essay of the effects of stress

Psychology Discussion

Essay on stress: it’s meaning, effects and coping with stress.

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Essay on Stress: It’s Meaning, Effects and Coping with Stress!

Stress is a very common problem being faced today. Every individual will experience stress in one or the other time.

The term stress has many definitions, Lazarus and Folkman (1984) have defined stress as “an internal state which can be caused by physical demands of body or by environmental and social situations, which are evaluated as potentially harmful, uncontrollable, or exceeding our resources for coping”.

According to David Fontana “stress is a demand made upon the adaptive capacities of the mind and body”.

These definitions indicate that stress represents those conditions under which individuals have demand made upon them, that they cannot physically or psychologically meet, leading to breakdown at one or other of these levels.

Stress is usually thought of in negative terms. But ii can manifest itself in both positive and negative way. It is said to be positive when the situation offers an opportunity for one, to gain something.

Eustress (the Greek word ‘eu’ means good) is the term used to describe positive stress. It is often viewed as motivator, since in its absence the individual lacks the spirit necessary for peak performance. Distress is the term used to indicate negative stress.

Almost any change in the environment- even a pleasant change such as a joyful trip- demands some coping, and a little stress is useful in helping us to adapt. But beyond some point, stress becomes a ‘distress’.

What acts to produce distress varies from person to person, but some events seem to be stressors for every person.

Examples of stressors are:

1. Injury or infections of the body, dangers in environment, major changes or transitions in life which force us to cope in new ways.

2. Physical stressors like noise, pollutions, climatic changes, etc.

3. Hustles of everyday life centering on work, family, social activities, health and finances.

4. Frustrations and conflicts.

The physical, environmental and social causes of the stress state are termed stressors. Once induced by stressors the internal stress state can then lead to various responses. On the other hand, psychological responses such as anxiety, hopelessness, depression, irritability, and a general feeling of not being able to cope with the world, can result from the stress state.

Stress cycles:

Stress has a number of immediate effects. If the stressors are maintained, long-term behavioural, physiological, emotional and cognitive effects occur. If these effects hinder adaptation to the environment or create discomfort and distress, they themselves become stressors and, tend to perpetuate a ‘cycle’ of distress.

Example, a patient spends more money on treatment, may experience continued stress even after the cure of the disease, because repayment of debt cause stress for long time in him or a patient whose leg is amputated after accident may continue to worry about it.

On the other hand, many people have developed ways of coping with stressors, so that they are able to respond adaptively. This is the ‘wellness cycle’. Teaching people adaptive ways of handling stress, so as to promote the wellness cycle is an important part of the newly emerging field of behavioural medicine.

Effects of stress:

Stress is not always harmful. In fact, it is recognised that low levels of stress can even helps for better performance. For example, a student can prepare well for forthcoming examination only if he has some stress. However, excess level of stress is undoubtedly harmful.

The effects of stress are divided into three categories:

a. Physiological effects:

Commonly appearing stress related bodily disorders are-peptic ulcers, hypertension, chronic fatigue, hormonal changes, increased heart rate, difficulty in breathing, numbness of limbs, heart disease and reduction in immunity, etc.

b. Psychological effects:

Anxiety, depression, hopelessness, helplessness, anger, nervousness, irritability, tension and boredom may be experienced.

c. Behavioural changes:

Decreasing efficiency, making mistakes, inability to take decisions, under eating or overeating, sleeplessness, increased smoking, develop addiction to alcohol and drugs, forgetfulness, hypersensitivity or passiveness, accident proneness and interpersonal difficulties are seen.

Stress is linked to disorders such as cancer and heart disorders. There are several mediating variables that determine whether stress becomes dangerous or not. For example, good coping mechanisms which can help to reduce stress, having good social support, often help in reducing stress.

Perception of stress or how a person views stress is also very important. For example, a person may not perceive a situation as stressful whereas the same situation may be perceived as highly stressful by some other person.

People with personality type ‘A’ are more prone to be affected by stress related disorders like cardiovascular diseases. Personality character like hardiness or emotional stability helps to withstand effects of stress.

Hans Selye, a renowned biological scientist defines stress as the nonspecific response of the body to any demand upon it. He termed the body’s response to stressors the “General Adaptation Syndrome” (GAS).

The GAS consists of 3 stages:

1. Alarm reaction:

It is an emergency response of the body. In this stage prompt responses of the body, many of them mediated by the sympathetic nervous system, prepare us to cope with the stressor here and now.

2. Stage of resistance:

If the stressor continues to be present, the stage of resistance begins, wherein the body resists the effects of the continuous stressor. During this stage certain hormonal responses of the body are an important line of defence in resisting the effects of stressors (For example, release of ACTH).

3. Stage of exhaustion:

In this stage, the body’s capacity to respond to both continuous and new stressors has been seriously compromised. The person will no longer be able to face stressor and he will finally succumb to it. The person may develop psychosomatic illness.

The stress leads to many psychosomatic diseases. Treatment for such diseases involves medical help for the physical problems and, at the same time, attention to the psychological factors producing the stress.

Coping with Stress :

There are different ways of coping with stress such as: confronting (facing), distancing (remoteness), self-control, seeking social support, accepting responsibility, escape or avoid (from the stressor), plan a problem solving strategy and positive reappraisal.

Usually two broad type of coping types are seen- Instrumental coping and Emotional coping.

In instrumental coping, a person focuses on the problem and tries to solve it. In emotional coping, the focus is more on the feelings generated by the problem.

Today, self- help remedies, Do to yourself approaches, weight loss clinics and diets, health foods and physical exercise are being given much attention in mass media. People are actually taking more responsibility to maintain good health.

However, some specific techniques to eliminate or to manage more effectively the inevitable, prolonged stress are as follows:

Good physical exercise like walking, jogging, swimming, riding bicycle, playing soft ball, tennis are necessary to cope with stress.

Relaxation:

Whether a person simply takes it easy once in a while or uses specific relaxation techniques such as bio-feedback, or meditation, the intent is to eliminate the immediately stressful situation or manage a prolonged stressful situation more effectively.

Taking it easy may mean curling up with a good book on an easy chair or watching some light programme on television or listening to a light music. Meditation is scientifically proved to be very useful, both physically and mentally to cope with stress.

Behavioural self-control:

By deliberately managing the antecedents and the consequence of their own behaviour, people can achieve self-control. Besides managing their own behaviour to reduce stress, people can also become more aware of their limits and of ‘red flags’ that signal trouble ahead. They can avoid people or situations that they know will put them under stress.

Maladaptive strategies, rigid strategies or relying on one type of coping method lead to increase in the stress. Social support helps reduce the effect of stress. People may provide help, advice, material support or moral support that helps to reduce stress.

In addition to the above, psychotherapy (Beck’s cognitive therapy, Ellis’s rational emotive therapy and Meichenbaum’s stress- inoculation training), skill training, environmental changes, Bio-feedback (control of physical signs such as Blood pressure, headache, etc), family therapy, group therapy, hypnosis, yoga, are found to be very useful. Finally, uses of drugs are some of the other strategies adopted in coping with stress.

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What Is Stress?

Stress is Inevitable - Learn to Maintain Your Emotional and Physical Well-Being

The Inner-Workings of the Stress Response

Ways to cope with stress, final thoughts.

• Next in How Stress Impacts Your Health Guide How to Recognize Burnout Symptoms

Stress can be defined as any type of change that causes physical, emotional, or mental strain. Stress is your body's response to anything that requires attention or action. 

Everyone experiences stress to some degree. The way you respond to stress, however, makes a big difference to your overall mental and physical well-being.

Verywell / Brianna Gilmartin

Sometimes, the best way to manage your stress involves changing your situation. At other times, the best strategy involves changing the way you respond to the situation.

Developing a clear understanding of how stress impacts your physical and mental health is important. It's also important to recognize how your mental and physical health affects your stress level.

Watch Now: 5 Ways Stress Can Cause Weight Gain

Clues that indicate you might be stressed.

Stress is not always easy to recognize, but there are some ways to identify some signs that you might be experiencing too much pressure. Sometimes stress can come from an obvious source, but sometimes even small daily stresses from work, school, family, and friends can take a toll on your mind and body.

