of those inner city lands, even as the stations themselves have been upgraded. In the Japanese case, the station is enclosed by new developments and pedestrian facilities that have largely overcome the historical disconnect between the transportation facility and the surrounding environment.

The next phase of development is of particular interest. The evolution of the station as an important centre for creation and exchange provides an interesting template for the development of transportation hubs elsewhere. A place of transit becomes also a place for exchange and communication at the city’s cutting edge.

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John Zacharias

College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China

Tianxin Zhang

Faculty of Environment and Information Studies, Keio University, 5322 Endo, Fujisawa, Kanagawa, 252-0882, Japan

Naoto Nakajima

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Zacharias, J., Zhang, T. & Nakajima, N. Tokyo Station City: The railway station as urban place. Urban Des Int 16 , 242–251 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1057/udi.2011.15

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Published : 25 October 2011

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/udi.2011.15

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Natural disasters, such as the Kobe earthquake in 1995 and the Tohoku earthquake and tsunami ten years ago this month, only reinforced the importance of quality infrastructure in disaster risk management. These challenges showed that quality infrastructure investment, or QII, should enable economic development, create jobs, attract investment, and, in the long run, save money. Core principles emerged that defined QII, namely: maximizing infrastructure’s positive impact, improving economic efficiency, integrating environmental and social considerations, building resilience against natural disasters, and strengthening infrastructure governance. These principles were adopted by the G-20 at the 2019 Osaka Summit and can be applied to any country. QII in action: Case studies from Japan Japan’s QII initiatives in its urban centers have much to offer countries facing similar challenges. This is why the World Bank and the Japanese government are working together to share their knowledge and experience in this space.    Earlier this month, the Quality Infrastructure Investment (QII) Partnership and the Tokyo Development Learning Center (TDLC)—both initiatives of the government of Japan and the World Bank—held a webinar illustrating how QII principles were implemented in two Japanese cities through case studies: Toyoma City Compact City Development and Fukuoka City Efficient Water Management . With worldwide attendance, the event demonstrated that QII principles can lead to better service delivery, improved infrastructure asset quality, and critically, lower lifetime costs. What do these cases tell us? Today, Toyoma City, located about 300 kilometers northwest of Tokyo and home to about 420,000 people, serves as a model for compact city development. Like other Japanese municipalities, it was challenged by a declining city center, urban sprawl, low population density, and an aging population. This meant that maintaining and rehabilitating infrastructure assets was left to a smaller working-age population. Toyoma City responded by taking an integrated approach to urban and transport planning in its “Compact City” initiative. It recognized that infrastructure forms the backbone of urban renewal. Preserving economic efficiency, or value for money, meant that total life-cycle costs for infrastructure must be considered. Effective governance, good organization, and coordination were powerful drivers of the city’s transformation. The city articulated a clear vision and aligned its objectives with national policy. At the core was the redevelopment of the city center and efficient transit corridors. The city’s light rail transit (LRT) system illustrates this approach. The city built the LRT system in three years—less than half the time generally required for a project of that scale—through careful planning and coordination with key ministries. Toyoma City also reduced costs by nearly 75 percent by using old rail tracks to construct the new ones. The private sector played a vital role in the city’s transformation. The city and local companies formed a public-private entity, the Toyama Light Rail Company, to manage the system with clearly defined roles. For example, while a private company operates the LRT, the city retains responsibility for tracks and vehicles. The LRT helped make Toyoma City more vibrant. Traffic congestion and pollution are lower, and the city became a more attractive place to live. All key stakeholders—citizens, the private sector, and municipal authorities—have benefitted from the city’s transformation. Fukuoka City is the biggest city on the island of Kyushu, with over 1.5 million inhabitants. Today, it is home to numerous cutting-edge industries and start-ups, in part because of a strategy adopted in the 1970s—creating a compact urban core supported by high-quality infrastructure. Managing water resources was a significant challenge. The city went to great lengths to obtain secure water sources, control demand, and keep operating expenses under tight control. For example, the city requires polyethylene sleeves installed in new distribution pipes, which adds up to 2 percent to the capital costs. However, the sleeves extend the pipes’ lifespan by 40 years—an excellent value for money. The city also set up a Water Distribution Control Center, constructed water reclamation facilities, introduced usage-based tariffs, and launched a program that reduced water leakages from 14 percent in 1979 to 2 percent by the mid-2000s. A public awareness campaign kept citizens and other stakeholders informed. Implications for emerging economies

Infrastructure is profoundly connected with—and drives—development. The QII principles work in a rich, developed country like Japan. But will these principles also apply in developing economies?

They do. Many of the lessons from Toyoma and Fukuoka can be applied to any city or country. For example:

• Urban and transportation development are closely linked and should be coordinated. Defining a city’s infrastructure is a critical first step.
• Cities should aim to use existing assets, such as rail tracks, broadband infrastructure , and unused facilities to reduce capital costs of new infrastructure.
• Coordination across government agencies and stakeholders can significantly reduce the time necessary to design and implement projects.
• Strategic investments can extend the working life of infrastructure assets and further save costs.
• Good governance increases confidence in infrastructure planning and programs. Good governance begins with effective leadership and a clear vision.

When urban infrastructure investment projects are well planned, they raise the quality of life in cities, improve economic growth rates, and provide economic opportunities.   Japan’s experience has much to offer to both developed and developing countries alike.

About the QII Partnership: The World Bank Group and the government of Japan established the Quality Infrastructure Investment (QII) Partnership to raise awareness and scale-up attention to the quality dimensions of infrastructure in developing countries. These include maximizing the positive impact of infrastructure, raising economic efficiency in view of life-cycle cost, integrating environmental and social considerations, building resilience against natural disasters, and strengthening infrastructure governance. The QII Partnership accomplishes these goals through financial support for project preparation and implementation, as well as knowledge dissemination.

