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How to Write a Conclusion for Research Papers (with Examples)

The conclusion of a research paper is a crucial section that plays a significant role in the overall impact and effectiveness of your research paper. However, this is also the section that typically receives less attention compared to the introduction and the body of the paper. The conclusion serves to provide a concise summary of the key findings, their significance, their implications, and a sense of closure to the study. Discussing how can the findings be applied in real-world scenarios or inform policy, practice, or decision-making is especially valuable to practitioners and policymakers. The research paper conclusion also provides researchers with clear insights and valuable information for their own work, which they can then build on and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field.

The research paper conclusion should explain the significance of your findings within the broader context of your field. It restates how your results contribute to the existing body of knowledge and whether they confirm or challenge existing theories or hypotheses. Also, by identifying unanswered questions or areas requiring further investigation, your awareness of the broader research landscape can be demonstrated.

Remember to tailor the research paper conclusion to the specific needs and interests of your intended audience, which may include researchers, practitioners, policymakers, or a combination of these.

Table of Contents

What is a conclusion in a research paper, summarizing conclusion, editorial conclusion, externalizing conclusion, importance of a good research paper conclusion, how to write a conclusion for your research paper, research paper conclusion examples.

• How to write a research paper conclusion with Paperpal? 

Frequently Asked Questions

A conclusion in a research paper is the final section where you summarize and wrap up your research, presenting the key findings and insights derived from your study. The research paper conclusion is not the place to introduce new information or data that was not discussed in the main body of the paper. When working on how to conclude a research paper, remember to stick to summarizing and interpreting existing content. The research paper conclusion serves the following purposes: 1

• Warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem.
• Recommend specific course(s) of action.
• Restate key ideas to drive home the ultimate point of your research paper.
• Provide a “take-home” message that you want the readers to remember about your study.

Types of conclusions for research papers

In research papers, the conclusion provides closure to the reader. The type of research paper conclusion you choose depends on the nature of your study, your goals, and your target audience. I provide you with three common types of conclusions:

A summarizing conclusion is the most common type of conclusion in research papers. It involves summarizing the main points, reiterating the research question, and restating the significance of the findings. This common type of research paper conclusion is used across different disciplines.

An editorial conclusion is less common but can be used in research papers that are focused on proposing or advocating for a particular viewpoint or policy. It involves presenting a strong editorial or opinion based on the research findings and offering recommendations or calls to action.

An externalizing conclusion is a type of conclusion that extends the research beyond the scope of the paper by suggesting potential future research directions or discussing the broader implications of the findings. This type of conclusion is often used in more theoretical or exploratory research papers.

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The conclusion in a research paper serves several important purposes:

• Offers Implications and Recommendations : Your research paper conclusion is an excellent place to discuss the broader implications of your research and suggest potential areas for further study. It’s also an opportunity to offer practical recommendations based on your findings.
• Provides Closure : A good research paper conclusion provides a sense of closure to your paper. It should leave the reader with a feeling that they have reached the end of a well-structured and thought-provoking research project.
• Leaves a Lasting Impression : Writing a well-crafted research paper conclusion leaves a lasting impression on your readers. It’s your final opportunity to leave them with a new idea, a call to action, or a memorable quote.

Writing a strong conclusion for your research paper is essential to leave a lasting impression on your readers. Here’s a step-by-step process to help you create and know what to put in the conclusion of a research paper: 2

• Research Statement : Begin your research paper conclusion by restating your research statement. This reminds the reader of the main point you’ve been trying to prove throughout your paper. Keep it concise and clear.
• Key Points : Summarize the main arguments and key points you’ve made in your paper. Avoid introducing new information in the research paper conclusion. Instead, provide a concise overview of what you’ve discussed in the body of your paper.
• Address the Research Questions : If your research paper is based on specific research questions or hypotheses, briefly address whether you’ve answered them or achieved your research goals. Discuss the significance of your findings in this context.
• Significance : Highlight the importance of your research and its relevance in the broader context. Explain why your findings matter and how they contribute to the existing knowledge in your field.
• Implications : Explore the practical or theoretical implications of your research. How might your findings impact future research, policy, or real-world applications? Consider the “so what?” question.
• Future Research : Offer suggestions for future research in your area. What questions or aspects remain unanswered or warrant further investigation? This shows that your work opens the door for future exploration.
• Closing Thought : Conclude your research paper conclusion with a thought-provoking or memorable statement. This can leave a lasting impression on your readers and wrap up your paper effectively. Avoid introducing new information or arguments here.
• Proofread and Revise : Carefully proofread your conclusion for grammar, spelling, and clarity. Ensure that your ideas flow smoothly and that your conclusion is coherent and well-structured.

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Remember that a well-crafted research paper conclusion is a reflection of the strength of your research and your ability to communicate its significance effectively. It should leave a lasting impression on your readers and tie together all the threads of your paper. Now you know how to start the conclusion of a research paper and what elements to include to make it impactful, let’s look at a research paper conclusion sample.

How to write a research paper conclusion with Paperpal?

A research paper conclusion is not just a summary of your study, but a synthesis of the key findings that ties the research together and places it in a broader context. A research paper conclusion should be concise, typically around one paragraph in length. However, some complex topics may require a longer conclusion to ensure the reader is left with a clear understanding of the study’s significance. Paperpal, an AI writing assistant trusted by over 800,000 academics globally, can help you write a well-structured conclusion for your research paper. 

• Sign Up or Log In: Create a new Paperpal account or login with your details.  
• Navigate to Features : Once logged in, head over to the features’ side navigation pane. Click on Templates and you’ll find a suite of generative AI features to help you write better, faster.  
• Generate an outline: Under Templates, select ‘Outlines’. Choose ‘Research article’ as your document type.  
• Select your section: Since you’re focusing on the conclusion, select this section when prompted.  
• Choose your field of study: Identifying your field of study allows Paperpal to provide more targeted suggestions, ensuring the relevance of your conclusion to your specific area of research. 
• Provide a brief description of your study: Enter details about your research topic and findings. This information helps Paperpal generate a tailored outline that aligns with your paper’s content. 
• Generate the conclusion outline: After entering all necessary details, click on ‘generate’. Paperpal will then create a structured outline for your conclusion, to help you start writing and build upon the outline.  
• Write your conclusion: Use the generated outline to build your conclusion. The outline serves as a guide, ensuring you cover all critical aspects of a strong conclusion, from summarizing key findings to highlighting the research’s implications. 
• Refine and enhance: Paperpal’s ‘Make Academic’ feature can be particularly useful in the final stages. Select any paragraph of your conclusion and use this feature to elevate the academic tone, ensuring your writing is aligned to the academic journal standards. 

By following these steps, Paperpal not only simplifies the process of writing a research paper conclusion but also ensures it is impactful, concise, and aligned with academic standards. Sign up with Paperpal today and write your research paper conclusion 2x faster .  

The research paper conclusion is a crucial part of your paper as it provides the final opportunity to leave a strong impression on your readers. In the research paper conclusion, summarize the main points of your research paper by restating your research statement, highlighting the most important findings, addressing the research questions or objectives, explaining the broader context of the study, discussing the significance of your findings, providing recommendations if applicable, and emphasizing the takeaway message. The main purpose of the conclusion is to remind the reader of the main point or argument of your paper and to provide a clear and concise summary of the key findings and their implications. All these elements should feature on your list of what to put in the conclusion of a research paper to create a strong final statement for your work.

A strong conclusion is a critical component of a research paper, as it provides an opportunity to wrap up your arguments, reiterate your main points, and leave a lasting impression on your readers. Here are the key elements of a strong research paper conclusion: 1. Conciseness : A research paper conclusion should be concise and to the point. It should not introduce new information or ideas that were not discussed in the body of the paper. 2. Summarization : The research paper conclusion should be comprehensive enough to give the reader a clear understanding of the research’s main contributions. 3 . Relevance : Ensure that the information included in the research paper conclusion is directly relevant to the research paper’s main topic and objectives; avoid unnecessary details. 4 . Connection to the Introduction : A well-structured research paper conclusion often revisits the key points made in the introduction and shows how the research has addressed the initial questions or objectives. 5. Emphasis : Highlight the significance and implications of your research. Why is your study important? What are the broader implications or applications of your findings? 6 . Call to Action : Include a call to action or a recommendation for future research or action based on your findings.

The length of a research paper conclusion can vary depending on several factors, including the overall length of the paper, the complexity of the research, and the specific journal requirements. While there is no strict rule for the length of a conclusion, but it’s generally advisable to keep it relatively short. A typical research paper conclusion might be around 5-10% of the paper’s total length. For example, if your paper is 10 pages long, the conclusion might be roughly half a page to one page in length.

In general, you do not need to include citations in the research paper conclusion. Citations are typically reserved for the body of the paper to support your arguments and provide evidence for your claims. However, there may be some exceptions to this rule: 1. If you are drawing a direct quote or paraphrasing a specific source in your research paper conclusion, you should include a citation to give proper credit to the original author. 2. If your conclusion refers to or discusses specific research, data, or sources that are crucial to the overall argument, citations can be included to reinforce your conclusion’s validity.