If you think stress might be affecting you, there are a few things you can watch for:

• Cognitive signs such as difficulty concentrating, worrying, anxiety, and trouble remembering
• Emotional signs such as being angry, irritated, fearful, or moody
• Physical signs such as high blood pressure, headaches , clammy/sweaty hands, muscle tension and neck pain , changes in weight, frequent colds or infections , teeth grinding, digestive problems , and changes in the menstrual cycle and sex drive
• Behavioral signs such as poor self-care, not having time for the things you enjoy, or relying on drugs and alcohol to cope

What Does Stress Feel Like?

Stress can manifest in a variety of ways in your mind and body, and there is no one-size-fits-all answer. It can contribute to feelings of frustration, worry, and burnout. You may feel physically exhausted, worn out, and unable to cope.

Stress vs. Anxiety: What's the Difference?

Stress can sometimes be mistaken for anxiety, and experiencing a great deal of stress can contribute to feelings of anxiety. Stress and anxiety both contribute to nervousness, poor sleep, high blood pressure , muscle tension, and excess worry. Experiencing anxiety can make it more difficult to cope with stress and may contribute to other health issues, including increased depression, susceptibility to illness, and digestive problems.

In most cases, stress is caused by external events, while anxiety is caused by your internal reaction to stress. Stress may go away once the threat or the situation resolves, whereas anxiety may persist even after the original stressor is gone.

The Usual Suspects: Main Causes of Stress

There are many different things in life that can cause stress. Some of the main sources of stress include work, finances, relationships, parenting, and day-to-day inconveniences.

Mental Health in the Workplace Webinar

On May 19, 2022, Verywell Mind hosted a virtual Mental Health in the Workplace webinar, hosted by Amy Morin, LCSW. If you missed it, check out  this recap  to learn ways to foster supportive work environments and helpful strategies to improve your well-being on the job.

The Four Types of Stress

Not all types of stress are harmful or even negative. Some of the different types of stress that you might experience include:

• Acute stress : Acute stress is a very short-term type of stress that can be upsetting or traumatic ; this is the type of stress that is out of the ordinary, such as a car accident, assault, or natural disaster.
• Chronic stress : Chronic stress is what we most often encounter in day-to-day life and seems never-ending and inescapable, like the stress of a bad marriage or an extremely taxing job.
• Episodic acute stress : Episodic acute stress is acute stress that seems to run rampant and be a way of life, creating a life of ongoing distress; episodic stress can be recurring illness, ongoing domestic violence, child abuse , and living through conflict and war.
• Eustress : Eustress , on the other hand, is fun and exciting. It's known as a positive type of stress that can keep you energized. It's associated with surges of adrenaline, such as when you are skiing or racing to meet a deadline. 

Harmful Types of Stress:

The main harmful types of stress are acute stress, chronic stress, and episodic acute stress. Acute stress is usually brief, chronic stress is prolonged, and episodic acute stress is short-term but frequent. Positive stress, known as eustress, can be fun and exciting, but it can also take a toll if you don't keep your life in balance.

Stress can trigger the body’s response to a perceived threat or danger, known as the fight-or-flight response . During this reaction, certain hormones like adrenaline and cortisol are released. This speeds the heart rate, slows digestion, shunts blood flow to major muscle groups, and changes various other autonomic nervous functions, giving the body a burst of energy and strength.

Originally named for its ability to enable us to physically fight or run away when faced with danger, the fight-or-flight response is now activated in situations where neither response is appropriate—like in traffic or during a stressful day at work.

When the perceived threat is gone, systems are designed to return to normal function via the relaxation response . But in cases of chronic stress, the relaxation response doesn't occur often enough, and being in a near-constant state of fight-or-flight can cause damage to the body.

Stress can also lead to some unhealthy habits that have a negative impact on your health. For example, many people cope with stress by eating too much or by smoking. These unhealthy habits damage the body and create bigger problems in the long term.

Brace For Impact: How Stress Affects Your Health

Stress can have several effects on your health and well-being. It can make it more challenging to deal with life's daily hassles, affect your interpersonal relationships, and have detrimental effects on your health. The connection between your mind and body is apparent when you examine stress's impact on your life.

Feeling stressed over a relationship, money, or living situation can create physical health issues. The inverse is also true. Health problems, whether you're dealing with high blood pressure or diabetes , will also affect your stress level and mental health. When your brain experiences high degrees of stress , your body reacts accordingly.

Serious acute stress, like being involved in a natural disaster or getting into a verbal altercation, can trigger heart attacks, arrhythmias, and even sudden death. However, this happens mostly in individuals who already have heart disease.

Stress also takes an emotional toll. While some stress may produce feelings of mild anxiety or frustration, prolonged stress can also lead to burnout , anxiety disorders , and depression.

Chronic stress can have a serious impact on your health as well. If you experience chronic stress, your autonomic nervous system will be overactive, which is likely to damage your body.

Stress-Influenced Conditions

• Chronic Pain
• Inflammatory diseases
• Heart disease
• Hyperthyroidism
• Sexual dysfunction
• Skin problems
• Sleep disorders
• Tooth and gum disease

What Can I Do When I Have Too Much Stress?

There are some treatment options for acute and chronic stress, as well as a variety of stress management strategies you can implement on your own. Stress may be inevitable; however, whenever possible, prevention is the best strategy.

An Old Proverb by Benjamin Franklin

An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure

Treatment Options

Stress is not a distinct medical diagnosis and there is no single, specific treatment for it. Treatment for stress focuses on changing the situation, developing stress-coping skills , implementing relaxation techniques, and treating symptoms or conditions that may have been caused by chronic stress.

Some interventions that may be helpful include therapy, medication, and complementary and alternative medicine (CAM).

Psychotherapy

Some forms of therapy that may be particularly helpful in addressing symptoms of stress including cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) . CBT focuses on helping people identify and change negative thinking patterns, while MBSR utilizes meditation and mindfulness to help reduce stress levels.

Medication may sometimes be prescribed to address some specific symptoms that are related to stress. Such medications may include sleep aids, antacids, antidepressants, and anti-anxiety medications.

Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Some complementary approaches that may also be helpful for reducing stress include acupuncture, aromatherapy, massage, yoga, and meditation .

Although stress is inevitable, it can be manageable. When you understand the toll it takes on you and the steps to combat stress, you can take charge of your health and reduce the impact stress has on your life.

Press Play for Advice On Managing Stress

Hosted by therapist Amy Morin, LCSW, this episode of The Verywell Mind Podcast featuring professor Elissa Epel, shares ways to manage stress. Click below to listen now.

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Here are a few things to get you started:

• Learn to recognize the signs of burnout. High levels of stress may place you at a high risk of burnout. Burnout can leave you feeling exhausted and apathetic about your job. When you start to feel symptoms of emotional exhaustion, it's a sign that you need to find a way to get a handle on your stress.
• Try to get regular exercise. Physical activity has a big impact on your brain and your body . Whether you enjoy a walk in the park, stretching, pilates, or you want to begin jogging, exercise reduces stress and improves many symptoms associated with mental illness.
• Take care of yourself. Incorporating regular self-care activities into your daily life is essential to stress management. Learn how to take care of your mind, body, and spirit and discover how to equip yourself to live your best life.
• Practice mindfulness in your life. Mindfulness isn't just something you practice for 10 minutes each day. It can also be a way of life. Discover how to live more mindfully throughout your day so you can become more awake and conscious throughout your life.

If you or a loved one are struggling with stress, contact the  Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) National Helpline  at 1-800-662-4357 for information on support and treatment facilities in your area.

For more mental health resources, see our  National Helpline Database .

Stress is a part of life and comes in all shapes and sizes. There are things we can do to minimize or even prevent much of the stress in our lives. But some stress is unavoidable.

If you find you are overwhelmed by an acute stressor, or the daily grind, there are ways to cope and recover. Whether you try some stress management strategies on your own or seek professional help... it is important to keep stress levels in check to avoid the negative impact on your cognitive, emotional, and physical well being.

National Institute of Mental Health. I'm so stressed out! Fact sheet .