Related posts: Learning from Japan: PPPs for infrastructure resilience The developing world is crying out for greater private investment in sustainable infrastructure New steps in Asia: data + connectivity = better infrastructure investment

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Lead Urban Specialist, World Bank

Senior Infrastructure Economist, the World Bank

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Shibuya Redevelopment - Land Value Capture

Shibuya Station JPY29 billion  Shibuya Stream JPB68 billion 

Sustainability

• This case study looks at how Transit Oriented Development (TOD) is undertaken in Tokyo, in one of the most densely populated urban environments, to successfully improve passenger experience and footfall.
• Shibuya is one of the major railway terminals in Tokyo, with a daily ridership of 2.1 million people across eight railway stations.
• The Shibuya redevelopment project looks at using TOD to gentrify the local area across the five urban schemes that make up the overall redevelopment: Hikarie Culture Core, Station Central, D?genzaka project, Station-South, and Sakuragaoka project. The project is being completed in stages.
• The station and surrounding area had a lack of public space, leading to safety risks for users. The surrounding environment was heavily congested, with complex line transfers, insufficient capacity, and decrepit buildings – all of which needed to be addressed ahead of the Tokyo Olympics. 
• Additionally, the vacancy rate of office space in Shibuya has been declining faster than the five central wards of Tokyo. Accordingly, average office space rental rates in Shibuya have been growing faster than in the five central wards.
• Over the last decade, Tokyo’s spatial transformation has largely reflected urban revitalisation, a shrinking and aging society, inflated public debts, municipal budget constraints, and sustainable energy uses.
• There was a desire to reduce the impact of redevelopment of the Shibuya railway terminal on the public budget.
• To meet the need for improvements to the railway terminal and deliver additional public space and office space, a TOD approach was adopted. This development comprised of Shibuya Hikarie; Shibuya Station skyscraper; Shibuya Stream; Shibuya Station Sakuragaoka exit condos and offices; Cerulean Tower; New high-rise in D?genzaka; Shibuya Mark City; and the Shibuya scramble crossing.
• The Shibuya program consists of three key types of works that were the responsibility of the following parties: 
• Rail and Station Construction and Improvements – Railway Sector
• Infrastructure Improvement – Public Sector 
• Real Estate Developments – Private and Railway Sectors.
• Value generated through the attached TODs was captured through a Land Value Capture (LVC) mechanism and used to subsidise the publicly-funded rail and station, and Infrastructure Improvement works.
• Tokyo’s LVC mechanism can be categorised into two types, ‘Tax or fee-based’ and ‘Development-based’: 
• Tax and fee-based LVC includes instruments such as property and land tax, betterment levies and special assessments, and tax increment financing (TIF). 
• Development-based LVC includes instruments such as land sale or land lease, air right sale, land readjustment, and urban redevelopment financing. 
• Tokyo’s LVC operates on a market freehold system that requires strong community ties or sufficient economic incentives. Consent from all landowners is sought, though the law allows the project agencies to implement schemes if more than two-thirds of landowners are secured. 
• The collaboration involved in developing the plans for this comprehensive large-scale TOD required extensive consultation between the government, the public, non-profit organisations (NPO), developers, and experts.

Stakeholders

• Tokyu Corporation
• Tokyo Land Corporation
• East Japan Railway Co. and Tokyo Metro Co.
• 2012 – Shibuya Hikarie finished – 43-storey high-rise on the east side of the station
• 2018 – Shibuya Stream opened 
• 2019 – Shibuya Scramble Square opened
• 2020 – Shibuya Station renovation completed
• 2027 – Whole redevelopment to be completed.

Results / impact

• Tokyo’s railway companies adopted the LVC approach to generate real estate profits from the Shibuya Station TOD to fund development of the railway and associated infrastructure. Tokyu Corporation was one of the first to develop such LVC practices and is among the first to advance the business model of railway and new town co-development.
• The TOD of Shibuya has created a step-change in the environment, creating a welcoming and vibrant area. For example, the nearby Futako-Tamagawa Redevelopment provided a population increase of 6% (a rate of 1.2 times the increase in Setagaya) and land price within 200 m of the redevelopment rose by 44.9% – a similar growth rate was anticipated for the Shibuya Redevelopment.
• In recent years, the more inclusive strategic planning approach – ‘Public Involvement’ – has been progressively adopted to keep government policymaking and development criteria more accountable, encourage actions by private landholders that will deliver long-term community benefits, and deliver public-private partnership projects smoothly for long-term individual and societal interests.

Key lessons learnt

• Rail lines in the central city can create value in the surrounding areas by improving accessibility and facilitating agglomeration of economies. This value can be enhanced through effective land use planning development of diverse real estate in the region, aligned with the market demand. The integrated land value approach can lead to increased passenger footfall and land value, as well as improved urban sustainability. 
• Land readjustment is harder to execute in already built-up areas, as development regulations are inadequate for landowners to reassemble their properties and regenerate large capital gains from their land parcels. Thus, a stronger incentive mechanism is needed to endorse the profitability of second- or third-generation development activities and to ensure another development project is available for local governments and private stakeholders.
• All stakeholders need to share a clear vision and take collective actions to face the macroeconomic and demographic trends of the future. Under market freehold systems, land readjustment and urban redevelopment schemes require inclusive decision making, which can be time consuming.
• Railway businesses in Tokyo were attractive to investors and developers following their privatisation in 1987 and generated large capital gains during a period of rapid growth. In recent years however, attracting investors and developers has become harder, largely due to escalating construction costs, lengthening construction periods, increasing market competition among multiple rail lines and private automobiles and air services, and weakening real estate markets along new town corridors. All these factors require innovative financing, including development-based LVC.

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Learning from Megadisasters: A Decade of Lessons from the Great East Japan Earthquake

March 11, 2021 Tokyo, Japan

Authors: Shoko Takemoto,  Naho Shibuya, and Keiko Sakoda

Today marks the ten-year anniversary of the Great East Japan Earthquake (GEJE), a mega-disaster that marked Japan and the world with its unprecedented scale of destruction. This feature story commemorates the disaster by reflecting on what it has taught us over the past decade in regards to infrastructure resilience, risk identification, reduction, and preparedness, and disaster risk finance.  Since GEJE, the World Bank in partnership with the Government of Japan, especially through the Japan-World Bank Program on Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Management in Developing Countries has been working with Japanese and global partners to understand impact, response, and recovery from this megadisaster to identify larger lessons for disaster risk management (DRM).

Among the numerous lessons learned over the past decade of GEJE reconstruction and analysis, we highlight three common themes that have emerged repeatedly through the examples of good practices gathered across various sectors.  First is the importance of planning. Even though disasters will always be unexpected, if not unprecedented, planning for disasters has benefits both before and after they occur. Second is that resilience is strengthened when it is shared .  After a decade since GEJE, to strengthen the resilience of infrastructure, preparedness, and finance for the next disaster, throughout Japan national and local governments, infrastructure developers and operators, businesses and industries, communities and households are building back better systems by prearranging mechanisms for risk reduction, response and continuity through collaboration and mutual support.  Third is that resilience is an iterative process .  Many adaptations were made to the policy and regulatory frameworks after the GEJE. Many past disasters show that resilience is an interactive process that needs to be adjusted and sustained over time, especially before a disaster strikes.

As the world is increasingly tested to respond and rebuild from unexpected impacts of extreme weather events and the COVID-19 pandemic, we highlight some of these efforts that may have relevance for countries around the world seeking to improve their preparedness for disaster events.