The conclusion of a research paper serves several important purposes: 1. Summarize the Key Points 2. Reinforce the Main Argument 3. Provide Closure 4. Offer Insights or Implications 5. Engage the Reader. 6. Reflect on Limitations

Remember that the primary purpose of the research paper conclusion is to leave a lasting impression on the reader, reinforcing the key points and providing closure to your research. It’s often the last part of the paper that the reader will see, so it should be strong and well-crafted.

• Makar, G., Foltz, C., Lendner, M., & Vaccaro, A. R. (2018). How to write effective discussion and conclusion sections. Clinical spine surgery, 31(8), 345-346.
• Bunton, D. (2005). The structure of PhD conclusion chapters.  Journal of English for academic purposes ,  4 (3), 207-224.

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The conclusion is intended to help the reader understand why your research should matter to them after they have finished reading the paper. A conclusion is not merely a summary of the main topics covered or a re-statement of your research problem, but a synthesis of key points derived from the findings of your study and, if applicable, where you recommend new areas for future research. For most college-level research papers, two or three well-developed paragraphs is sufficient for a conclusion, although in some cases, more paragraphs may be required in describing the key findings and their significance.

Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

Importance of a Good Conclusion

A well-written conclusion provides you with important opportunities to demonstrate to the reader your understanding of the research problem. These include:

• Presenting the last word on the issues you raised in your paper . Just as the introduction gives a first impression to your reader, the conclusion offers a chance to leave a lasting impression. Do this, for example, by highlighting key findings in your analysis that advance new understanding about the research problem, that are unusual or unexpected, or that have important implications applied to practice.
• Summarizing your thoughts and conveying the larger significance of your study . The conclusion is an opportunity to succinctly re-emphasize  your answer to the "So What?" question by placing the study within the context of how your research advances past research about the topic.
• Identifying how a gap in the literature has been addressed . The conclusion can be where you describe how a previously identified gap in the literature [first identified in your literature review section] has been addressed by your research and why this contribution is significant.
• Demonstrating the importance of your ideas . Don't be shy. The conclusion offers an opportunity to elaborate on the impact and significance of your findings. This is particularly important if your study approached examining the research problem from an unusual or innovative perspective.
• Introducing possible new or expanded ways of thinking about the research problem . This does not refer to introducing new information [which should be avoided], but to offer new insight and creative approaches for framing or contextualizing the research problem based on the results of your study.

Bunton, David. “The Structure of PhD Conclusion Chapters.” Journal of English for Academic Purposes 4 (July 2005): 207–224; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion. San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  General Rules

The general function of your paper's conclusion is to restate the main argument . It reminds the reader of the strengths of your main argument(s) and reiterates the most important evidence supporting those argument(s). Do this by clearly summarizing the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem you investigated in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found in the literature. However, make sure that your conclusion is not simply a repetitive summary of the findings. This reduces the impact of the argument(s) you have developed in your paper.

When writing the conclusion to your paper, follow these general rules:

• Present your conclusions in clear, concise language. Re-state the purpose of your study, then describe how your findings differ or support those of other studies and why [i.e., what were the unique, new, or crucial contributions your study made to the overall research about your topic?].
• Do not simply reiterate your findings or the discussion of your results. Provide a synthesis of arguments presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem and the overall objectives of your study.
• Indicate opportunities for future research if you haven't already done so in the discussion section of your paper. Highlighting the need for further research provides the reader with evidence that you have an in-depth awareness of the research problem but that further investigations should take place beyond the scope of your investigation.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is presented well:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize the argument for your reader.
• If, prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the end of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from the data [this is opposite of the introduction, which begins with general discussion of the context and ends with a detailed description of the research problem]. 

The conclusion also provides a place for you to persuasively and succinctly restate the research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with all the information about the topic . Depending on the discipline you are writing in, the concluding paragraph may contain your reflections on the evidence presented. However, the nature of being introspective about the research you have conducted will depend on the topic and whether your professor wants you to express your observations in this way. If asked to think introspectively about the topics, do not delve into idle speculation. Being introspective means looking within yourself as an author to try and understand an issue more deeply, not to guess at possible outcomes or make up scenarios not supported by the evidence.

II.  Developing a Compelling Conclusion

Although an effective conclusion needs to be clear and succinct, it does not need to be written passively or lack a compelling narrative. Strategies to help you move beyond merely summarizing the key points of your research paper may include any of the following:

• If your essay deals with a critical, contemporary problem, warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem proactively.
• Recommend a specific course or courses of action that, if adopted, could address a specific problem in practice or in the development of new knowledge leading to positive change.
• Cite a relevant quotation or expert opinion already noted in your paper in order to lend authority and support to the conclusion(s) you have reached [a good source would be from your literature review].
• Explain the consequences of your research in a way that elicits action or demonstrates urgency in seeking change.
• Restate a key statistic, fact, or visual image to emphasize the most important finding of your paper.
• If your discipline encourages personal reflection, illustrate your concluding point by drawing from your own life experiences.
• Return to an anecdote, an example, or a quotation that you presented in your introduction, but add further insight derived from the findings of your study; use your interpretation of results from your study to recast it in new or important ways.
• Provide a "take-home" message in the form of a succinct, declarative statement that you want the reader to remember about your study.

III. Problems to Avoid

Failure to be concise Your conclusion section should be concise and to the point. Conclusions that are too lengthy often have unnecessary information in them. The conclusion is not the place for details about your methodology or results. Although you should give a summary of what was learned from your research, this summary should be relatively brief, since the emphasis in the conclusion is on the implications, evaluations, insights, and other forms of analysis that you make. Strategies for writing concisely can be found here .

Failure to comment on larger, more significant issues In the introduction, your task was to move from the general [the field of study] to the specific [the research problem]. However, in the conclusion, your task is to move from a specific discussion [your research problem] back to a general discussion framed around the implications and significance of your findings [i.e., how your research contributes new understanding or fills an important gap in the literature]. In short, the conclusion is where you should place your research within a larger context [visualize your paper as an hourglass--start with a broad introduction and review of the literature, move to the specific analysis and discussion, conclude with a broad summary of the study's implications and significance].

Failure to reveal problems and negative results Negative aspects of the research process should never be ignored. These are problems, deficiencies, or challenges encountered during your study. They should be summarized as a way of qualifying your overall conclusions. If you encountered negative or unintended results [i.e., findings that are validated outside the research context in which they were generated], you must report them in the results section and discuss their implications in the discussion section of your paper. In the conclusion, use negative results as an opportunity to explain their possible significance and/or how they may form the basis for future research.

Failure to provide a clear summary of what was learned In order to be able to discuss how your research fits within your field of study [and possibly the world at large], you need to summarize briefly and succinctly how it contributes to new knowledge or a new understanding about the research problem. This element of your conclusion may be only a few sentences long.

Failure to match the objectives of your research Often research objectives in the social and behavioral sciences change while the research is being carried out. This is not a problem unless you forget to go back and refine the original objectives in your introduction. As these changes emerge they must be documented so that they accurately reflect what you were trying to accomplish in your research [not what you thought you might accomplish when you began].

Resist the urge to apologize If you've immersed yourself in studying the research problem, you presumably should know a good deal about it [perhaps even more than your professor!]. Nevertheless, by the time you have finished writing, you may be having some doubts about what you have produced. Repress those doubts! Don't undermine your authority as a researcher by saying something like, "This is just one approach to examining this problem; there may be other, much better approaches that...." The overall tone of your conclusion should convey confidence to the reader about the study's validity and realiability.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8; Concluding Paragraphs. College Writing Center at Meramec. St. Louis Community College; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Conclusions. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Freedman, Leora  and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions. The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Leibensperger, Summer. Draft Your Conclusion. Academic Center, the University of Houston-Victoria, 2003; Make Your Last Words Count. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin Madison; Miquel, Fuster-Marquez and Carmen Gregori-Signes. “Chapter Six: ‘Last but Not Least:’ Writing the Conclusion of Your Paper.” In Writing an Applied Linguistics Thesis or Dissertation: A Guide to Presenting Empirical Research . John Bitchener, editor. (Basingstoke,UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), pp. 93-105; Tips for Writing a Good Conclusion. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Kretchmer, Paul. Twelve Steps to Writing an Effective Conclusion. San Francisco Edit, 2003-2008; Writing Conclusions. Writing Tutorial Services, Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning. Indiana University; Writing: Considering Structure and Organization. Institute for Writing Rhetoric. Dartmouth College.

Writing Tip

Don't Belabor the Obvious!

Avoid phrases like "in conclusion...," "in summary...," or "in closing...." These phrases can be useful, even welcome, in oral presentations. But readers can see by the tell-tale section heading and number of pages remaining that they are reaching the end of your paper. You'll irritate your readers if you belabor the obvious.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8.

Another Writing Tip

New Insight, Not New Information!