Goldstein DS. Adrenal responses to stress .  Cell Mol Neurobiol . 2010;30(8):1433–1440. doi:10.1007/s10571-010-9606-9

Stahl JE, Dossett ML, LaJoie AS, et al. Relaxation response and resiliency training and its effect on healthcare resource utilization . PLoS ONE . 2015;10(10). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0140212

Chi JS, Kloner RA. Stress and myocardial infarction .  Heart . 2003;89(5):475–476. doi:10.1136/heart.89.5.475

Salvagioni DAJ, Melanda FN, Mesas AE, González AD, Gabani FL, Andrade SM. Physical, psychological and occupational consequences of job burnout: A systematic review of prospective studies .  PLoS ONE . 2017;12(10). doi:10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0185781

Bitonte RA, DeSanto DJ II. Mandatory physical exercise for the prevention of mental illness in medical students .  Ment Illn . 2014;6(2):5549. doi:10.4081/mi.2014.5549

Ayala EE, Winseman JS, Johnsen RD, Mason HRC. U.S. medical students who engage in self-care report less stress and higher quality of life .  BMC Med Educ . 2018;18(1):189. doi:10.1186/s12909-018-1296-x

Richards KC, Campenni CE, Muse-Burke JL. Self-care and well-being in mental health professionals: The mediating effects of self-awareness and mindfulness .  J Ment Health Couns . 2010;32(3):247. doi:10.17744/mehc.32.3.0n31v88304423806.

American Psychological Association. Stress in America 2023 .

Krantz DS, Whittaker KS, Sheps DS.  Psychosocial risk factors for coronary heart disease: Pathophysiologic mechanisms .  In Heart and Mind: The Practice of Cardiac Psychology (2nd Ed.). American Psychological Association; 2011:91-113. doi:10.1037/13086-004

By Elizabeth Scott, PhD Elizabeth Scott, PhD is an author, workshop leader, educator, and award-winning blogger on stress management, positive psychology, relationships, and emotional wellbeing.

The Effects of Stress

Stress may be a state of mental and enthusiastic strain caused by adverse or requesting circumstances. It could be a characteristic human reaction to challenging or debilitating circumstances. Still, when Stress gets inveterate or overpowering, it can have inconvenient impacts on physical, passionate, and mental stability (Halim, Michael, and Alice 1169). The driving factors may vary and become complex, extending from work-related disturbances, money-related issues, interpersonal clashes, well-being issues, and major life moves like moving to another city or joining a different workplace.

A few people are more inclined to push than others due to identity characteristics, hereditary inclinations, or early life encounters (Keller et al. 677). The effect of this issue is noteworthy and well-documented. It can cause high heartbeat rates, hoisted blood pressure, muscle pressure, and aggravation. Unremitting push has been connected to many physical stability issues such as heart malady, diabetes, immune system dysfunction, and worsening existing health conditions. It also significantly impacts mental health, contributing to anxious behaviors and depressive conditions. It can lead to destitute decision-making, disabled cognitive working, and decreased quality of life. In the long term, chronic Stress can cause passionate fatigue, burnout, and meaningless life.

Factors leading to Stress

Financial struggles.

Money-related battles can widely stress people and families beyond their means, as cash may be a major concern for numerous. Stress caused by money-related issues can harm physical and mental well-being, as well as connections. One of the foremost common causes of budgetary Stress is living on a tight budget (Vickers et al. 527). Numerous people live paycheck to paycheck, unable to spare for the long term or cover startling costs. This could be a source of constant worry and fear, causing sentiments of disappointment, uneasiness, and discouragement.

Secondly, a few individuals battle to pay off understudy credits or credit card obligations. This could be a gigantic source of Stress, as installments can be troublesome to form, and intrigued charges can rapidly heap up. Individuals may face such Stress due to work misfortunes or unexpected therapeutic costs. This Stress, in turn, affects people physically, such as physical and mental issues. It can lead to cerebral pains, sleep deprivation, stomach-related issues, and an expanded chance of heart illness and stroke (Pascoe, Michaela, Sarah, and Alexandra 104). On a mental level, money-related Stress can lead to sadness, uneasiness, and self-destructive considerations.

Workplace Concerns

Workplace troubles may constitute one of the most stressful aspects of a person’s life. Several employees experience anxiety, worry, and tension while working in harsh and unfair environments. This might be due to various circumstances, including job security, heavy workloads, insufficient income, a lack of managerial support, or unpleasant work settings. The insecurity of a profession is a typical source of anxiety at work. Many workers are continuously concerned about their jobs and prospects (García-Sánchez, Alejandra Miranda-Díaz, and Ernesto 110). They may be concerned about being laid off, demoted, or fired. Employees constantly concerned about their prospects can experience a great deal of anxiety and tension due to this fear.

Relationship Issues

Many difficulties, such as communication problems, financial issues, a lack of trust, or disputes, can strain relationships. When these problems remain unsolved, they can generate significant Stress in a partnership (Vickers et al. 525). Communication issues, for example, might cause conflict in a relationship. When either of the parties lacks the ability to communicate their wants and feelings adequately, the relationship may suffer. This can cause stress while the pair attempts to resolve the situation. Financial problems can also cause much anxiety. Arguments and Stress arise if one partner does not contribute economically or if there is a misunderstanding about how they should handle money. Another typical source of Stress in a relationship is an imbalance of trust. Interpersonal relations and comprehension might suffer when one or both spouses believe the other is untrustworthy. This might lead to disagreements and feelings of frustration in a partnership, causing Stress.

Effects of Stress

Headaches are one of the many prevalent physical health concerns induced by anxiety. They are frequently throbbing and are commonly accompanied by nausea, exhaustion, and sensitivity to light. Other physical conditions associated with Stress include digestive problems, fatigue, and coronary artery disease. Stress can cause digestive problems such as stomach aches, nausea, and constipation. Stress can also cause an increase in weariness, making it difficult to concentrate and sleep. Finally, Stress may elevate the risk of cardiac issues such as stroke and cardiac arrest (Keller et al. 677). In addition, Stress can raise the chance of illness. Stress can impair the immune system, making it harder for the body to fight infections. This can raise the possibility of infection, such as colds and the flu.

One of the consequences of being stressed is mental health concerns. Stress can harm an individual’s emotional well-being, resulting in many problems. Stress can bring anxiety, despair, anger, and even post-traumatic stress disorder.

One of the most frequent mental health problems caused by Stress is anxiety. It might show worry, fear, and difficulty in concentrating. Anxious people frequently feel overwhelmed or unable to deal with daily duties. Physical manifestations may include a beating heart, sweating, and difficulty breathing. Another prevalent mental health disorder triggered by Stress is depression. It can lead to feelings of isolation, hopelessness, and restlessness.

Behavioral issues are one of the foremost common impacts of Stress. Push can cause an individual to be effortlessly unsettled, touchy, and forceful. It can disturb their capacity to think clearly and make decisions, resulting in behavior that is out of character or harmful. For instance, a learner feeling focused on almost the next exams may start acting out in the course, disturbing the learning environment. Alternatively, a parent who is feeling overpowered by monetary obligations may take their dissatisfactions out on their children by shouting or getting to be forceful. It can also lead to evasion or delay, as people may feel overpowered and incapable of confronting their duties. Individuals may be socially pulled back, dodging social circumstances, or intuitive with companions and family. They may moreover thrust off assignments or assignments until the final miniature, driving to surged and subpar work.

In conclusion, stressful conditions are an issue that influences a tremendously larger part of individuals in all strolls of life. Stress can be caused by an assortment of components counting monetary battles, working environment issues, and relationship issues. It can have a wide cluster of impacts on a person, from physical well-being to mental and behavioral issues. It is vital to recognize and decrease the signs of stress, such as taking part in normal workouts, practicing mindfulness, and talking to companions and family almost your battles. By taking care of yourself and keeping stress levels in check, you will lead a more beneficial and joyful life.

Works Cited

García-Sánchez, Andrés, Alejandra Guillermina Miranda-Díaz, and Ernesto Germán Cardona-Muñoz. “The role of oxidative stress in physiopathology and pharmacological treatment with pro-and antioxidant properties in chronic diseases.”  Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity  2020 (2020).

Halim, Michael, and Alice Halim. “The effects of inflammation, aging, and oxidative stress on the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus (type 2 diabetes).”  Diabetes & metabolic syndrome: clinical research & reviews  13.2 (2019): 1165-1172.

Keller, Abiola, et al. “Does the perception that Stress affects health matter? The association with health and mortality.”  Health psychology  31.5 (2012): 677.