Introduction: The Triple Disaster, Response and Recovery

On March 11th, 2011 a Magnitude 9.0 earthquake struck off the northeast coast of Japan, near the Tohoku region. The force of the earthquake sent a tsunami rushing towards the Tohoku coastline, a black wall of water which wiped away entire towns and villages. Sea walls were overrun. 20,000 lives were lost. The scale of destruction to housing, infrastructure, industry and agriculture was extreme in Fukushima, Iwate, and Miyagi prefectures. In addition to the hundreds of thousands who lost their homes, the earthquake and tsunami contributed to an accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant, requiring additional mass evacuations. The impacts not only shook Japan’s society and economy as a whole, but also had ripple effects in global supply chains. In the 21st century, a disaster of this scale is a global phenomenon.

The severity and complexity of the cascading disasters was not anticipated. The events during and following the Great East Japan Earthquake (GEJE) showed just how ruinous and complex a low-probability, high-impact disaster can be. However, although the impacts of the triple-disaster were devastating, Japan’s legacy of DRM likely reduced losses. Japan’s structural investments in warning systems and infrastructure were effective in many cases, and preparedness training helped many act and evacuate quickly. The large spatial impact of the disaster, and the region’s largely rural and elderly population, posed additional challenges for response and recovery.

Ten years after the megadisaster, the region is beginning to return to a sense of normalcy, even if many places look quite different. After years in rapidly-implemented temporary prefabricated housing, most people have moved into permanent homes, including 30,000 new units of public housing . Damaged infrastructure has been also restored or is nearing completion in the region, including rail lines, roads, and seawalls.

In 2014, three years after GEJE, The World Bank published Learning from Megadisasters: Lessons from the Great East Japan Earthquake . Edited by Federica Ranghieri and Mikio Ishiwatari , the volume brought together dozens of experts ranging from seismic engineers to urban planners, who analyzed what happened on March 11, 2011 and the following days, months, and years; compiling lessons for other countries in 36 comprehensive Knowledge Notes . This extensive research effort identified a number of key learnings in multiple sectors, and emphasized the importance of both structural and non-structural measures, as well as identifying effective strategies both pre- and post-disaster. The report highlighted four central lessons after this intensive study of the GEJE disaster, response, and initial recovery:

1) A holistic, rather than single-sector approach to DRM improves preparedness for complex disasters; 2) Investing in prevention is important, but is not a substitute for preparedness; 3) Each disaster is an opportunity to learn and adapt; 4) Effective DRM requires bringing together diverse stakeholders, including various levels of government, community and nonprofit actors, and the private sector.

Although these lessons are learned specifically from the GEJE, the report also focuses on learnings with broader applicability.

Over recent years, the Japan-World Bank Program on Mainstreaming DRM in Developing Countries has furthered the work of the Learning from Megadisasters report, continuing to gather, analyze and share the knowledge and lessons learned from GEJE, together with past disaster experiences, to enhance the resilience of next generation development investments around the world. Ten years on from the GEJE, we take a moment to revisit the lessons gathered, and reflect on how they may continue to be relevant in the next decade, in a world faced with both seismic disasters and other emergent hazards such as pandemics and climate change.

Through synthesizing a decade of research on the GEJE and accumulation of the lessons from the past disaster experience, this story highlights three key strategies which recurred across many of the cases we studied. They are:

1) the importance of planning for disasters before they strike, 2) DRM cannot be addressed by either the public or private sector alone but enabled only when it is shared among many stakeholders , 3) institutionalize the culture of continuous enhancement of the resilience .

For example, business continuity plans, or BCPs, can help both public and private organizations minimize damages and disruptions . BCPs are documents prepared in advance which provide guidance on how to respond to a disruption and resume the delivery of products and services. Additionally, the creation of pre-arranged agreements among independent public and/or private organizations can help share essential responsibilities and information both before and after a disaster . This might include agreements with private firms to repair public infrastructures, among private firms to share the costs of mitigation infrastructure, or among municipalities to share rapid response teams and other resources. These three approaches recur throughout the more specific lessons and strategies identified in the following section, which is organized along the three areas of disaster risk management: resilient infrastructure; risk identification, reduction and preparednes s ; and disaster risk finance and insurance.

Lessons from the Megadisaster

Resilient Infrastructure

The GEJE had severe impacts on critical ‘lifelines’—infrastructures and facilities that provide essential services such as transportation, communication, sanitation, education, and medical care. Impacts of megadisasters include not only damages to assets (direct impacts), but also disruptions of key services, and the resulting social and economic effects (indirect impacts). For example, the GEJE caused a water supply disruption for up to 500,000 people in Sendai city, as well as completely submerging the city’s water treatment plant. [i] Lack of access to water and sanitation had a ripple effect on public health and other emergency services, impacting response and recovery. Smart investment in infrastructure resilience can help minimize both direct and indirect impacts, reducing lifeline disruptions. The 2019 report Lifelines: The Resilient Infrastructure Opportunity found through a global study that every dollar invested in the resilience of lifelines had a $4 benefit in the long run.

In the case of water infrastructure , the World Bank report Resilient Water Supply and Sanitation Services: The Case of Japan documents how Sendai City learned from the disaster to improve the resilience of these infrastructures. [ii] Steps included retrofitting existing systems with seismic resilience upgrades, enhancing business continuity planning for sanitation systems, and creating a geographic information system (GIS)-based asset management system that allows for quick identification and repair of damaged pipes and other assets. During the GEJE, damages and disruptions to water delivery services were minimized through existing programs, including mutual aid agreements with other water supply utility operators. Through these agreements, the Sendai City Waterworks Bureau received support from more than 60 water utilities to provide emergency water supplies. Policies which promote structural resilience strategies were also essential to preserving water and sanitation services. After the 1995 Great Hanshin Awaji Earthquake (GHAE), Japanese utilities invested in earthquake resistant piping in water supply and sanitation systems. The commonly used earthquake-resistant ductile iron pipe (ERDIP) has not shown any damage from major earthquakes including the 2011 GEJE and the 2016 Kumamoto earthquake. [iii] Changes were also made to internal policies after the GEJE based on the challenges faced, such as decentralizing emergency decision-making and providing training for local communities to set up emergency water supplies without utility workers with the goal of speeding up recovery efforts. [iv]

Redundancy is another structural strategy that contributed to resilience during and after GEJE. In Sendai City, redundancy and seismic reinforcement in water supply infrastructure allowed the utility to continue to operate pipelines that were not physically damaged in the earthquake. [v] The Lifelines report describes how in the context of telecommunications infrastructure , the redundancy created through a diversity of routes in Japan’s submarine internet cable system  limited disruptions to national connectivity during the megadisaster. [vi] However, the report emphasizes that redundancy must be calibrated to the needs and resources of a particular context. For private firms, redundancy and backups for critical infrastructure can be achieved through collaboration; after the GEJE, firms are increasingly collaborating to defray the costs of these investments. [vii]