Don't surprise the reader with new information in your conclusion that was never referenced anywhere else in the paper. This why the conclusion rarely has citations to sources. If you have new information to present, add it to the discussion or other appropriate section of the paper. Note that, although no new information is introduced, the conclusion, along with the discussion section, is where you offer your most "original" contributions in the paper; the conclusion is where you describe the value of your research, demonstrate that you understand the material that you’ve presented, and position your findings within the larger context of scholarship on the topic, including describing how your research contributes new insights to that scholarship.

Assan, Joseph. "Writing the Conclusion Chapter: The Good, the Bad and the Missing." Liverpool: Development Studies Association (2009): 1-8; Conclusions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.

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• How to Write Discussions and Conclusions

The discussion section contains the results and outcomes of a study. An effective discussion informs readers what can be learned from your experiment and provides context for the results.

What makes an effective discussion?

When you’re ready to write your discussion, you’ve already introduced the purpose of your study and provided an in-depth description of the methodology. The discussion informs readers about the larger implications of your study based on the results. Highlighting these implications while not overstating the findings can be challenging, especially when you’re submitting to a journal that selects articles based on novelty or potential impact. Regardless of what journal you are submitting to, the discussion section always serves the same purpose: concluding what your study results actually mean.

A successful discussion section puts your findings in context. It should include:

• the results of your research,
• a discussion of related research, and
• a comparison between your results and initial hypothesis.

Tip: Not all journals share the same naming conventions.

You can apply the advice in this article to the conclusion, results or discussion sections of your manuscript.

Our Early Career Researcher community tells us that the conclusion is often considered the most difficult aspect of a manuscript to write. To help, this guide provides questions to ask yourself, a basic structure to model your discussion off of and examples from published manuscripts. 

Questions to ask yourself:

• Was my hypothesis correct?
• If my hypothesis is partially correct or entirely different, what can be learned from the results? 
• How do the conclusions reshape or add onto the existing knowledge in the field? What does previous research say about the topic? 
• Why are the results important or relevant to your audience? Do they add further evidence to a scientific consensus or disprove prior studies? 
• How can future research build on these observations? What are the key experiments that must be done? 
• What is the “take-home” message you want your reader to leave with?

How to structure a discussion

Trying to fit a complete discussion into a single paragraph can add unnecessary stress to the writing process. If possible, you’ll want to give yourself two or three paragraphs to give the reader a comprehensive understanding of your study as a whole. Here’s one way to structure an effective discussion:

Writing Tips

While the above sections can help you brainstorm and structure your discussion, there are many common mistakes that writers revert to when having difficulties with their paper. Writing a discussion can be a delicate balance between summarizing your results, providing proper context for your research and avoiding introducing new information. Remember that your paper should be both confident and honest about the results! 

• Read the journal’s guidelines on the discussion and conclusion sections. If possible, learn about the guidelines before writing the discussion to ensure you’re writing to meet their expectations. 
• Begin with a clear statement of the principal findings. This will reinforce the main take-away for the reader and set up the rest of the discussion. 
• Explain why the outcomes of your study are important to the reader. Discuss the implications of your findings realistically based on previous literature, highlighting both the strengths and limitations of the research. 
• State whether the results prove or disprove your hypothesis. If your hypothesis was disproved, what might be the reasons? 
• Introduce new or expanded ways to think about the research question. Indicate what next steps can be taken to further pursue any unresolved questions. 
• If dealing with a contemporary or ongoing problem, such as climate change, discuss possible consequences if the problem is avoided. 
• Be concise. Adding unnecessary detail can distract from the main findings. 

Don’t

• Rewrite your abstract. Statements with “we investigated” or “we studied” generally do not belong in the discussion. 
• Include new arguments or evidence not previously discussed. Necessary information and evidence should be introduced in the main body of the paper. 
• Apologize. Even if your research contains significant limitations, don’t undermine your authority by including statements that doubt your methodology or execution. 
• Shy away from speaking on limitations or negative results. Including limitations and negative results will give readers a complete understanding of the presented research. Potential limitations include sources of potential bias, threats to internal or external validity, barriers to implementing an intervention and other issues inherent to the study design. 
• Overstate the importance of your findings. Making grand statements about how a study will fully resolve large questions can lead readers to doubt the success of the research. 

Snippets of Effective Discussions:

Consumer-based actions to reduce plastic pollution in rivers: A multi-criteria decision analysis approach

Identifying reliable indicators of fitness in polar bears

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In a short paper—even a research paper—you don’t need to provide an exhaustive summary as part of your conclusion. But you do need to make some kind of transition between your final body paragraph and your concluding paragraph. This may come in the form of a few sentences of summary. Or it may come in the form of a sentence that brings your readers back to your thesis or main idea and reminds your readers where you began and how far you have traveled.

So, for example, in a paper about the relationship between ADHD and rejection sensitivity, Vanessa Roser begins by introducing readers to the fact that researchers have studied the relationship between the two conditions and then provides her explanation of that relationship. Here’s her thesis: “While socialization may indeed be an important factor in RS, I argue that individuals with ADHD may also possess a neurological predisposition to RS that is exacerbated by the differing executive and emotional regulation characteristic of ADHD.”

In her final paragraph, Roser reminds us of where she started by echoing her thesis: “This literature demonstrates that, as with many other conditions, ADHD and RS share a delicately intertwined pattern of neurological similarities that is rooted in the innate biology of an individual’s mind, a connection that cannot be explained in full by the behavioral mediation hypothesis.”  

Highlight the “so what”  

At the beginning of your paper, you explain to your readers what’s at stake—why they should care about the argument you’re making. In your conclusion, you can bring readers back to those stakes by reminding them why your argument is important in the first place. You can also draft a few sentences that put those stakes into a new or broader context.

In the conclusion to her paper about ADHD and RS, Roser echoes the stakes she established in her introduction—that research into connections between ADHD and RS has led to contradictory results, raising questions about the “behavioral mediation hypothesis.”

She writes, “as with many other conditions, ADHD and RS share a delicately intertwined pattern of neurological similarities that is rooted in the innate biology of an individual’s mind, a connection that cannot be explained in full by the behavioral mediation hypothesis.”  

Leave your readers with the “now what”  

After the “what” and the “so what,” you should leave your reader with some final thoughts. If you have written a strong introduction, your readers will know why you have been arguing what you have been arguing—and why they should care. And if you’ve made a good case for your thesis, then your readers should be in a position to see things in a new way, understand new questions, or be ready for something that they weren’t ready for before they read your paper.

In her conclusion, Roser offers two “now what” statements. First, she explains that it is important to recognize that the flawed behavioral mediation hypothesis “seems to place a degree of fault on the individual. It implies that individuals with ADHD must have elicited such frequent or intense rejection by virtue of their inadequate social skills, erasing the possibility that they may simply possess a natural sensitivity to emotion.” She then highlights the broader implications for treatment of people with ADHD, noting that recognizing the actual connection between rejection sensitivity and ADHD “has profound implications for understanding how individuals with ADHD might best be treated in educational settings, by counselors, family, peers, or even society as a whole.”

To find your own “now what” for your essay’s conclusion, try asking yourself these questions:

• What can my readers now understand, see in a new light, or grapple with that they would not have understood in the same way before reading my paper? Are we a step closer to understanding a larger phenomenon or to understanding why what was at stake is so important?  
• What questions can I now raise that would not have made sense at the beginning of my paper? Questions for further research? Other ways that this topic could be approached?  
• Are there other applications for my research? Could my questions be asked about different data in a different context? Could I use my methods to answer a different question?  
• What action should be taken in light of this argument? What action do I predict will be taken or could lead to a solution?  
• What larger context might my argument be a part of?  

What to avoid in your conclusion  

• a complete restatement of all that you have said in your paper.  
• a substantial counterargument that you do not have space to refute; you should introduce counterarguments before your conclusion.  
• an apology for what you have not said. If you need to explain the scope of your paper, you should do this sooner—but don’t apologize for what you have not discussed in your paper.  
• fake transitions like “in conclusion” that are followed by sentences that aren’t actually conclusions. (“In conclusion, I have now demonstrated that my thesis is correct.”)
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How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper

3-minute read

• 29th August 2023

If you’re writing a research paper, the conclusion is your opportunity to summarize your findings and leave a lasting impression on your readers. In this post, we’ll take you through how to write an effective conclusion for a research paper and how you can:

·   Reword your thesis statement

·   Highlight the significance of your research

·   Discuss limitations

·   Connect to the introduction

·   End with a thought-provoking statement

Rewording Your Thesis Statement

Begin your conclusion by restating your thesis statement in a way that is slightly different from the wording used in the introduction. Avoid presenting new information or evidence in your conclusion. Just summarize the main points and arguments of your essay and keep this part as concise as possible. Remember that you’ve already covered the in-depth analyses and investigations in the main body paragraphs of your essay, so it’s not necessary to restate these details in the conclusion.

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Highlighting the Significance of Your Research

The conclusion is a good place to emphasize the implications of your research . Avoid ambiguous or vague language such as “I think” or “maybe,” which could weaken your position. Clearly explain why your research is significant and how it contributes to the broader field of study.