Pascoe, Michaela C., Sarah E. Hetrick, and Alexandra G. Parker. “The impact of stress on students in secondary school and higher education.”  International Journal of Adolescence and Youth  25.1 (2020): 104-112.

Vinkers, Christiaan H., et al. “The effect of stress on core and peripheral body temperature in humans.”  Stress  16.5 (2013): 520-530.

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The Surprising Benefits of Stress

Daniela Kaufer is an associate professor at UC Berkeley who studies the biology of stress, examining at the molecular level how the brain responds to anxiety and traumatic events. Her recent findings reveal the difference between good stress and bad stress, as well as pointers for how to respond to stressful events in a healthy way. She was interviewed by health writer Peter Jaret for the Berkeley Wellness newsletter, where this Q&A originally appeared .

Peter Jaret: Most of us think of stress as a bad thing. Can stress be good for you?

Daniela Kaufer: The prevailing idea in our culture is that stress is bad. People complain about being stressed out. But we’re learning that moderate amounts of stress have powerful benefits. The stress response is designed to help us react when something potentially threatening happens, to help us deal with it and learn from it. Our research shows that moderate, short-lived stress can improve alertness and performance and boost memory.

PJ: How do you measure the effects of stress?

DK: In our work, we study the effects of stress on rats, and we look specifically at the growth of stem cells in a part of the brain called the hippocampus. The hippocampus is involved in the stress response, and it’s also very important for learning and memory. We’ve found that when rats are exposed to moderate stress for a short time—being immobilized for a few hours, for instance—stem cell growth is stimulated, and those cells go on to form neurons, or brain cells. A couple of weeks later, tests show improvements in learning and memory. We’ve shown that the specific cells generated during stress have become activated. But when the animals are exposed to chronic or intense stress—being immobilized for days at a time, for example, or being immobilized and then exposed to the smell of a predator—stem cell growth is suppressed and fewer brain cells are generated.

PJ: What about people? Can manageable amounts of stress boost brain power?

DK: We think the same thing happens in people. Manageable stress increases alertness and performance. And by encouraging the growth of stem cells that become brain cells, stress improves memory. The increase in stem cells and neuron generation makes sense from an adaptive point of view. If an animal encounters a predator and manages to escape, it’s important to remember where and when that encounter happened, to avoid it in the future. If you’re walking down an alley and somebody threatens you, it’s important to remember exactly where you were in order to avoid that alley in the future. The brain is constantly responding to stress. Extreme or chronic stress can have a negative effect. But moderate and short-lived stress—like an upcoming exam or preparing to deliver a speech in public—improves cognitive performance and memory.

PJ: When does too much stress become harmful?

DK: Individuals vary widely in how they respond to stress. The same stressor may be manageable for one person and overwhelming for another, depending in part on perception. People who feel resilient and confident that they can manage stress are much less likely to be overwhelmed by it—and more likely to have a healthy response—than people who think of stress as bad. Another factor is control. Stress is much less likely to be harmful if people have some control over the situation. A tight deadline is stressful but manageable if you have the ability to meet it. If not, if you feel helpless, the stress is more likely to be harmful. Early life experiences also shape how people respond to stress. If you have a lot of stress in your early life, you may be more vulnerable to the harmful effects of stress. Research by Rachel Yehuda, a scientist at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai and the James J. Peters Veterans Affairs Medical Center in New York, has shown that Holocaust survivors have increased levels of stress hormones. Her most recent research shows that even offspring of Holocaust survivors have higher stress hormone levels.

PJ: Your work focuses on the effects of stress on the brain. Does stress affect other systems of the body?

DK: Chronic stress can constrict blood vessels and increase the risk of cardiovascular disease . Research shows that too much stress can suppress the immune system . Ours and other research has shown that chronic stress also reduces fertility in animals. In female mice, for instance, stress lowers libido, reduces fertility, and increases the risk of miscarriage. We also know that extreme stress can lead to post traumatic stress disorder, which is an area I’m very interested in. As I’ve said, it’s important to remember threats. But it’s also important to be able to forget them as new experiences come along. Let’s say a man with a long white beard frightens you as a child. It’s healthy to begin to forget that memory as you come to see that men with long white beards aren’t inherently dangerous. The problem with post traumatic stress disorder is that people can’t forget. They can’t let traumatic memories go. The question is why. And we don’t have an answer yet.

More on Stress

Kelly McGonigal explains "How to Transform Stress into Courage and Connection."

Robert Sapolsky explores the psychology of stress .

Jeremy Adam Smith explains the relationship between stress and empathy .

How stressed are you? Take the quiz !

PJ: Can you offer any helpful strategies to ensure that stress is beneficial rather than harmful?

DK: If you tend to have a positive attitude—a self-confident sense that you can get through a rough period—you’re more likely to have a healthy response than if you perceive stress as catastrophic. Another powerful factor is social support . If you have friends and family you can turn to during a stressful period, you’re more likely to handle the stress well. Social support buffers stress. That’s something most of us know intuitively. Now we’re beginning to understand it biologically. Researchers have identified a hormone called oxytocin that reduces the stress response. According to psychologist Kelly McGonigal , oxytocin is enhanced by social contact and support.

Another powerful buffer for stress is physical exercise. We see the evidence in animal studies. Rodents that are allowed to run are more likely to create new brain cells in response to stress than sedentary animals. I think the same thing may work for people. People who are active respond better when stress comes along than people who are inactive. Physical activity after a stressful experience also helps moderate the effects of stress.

PJ: What do you do when your own life gets stressful?

DK: I’m not the best role model. I’ll find myself writing grant proposals at one in the morning, totally stressed out. I know what I should do. Before I became a scientist, I trained as a yoga instructor. I know I should take a yoga break. But I guess it helps to know from my research that stress can be beneficial, so at least I have a positive attitude. And that plays a big role in helping people handle stress in a healthy way.

About the Author

Peter jaret.

Peter Jaret is the author of several health-related books, including In Self-Defense: The Human Immune System , Nurse: A World of Care , and Impact: On the Frontlines of Public Health . A frequent contributor to National Geographic, The New York Times, Reader’s Digest, Health magazine, More, AARP Bulletin , and dozens of other periodicals, Jaret is the recipient of an American Medical Association award for journalism and two James Beard awards. He lives in Petaluma, California.

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The impact of stress on body function: A review

Habib yaribeygi.

1 Neurosciences Research Center, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Yunes Panahi

2 Clinical Pharmacy Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Hedayat Sahraei

Thomas p. johnston.

3 Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri, USA

Amirhossein Sahebkar

4 Biotechnology Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran

Any intrinsic or extrinsic stimulus that evokes a biological response is known as stress. The compensatory responses to these stresses are known as stress responses. Based on the type, timing and severity of the applied stimulus, stress can exert various actions on the body ranging from alterations in homeostasis to life-threatening effects and death. In many cases, the pathophysiological complications of disease arise from stress and the subjects exposed to stress, e.g. those that work or live in stressful environments, have a higher likelihood of many disorders. Stress can be either a triggering or aggravating factor for many diseases and pathological conditions. In this study, we have reviewed some of the major effects of stress on the primary physiological systems of humans.

Abbreviations

ACTH: Adrenocorticotropic hormone

CNS: Central nervous system

CRH: Corticotropin releasing hormone

GI: Gastrointestinal

LTP: Long-term potentiation

NMDA : N-methyl-D-aspartate

VTA: Ventral tegmental area

Stress and the Brain Function Complications

For a long time, researchers suggested that hormones have receptors just in the peripheral tissues and do not gain access to the central nervous system (CNS) (Lupien and Lepage, 2001[ 63 ]). However, observations have demonstrated the effect of anti-inflammatory drugs (which are considered synthetic hormones) on behavioral and cognitive disorders and the phenomenon called “Steroid psychosis” (Clark et al., 1952[ 16 ]). In the early sixties, neuropeptides were recognized as compounds devoid of effects on the peripheral endocrine system. However, it was determined that hormones are able to elicit biological effects on different parts of the CNS and play an important role in behavior and cognition (De Kloet, 2000[ 22 ]). In 1968, McEven suggested for the first time that the brain of rodents is capable of responding to glucocorticoid (as one of the operators in the stress cascade). This hypothesis that stress can cause functional changes in the CNS was then accepted (McEwen et al., 1968[ 74 ]). From that time on, two types of corticotropic receptors (glucocorticosteroids and mineralocorticoids) were recognized (de Kloet et al., 1999[ 23 ]). It was determined that the affinity of glucocorticosteroid receptors to cortisol and corticosterone was about one tenth of that of mineralocorticoids (de Kloet et al., 1999[ 23 ]). The hippocampus area has both types of receptors, while other points of the brain have only glucocorticosteroid receptors (de Kloet et al., 1999[ 23 ]).