The GEJE also illustrated the importance of planning for transportation resilience . A Japan Case Study Report on Road Geohazard Risk Management shows the role that both national policy and public-private agreements can play. In response to the GEJE, Japan’s central disaster legislation, the DCBA (Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act) was amended in 2012, with particular focus on the need to reopen roads for emergency response. Quick road repairs were made possible after the GEJE in part due to the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT)’s emergency action plans, the swift action of the rapid response agency Technical Emergency Control Force (TEC-FORCE), and prearranged agreements with private construction companies for emergency recovery work. [viii] During the GEJE, roads were used as evacuation sites and were shown effective in controlling the spread of floods. After the disaster, public-private partnerships (PPPs) were also made to accommodate the use of expressway embankments as tsunami evacuation sites. As research on Resilient Infrastructure PPPs highlights, clear definitions of roles and responsibilities are essential to effective arrangements between the government and private companies. In Japan, lessons from the GEJE and other earthquakes have led to a refinement of disaster definitions, such as numerical standards for triggering force majeure provisions of infrastructure PPP contracts. In Sendai City, clarifying the post-disaster responsibilities of public and private actors across various sectors sped up the response process. [ix] This experience was built upon after the disaster, when Miyagi prefecture conferred operation of the Sendai International Airport   to a private consortium through a concession scheme which included refined force majeure definitions. In the context of a hazard-prone region, the agreement clearly defines disaster-related roles and responsibilities as well as relevant triggering events. [x]

Partnerships for creating backup systems that have value in non-disaster times have also proved effective in the aftermath of the GEJE. As described in Resilient Industries in Japan , Toyota’s automotive plant in Ohira village, Miyagi Prefecture lost power for two weeks following GEJE. To avoid such losses in the future, companies in the industrial park sought to secure energy during power outages and shortages by building the F-Grid, their own mini-grid system with a comprehensive energy management system. The F-Grid project is a collaboration of 10 companies and organizations in the Ohira Industrial Park. As a system used exclusively for backup energy would be costly, the system is also used to improve energy efficiency in the park during normal times. The project was supported by funding from Japan’s “Smart Communities'' program. [xi] In 2016, F-grid achieved a 24 percent increase in energy efficiency and a 31 percent reduction in carbon dioxide emissions compared to similarly sized parks. [xii]

Schools are also critical infrastructures, for their education and community roles, and also because they are commonly used as evacuation centers. Japan has updated seismic resilience standards for schools over time, integrating measures against different risks and vulnerabilities revealed after each disaster, as documented in the report Making Schools Resilient at Scale . After the 2011 GEJE, there was very little earthquake-related damage; rather, most damage was caused by the tsunami. However, in some cases damages to nonstructural elements like suspending ceilings in school gymnasiums limited the possibility of using these spaces after the disaster. After the disaster, a major update was made to the policies on the safety of nonstructural elements in schools, given the need for higher resilience standards for their function as post-disaster evacuation centers [xiii] .

Similarly, for building regulations , standards and professional training modules were updated taking the lessons learned from GEJE. The Converting Disaster Experience into a Safer Built Environment: The Case of Japan report highlights that, legal framework like, The Building Standard Law/Seismic Retrofitting Promotion Law, was amended further enhance the structural resilience of the built environment, including strengthening structural integrity, improving the efficiency of design review process, as well as mandating seismic diagnosis of large public buildings. Since the establishment of the legal and regulatory framework for building safety in early 1900, Japan continued incremental effort to create enabling environment for owners, designers, builders and building officials to make the built environment safer together.

Cultural heritage also plays an important role in creating healthy communities, and the loss or damage of these items can scar the cohesion and identity of a community. The report Resilient Cultural Heritage: Learning from the Japanese Experience shows how the GEJE highlighted the importance of investing in the resilience of cultural properties, such as through restoration budgets and response teams, which enabled the relocation of at-risk items and restoration of properties during and after the GEJE. After the megadisaster, the volunteer organization Shiryō-Net was formed to help rescue and preserve heritage properties, and this network has now spread across Japan. [xiv] Engaging both volunteer and government organizations in heritage preservation can allow for a more wide-ranging response. Cultural properties can play a role in healing communities wrought by disasters: in Ishinomaki City, the restoration of a historic storehouse served as a symbol of reconstruction [xv] , while elsewhere repair of cultural heritage sites and the celebration of cultural festivals served a stimulant for recovery. [xvi] Cultural heritage also played a preventative role during and after the disaster by embedding the experience of prior disasters in the built environment. Stone monuments which marked the extent of historic tsunamis served as guides for some residents, who fled uphill past the stones and escaped the dangerous waters. [xvii] This suggests a potential role for cultural heritage in instructing future generations about historic hazards.

These examples of lessons from the GEJE highlight how investing in resilient infrastructure is essential, but must also be done smartly, with emphasis on planning, design, and maintenance. Focusing on both minimizing disaster impacts and putting processes in place to facilitate speedy infrastructure restoration can reduce both direct and indirect impacts of megadisasters.  Over the decade since GEJE, many examples and experiences on how to better invest in resilient infrastructure, plan for service continuity and quick response, and catalyze strategic partnerships across diverse groups are emerging from Japan.

Risk Identification, Reduction, and Preparedness

Ten years after the GEJE, a number of lessons have emerged as important in identifying, reducing, and preparing for disaster risks. Given the unprecedented nature of the GEJE, it is important to be prepared for both known and uncertain risks. Information and communication technology (ICT) can play a role in improving risk identification and making evidence-based decisions for disaster risk reduction and preparedness. Communicating these risks to communities, in a way people can take appropriate mitigation action, is a key . These processes also need to be inclusive , involving diverse stakeholders--including women, elders , and the private sector--that need to be engaged and empowered to understand, reduce, and prepare for disasters. Finally, resilience is never complete . Rather, as the adaptations made by Japan after the GEJE and many past disasters show, resilience is a continuous process that needs to be adjusted and sustained over time, especially in times before a disaster strikes.

Although DRM is central in Japan, the scale of the 2011 triple disaster dramatically exceeded expectations. After the GEJE, as Chapter 32 of Learning From Megadisasters highlights, the potential of low-probability, high-impact events led Japan to focus on both structural and nonstructural disaster risk management measures. [xviii] Mitigation and preparedness strategies can be designed to be effective for both predicted and uncertain risks. Planning for a multihazard context, rather than only individual hazards, can help countries act quickly even when the unimaginable occurs. Identifying, preparing for, and reducing disaster risks all play a role in this process.