Here’s an example from a (fictional) study on the impact of social media on mental health:

Discussing Limitations

Although it’s important to emphasize the significance of your study, you can also use the conclusion to briefly address any limitations you discovered while conducting your research, such as time constraints or a shortage of resources. Doing this demonstrates a balanced and honest approach to your research.

Connecting to the Introduction

In your conclusion, you can circle back to your introduction , perhaps by referring to a quote or anecdote you discussed earlier. If you end your paper on a similar note to how you began it, you will create a sense of cohesion for the reader and remind them of the meaning and significance of your research.

Ending With a Thought-Provoking Statement

Consider ending your paper with a thought-provoking and memorable statement that relates to the impact of your research questions or hypothesis. This statement can be a call to action, a philosophical question, or a prediction for the future (positive or negative). Here’s an example that uses the same topic as above (social media and mental health):

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How to write a strong conclusion for your research paper

Last updated

17 February 2024

Reviewed by

Writing a research paper is a chance to share your knowledge and hypothesis. It's an opportunity to demonstrate your many hours of research and prove your ability to write convincingly.

Ideally, by the end of your research paper, you'll have brought your readers on a journey to reach the conclusions you've pre-determined. However, if you don't stick the landing with a good conclusion, you'll risk losing your reader’s trust.

Writing a strong conclusion for your research paper involves a few important steps, including restating the thesis and summing up everything properly.

Find out what to include and what to avoid, so you can effectively demonstrate your understanding of the topic and prove your expertise.

• Why is a good conclusion important?

A good conclusion can cement your paper in the reader’s mind. Making a strong impression in your introduction can draw your readers in, but it's the conclusion that will inspire them.

• What to include in a research paper conclusion

There are a few specifics you should include in your research paper conclusion. Offer your readers some sense of urgency or consequence by pointing out why they should care about the topic you have covered. Discuss any common problems associated with your topic and provide suggestions as to how these problems can be solved or addressed.

The conclusion should include a restatement of your initial thesis. Thesis statements are strengthened after you’ve presented supporting evidence (as you will have done in the paper), so make a point to reintroduce it at the end.

Finally, recap the main points of your research paper, highlighting the key takeaways you want readers to remember. If you've made multiple points throughout the paper, refer to the ones with the strongest supporting evidence.

• Steps for writing a research paper conclusion

Many writers find the conclusion the most challenging part of any research project . By following these three steps, you'll be prepared to write a conclusion that is effective and concise.

• Step 1: Restate the problem

Always begin by restating the research problem in the conclusion of a research paper. This serves to remind the reader of your hypothesis and refresh them on the main point of the paper. 

When restating the problem, take care to avoid using exactly the same words you employed earlier in the paper.

• Step 2: Sum up the paper

After you've restated the problem, sum up the paper by revealing your overall findings. The method for this differs slightly, depending on whether you're crafting an argumentative paper or an empirical paper.

Argumentative paper: Restate your thesis and arguments

Argumentative papers involve introducing a thesis statement early on. In crafting the conclusion for an argumentative paper, always restate the thesis, outlining the way you've developed it throughout the entire paper.

It might be appropriate to mention any counterarguments in the conclusion, so you can demonstrate how your thesis is correct or how the data best supports your main points.

Empirical paper: Summarize research findings

Empirical papers break down a series of research questions. In your conclusion, discuss the findings your research revealed, including any information that surprised you.

Be clear about the conclusions you reached, and explain whether or not you expected to arrive at these particular ones.

• Step 3: Discuss the implications of your research

Argumentative papers and empirical papers also differ in this part of a research paper conclusion. Here are some tips on crafting conclusions for argumentative and empirical papers.

Argumentative paper: Powerful closing statement

In an argumentative paper, you'll have spent a great deal of time expressing the opinions you formed after doing a significant amount of research. Make a strong closing statement in your argumentative paper's conclusion to share the significance of your work.

You can outline the next steps through a bold call to action, or restate how powerful your ideas turned out to be.

Empirical paper: Directions for future research

Empirical papers are broader in scope. They usually cover a variety of aspects and can include several points of view.

To write a good conclusion for an empirical paper, suggest the type of research that could be done in the future, including methods for further investigation or outlining ways other researchers might proceed.

If you feel your research had any limitations, even if they were outside your control, you could mention these in your conclusion.

After you finish outlining your conclusion, ask someone to read it and offer feedback. In any research project you're especially close to, it can be hard to identify problem areas. Having a close friend or someone whose opinion you value read the research paper and provide honest feedback can be invaluable. Take note of any suggested edits and consider incorporating them into your paper if they make sense.

• Things to avoid in a research paper conclusion

Keep these aspects to avoid in mind as you're writing your conclusion and refer to them after you've created an outline.

Dry summary

Writing a memorable, succinct conclusion is arguably more important than a strong introduction. Take care to avoid just rephrasing your main points, and don't fall into the trap of repeating dry facts or citations.

You can provide a new perspective for your readers to think about or contextualize your research. Either way, make the conclusion vibrant and interesting, rather than a rote recitation of your research paper’s highlights.

Clichéd or generic phrasing

Your research paper conclusion should feel fresh and inspiring. Avoid generic phrases like "to sum up" or "in conclusion." These phrases tend to be overused, especially in an academic context and might turn your readers off.

The conclusion also isn't the time to introduce colloquial phrases or informal language. Retain a professional, confident tone consistent throughout your paper’s conclusion so it feels exciting and bold.

New data or evidence

While you should present strong data throughout your paper, the conclusion isn't the place to introduce new evidence. This is because readers are engaged in actively learning as they read through the body of your paper.

By the time they reach the conclusion, they will have formed an opinion one way or the other (hopefully in your favor!). Introducing new evidence in the conclusion will only serve to surprise or frustrate your reader.

Ignoring contradictory evidence

If your research reveals contradictory evidence, don't ignore it in the conclusion. This will damage your credibility as an expert and might even serve to highlight the contradictions.

Be as transparent as possible and admit to any shortcomings in your research, but don't dwell on them for too long.

Ambiguous or unclear resolutions

The point of a research paper conclusion is to provide closure and bring all your ideas together. You should wrap up any arguments you introduced in the paper and tie up any loose ends, while demonstrating why your research and data are strong.

Use direct language in your conclusion and avoid ambiguity. Even if some of the data and sources you cite are inconclusive or contradictory, note this in your conclusion to come across as confident and trustworthy.

• Examples of research paper conclusions

Your research paper should provide a compelling close to the paper as a whole, highlighting your research and hard work. While the conclusion should represent your unique style, these examples offer a starting point:

Ultimately, the data we examined all point to the same conclusion: Encouraging a good work-life balance improves employee productivity and benefits the company overall. The research suggests that when employees feel their personal lives are valued and respected by their employers, they are more likely to be productive when at work. In addition, company turnover tends to be reduced when employees have a balance between their personal and professional lives. While additional research is required to establish ways companies can support employees in creating a stronger work-life balance, it's clear the need is there.

Social media is a primary method of communication among young people. As we've seen in the data presented, most young people in high school use a variety of social media applications at least every hour, including Instagram and Facebook. While social media is an avenue for connection with peers, research increasingly suggests that social media use correlates with body image issues. Young girls with lower self-esteem tend to use social media more often than those who don't log onto social media apps every day. As new applications continue to gain popularity, and as more high school students are given smartphones, more research will be required to measure the effects of prolonged social media use.

What are the different kinds of research paper conclusions?

There are no formal types of research paper conclusions. Ultimately, the conclusion depends on the outline of your paper and the type of research you’re presenting. While some experts note that research papers can end with a new perspective or commentary, most papers should conclude with a combination of both. The most important aspect of a good research paper conclusion is that it accurately represents the body of the paper.

Can I present new arguments in my research paper conclusion?

Research paper conclusions are not the place to introduce new data or arguments. The body of your paper is where you should share research and insights, where the reader is actively absorbing the content. By the time a reader reaches the conclusion of the research paper, they should have formed their opinion. Introducing new arguments in the conclusion can take a reader by surprise, and not in a positive way. It might also serve to frustrate readers.

How long should a research paper conclusion be?

There's no set length for a research paper conclusion. However, it's a good idea not to run on too long, since conclusions are supposed to be succinct. A good rule of thumb is to keep your conclusion around 5 to 10 percent of the paper's total length. If your paper is 10 pages, try to keep your conclusion under one page.

What should I include in a research paper conclusion?

A good research paper conclusion should always include a sense of urgency, so the reader can see how and why the topic should matter to them. You can also note some recommended actions to help fix the problem and some obstacles they might encounter. A conclusion should also remind the reader of the thesis statement, along with the main points you covered in the paper. At the end of the conclusion, add a powerful closing statement that helps cement the paper in the mind of the reader.

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How to Write a Research Paper Conclusion Section

What is a conclusion in a research paper?

The conclusion in a research paper is the final paragraph or two in a research paper. In scientific papers, the conclusion usually follows the Discussion section , summarizing the importance of the findings and reminding the reader why the work presented in the paper is relevant.