The effects of stress on the nervous system have been investigated for 50 years (Thierry et al., 1968[ 115 ]). Some studies have shown that stress has many effects on the human nervous system and can cause structural changes in different parts of the brain (Lupien et al., 2009[ 65 ]). Chronic stress can lead to atrophy of the brain mass and decrease its weight (Sarahian et al., 2014[ 100 ]). These structural changes bring about differences in the response to stress, cognition and memory (Lupien et al., 2009[ 65 ]). Of course, the amount and intensity of the changes are different according to the stress level and the duration of stress (Lupien et al., 2009[ 65 ]). However, it is now obvious that stress can cause structural changes in the brain with long-term effects on the nervous system (Reznikov et al., 2007[ 89 ]). Thus, it is highly essential to investigate the effects of stress on different aspects of the nervous system (Table 1 (Tab. 1) ; References in Table 1: Lupien et al., 2001[ 63 ]; Woolley et al., 1990[ 122 ]; Sapolsky et al., 1990[ 99 ]; Gould et al., 1998[ 35 ]; Bremner, 1999[ 10 ]; Seeman et al., 1997[ 108 ]; Luine et al., 1994[ 62 ]; Li et al., 2008[ 60 ]; Scholey et al., 2014[ 101 ]; Borcel et al., 2008[ 9 ]; Lupien et al., 2002[ 66 ]).

Stress and Memory

Memory is one of the important functional aspects of the CNS and it is categorized as sensory, short term, and long-term. Short term memory is dependent on the function of the frontal and parietal lobes, while long-term memory depends on the function of large areas of the brain (Wood et al., 2000[ 121 ]). However, total function of memory and the conversion of short term memory to long-term memory are dependent on the hippocampus; an area of the brain that has the highest density of glucocorticosteroid receptors and also represents the highest level of response to stress (Scoville and Milner, 1957[ 107 ]; Asalgoo et al., 2015[ 1 ]). Therefore, during the past several decades, the relationship between the hippocampus and stress have been hotly debated (Asalgoo et al., 2015[ 1 ]; Lupien and Lepage, 2001[ 63 ]). In 1968, it was proven that there were cortisol receptors in the hippocampus of rats (McEwen et al., 1968[ 74 ]). Later, in 1982, by using specific agonists of glucocorticosteroid and mineralocorticoid receptors, the existence of these two receptors in the brain and hippocampus area of rats was proven (Veldhuis et al., 1982[ 119 ]). It should also be noted that the amygdala is very important to assessing the emotional experiences of memory (Roozendaal et al., 2009[ 91 ]).

The results of past studies have demonstrated the effect of stress on the process of memory (Ghodrat et al., 2014[ 32 ]). Various studies have shown that stress can cause functional and structural changes in the hippocampus section of the brain (McEwen, 1999[ 72 ]). These structural changes include atrophy and neurogenesis disorders (Lupien and Lepage, 2001[ 63 ]). Also, chronic stress and, consequently, an increase in plasma cortisol, leads to a reduction in the number of dendritic branches (Woolley et al., 1990[ 122 ]) and the number of neurons (Sapolsky et al., 1990[ 99 ]), as well as structural changes in synaptic terminals (Sapolsky et al., 1990[ 99 ]) and decreased neurogenesis in the hippocampus tissue (Gould et al., 1998[ 35 ]). Glucocorticosteroids can induce these changes by either effecting the cellular metabolism of neurons (Lawrence and Sapolsky, 1994[ 58 ]), or increasing the sensitivity of hippocampus cells to stimulatory amino acids (Sapolsky and Pulsinelli, 1985[ 98 ]) and/or increasing the level of extracellular glutamate (Sapolsky and Pulsinelli, 1985[ 98 ]).

High concentrations of stress hormones can cause declarative memory disorders (Lupien and Lepage, 2001[ 63 ]). Animal studies have shown that stress can cause a reversible reduction in spatial memory as a result of atrophy of the hippocampus (Luine et al., 1994[ 62 ]). In fact, high plasma concentrations of glucocorticosteroids for extended periods of time can cause atrophy of the hippocampus leading to memory disorders (Issa et al., 1990[ 45 ]). Additionally, people with either Cushing's syndrome (with an increased secretion of glucocorticosteroids), or people who receive high dosages of exogenous synthetic anti-inflammatory drugs, are observed to have atrophy of the hippocampus and associated memory disorders (Ling et al., 1981[ 61 ]). MRI images taken from the brains of people with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have demonstrated a reduction in the volume of the hippocampus along with neurophysiologic effects such as a weak verbal memory (Bremner, 1999[ 10 ]). Several human studies have suggested that even common therapeutic doses of glucocorticosteroids and dexamethasone can cause problems with explicit memory (Keenan et al., 1995[ 49 ]; Kirschbaum et al., 1996[ 53 ]). Thus, there is an inverse relationship between the level of cortisol and memory (Ling et al., 1981[ 61 ]), such that increasing levels of plasma cortisol following prolonged stress leads to a reduction in memory (Kirschbaum et al., 1996[ 53 ]), which improves when the level of plasma cortisol decreases (Seeman et al., 1997[ 108 ]).

Stress also has negative effects on learning. Results from hippocampus-dependent loading data demonstrate that subjects are not as familiar with a new environment after having been exposed to a new environment (Bremner, 1999[ 10 ]). Moreover, adrenal steroids lead to alteration in long-term potentiation (LTP), which is an important process in memory formation (Bliss and Lømo, 1973[ 7 ]).

Two factors are involved in the memory process during stress. The first is noradrenaline, which creates emotional aspects of memories in the basolateral amygdala area (Joëls et al., 2011[ 47 ]). Secondly, this process is facilitated by corticosteroids. However, if the release of corticosteroids occurs a few hours earlier, it causes inhibition of the amygdala and corresponding behaviors (Joëls et al., 2011[ 47 ]). Thus, there is a mutual balance between these two hormones for creating a response in the memory process (Joëls et al., 2011[ 47 ]).

Stress does not always affect memory. Sometimes, under special conditions, stress can actually improve memory (McEwen and Lupien, 2002[ 71 ]). These conditions include non-familiarity, non-predictability, and life-threatening aspects of imposed stimulation. Under these specific conditions, stress can temporarily improve the function of the brain and, therefore, memory. In fact, it has been suggested that stress can sharpen memory in some situations (Schwabe et al., 2010[ 105 ]). For example, it has been shown that having to take a written examination can improve memory for a short period of time in examination participants. Interestingly, this condition is associated with a decrease in the level of cortisol in the saliva (Vedhara et al., 2000[ 118 ]). Other studies have shown that impending stress before learning occurs can also lead to either an increase in the power of memory (Domes et al., 2002[ 27 ]; Schwabe et al., 2008[ 102 ]), or decrease in the capacity for memory (Diamond et al., 2006[ 26 ]; Kirschbaum et al., 1996[ 53 ]). This paradox results from the type of imposed stress and either the degree of emotional connection to the stressful event (Payne et al., 2007[ 83 ]; Diamond et al., 2007[ 25 ]), or the period of time between the imposing stress and the process of learning (Diamond et al., 2007[ 25 ]).

The process of strengthening memory is usually reinforced after stress (Schwabe et al., 2012[ 103 ]). Various studies on animal and human models have shown that administration of either glucocorticosteroids, or stress shortly after learning has occurred facilitates memory (Schwabe et al., 2012[ 103 ]). Also, it has been shown that glucocorticosteroids (not mineralocorticoids) are necessary to improve learning and memory (Lupien et al., 2002[ 66 ]). However, the retrieval of events in memory after exposure to stress will be decreased (Schwabe et al., 2012[ 103 ]), which may result from the competition of updated data for storage in memory in a stressful state (de Kloet et al., 1999[ 23 ]). Some investigations have shown that either exposure to stress, or injection of glucocorticosteroids before a test to assess retention, decreases the power of memory in humans and rodents (Schwabe and Wolf, 2009[ 104 ]).