The GEJE highlighted the important role ICT can play in both understanding risk and making evidence-based decisions for risk identification, reduction, and preparedness. As documented in the World Bank report Information and Communication Technology for Disaster Risk Management in Japan , at the time of the GEJE, Japan had implemented various ICT systems for disaster response and recovery, and the disaster tested the effectiveness of these systems. During the GEJE, Japan’s “Earthquake Early Warning System” (EEWS) issued a series of warnings. Through the detection of initial seismic waves, EEWS can provide a warning of a few seconds or minutes, allowing quick action by individuals and organizations. Japan Railways’ “Urgent Earthquake Detection and Alarm System” (UrEDAS) automatically activated emergency brakes of 27 Shinkansen train lines , successfully bringing all trains to a safe stop. After the disaster, Japan expanded emergency alert delivery systems. [xix]

The World Bank’s study on Preparedness Maps shows how seismic preparedness maps are used in Japan to communicate location specific primary and secondary hazards from earthquakes, promoting preparedness at the community and household level. Preparedness maps are regularly updated after disaster events, and since 2011 Japan has promoted risk reduction activities to prepare for the projected maximum likely tsunami [xx] .

Effective engagement of various stakeholders is also important to preparedness mapping and other disaster preparedness activities. This means engaging and empowering diverse groups including women, the elderly, children, and the private sector. Elders are a particularly important demographic in the context of the GEJE, as the report Elders Leading the Way to Resilience illustrates. Tohoku is an aging region, and two-thirds of lives lost from the GEJE were over 60 years old. Research shows that building trust and social ties can reduce disaster impacts- after GEJE, a study found that communities with high social capital lost fewer residents to the tsunami. [xxi] Following the megadisaster, elders in Ofunato formed the Ibasho Cafe, a community space for strengthening social capital among older people. The World Bank has explored the potential of the Ibasho model for other contexts , highlighting how fueling social capital and engaging elders in strengthening their community can have benefits for both normal times and improve resilience when a disaster does strike.

Conducting simulation drills regularly provide another way of engaging stakeholders in preparedness. As described in Learning from Disaster Simulation Drills in Japan , [xxii] after the 1995 GHAE the first Comprehensive Disaster Management Drill Framework was developed as a guide for the execution of a comprehensive system of disaster response drills and establishing links between various disaster management agencies. The Comprehensive Disaster Management Drill Framework is updated annually by the Central Disaster Management Council. The GEJE led to new and improved drill protocols in the impacted region and in Japan as a whole. For example, the 35th Joint Disaster simulation Drill was held in the Tokyo metropolitan region in 2015 to respond to issues identified during the GEJE, such as improving mutual support systems among residents, governments, and organizations; verifying disaster management plans; and improving disaster response capabilities of government agencies. In addition to regularly scheduled disaster simulation drills, GEJE memorial events are held in Japan annually to memorialize victims and keep disaster preparedness in the public consciousness.

Business continuity planning (BCP) is another key strategy that shows how ongoing attention to resilience is also essential for both public and private sector organizations. As Resilient Industries in Japan demonstrates, after the GEJE, BCPs helped firms reduce disaster losses and recover quickly, benefiting employees, supply chains, and the economy at large. BCP is supported by many national policies in Japan, and after the GEJE, firms that had BCPs in place had reduced impacts on their financial soundness compared to firms that did not. [xxiii] The GEJE also led to the update and refinement of BCPs across Japan. Akemi industrial park in Aichi prefecture, began business continuity planning at the scale of the industrial park three years before the GEJE. After the GEJE, the park revised their plan, expanding focus on the safety of workers. National policies in Japan promote the development of BCPs, including the 2013 Basic Act for National Resilience, which was developed after the GEJE and emphasizes resilience as a shared goal across multiple sectors. [xxiv] Japan also supports BCP development for public sector organizations including subnational governments and infrastructure operators. By 2019, all of Japan’s prefectural governments, and nearly 90% of municipal governments had developed BCPs. [xxv] The role of financial institutions in incentivizing BCPs is further addressed in the following section.

The ongoing nature of these preparedness actions highlights that resilience is a continuous process. Risk management strategies must be adapted and sustained over time, especially during times without disasters. This principle is central to Japan’s disaster resilience policies. In late 2011, based on a report documenting the GEJE from the Expert Committee on Earthquake and Tsunami Disaster Management, Japan amended the DCBA (Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act) to enhance its multi-hazard countermeasures, adding a chapter on tsunami countermeasures. [xxvi]

Disaster Risk Finance and Insurance

Disasters can have a large financial impact, not only in the areas where they strike, but also at the large scale of supply chains and national economy. For example, the GEJE led to the shutdown of nuclear power plants across Japan, resulting in a 50% decrease in energy production and causing national supply disruptions. The GEJE has illustrated the importance of disaster risk finance and insurance (DRFI) such as understanding and clarifying contingent liabilities and allocating contingency budgets, putting in place financial protection measures for critical lifeline infrastructure assets and services, and developing mechanisms for vulnerable businesses and households to quickly access financial support. DRFI mechanisms can help people, firms, and critical infrastructure avoid or minimize disruptions, continue operations, and recover quickly after a disaster.

Pre-arranged agreements, including public-private partnerships, are key strategies for the financial protection of critical infrastructure. The report Financial Protection of Critical Infrastructure Services (forthcoming) [xxvii] shows how pre-arranged agreements between the public sector and private sector for post-disaster response can facilitate rapid infrastructure recovery after disasters, reducing the direct and indirect impacts of infrastructure disruptions, including economic impacts. GEJE caused devastating impacts to the transportation network across Japan. Approximately 2,300 km of expressways were closed, representing 65 percent of expressways managed by NEXCO East Japan , resulting in major supply chain disruptions [xxviii] .  However, with the activation of pre-arranged agreements between governments and local construction companies for road clearance and recovery work, allowing damaged major motorways to be repaired within one week of the earthquake. This quick response allowed critical access for other emergency services to further relief and recovery operations.

The GEJE illustrated the importance of clearly defining post-disaster financial roles and responsibilities among public and private actors in order to restore critical infrastructure rapidly . World Bank research on Catastrophe Insurance Programs for Public Assets highlights how the Japan Railway Construction, Transport and Technology Agency  (JRTT) uses insurance to reduce the contingent liabilities of critical infrastructure to ease impacts to government budgets in the event of a megadisaster. Advance agreements between the government, infrastructure owners and operators, and insurance companies clearly outline how financial responsibilities will be shared in the event of a disaster. In the event of a megadisaster like GEJE, the government pays a large share of recovery costs, which enables the Shinkansen bullet train service to be restored more rapidly. [xxix]

The Resilient Industries in Japan   report highlights how diverse and comprehensive disaster risk financing methods are also important to promoting a resilient industry sector . After the GEJE, 90% of bankruptcies linked to the disaster were due to indirect impacts such as supply chain disruptions. This means that industries located elsewhere are also vulnerable: a study found that six years after GEJE, a greater proportion of bankruptcy declarations were located in Tokyo than Tohoku. [xxx] Further, firms without disaster risk financing in place had much higher increases in debt levels than firms with preexisting risk financing mechanisms in place. [xxxi] Disaster risk financing can play a role pre-disaster, through mechanisms such as low-interest loans, guarantees, insurance, or grants which incentivize the creation of BCPs and other mitigation and preparedness measures.  When a disaster strikes, financial mechanisms that support impacted businesses, especially small or medium enterprises and women-owned businesses, can help promote equitable recovery and help businesses survive. For financial institutions, simply keeping banks open after a major disaster can support response and recovery. After the GEJE, the Bank of Japan (BoJ) and local banks leveraged pre-arranged agreements to maintain liquidity, opening the first weekend after the disaster to help minimize economic disruptions. [xxxii] These strategies highlight the important role of finance in considering economic needs before a disaster strikes, and having systems in place to act quickly to limit both economic and infrastructure service impacts of disasters.