However, it can be a bit confusing to distinguish the conclusion section/paragraph from a summary or a repetition of your findings, your own opinion, or the statement of the implications of your work. In fact, the conclusion should contain a bit of all of these other parts but go beyond it—but not too far beyond! 

The structure and content of the conclusion section can also vary depending on whether you are writing a research manuscript or an essay. This article will explain how to write a good conclusion section, what exactly it should (and should not) contain, how it should be structured, and what you should avoid when writing it.  

Table of Contents:

What does a good conclusion section do, what to include in a research paper conclusion.

• Conclusion in an Essay
• Research Paper Conclusion 
• Conclusion Paragraph Outline and Example
• What Not to Do When Writing a Conclusion

The conclusion of a research paper has several key objectives. It should:

• Restate your research problem addressed in the introduction section
• Summarize your main arguments, important findings, and broader implications
• Synthesize key takeaways from your study

The specific content in the conclusion depends on whether your paper presents the results of original scientific research or constructs an argument through engagement with previously published sources.

You presented your general field of study to the reader in the introduction section, by moving from general information (the background of your work, often combined with a literature review ) to the rationale of your study and then to the specific problem or topic you addressed, formulated in the form of the statement of the problem in research or the thesis statement in an essay.

In the conclusion section, in contrast, your task is to move from your specific findings or arguments back to a more general depiction of how your research contributes to the readers’ understanding of a certain concept or helps solve a practical problem, or fills an important gap in the literature. The content of your conclusion section depends on the type of research you are doing and what type of paper you are writing. But whatever the outcome of your work is, the conclusion is where you briefly summarize it and place it within a larger context. It could be called the “take-home message” of the entire paper.

What to summarize in the conclusion

Your conclusion section needs to contain a very brief summary of your work , a very brief summary of the main findings of your work, and a mention of anything else that seems relevant when you now look at your work from a bigger perspective, even if it was not initially listed as one of your main research questions. This could be a limitation, for example, a problem with the design of your experiment that either needs to be considered when drawing any conclusions or that led you to ask a different question and therefore draw different conclusions at the end of your study (compared to when you started out).

Once you have reminded the reader of what you did and what you found, you need to go beyond that and also provide either your own opinion on why your work is relevant (and for whom, and how) or theoretical or practical implications of the study , or make a specific call for action if there is one to be made.   

How to Write an Essay Conclusion

Academic essays follow quite different structures than their counterparts in STEM and the natural sciences. Humanities papers often have conclusion sections that are much longer and contain more detail than scientific papers. There are three main types of academic essay conclusions.

Summarizing conclusion

The most typical conclusion at the end of an analytical/explanatory/argumentative essay is a summarizing conclusion . This is, as the name suggests, a clear summary of the main points of your topic and thesis. Since you might have gone through a number of different arguments or subtopics in the main part of your essay, you need to remind the reader again what those were, how they fit into each other, and how they helped you develop or corroborate your hypothesis.

For an essay that analyzes how recruiters can hire the best candidates in the shortest time or on “how starving yourself will increase your lifespan, according to science”, a summary of all the points you discussed might be all you need. Note that you should not exactly repeat what you said earlier, but rather highlight the essential details and present those to your reader in a different way. 

Externalizing conclusion

If you think that just reminding the reader of your main points is not enough, you can opt for an externalizing conclusion instead, that presents new points that were not presented in the paper so far. These new points can be additional facts and information or they can be ideas that are relevant to the topic and have not been mentioned before.

Such a conclusion can stimulate your readers to think about your topic or the implications of your analysis in a whole new way. For example, at the end of a historical analysis of a specific event or development, you could direct your reader’s attention to some current events that were not the topic of your essay but that provide a different context for your findings.

Editorial conclusion

In an editorial conclusion , another common type of conclusion that you will find at the end of papers and essays, you do not add new information but instead present your own experiences or opinions on the topic to round everything up. What makes this type of conclusion interesting is that you can choose to agree or disagree with the information you presented in your paper so far. For example, if you have collected and analyzed information on how a specific diet helps people lose weight, you can nevertheless have your doubts on the sustainability of that diet or its practicability in real life—if such arguments were not included in your original thesis and have therefore not been covered in the main part of your paper, the conclusion section is the place where you can get your opinion across.    

How to Conclude an Empirical Research Paper

An empirical research paper is usually more concise and succinct than an essay, because, if it is written well, it focuses on one specific question, describes the method that was used to answer that one question, describes and explains the results, and guides the reader in a logical way from the introduction to the discussion without going on tangents or digging into not absolutely relevant topics.

Summarize the findings

In a scientific paper, you should include a summary of the findings. Don’t go into great detail here (you will have presented your in-depth  results  and  discussion  already), but do clearly express the answers to the  research questions  you investigated.

Describe your main findings, even if they weren’t necessarily the ones anticipated, and explain the conclusion they led you to. Explain these findings in as few words as possible.

Instead of beginning with “ In conclusion, in this study, we investigated the effect of stress on the brain using fMRI …”, you should try to find a way to incorporate the repetition of the essential (and only the essential) details into the summary of the key points. “ The findings of this fMRI study on the effect of stress on the brain suggest that …” or “ While it has been known for a long time that stress has an effect on the brain, the findings of this fMRI study show that, surprisingly… ” would be better ways to start a conclusion. 

You should also not bring up new ideas or present new facts in the conclusion of a research paper, but stick to the background information you have presented earlier, to the findings you have already discussed, and the limitations and implications you have already described. The one thing you can add here is a practical recommendation that you haven’t clearly stated before—but even that one needs to follow logically from everything you have already discussed in the discussion section.

Discuss the implications

After summing up your key arguments or findings, conclude the paper by stating the broader implications of the research , whether in methods , approach, or findings. Express practical or theoretical takeaways from your paper. This often looks like a “call to action” or a final “sales pitch” that puts an exclamation point on your paper.

If your research topic is more theoretical in nature, your closing statement should express the significance of your argument—for example, in proposing a new understanding of a topic or laying the groundwork for future research.

Future research example

Future research into education standards should focus on establishing a more detailed picture of how novel pedagogical approaches impact young people’s ability to absorb new and difficult concepts. Moreover, observational studies are needed to gain more insight into how specific teaching models affect the retention of relationships and facts—for instance, how inquiry-based learning and its emphasis on lateral thinking can be used as a jumping-off point for more holistic classroom approaches.

Research Conclusion Example and Outline

Let’s revisit the study on the effect of stress on the brain we mentioned before and see what the common structure for a conclusion paragraph looks like, in three steps. Following these simple steps will make it easy for you to wrap everything up in one short paragraph that contains all the essential information: 

One: Short summary of what you did, but integrated into the summary of your findings:

While it has been known for a long time that stress has an effect on the brain, the findings of this fMRI study in 25 university students going through mid-term exams show that, surprisingly, one’s attitude to the experienced stress significantly modulates the brain’s response to it. 

Note that you don’t need to repeat any methodological or technical details here—the reader has been presented with all of these before, they have read your results section and the discussion of your results, and even (hopefully!) a discussion of the limitations and strengths of your paper. The only thing you need to remind them of here is the essential outcome of your work. 

Two: Add implications, and don’t forget to specify who this might be relevant for: 

Students could be considered a specific subsample of the general population, but earlier research shows that the effect that exam stress has on their physical and mental health is comparable to the effects of other types of stress on individuals of other ages and occupations. Further research into practical ways of modulating not only one’s mental stress response but potentially also one’s brain activity (e.g., via neurofeedback training) are warranted.

This is a “research implication”, and it is nicely combined with a mention of a potential limitation of the study (the student sample) that turns out not to be a limitation after all (because earlier research suggests we can generalize to other populations). If there already is a lot of research on neurofeedback for stress control, by the way, then this should have been discussed in your discussion section earlier and you wouldn’t say such studies are “warranted” here but rather specify how your findings could inspire specific future experiments or how they should be implemented in existing applications. 

Three: The most important thing is that your conclusion paragraph accurately reflects the content of your paper. Compare it to your research paper title , your research paper abstract , and to your journal submission cover letter , in case you already have one—if these do not all tell the same story, then you need to go back to your paper, start again from the introduction section, and find out where you lost the logical thread. As always, consistency is key.    

Problems to Avoid When Writing a Conclusion 

• Do not suddenly introduce new information that has never been mentioned before (unless you are writing an essay and opting for an externalizing conclusion, see above). The conclusion section is not where you want to surprise your readers, but the take-home message of what you have already presented.
• Do not simply copy your abstract, the conclusion section of your abstract, or the first sentence of your introduction, and put it at the end of the discussion section. Even if these parts of your paper cover the same points, they should not be identical.
• Do not start the conclusion with “In conclusion”. If it has its own section heading, that is redundant, and if it is the last paragraph of the discussion section, it is inelegant and also not really necessary. The reader expects you to wrap your work up in the last paragraph, so you don’t have to announce that. Just look at the above example to see how to start a conclusion in a natural way.
• Do not forget what your research objectives were and how you initially formulated the statement of the problem in your introduction section. If your story/approach/conclusions changed because of methodological issues or information you were not aware of when you started, then make sure you go back to the beginning and adapt your entire story (not just the ending). 