In summary, it has been concluded that the effect of stress on memory is highly dependent on the time of exposure to the stressful stimulus and, in terms of the timing of the imposed stress, memory can be either better or worse (Schwabe et al., 2012[ 103 ]). Moreover, recent studies have shown that using a specific-timed schedule of exposure to stress not only affects hippocampus-dependent memory, but also striatum-dependent memory, which highlights the role of timing of the imposed stressful stimulus (Schwabe et al., 2010[ 105 ]).

Stress, Cognition and Learning

Cognition is another important feature of brain function. Cognition means reception and perception of perceived stimuli and its interpretation, which includes learning, decision making, attention, and judgment (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Stress has many effects on cognition that depend on its intensity, duration, origin, and magnitude (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Similar to memory, cognition is mainly formed in the hippocampus, amygdala, and temporal lobe (McEwen and Sapolsky, 1995[ 73 ]). The net effect of stress on cognition is a reduction in cognition and thus, it is said that any behavioral steps undertaken to reduce stress leads to increase in cognition (Scholey et al., 2014[ 101 ]). In fact, stress activates some physiological systems, such as the autonomic nervous system, central neurotransmitter and neuropeptide system, and the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, which have direct effects on neural circuits in the brain involved with data processing (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Activation of stress results in the production and release of glucocorticosteroids. Because of the lipophilic properties of glucocorticosteroids, they can diffuse through the blood-brain barrier and exert long-term effects on processing and cognition (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]).

It appears that being exposed to stress can cause pathophysiologic changes in the brain, and these changes can be manifested as behavioral, cognitive, and mood disorders (Li et al., 2008[ 60 ]). In fact, studies have shown that chronic stress can cause complications such as increased IL-6 and plasma cortisol, but decreased amounts of cAMP responsive element binding protein and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which is very similar to what is observed in people with depression and mood disorders that exhibit a wide range of cognitive problems (Song et al., 2006[ 114 ]). Additionally, the increased concentrations of inflammatory factors, like interleukins and TNF-α (which play an important role in creating cognitive disorders), proves a physiologic relationship between stress and mood-based cognitive disorders (Solerte et al., 2000[ 113 ]; Marsland et al., 2006[ 68 ]; Li et al., 2008[ 60 ]). Studies on animals suggest that cognitive disorders resulting from stress are created due to neuroendocrine and neuroamine factors and neurodegenerative processes (Li et al., 2008[ 60 ]). However, it should be noted that depression may not always be due to the over activation of the physiological-based stress response (Osanloo et al., 2016[ 81 ]).

Cognitive disorders following exposure to stress have been reported in past studies (Lupien and McEwen, 1997[ 64 ]). Stress has effects on cognition both acutely (through catecholamines) and chronically (through glucocorticosteroids) (McEwen and Sapolsky, 1995[ 73 ]). Acute effects are mainly caused by beta-adrenergic effects, while chronic effects are induced in a long-term manner by changes in gene expression mediated by steroids (McEwen and Sapolsky, 1995[ 73 ]). In general, many mechanisms modulate the effects of stress on cognition (McEwen and Sapolsky, 1995[ 73 ]; Mendl, 1999[ 75 ]). For instance, adrenal steroids affect the function of the hippocampus during cognition and memory retrieval in a biphasic manner (McEwen and Sapolsky, 1995[ 73 ]). In chronic stress, these steroids can destroy neurons with other stimulatory neurotransmitters (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Exposure to stress can also cause disorders in hippocampus-related cognition; specifically, spatial memory (Borcel et al., 2008[ 9 ]; Sandi et al., 2003[ 96 ]). Additionally, stress can halt or decrease the genesis of neurons in the dentate gyrus area of the hippocampus (this area is one of the limited brain areas in which neurogenesis occurs in adults) (Gould and Tanapat, 1999[ 34 ]; Köhler et al., 2010[ 54 ]). Although age is a factor known to affect cognition, studies on animals have demonstrated that young rats exposed to high doses of adrenal steroids show the same level of decline in their cognition as older adult animals with normal plasma concentrations of glucocorticoids (Landfield et al., 1978[ 57 ]). Also, a decrease in the secretion of glucocorticosteroids causes preservation of spatial memory in adults and has also been shown to have neuroprotective effects (Montaron et al., 2006[ 78 ]). Other studies have shown that stress (or the injection of adrenal steroids) results in varied effects on cognition. For instance, injection of hydrocortisone at the time of its maximum plasma concentration (in the afternoon) leads to a decrease in reaction time and improves cognition and memory (Lupien et al., 2002[ 66 ]).

In summary, the adverse effects of stress on cognition are diverse and depend on the type, timing, intensity, and duration (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Generally, it is believed that mild stress facilitates an improvement in cognitive function, especially in the case of virtual or verbal memory. However, if the intensity of stress passes beyond a predetermined threshold (which is different in each individual), it causes cognitive disorders, especially in memory and judgment. The disruption to memory and judgment is due to the effects of stress on the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Of course, it must be realized that factors like age and gender may also play a role in some cognitive disorders (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Importantly, it should be emphasized that different people may exhibit varied responses in cognition when exposed to the very same stressful stimulus (Hatef et al., 2015[ 39 ]).

Stress and Immune System Functions

The relationship between stress and the immune system has been considered for decades (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]; Dantzer and Kelley, 1989[ 21 ]). The prevailing attitude between the association of stress and immune system response has been that people under stress are more likely to have an impaired immune system and, as a result, suffer from more frequent illness (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]). Also, old anecdotes describing resistance of some people to severe disease using the power of the mind and their thought processes, has promoted this attitude (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]). In about 200 AC, Aelius Galenus (Galen of Pergamon) declared that melancholic women (who have high levels of stress and, thus, impaired immune function) are more likely to have cancer than women who were more positive and exposed to less stress (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]). This may be the first recorded case about the relationship between the immune system and stress. In an old study in the early 1920's, researchers found that the activity of phagocytes in tuberculosis decreased when emotional stress was induced. In fact, it was also suggested that living with stress increases the risk of tuberculosis by suppressing the immune system (Ishigami, 1919[ 44 ]). Following this study, other researchers suggested that the probability of disease appearance increases following a sudden, major, and extremely stressful life style change (Holmes and Rahe, 1967[ 41 ]; Calabrese et al., 1987[ 12 ]).

Over the past several decades, there have been many studies investigating the role of stress on immune system function (Dantzer and Kelley, 1989[ 21 ]; Segerstrom and Miller, 2004[ 109 ]). These studies have shown that stress mediators can pass through the blood-brain barrier and exert their effects on the immune system (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]). Thus, the effect of stress on the immune system is now an accepted relationship or association.

Stress can affect the function of the immune system by modulating processes in the CNS and neuroendocrine system (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]; Kiecolt-Glaser and Glaser, 1991[ 51 ]). Following stress, some neuroendocrine and neural responses result in the release of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), and other stress mediators (Carrasco and Van de Kar, 2003[ 13 ]). However, evidence suggests that the lymphatic system, which is a part of the immune system, also plays a role in releasing these mediators (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]). For instance, thymus peptides, such as thymopentine, thymopoietin, and thymosin fraction-5, cause an increase in ACTH production (Goya et al., 1993[ 36 ]). Additionally, the existence of CRH in thymus has been proven (Redei, 1992[ 87 ]). It has also been proven that interleukin-1 released from phagocytes has a role in ACTH secretion (Berkenbosch et al., 1987[ 4 ]). On the other hand, natural or synthetic glucocorticosteroids (which are the final stress operators) are known as anti-inflammatory drugs and immune suppressants and their role in the inhibition of lymphocytes and macrophages has been demonstrated as well (Elenkov et al., 1999[ 28 ]; Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]). Moreover, their role in inhibiting the production of cytokines and other immune mediators and decreasing their effect on target cells during exposure to stress has also been determined (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]).