Looking to the Future

Ten years after the GEJE, these lessons in the realms of resilient infrastructure, risk identification, reduction and preparedness, and DRFI are significant not only for parts of the world preparing for tsunamis and other seismic hazards, but also for many of the other types of hazards faced around the globe in 2021. In Japan, many of the lessons of the GEJE are being applied to the projected Nankai Trough and Tokyo Inland earthquakes, for example through modelling risks and mapping evacuation routes, implementing scenario planning exercises and evacuation drills , or even prearranging a post-disaster reconstruction vision and plans. These resilience measures are taken not only individually but also through innovative partnerships for collaboration across regions, sectors, and organizations including public-private agreements to share resources and expertise in the event of a major disaster.

The ten-year anniversary of the GEJE finds the world in the midst of the multiple emergencies of the global COVID-19 pandemic, environmental and technological hazards, and climate change. Beyond seismic hazards, the global pandemic has highlighted, for example, the risks of supply chain disruption due to biological emergencies. Climate change is also increasing hazard exposure in Japan and around the globe. Climate change is a growing concern for its potential to contribute to hydrometeorological hazards such as flooding and hurricanes, and for its potential to play a role in secondary or cascading hazards such as fire. In the era of climate change, disasters will increasingly be ‘unprecedented’, and so GEJE offers important lessons on preparing for low-probability high-impact disasters and planning under uncertain conditions in general.

Over the last decade, the World Bank has drawn upon the GEJE megadisaster experience to learn how to better prepare for and recover from low-probability high-impact disasters. While we have identified a number of diverse strategies here, ranging from technological and structural innovations to improving the engagement of diverse stakeholders, three themes recur throughout infrastructure resilience, risk preparedness, and disaster finance. First, planning in advance for how organizations will prepare for, respond to, and recover from disasters is essential, i.e. through the creation of BCPs by both public and private organizations. Second, pre-arranged agreements amongst organizations for sharing resources, knowledge, and financing in order to mitigate, prepare, respond and recover together from disasters and other unforeseen events are highly beneficial. Third, only with continuous reflection, learning and update on what worked and what didn’t work after each disasters can develop the adaptive capacities needed to manage ever increasing and unexpected risks. Preparedness is an incremental and interactive process.

These lessons from the GEJE on the importance of BCPs and pre-arranged agreements both emphasize larger principles that can be brought to bear in the context of emergent climate and public health crises. Both involve planning for the potential of disaster before it strikes. BCPs and pre-arranged agreements are both made under blue-sky conditions, which allow frameworks to be put in place for advanced mitigation and preparedness, and rapid post-disaster response and recovery. While it is impossible to know exactly what future crises a locale will face, these processes often have benefits that make places and organizations better able to act in the face of unlikely or unpredicted events. The lessons above regarding BCPs and pre-arranged agreements also highlight that neither the government nor the private sector alone have all the tools to prepare for and respond to disasters. Rather, the GEJE shows the importance of both public and private organizations adopting BCPs, and the value of creating pre-arranged agreements among and across public and private groups. By making disaster preparedness a key consideration for all organizations, and bringing diverse stakeholders together to make plans for when a crisis strikes, these strengthened networks and planning capacities have the potential to bear benefits not only in an emergency but in the everyday operations of organizations and countries.

Back to Top

Additional Resources

Program Overview

• Japan-World Bank Program on Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Management in Developing Countries

Reports and Case Studies Featuring Lessons from GEJE

• Learning from Megadisasters: Lessons from the Great East Japan Earthquake  (PDF)
• Lifelines: The Resilient Infrastructure Opportunity  (PDF)
• Resilient Water Supply and Sanitation Services: The Case of Japan  (PDF)
• Japan Case Study Report on Road Geohazard Risk Management  (PDF)
• Resilient Infrastructure PPPs  (PDF)
• Making Schools Resilient at Scale  (PDF)
• Converting Disaster Experience into a Safer Built Environment: The Case of Japan  (PDF)
• Resilient Cultural Heritage: Learning from the Japanese Experience  (PDF)
• Information and Communication Technology for Disaster Risk Management in Japan
• Resilient Industries in Japan : Lessons Learned in Japan on Enhancing Competitiveness in the Face of Disasters by Natural Hazards (PDF)
• Preparedness Maps for Community Resilience: Earthquakes. Experience from Japan  (PDF)
• Elders Leading the Way to Resilience  (PDF)
• Ibasho: Strengthening community-driven preparedness and resilience in Philippines and Nepal by leveraging Japanese expertise and experience  (PDF)
• Learning from Disaster Simulation Drills in Japan  (PDF)
• Catastrophe Insurance Programs for Public Assets  (PDF)
• PPP contract clauses unveiled: the World Bank’s 2017 Guidance on PPP Contractual Provisions
• Learning from Japan: PPPs for infrastructure resilience

Audiovisual Resources on GEJE and its Reconstruction Processes in English

• NHK documentary: 3/11-The Tsunami: The First 3 Days
• NHK: 342 Stories of Resilience and Remembrance
• Densho Road 3.11: Journey to Experience the Lessons from the Disaster - Tohoku, Japan
• Sendai City: Disaster-Resilient and Environmentally-Friendly City
• Sendai City: Eastern Coastal Area Today, 2019 Fall

[i]   Resilient Water Supply and Sanitation Services  report, p.63

[ii]   Resilient Water Supply and Sanitation Services  report, p.63

[iii]   Resilient Water Supply and Sanitation Services  report, p.8

[iv]   Resilient Water Supply and Sanitation Services  report, p.71

[v]   Resilient Water Supply and Sanitation Services  report, p.63

[vi]   Lifelines: The Resilient Infrastructure Opportunity  report, p.115

[vii] Lifelines: The Resilient Infrastructure Opportunity  report, p.133

[viii]   Japan Case Study Report on Road Geohazard Risk Management  report, p.30

[ix]   Resilient Infrastructure PPPs  report, p.8-9

[x]   Resilient Infrastructure PPPs  report, p.39-40

[xi]   Resilient Industries in Japan  report, p.153.