Consider Receiving Academic Editing Services

When you have arrived at the conclusion of your paper, you might want to head over to Wordvice AI’s AI Writing Assistant to receive a free grammar check for any academic content. 

After drafting, you can also receive English editing and proofreading services , including paper editing services for your journal manuscript. If you need advice on how to write the other parts of your research paper , or on how to make a research paper outline if you are struggling with putting everything you did together, then head over to the Wordvice academic resources pages , where we have a lot more articles and videos for you.

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Writing a Paper: Conclusions

Writing a conclusion.

A conclusion is an important part of the paper; it provides closure for the reader while reminding the reader of the contents and importance of the paper. It accomplishes this by stepping back from the specifics in order to view the bigger picture of the document. In other words, it is reminding the reader of the main argument. For most course papers, it is usually one paragraph that simply and succinctly restates the main ideas and arguments, pulling everything together to help clarify the thesis of the paper. A conclusion does not introduce new ideas; instead, it should clarify the intent and importance of the paper. It can also suggest possible future research on the topic.

An Easy Checklist for Writing a Conclusion

It is important to remind the reader of the thesis of the paper so he is reminded of the argument and solutions you proposed.

Think of the main points as puzzle pieces, and the conclusion is where they all fit together to create a bigger picture. The reader should walk away with the bigger picture in mind.

Make sure that the paper places its findings in the context of real social change.

Make sure the reader has a distinct sense that the paper has come to an end. It is important to not leave the reader hanging. (You don’t want her to have flip-the-page syndrome, where the reader turns the page, expecting the paper to continue. The paper should naturally come to an end.)

No new ideas should be introduced in the conclusion. It is simply a review of the material that is already present in the paper. The only new idea would be the suggesting of a direction for future research.

Conclusion Example

As addressed in my analysis of recent research, the advantages of a later starting time for high school students significantly outweigh the disadvantages. A later starting time would allow teens more time to sleep--something that is important for their physical and mental health--and ultimately improve their academic performance and behavior. The added transportation costs that result from this change can be absorbed through energy savings. The beneficial effects on the students’ academic performance and behavior validate this decision, but its effect on student motivation is still unknown. I would encourage an in-depth look at the reactions of students to such a change. This sort of study would help determine the actual effects of a later start time on the time management and sleep habits of students.

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How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper

When you're wrapping up a research paper, the conclusion is like the grand finale of a fireworks show – it's your chance to leave a lasting impression. In this article, we'll break down the steps to help you write a winning research paper conclusion that not only recaps your main points but also ties everything together. Consider it the "So what?" moment – why should people care about your research? Our professional essay writers will guide you through making your conclusion strong, clear, and something that sticks with your readers long after they've put down your paper. So, let's dive in and ensure your research ends on a high note!

What Is a Conclusion in a Research Paper

In a research paper, the conclusion serves as the final segment, where you summarize the main points and findings of your study. It's not just a repetition of what you've already said but rather a chance to tie everything together and highlight the significance of your research. As you learn how to start a research paper , a good conclusion also often discusses the implications of your findings, suggests potential areas for further research, and leaves the reader with a lasting impression of the importance and relevance of your work in the broader context of the field. Essentially, it's your last opportunity to make a strong impact and leave your readers with a clear understanding of the significance of your research. Here’s a research paper conclusion example:

In conclusion, this research paper has navigated the intricacies of sustainable urban development, shedding light on the pivotal role of community engagement and innovative planning strategies. Through applying qualitative and quantitative research methods, we've uncovered valuable insights into the challenges and opportunities inherent in fostering environmentally friendly urban spaces. The implications of these findings extend beyond the confines of this study, emphasizing the imperative for continued exploration in the realms of urban planning and environmental sustainability. By emphasizing both the practical applications and theoretical contributions, this research underscores the significance of community involvement and forward-thinking strategies in shaping the future of urban landscapes. As cities evolve, incorporating these insights into planning and development practices will create resilient and harmonious urban environments.

Conclusion Outline for Research Paper

This outline for a research paper conclusion provides a structured framework to ensure that your ending effectively summarizes the key elements of your research paper and leaves a lasting impression on your readers. Adjust the content based on the specific requirements and focus of your research.

Restate the Thesis Statement

• Briefly restate the main thesis or research question.
• Emphasize the core objective or purpose of the study.

Summarize Key Findings

• Recap the main points and key findings from each section of the paper.
• Provide a concise overview of the research journey.

Discuss Implications

• Explore the broader implications of the research findings.
• Discuss how the results contribute to the existing body of knowledge in the field.

Address Limitations

• Acknowledge any limitations or constraints encountered during the research process.
• Explain how these limitations may impact the interpretation of the findings.

Suggest Areas for Future Research

• Propose potential directions for future studies related to the topic.
• Identify gaps in the current research that warrant further exploration.

Reaffirm Significance

• Reaffirm the importance and relevance of the research in the broader context.
• Highlight the practical applications or real-world implications of the study.

Concluding Statement

• Craft a strong, memorable closing statement that leaves a lasting impression.
• Sum up the overall impact of the research and its potential contribution to the field.

Study the full guide on how to make a research paper outline here, which will also specify the conclusion writing specifics to improve your general prowess.

Tips on How to Make a Conclusion in Research

Here are key considerations regarding a conclusion for research paper to not only recap the primary ideas in your work but also delve deeper to earn a higher grade:

• Provide a concise recap of your main research outcomes.
• Remind readers of your research goals and their accomplishments.
• Stick to summarizing existing content; refrain from adding new details.
• Emphasize why your research matters and its broader implications.
• Clearly explain the practical or theoretical impact of your findings.
• Prompt readers to reflect on how your research influences their perspective.
• Briefly discuss the robustness of your research methods.
• End with a suggestion for future research or a practical application.
• Transparently address any constraints or biases in your study.
• End on a powerful note, leaving a memorable impression on your readers.

For your inspiration, we’ve also prepared this research proposal example APA , which dwells on another important aspect of research writing.

How to Write a Research Paper Conclusion

As you finish your research paper, the conclusion takes center stage. In this section, we've got five practical tips for writing a conclusion for a research paper. We'll guide you through summarizing your key findings, revisiting your research goals, discussing the bigger picture, addressing any limitations, and ending on a powerful note. Think of it as your roadmap to creating a conclusion that not only wraps up your research but also leaves a lasting impact on your readers. Let's dive in and make sure your conclusion stands out for all the right reasons!

Synthesize Core Discoveries. Initiate your conclusion by synthesizing the essential discoveries of your research. Offer a succinct recapitulation of the primary points and outcomes you have elucidated in your paper. This aids in reinforcing the gravity of your work and reiterates the pivotal information you have presented.

Revisit Research Objectives. Revisit the research objectives or questions you outlined at the beginning of your paper. Assess whether you have successfully addressed these objectives and if your findings align with the initial goals of your research. This reflection helps tie your conclusion back to the purpose of your study.

Discuss Implications and Contributions. Discuss the broader implications of your research and its potential contributions to the field. Consider how your findings might impact future research, applications, or understanding of the subject matter. This demonstrates the significance of your work and places it within a larger context.

Address Limitations and Future Research. Acknowledge any limitations in your study, such as constraints in data collection or potential biases. Briefly discuss how these limitations might have affected your results. Additionally, suggest areas for future research that could build upon your work, addressing any unanswered questions or unexplored aspects. This demonstrates a thoughtful approach to your research.

End with a Strong Conclusion Statement. Conclude your research paper with a strong and memorable statement that reinforces the key message you want readers to take away. This could be a call to action, a proposal for further investigation, or a reflection on the broader significance of your findings. Leave your readers with a lasting impression that emphasizes the importance of your research. Remember that you can buy a research paper anytime if you lack time or get stuck in writer’s block.

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Stylistic Devices to Use in a Conclusion

Discover distinctive stylistic insights that you can apply when writing a conclusion for a research paper:

• Rhetorical Questions. When using rhetorical questions, strategically place them to engage readers' minds. For instance, you might pose a question that prompts reflection on the broader implications of your findings, leaving your audience with something to ponder.
• Powerful Language. Incorporate strong language to convey a sense of conviction and importance. Choose words that resonate with the overall tone of your research and amplify the significance of your conclusions. This adds weight to your key messages.
• Repetitions. Repetitions can be employed to reinforce essential ideas. Reiterate key phrases or concepts in a way that emphasizes their importance without sounding redundant. This technique serves to drive home your main points.
• Anecdotes. Integrating anecdotes into your conclusion can provide a human touch. Share a brief and relevant story that connects with your research, making the information more relatable and memorable for your audience.
• Vivid Imagery. Lastly, use vivid imagery to paint a picture in the minds of your readers. Appeal to their senses by describing scenarios or outcomes related to your research. This creates a more immersive and lasting impression.