In addition to adrenal steroids, other hormones are affected during stress. For example, the secretion of growth hormone will be halted during severe stress. A study showed that long-term administration of CRH into the brain ventricles leads to a cessation in the release of growth hormone (Rivier and Vale, 1985[ 90 ]). Stress also causes the release of opioid peptides to be changed during the time period over which the person is exposed to stress (McCarthy et al., 2001[ 70 ]). In fact, stress modifies the secretion of hormones that play a critical role in the function of the immune system (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]). To date, it has been shown that various receptors for a variety of hormones involved in immune system function are adversely affected by stress. For example, ACTH, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), substance P, growth hormone, prolactin, and steroids all have receptors in various tissues of the immune system and can modulate its function (De la Fuente et al., 1996[ 24 ]; Gala, 1991[ 30 ]; Mantyh, 1991[ 67 ]). In addition, active immune cells are also able to secrete several hormones; thus, some researchers believe that these hormones, as mediators of immune system, play a significant role in balancing its function (Blalock et al., 1985[ 6 ]).

Severe stress can lead to malignancy by suppressing the immune system (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]). In fact, stress can decrease the activity of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells and lead to growth of malignant cells, genetic instability, and tumor expansion (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]). Studies have shown that the plasma concentration of norepinephrine, which increases after the induction stress, has an inverse relationship with the immune function of phagocytes and lymphocytes (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]). Lastly, catecholamines and opioids that are released following stress have immune-suppressing properties (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]).

Stress and the Function of the Cardiovascular System

The existence of a positive association between stress and cardiovascular disease has been verified (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]). Stress, whether acute or chronic, has a deleterious effect on the function of the cardiovascular system (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]; Kario et al., 2003[ 48 ]; Herd, 1991[ 40 ]). The effects of stress on the cardiovascular system are not only stimulatory, but also inhibitory in nature (Engler and Engler, 1995[ 29 ]). It can be postulated that stress causes autonomic nervous system activation and indirectly affects the function of the cardiovascular system (Lazarus et al., 1963[ 59 ]; Vrijkotte et al., 2000[ 120 ]). If these effects occur upon activation of the sympathetic nervous system, then it mainly results in an increase in heart rate, strength of contraction, vasodilation in the arteries of skeletal muscles, a narrowing of the veins, contraction of the arteries in the spleen and kidneys, and decreased sodium excretion by the kidneys (Herd, 1991[ 40 ]). Sometimes, stress activates the parasympathetic nervous system (Pagani et al., 1991[ 82 ]). Specifically, if it leads to stimulation of the limbic system, it results in a decrease, or even a total stopping of the heart-beat, decreased contractility, reduction in the guidance of impulses by the heart stimulus-transmission network, peripheral vasodilatation, and a decline in blood pressure (Cohen et al., 2000[ 17 ]). Finally, stress can modulate vascular endothelial cell function and increase the risk of thrombosis and ischemia, as well as increase platelet aggregation (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]).

The initial effect of stress on heart function is usually on the heart rate (Vrijkotte et al., 2000[ 120 ]). Depending upon the direction of the shift in the sympatho-vagal response, the heart beat will either increase or decrease (Hall et al., 2004[ 38 ]). The next significant effect of stress on cardiovascular function is blood pressure (Laitinen et al., 1999[ 56 ]). Stress can stimulate the autonomic sympathetic nervous system to increase vasoconstriction, which can mediate an increase in blood pressure, an increase in blood lipids, disorders in blood clotting, vascular changes, atherogenesis; all, of which, can cause cardiac arrhythmias and subsequent myocardial infarction (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]; Vrijkotte et al., 2000[ 120 ]; Sgoifo et al., 1998[ 111 ]). These effects from stress are observed clinically with atherosclerosis and leads to an increase in coronary vasoconstriction (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]). Of course, there are individual differences in terms of the level of autonomic-based responses due to stress, which depends on the personal characteristics of a given individual (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]). Thus, training programs for stress management are aimed at reducing the consequences of stress and death resulting from heart disease (Engler and Engler, 1995[ 29 ]). In addition, there are gender-dependent differences in the cardiovascular response to stress and, accordingly, it has been estimated that women begin to exhibit heart disease ten years later that men, which has been attributed to the protective effects of the estrogen hormone (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]).

Studies have shown that psychological stress can cause alpha-adrenergic stimulation and, consequently, increase heart rate and oxygen demand (Rozanski et al., 1998[ 92 ], 1999[ 93 ]; Jiang et al., 1996[ 46 ]). As a result, coronary vasoconstriction is enhanced, which may increase the risk of myocardial infarction (Yeung et al., 1991[ 124 ]; Boltwood et al., 1993[ 8 ]; Dakak et al., 1995[ 20 ]). Several studies have demonstrated that psychological stress decreases the microcirculation in the coronary arteries by an endothelium-dependent mechanism and increases the risk of myocardial infarction (Dakak et al., 1995[ 20 ]). On the other hand, mental stress indirectly leads to potential engagement in risky behaviors for the heart, such as smoking, and directly leads to stimulation of the neuroendocrine system as part of the autonomic nervous system (Hornstein, 2004[ 43 ]). It has been suggested that severe mental stress can result in sudden death (Pignalberi et al., 2002[ 84 ]). Generally, stress-mediated risky behaviors that impact cardiovascular health can be summarized into five categories: an increase in the stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system, initiation and progression of myocardial ischemia, development of cardiac arrhythmias, stimulation of platelet aggregation, and endothelial dysfunction (Wu, 2001[ 123 ]).

Stress and Gastrointestinal Complications

The effects of stress on nutrition and the gastrointestinal (GI) system can be summarized with two aspects of GI function.

First, stress can affect appetite (Bagheri Nikoo et al., 2014[ 2 ]; Halataei et al., 2011[ 37 ]; Ranjbaran et al., 2013[ 86 ]). This effect is related to involvement of either the ventral tegmental area (VTA), or the amygdala via N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptors (Nasihatkon et al., 2014[ 80 ]; Sadeghi et al., 2015[ 94 ]). However, it should also be noted that nutrition patterns have effects on the response to stress (Ghanbari et al., 2015[ 31 ]), and this suggests a bilateral interaction between nutrition and stress.

Second, stress adversely affects the normal function of GI tract. There are many studies concerning the effect of stress on the function of the GI system (Söderholm and Perdue, 2001[ 112 ]; Collins, 2001[ 18 ]). For instance, studies have shown that stress affects the absorption process, intestinal permeability, mucus and stomach acid secretion, function of ion channels, and GI inflammation (Collins, 2001[ 18 ]; Nabavizadeh et al., 2011[ 79 ]). Stress also increases the response of the GI system to inflammation and may reactivate previous inflammation and accelerate the inflammation process by secretion of mediators such as substance P (Collins, 2001[ 18 ]). As a result, there is an increase in the permeability of cells and recruitment of T lymphocytes. Lymphocyte aggregation leads to the production of inflammatory markers, activates key pathways in the hypothalamus, and results in negative feedback due to CRH secretion, which ultimately results in the appearance of GI inflammatory diseases (Collins, 2001[ 18 ]). This process can reactivate previous silent colitis (Million et al., 1999[ 76 ]; Qiu et al., 1999[ 85 ]). Mast cells play a crucial role in stress-induced effects on the GI system, because they cause neurotransmitters and other chemical factors to be released that affect the function of the GI system (Konturek et al., 2011[ 55 ]).

Stress can also alter the functional physiology of the intestine (Kiliaan et al., 1998[ 52 ]). Many inflammatory diseases, such as Crohn's disease and other ulcerative-based diseases of the GI tract, are associated with stress (Hommes et al., 2002[ 42 ]). It has been suggested that even childhood stress can lead to these diseases in adulthood (Schwartz and Schwartz, 1983[ 106 ]). Irritable bowel syndrome, which is a disease with an inflammatory origin, is highly related to stress (Gonsalkorale et al., 2003[ 33 ]). Studies on various animals suggest the existence of inflammatory GI diseases following induction of severe stress (Qiu et al., 1999[ 85 ]; Collins et al., 1996[ 19 ]). Additionally, pharmacological interventions, in an attempt to decrease the response of CRH to stress, have been shown to result in an increase in GI diseases in rats (Million et al., 1999[ 76 ]).