[xii]   Lifelines: The Resilient Infrastructure Opportunity  report, p. 132

[xiii]   Making Schools Resilient at Scale  report, p.24

[xiv]   Resilient Cultural Heritage  report, p.62

[xv]   Learning from Megadisasters  report, p.326

[xvi]   Resilient Cultural Heritage  report, p.69

[xvii]   Learning from Megadisasters  report, p.100

[xviii] Learning from Megadisasters  report, p.297.

[xix]  J-ALERT, Japan’s nationwide early warning system, had 46% implementation at GEJE, and in communities where it was implemented earthquake early warnings were successfully received. Following GEJE, GOJ invested heavily in J-ALERT adoption (JPY 14B), bearing 50% of implementation costs. In 2013 GOJ spent JPY 773M to implement J-ALERT in municipalities that could not afford the expense. In 2014 MIC heavily promoted the L-ALERT system (formerly “Public Information Commons”), achieving 100% adoption across municipalities. Since GEJE, Japan has updated the EEWS to include a hybrid method of earthquake prediction, improving the accuracy of predictions and warnings.

[xx]  Related resources: NHK, “#1 TSUNAMI BOSAI: Science that Can Save Your Life”  https://www3.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/ondemand/video/3004665/  ; NHK “BOSAI: Be Prepared - Hazard Maps”  https://www3.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/ondemand/video/2084002/

[xxi]  Aldrich, Daniel P., and Yasuyuki Sawada. "The physical and social determinants of mortality in the 3.11 tsunami." Social Science & Medicine 124 (2015): 66-75.

[xxii]   Learning from Disaster Simulation Drills in Japan  Report, p. 14

[xxiii]  Matsushita and Hideshima. 2014. “Influence over Financial Statement of Listed Manufacturing Companies by the GEJE, the Effect of BCP and Risk Financing.” [In Japanese.] Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineering 70 (1): 33–43.  https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jscejsp/70/1/70_33/_pdf/-char/ja .

[xxiv]   Resilient Industries in Japan  report, p. 56

[xxv]  MIC (Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications). 2019. “Survey Results of Business Continuity Plan Development Status in Local Governments.” [In Japanese.] Press release, MIC, Tokyo.  https://www.fdma.go.jp/pressrelease/houdou/items/011226bcphoudou.pdf .

[xxvi]   Japan Case Study Report on Road Geohazard Risk Management  report, p.17.

[xxvii]  The World Bank. 2021. “Financial Protection of Critical Infrastructure Services.” Technical Report – Contribution to 2020 APEC Finance Ministers Meeting.

[xxviii]   Resilient Industries in Japan  report, p. 119

[xxix]  Tokio Marine Holdings, Inc. 2019. “The Role of Insurance Industry to Strengthen Resilience of Infrastructure—Experience in Japan.” APEC seminar on Disaster Risk Finance.

[xxx]  TDB (Teikoku DataBank). 2018. “Trends in Bankruptcies 6 Years after the Great East Japan Earthquake.” [In Japanese.] TDB, Tokyo.  https://www.tdb.co.jp/report/watching/press/pdf/p170301.pdf .

[xxxi]  Matsushita and Hideshima. 2014. “Influence over Financial Statement of Listed Manufacturing Companies by the GEJE, the Effect of BCP and Risk Financing.” [In Japanese.] Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineering 70 (1): 33–43.  https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jscejsp/70/1/70_33/_pdf/-char/ja .

[xxxii]   Resilient Industries in Japan  report, p. 145

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Kitakyushu and the SDG FutureCity initiative

Key facts and figures

Sector: sustainable/smart urban development; multiple sectors

Timeline: since 2018

Location: Kitakyushu City, Japan

Key participants: Government of Japan, SDGs Promotion Headquarters, Kitakyushu City (Fukuoka Prefecture) local government, other government agencies and ministries

The city of Kitakyushu, located on Japan’s Kyushu Island, has seen a remarkable transformation. It has evolved from being an industrial town with high levels of air and water pollution in the 1960s (due to iron, steel and chemicals manufacturing) to a model in sustainable urban infrastructure and development, 1 with a strong focus on green growth, renewable energy, waste management and the circular economy.

Kitakyushu is part of Japan’s SDG FutureCity initiative, launched in 2018, which aims to advance a model of urban planning that prioritizes environmental sustainability, disaster preparedness and resilience, and improved quality of life. 2 The program selects and supports municipalities with the best proposals for creating value for the economy, society and the environment. Kitakyushu, which was also selected by the OECD as the first model city in Asia for urban green growth, 3 is a pioneering city in this initiative. It also explicitly incorporates the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and their monitoring into its urban development plans.

Planning for change: achieving sustainable infrastructure through strong coordination

Japan leads all countries in the Infrastructure for Good barometer when it comes to effective governance and implementation of infrastructure. Strong coordination—exemplified in the country’s national infrastructure strategies, project-level needs assessments, and coordination and monitoring systems—are key precursors to realizing infrastructure outcomes that benefit all parts of society. And even though Japan performs less strongly when it comes to social assessments and community engagement, Kitakyushu’s successful use of collaborative planning offers a potential model for other cities to follow even when national policies are lacking.

Kitakyushu’s city-wide urban development initiative provides illustrative examples of this process in action, as it brings together a variety of stakeholders—local, municipal and national governments, private companies, educational and research institutes and civil society—to realize an SDG-based vision for infrastructure. These planning efforts are focused around three pillars of success: the economy, society and the environment.

Figure 1: Kitakyushu’s multi-pronged approach to sustainable urban development

Source: Kitakyushu City SDG Report, 2018

Notable projects and innovative outcomes

Kitakyushu’s FutureCity initiative is cross-sectoral, covering a wide variety of infrastructure projects such as digitalized transport networks, waste-to-energy and recycling projects, automation and robotics in healthcare, offshore wind energy and distributed power sources to enhance resilience, and upgrades for energy sustainability. 4 Two of Kitakyushu’s many initiatives that stand out include:

Kitakyushu Eco-Town

Kitakyushu’s Eco-Town is Japan’s first—and largest—recycling infrastructure base and is the center of all activity related to Kitakyushu’s circular economy. Built on reclaimed land, it represents the culmination of long-term plans to integrate environmental sustainability with the city’s existing industrial expertise, creating new opportunities to reuse recycled materials in a wide variety of manufacturing processes. 5, 6, 7 Eco-Town also contributes to the city’s education infrastructure as a knowledge and innovation center. It is home to several educational institutions specializing in technological and practical research related to recycling and waste management. 8

Eco-Town was pioneered by a multi-stakeholder planning group called the Kitakyushu City Environment-related Industry Committee, which brought together public, private and academic experts to formulate strategies to transform the previously polluted region into a modern hub for the green economy. 9 This cooperative process was key to the success, allowing incumbent insiders with new ideas to come together and generate pressure for change, supported by an open consultation process to gather public opinion. Over time, the collaborative networks and individual expertise developed at Eco-Town have influenced subsequent projects such as Environmental Model City and Smart Community projects. 10