If you have a larger paper to write, for example a thesis, use our custom dissertation writing can help you in no time.

How to Make a Conclusion Logically Appealing

Knowing how to write a conclusion for a research paper that is logically appealing is important for leaving a lasting impression on your readers. Here are some tips to achieve this:

Logical Sequencing

• Present your conclusion in a structured manner, following the natural flow of your paper. Readers should effortlessly follow your thought process, making your conclusion more accessible and persuasive.

Reinforce Main Arguments

• Emphasize the core arguments and findings from your research. By reinforcing key points, you solidify your stance and provide a logical culmination to your paper.

Address Counterarguments

• Acknowledge and address potential counterarguments or limitations in your research. Demonstrate intellectual honesty and strengthen your conclusion by preemptively addressing potential doubts.

Connect with Introduction

• Revisit themes or concepts introduced in your introduction to create a cohesive narrative, allowing readers to trace the logical progression of your research from start to finish.

Propose Actionable Insights

• Suggest practical applications or recommendations based on your findings. This will add a forward-looking dimension, making your conclusion more relevant and compelling.

Highlight Significance

• Clearly articulate the broader implications of your research to convey the importance of your work and its potential impact on the field, making your conclusion logically compelling.

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Avoid These Things When Writing a Research Paper Conclusion

As you write your conclusion of research paper, there’s a list of things professional writers don’t recommend doing. Consider these issues carefully:

• Repetition of Exact Phrases
• Repetitively using the same phrases or sentences from the main body. Repetition can make your conclusion seem redundant and less engaging.
• Overly Lengthy Summaries
• Providing excessively detailed summaries of each section of your paper. Readers may lose interest if the conclusion becomes too long and detailed.
• Unclear Connection to the Introduction
• Failing to connect the conclusion back to the introduction. A lack of continuity may make the paper feel disjointed.
• Adding New Arguments or Ideas
• Introducing new arguments or ideas that were not addressed in the body. This can confuse the reader and disrupt the coherence of your paper.
• Overuse of Complex Jargon
• Using excessively complex or technical language without clarification. Clear communication is essential in the conclusion, ensuring broad understanding.
• Apologizing or Undermining Confidence
• Apologizing for limitations or expressing doubt about your work. Maintain a confident tone; if limitations exist, present them objectively without undermining your research.
• Sweeping Generalizations
• Making overly broad or unsupported generalizations. Such statements can weaken the credibility of your conclusion.
• Neglecting the Significance
• Failing to emphasize the broader significance of your research. Readers need to understand why your findings matter in a larger context.
• Abrupt Endings
• Concluding abruptly without a strong closing statement. A powerful ending leaves a lasting impression; avoid a sudden or weak conclusion.

Research Paper Conclusion Example

That covers the essential aspects of summarizing a research paper. The only remaining step is to review the conclusion examples for research paper provided by our team.

Like our examples? Order our research proposal writing service to write paper according to your instructions to avoid plagiarizing and to keep your academic integrity strong.

Final Thoughts

In conclusion, the knowledge of how to write the conclusion of a research paper is pivotal for presenting your findings and leaving a lasting impression on your readers. By summarizing the key points, reiterating the significance of your research, and offering avenues for future exploration, you can create a conclusion that not only reinforces the value of your study but also encourages further academic discourse. Remember to balance brevity and completeness, ensuring your conclusion is concise yet comprehensive. Emphasizing the practical implications of your research and connecting it to the broader academic landscape will help solidify the impact of your work. Pay someone to write a research paper if you are having a hard time finishing your coursework on time.

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How To Write A Conclusion For A Research Paper?

What should the conclusion of a research paper contain, how to start a conclusion paragraph for a research paper.

Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

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The Conclusion: How to End a Scientific Report in Style

• First Online: 26 April 2023

Cite this chapter

• Siew Mei Wu 3 ,
• Kooi Cheng Lee 3 &
• Eric Chun Yong Chan 4  

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Sometimes students have the mistaken belief that the conclusion of a scientific report is just a perfunctory ending that repeats what was presented in the main sections of the report. However, impactful conclusions fulfill a rhetorical function. Besides giving a closing summary, the conclusion reflects the significance of what has been uncovered and how this is connected to a broader issue. At the very least, the conclusion of a scientific report should leave the reader with a new perspective of the research area and something to think about.

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Goh, Z.-H., Tee, J. K., &amp; Ho, H. K. (2020). An Evaluation of the in vitro roles and mechanisms of silibinin in reducing pyrazinamide and isoniazid-induced hepatocellular damage. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21 , 3714–3734. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21103714

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Swales, J. M., &amp; Feak, C. B. (2012). Academic writing for graduate students (3rd ed.). University of Michigan Press.

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Appendix 1: Tutorial Notes for Conclusion Activity

1.1 learning outcomes.

At the end of the tutorial, you should be able to:

Identify and demonstrate understanding of the roles of Conclusion section of research reports

Analyze the rhetorical moves of Conclusion and apply them effectively in research reports

1.2 Introduction

The Conclusion of a paper is a closing summary of what the report is about. The key role of a Conclusion is to provide a reflection on what has been uncovered during the course of the study and to reflect on the significance of what has been learned (Craswell &amp; Poore, 2012). It should show the readers why all the analysis and information matters.

Besides having a final say on the issues in the report, a Conclusion allows the writer to do the following:

Demonstrate the importance of ideas presented through a synthesis of thoughts

Consider broader issues, make new connections, and elaborate on the significance of the findings

Propel the reader to a new view of the subject

Make a good final impression

End the paper on a positive note

(University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2019)

In other words, a Conclusion gives the readers something to take away that will help them see things differently or appreciate the topic in new ways. It can suggest broader implications that will not only interest the readers, but also enrich their knowledge (Craswell &amp; Poore, 2012), and leave them with something interesting to think about (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2019).

1.3 About the Conclusion Section

In most universities, undergraduate students, especially those in the last year of their programs, are required to document their research work in the form of a research report. The process of taking what you have done in the lab or from systematic review, and writing it for your academic colleagues is a highly structured activity that stretches and challenges the mind. Overall, a research paper should appeal to the academic community for whom you are writing and should cause the reader to want to know more about your research.

As an undergraduate student in your discipline, you have the advantage of being engaged in a niche area of research. As such, your research is current and will most likely be of interest to scholars in your community.

A typical research paper has the following main sections: introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. The other front and back matters of a research paper are the title, abstract, acknowledgments, and reference list. This structure is commonly adopted and accepted in the scientific fields. The research report starts with a general idea. The report then leads the reader to a discussion on a specific research area. It then ends with applicability to a bigger area. The last section, Conclusion, is the focus of this lesson.

The rhetorical moves of a Conclusion reflect its roles (see Fig. 54.1 ). It starts by reminding the reader of what is presented in the Introduction. For example, if a problem is described in the Introduction, that same problem can be revisited in the Conclusion to provide evidence that the report is helpful in creating a new understanding of the problem. The writer can also refer to the Introduction by using keywords or parallel concepts that were presented there.

Rhetorical moves of Conclusion (the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Writing Center,2019)

Next is a synthesis and not a summary of the outcomes of the study. Ideas should not simply be repeated as they were in the earlier parts of the report. The writer must show how the points made, and the support and examples that were given, fit together.

In terms of limitations, if it is not already mentioned in the Discussion section, the writer should acknowledge the weaknesses and shortcomings in the design and/or conduct of the study.

Finally, in connecting to the wider context, the writer should propose a course of action, a solution to an issue, or pose questions for further study. This can redirect readers’ thoughts and help them apply the information and ideas in the study to their own research context or to see the broader implications of the study.

1.4 Linguistic Features of the Conclusion Section

In terms of linguistic features, the use of tense in the Conclusion section is primarily present where the writer’s voice, position, and interpretation are prominent. This is followed by the use of the future tense in sharing what is ahead and some use of past when referring to the study that was done. As summarized by Swales and Feak (2012), Table 54.1 presents the frequency of use of the present tense and past tense in a research report.

1.5 Writing the Conclusion Section

Often, writing a Conclusion is not as easy as it first seems. Using the Question and Answer approach, below is a description of what is usually included in the Conclusion section.

How long should the Conclusion be?

One or two paragraphs comprising 1 sentence summarizing what the paper was about

Two to three sentences summarizing and synthesizing the key findings related to the thesis or objectives of the study

One sentence on limitations (if not in Discussion)

One to two sentences highlighting the significance and implications

One sentence on potential directions for further research

Should the objective be referred to in a Conclusion?

An effective Conclusion reiterates the issue or problem the hypothesis or objective(s) set out to solve. It is important to remind the readers what the hypothesis or objective(s) of the report are and to what extent they are addressed

How far should the Conclusion reflect the Introduction?

Referring to points made in the Introduction in the conclusion ties the paper together and provides readers with a sense of closure.

How much summarizing should there be in a Conclusion?

The conclusion can loosely follow the organization of your paper to parallel, but the focus should be on the paper’s analysis rather than on the organization.