Altering the permeability of the mucosal membrane by perturbing the functions of mucosal mast cells may be another way that stress causes its effects on the GI system, since this is a normal process by which harmful and toxic substances are removed from the intestinal lumen (Söderholm and Perdue, 2001[ 112 ]). Also, stress can both decrease the removal of water from the lumen, as well as induce sodium and chloride secretion into the lumen. This most likely occurs by increasing the activity of the parasympathetic nervous system (Barclay and Turnberg, 1987[ 3 ]). Moreover, physical stress, such as trauma or surgery, can increase luminal permeability (Söderholm and Perdue, 2001[ 112 ]) (Table 2 (Tab. 2) ; References in Table 2: Halataei et al., 2011[ 37 ]; Ranjbaran et al., 2013[ 86 ]; Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]; Collins, 2001[ 18 ]; Nabavizadeh et al., 2011[ 79 ]; Barclay and Turnberg, 1987[ 3 ]; Million et al., 1999[ 76 ]; Gonsalkorale et al., 2003[ 33 ]).

Stress also affects movement of the GI tract. In this way, it prevents stomach emptying and accelerates colonic motility (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). In the case of irritable bowel syndrome, stress increases the movement (contractility and motility) of the large intestine (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). Previous studies have revealed that CRH increases movement in the terminal sections of the GI tract and decreases the movements in the proximal sections of the GI tract (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). A delay in stomach emptying is likely accomplished through CRH-2 receptors, while type 1 receptors affect the colon (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). The effects produced by CRH are so prominent that CRH is now considered an ideal candidate for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome (Martinez and Taché, 2006[ 69 ]). When serotonin is released in response to stress (Chaouloff, 2000[ 14 ]), it leads to an increase in the motility of the colon by stimulating 5HT-3 receptors (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). Moreover, it has also been suggested that stress, especially mental and emotional types of stress, increase visceral sensitivity and activate mucosal mast cells (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). Stimulation of the CNS by stress has a direct effect on GI-specific nervous system ( i.e. , the myenteric system or plexus) and causes the above mentioned changes in the movements of the GI tract (Bhatia and Tandon, 2005[ 5 ]). In fact, stress has a direct effect on the brain-bowel axis (Konturek et al., 2011[ 55 ]). Various clinical studies have suggested a direct effect of stress on irritable bowel syndrome, intestinal inflammation, and peptic ulcers (Konturek et al., 2011[ 55 ]).

In conclusion, the effects of stress on the GI system can be classified into six different actions: GI tract movement disorders, increased visceral irritability, altered rate and extent of various GI secretions, modified permeability of the intestinal barrier, negative effects on blood flow to the GI tract, and increased intestinal bacteria counts (Konturek et al., 2011[ 55 ]).

Stress and the Endocrine System

There is a broad and mutual relationship between stress and the endocrine system. On one hand, stress has many subtle and complex effects on the activity of the endocrine system (Sapolsky, 2002[ 97 ]; Charmandari et al., 2005[ 15 ]), while on the other hand, the endocrine system has many effects on the response to stress (Ulrich-Lai and Herman, 2009[ 117 ]; Selye, 1956[ 110 ]). Stress can either activate, or change the activity of, many endocrine processes associated with the hypothalamus, pituitary and adrenal glands, the adrenergic system, gonads, thyroid, and the pancreas (Tilbrook et al., 2000[ 116 ]; Brown-Grant et al., 1954[ 11 ]; Thierry et al., 1968[ 115 ]; Lupien and McEwen, 1997[ 64 ]). In fact, it has been suggested that it is impossible to separate the response to stress from the functions of the endocrine system. This premise has been advanced due to the fact that even a minimal amount of stress can activate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, which itself is intricately involved with the activation of several different hormone secreting systems (Sapolsky, 2002[ 97 ]). In different locations throughout this article, we have already discussed the effects of stress on hormones and various endocrine factors and, thus, they will not be further addressed.

Altogether, stress may induce both beneficial and harmful effects. The beneficial effects of stress involve preserving homeostasis of cells/species, which leads to continued survival. However, in many cases, the harmful effects of stress may receive more attention or recognition by an individual due to their role in various pathological conditions and diseases. As has been discussed in this review, various factors, for example, hormones, neuroendocrine mediators, peptides, and neurotransmitters are involved in the body's response to stress. Many disorders originate from stress, especially if the stress is severe and prolonged. The medical community needs to have a greater appreciation for the significant role that stress may play in various diseases and then treat the patient accordingly using both pharmacological (medications and/or nutraceuticals) and non-pharmacological (change in lifestyle, daily exercise, healthy nutrition, and stress reduction programs) therapeutic interventions. Important for the physician providing treatment for stress is the fact that all individuals vary in their response to stress, so a particular treatment strategy or intervention appropriate for one patient may not be suitable or optimal for a different patient.

Yunes Panahi and Amirhossein Sahebkar (Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran, P.O. Box: 91779-48564, Iran; Tel: 985118002288, Fax: 985118002287, E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]) contributed equally as corresponding authors.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that have no conflict of interest in this study.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to thank the "Neurosciences Research Center of Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences" and the “Clinical Research Development Center of Baqiyatallah (a.s.) Hospital” for providing technical supports.

Stress: Definition and Different Types of Stress Essay

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Stress can be defined as any cognitive, emotional, or physical pressure that when built, affects an individual directly or indirectly by influencing his work, work-related, or personal life. At work, stress affects an individual’s performance, either negatively or positively. Negative, when stress provokes depressive or pessimistic stress patterns, whereas positive when stress enables an individual to face and accept challenges. There are various stressors responsible for inducing stress patterns in work and relationships environments. Environmental stressors such as noise, heat, speech, aircraft noise, traffic noise, office noise, etc. The three main types of stress, present in any environment are physical, emotional, and cognitive (psychological). Any of these stresses incur as a result of work overload, repetitive tasks that underestimate individual’s capability, and job mismatch. Problems of work overload are directly or indirectly associated with psychological or physical pressure. For instance, individuals who find themselves in jobs that are ill-suited to their skills, abilities, and training or that do not meet their needs and expectations are likely to experience stress.

Stress impacts human performance, either individually or in teams and depicts a unique relationship between the person and the environment that is judged by the person for his own well-being. This clearly indicates that at work, not all stress is negative. It is stress in teamwork that induces the motivation factor to accept all the challenges that in the longer run evaluates and appraises the individual. At work there are two types of stressors that influence individuals. Ambient or indirect stressors, that is associated as major factors to be a part of the environment or background where the individual works. Direct stressors or performance-related stressors are directly linked to task performance. Performance-related stressors can be minimized by successful task performance. Stress is positive when it is perceived by an individual, for achieving his goals. However, there are certain variables of stress, which are proposed to have a direct impact on the team’s interaction and coordination. Such teamwork stressors that trigger motivation and promote a sense of coordination among teams include workload, team size, team management, and timeliness to accomplish a task.

Stress when relating to performance has remained a critical issue for there are controversies between positive and negative influences of stress. Many believe that individual or team performance is susceptible to the effects of stress as there is a requirement for teams to maintain acceptable performance. This is done by interacting effectively with fellow team members, which also pressurizes the stressed member to maintain his or her own performance. Another critical issue about work stress is its influence on family members, which is usually negative.

Work-family conflict gives rise to a high magnitude of stress transmission, which emotionally affects family members. It would be better to say that work-related stress when remaining unmanaged, induce stress among family members and relationships in a pessimistic manner. Here comes stress in emotion management that works among various relations including family and friends.

Stress in education has enabled us to think towards stress-management training, which has provided us with a useful function to help individuals to recognize the symptoms of stress and to overcome any negativity related to the stress. There are various awareness activities and skills-training programs designed to cope up with stress-related issues. Such techniques have proven useful in helping individuals deal with stressors and accept realities inherent in the work environment.

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Home — Essay Samples — Education — College Students — The Impact of Stress on College Students: Causes, Effects, and Management

The Impact of Stress on College Students: Causes, Effects, and Management

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Introduction, causes and effects of stress in college students, ways to manage stress.

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Home / Essay Samples / Health / Stress / The Impact of Stress: Understanding Causes and Effects

The Impact of Stress: Understanding Causes and Effects

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• The demands of the job,
• The degree that control staff have over how they do their work,
• The degree of support they receive by colleagues and superiors,
• Their relationships with colleagues,
• Whether they understand their roles and responsibilities properly,
• How far the company consults staff over workplace changes.

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