Transport management

Another of Kitakyushu’s major infrastructure initiatives is to upgrade its public transit systems, making them more digitally integrated, inclusive and environmentally friendly. Using innovative technologies such as artificial intelligence and the Internet of Things is a key part of this plan. 11 For example, the city is developing a “community-based bus network”, which will provide services that respond to local conditions. These could reflect, for instance, real-time demand and traffic conditions. 12, 13

Optimizing transport networks is not just an economic need, but it represents a pressing social issue for Kitakyushu and Japan as a whole—particularly in light of demographic shifts and sustainability goals. Ensuring that public transit systems are responsive to the needs of an aging population will help the city better promote healthy lifestyles and mobility. Similarly, prioritizing more efficient routes and use of electric buses will be a key factor in reducing CO2 emissions. 14, 15, 16

After successful implementation of the digitally integrated trial system in Kitakyushu, it is set to be expanded to bus systems nationwide. 17

Financing the city’s sustainable infrastructure

A variety of funds and bonds serve as key enablers of Kitakyushu’s push to achieve positive infrastructure outcomes.

Many of Kitakyushu’s sustainable development initiatives are financed by Japan’s national government. However, a sustainability bond framework is also in place to fund many of the city’s sustainable projects. The capital raised from the issuance of these “FutureBonds” will be used for various purposes in keeping with the city’s SDG vision. The local government issued the first sustainability bond in October 2021, with the funds raised to be used for SDG-related projects that “will lead to effective improvements in the environment and solutions to social issues”. 18

The Kitakyushu SDGs FutureFund, which was set up in April 2021 with resources from the consolidation of five existing funds and local tax collection, is aimed at promoting urban greening and zero-carbon activities, providing support for SMEs and promoting community welfare, including support for childcare and greater female engagement in society. 19

Integrated planning, shared responsibilities and awareness

Kitakyushu offers a unique case study in that government ministries and bodies at all different levels are working toward the goal of building infrastructure that can help meet the SDG goals. The institutional framework and strong support provided by the national government allow the city’s government to localize SDG attainment efforts. 20 Over the past several years, these initiatives have stood out for their strong degree of both public and private collaboration, including the national and local government, private companies, educational and research institutes, and civil society.

To realize its development goals, the city government has set up a group of institutions to guide the implementation of the overall initiative. For example, in 2018 it launched an SDGs public-private partnership platform, chaired by the mayor of Kitakyushu. This brings together stakeholders from the private sector and local governments to discuss projects and proposals to achieve the SDG goals. 21 It has also established the SDGs Future City Promotion Headquarters (an interdepartmental group, headed by the mayor) and Kitakyushu City SDGs Council (an advisory expert group). 22 Meanwhile, the Kitakyushu SDGs Club provides a platform for companies, individuals and other stakeholders to discuss the UN’s Agenda 2030 and other sustainability-related development needs. 23 The club, which counts 19 financial institutions among its members, provides consulting services related to the SDGs to other companies. 24

Key learnings

As more and more cities are faced with urbanization-related challenges, Kitakyushu’s SDG FutureCity initiative offers an innovative example of how development priorities can go hand-in-hand with favorable environmental and social outcomes. Aligning these aspirations is the north star for all infrastructure development in Kitakyushu.

One key lesson for other cities looking to implement SDG goals and action plans is Kitakyushu’s development of a multi-layered progress management system, where actions and outcomes are monitored through specific key performance indicators across six SDGs, determined as part of the SDG FutureCity plan. Kitakyushu is also partnering with the OECD to develop similar SDG indicators and evaluations for both the city and regional level. 25

The city’s success thus far provides a blueprint for other urban development initiatives by highlighting how detailed planning and collaboration can result in an integrated approach to infrastructure and social progress. In particular, it provides key lessons around localizing efforts toward the SDGs in a defined and coordinated way, suggesting that cities can play a role at the forefront of sustainable development priorities. Importantly, the overarching initiative also provides a template for other countries to follow, which can be expanded from city to city, with successful elements being adopted from each.

Japan leads all other countries in Pillar 1: Governance and planning. However this rapidly-aging country suffers from a below average score in Pillar 3: Social and community impact—indicating significant challenges in this area.

Score: 62.6

out of 30 countries

Key findings from the Infrastructure for Good barometer

The inaugural edition of the Infrastructure for Good barometer gives reason for optimism. Countries have put in place strong foundations in infrastructure planning and governance as part of long-standing efforts to encourage investment. However, the barometer also identifies shortfalls: more attention is needed on the specific levers that drive social, economic and environmental progress.

Explore the full data and barometer framework

Compare scores and ranks across 30 countries and all 162 indicators and sub-indicators that form the Infrastructure for Good barometer.

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JSmol Viewer

Microscale temperature-humidity index (thi) distribution estimated at the city scale: a case study in maebashi city, gunma prefecture, japan.

1. Introduction

2. equipment and datasets, 2.1. unmanned aerial system (uas) and camera specification, 2.2. gnss and thermohygrometer, 2.3. satellite and aircraft data, 2.4. flight design for uas, 2.5. ground truth collection of the reference thi, 2.5.1. ground truth at site 1, 2.5.2. ground truth within the city, 2.6. mobility and building floor data, 3. methodology, 3.1. study area, 3.2. spatial data and variable construction, 3.2.1. aerial image and digital surface model, 3.2.2. solar radiation and wind exposure, 3.2.3. satellite indices, 3.2.4. mobility data and building floor area, 3.3. random forest modeling and validation of thi, 4.1. ortho, thermal mosaics, and dsm, 4.2. explanatory variables, 4.3. thi modeling and validation, 5. discussion, 5.1. improving thi modeling through multiplatform data integration, 5.2. urban geometry and its impact on thermal discomfort, 5.3. microscale urban climate analysis, 5.4. methodological considerations, 6. conclusions and future work, author contributions, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Iizuka, K.; Akiyama, Y.; Takase, M.; Fukuba, T.; Yachida, O. Microscale Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) Distribution Estimated at the City Scale: A Case Study in Maebashi City, Gunma Prefecture, Japan. Remote Sens. 2024 , 16 , 3164. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16173164

Iizuka K, Akiyama Y, Takase M, Fukuba T, Yachida O. Microscale Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) Distribution Estimated at the City Scale: A Case Study in Maebashi City, Gunma Prefecture, Japan. Remote Sensing . 2024; 16(17):3164. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16173164

Iizuka, Kotaro, Yuki Akiyama, Minaho Takase, Toshikazu Fukuba, and Osamu Yachida. 2024. "Microscale Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) Distribution Estimated at the City Scale: A Case Study in Maebashi City, Gunma Prefecture, Japan" Remote Sensing 16, no. 17: 3164. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs16173164

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