Should newly found information be added to a Conclusion?

Well-written conclusions do not bring in new information or analysis; instead, they sum up what is already contained in the paper.

(Bahamani et al., 2017; Markowsky, 2010)

1.6 Task: Analysing a Conclusion Section

Consider Examples 1 to 4. How do the writers communicate the following information?

Restatement of objective(s)

Refection of outcome(s)

Acknowledgment of limitations, if any

Connection to wider context

“According to this study, the use of educational models, such as a Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPM) that most people are associated with the process of decision-making in higher education will be beneficial. Moreover, in the preparation, development and implementation of training programs, factors like increased perceived susceptibility, and perceived benefits should be dealt with and some facilities should be provided to facilitate or resolve the barriers of doing the Pap smear test as much as possible.”

(Bahamani et al., 2016)

“Community pharmacists perceived the NMS service as being of benefit to patients by providing advice and reassurance. Implementation of NMS was variable and pharmacists’ perceptions of its feasibility and operationalisation were mixed. Some found the logistics of arranging and conducting the necessary follow-ups challenging, as were service targets. Patient awareness and understanding of NMS was reported to be low and there was a perceived need for publicity about the service. NMS appeared to have strengthened existing good relationships between pharmacists and GPs. Some pharmacists’ concerns about possible overlap of NMS with GP and nurse input may have impacted on their motivation. Overall, our findings indicate that NMS provides an opportunity for patient benefit (patient interaction and medicines management) and the development of contemporary pharmacy practice.”

(Lucas &amp; Blenkinsopp, 2015)

“In this review, we discussed several strategies for the engineering of RiPP pathways to produce artificial pep-tides bearing non-proteinogenic structures characteristic of peptidic natural products. In the RiPP pathways, the structures of the final products are defined by the primary sequences of the precursor genes. Moreover, only a small number of modifying enzymes are involved, and the enzymes function modularly. These features have greatly facilitated both in vivo and in vitro engineering of the pathways, leading to a wide variety of artificial derivatives of naturally occurring RiPPs. In principle, the engineering strategies introduced here can be interchangeably applied for other classes of RiPP enzymes/pathways. Post-biosynthetic chemical modification of RiPPs would be an alternative approach to further increase the structural variation of the products [48–50]. Given that new classes of RiPP enzymes have been frequently reported, and that genetic information of putative RiPP enzymes continues to arise, the array of molecules feasible by RiPP engineering will be further expanded. Some of the artificial RiPP derivatives exhibited elevated bioactivities or different selectivities as compared with their wild type RiPPs. Although these precedents have demonstrated the pharmaceutical relevance of RiPP ana-logs, the next important step in RiPP engineering is the development of novel RiPP derivatives with artificial bioactivities. In more recent reports [51 __,52 __,53 __], the integration of combinatorial lanthipeptide biosynthesis with in vitro selection or bacterial reverse two-hybrid screening methods have successfully obtained artificial ligands specific to certain target proteins. Such approaches, including other strategies under investigation in laboratories in this field, for constructing and screening vast RiPP libraries would lead to the creation of artificial bioactive peptides with non-proteinogenic structures in the near feature.”

(Goto &amp; Suga, 2018)

“Our study is the first to assess and characterise silibinin’s various roles as an adjuvant in protecting against PZA- and INH-induced hepatotoxicity. Most promisingly, we demonstrated silibinin’s safety and efficacy as a rescue adjuvant in vitro , both of which are fundamental considerations in the use of any drug. We also identified silibinin’s potential utility as a rescue hepatoprotectant, shed important mechanistic insights on its hepatoprotective effect, and identified novel antioxidant targets in ameliorating ATT-induced hepatotoxicity. The proof-of-concept demonstrated in this project forms the ethical and scientific foundation to justify and inform subsequent in vivo preclinical studies and clinical trials. Given the lack of alternative treatments in tuberculosis, the need to preserve our remaining antibiotics is paramount. The high stakes involved necessitate future efforts to support our preliminary work in making silibinin clinically relevant to patients and healthcare professionals alike.”

(Goh, 2018)

1.7 In Summary

To recap, in drafting the Conclusion section, you should keep in mind that final remarks can leave the readers with a long-lasting impression of the report especially on the key point(s) that the writer intends to convey. Therefore, you should be careful in crafting this last section of your report.

1.8 References

Bahamani, A. et al. (2017). The Effect of Training Based on Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPM) on Rural Females’ Participation in Pap smear. BJPR, 16 , 6. Retrieved from http://www.journalrepository.org/media/journals/BJPR_14/2017/May/Bahmani1662017BJPR32965.pdf

Craswell G., &amp; Poore, M. (2012). Writing for Academic Success, 2nd. London: Sage.

Goh, Z-H. (2018). An Evaluation of the Roles and Mechanisms of Silibinin in Reducing Pyrazinamide- and Isoniazid-Induced Hepatotoxicity . Unpublished Final Year Project. National University of Singapore: Department of Pharmacy.

Goto, Y., &amp; Suga, H. (2018). Engineering of RiPP pathways for the production of artificial peptides bearing various non-proteinogenic structures. Current Opinion in Chemical Biology , 46 , 82–90.

Lucas, B., &amp; Blenkinsopp, A. (2015). Community pharmacists’ experience and perceptions of the New Medicines Serves (NMS). IJPP , 23 , 6. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijpp.12180/full

Markowski (2010). WPPD Evaluation form for capstone paper . Retrieved from https://cop-main.sites.medinfo.ufl.edu/files/2010/12/Capstone-Paper-Checklist-and-Reviewer-Evaluation-Form.pdf

Swales, J.M., &amp; Feak, C.B. (2012). Academic writing for graduate students , 3 rd ed. Michigan: University of Michigan Press.

University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, The Writing Center. (2019). Conclusions . Retrieved from https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/conclusions/

Appendix 2: Quiz for Conclusion Activity

Instructions

There are 6 questions in this quiz. Choose the most appropriate answer among the options provided.

What does the Conclusion section of a scientific report do?

It provides a recap of report, with reference to the objective(s).

It gives a closure to what has been discussed in relation to the topic.

It shares future direction(s) and in doing so connects to a wider context.

It propels the reader to have an enhanced understanding of the topic.

i, ii, and iii

i, ii and iv

ii, iii and iv

i, ii, iii and iv

The first rhetorical move of the Conclusion section is restatement of objective(s). It …

reminds the reader the objective(s) of the report.

restates reason(s) of each objective of the report.

revisits issue(s) presented requiring investigation.

reiterates the importance of the research project.

The second rhetorical move of the Conclusion section is reflection of outcome(s). It …

summarizes all the findings of the research project.

synthesizes outcomes of the research project.

is a repeat of important ideas mentioned in the report.

shows how key points, evidence, and support fit together.

In connecting to a wider context, the authors …

remind the reader of the importance of the topic.

propose a course of action for the reader.

pose a question to the reader for further research.

direct the reader to certain direction(s).

Following is the Conclusion section of a published article.

“In summary, we have assessed and characterised silibinin’s various roles as an adjuvant in protecting against PZA- and INH-induced hepatotoxicity. Our in vitro experiments suggest that silibinin may be safe and efficacious as a rescue adjuvant, both fundamental considerations in the use of any drug. Further optimisation of our in vitro model may also enhance silibinin’s hepatoprotective effect in rescue, prophylaxis, and recovery. Using this model, we have gleaned important mechanistic insights into its hepatoprotective effect and identified novel antioxidant targets in ameliorating HRZE-induced hepatotoxicity. Future directions will involve exploring the two main mechanisms by which silibinin may ameliorate hepatotoxicity; the proof-of-concept demonstrated in this project will inform subsequent in vitro and in vivo preclinical studies. Given the lack of alternative treatments in tuberculosis, the need to preserve our remaining antibiotics is paramount. These high stakes necessitate future efforts to support our preliminary work, making silibinin more clinically relevant to patients and healthcare professionals alike.” (Goh et al., 2020)

This excerpt of the Conclusion section…

restates objectives of the research.

synthesizes outcomes of the research.

acknowledges limitations of the research

connects the reader to a wider context.

i, ii and iii

What can one observe about the use of tenses in the Conclusion section? The frequency of use of present and future tenses …

demonstrates the importance results being synthesized.

is ungrammatical as the past tense should be used to state the outcomes.

propels the reader to think of future research.

suggests an encouraging tone to end the report.

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Wu, S.M., Lee, K.C., Chan, E.C.Y. (2023). The Conclusion: How to End a Scientific Report in Style. In: Rowland, S., Kuchel, L. (eds) Teaching Science Students to Communicate: A Practical Guide. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-91628-2_54

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Conclusions wrap up what you have been discussing in your paper. After moving from general to specific information in the introduction and body paragraphs, your conclusion should begin pulling back into more general information that restates the main points of your argument. Conclusions may also call for action or overview future possible research. The following outline may help you conclude your paper:

In a general way,

• Restate your topic and why it is important,
• Restate your thesis/claim,
• Address opposing viewpoints and explain why readers should align with your position,
• Call for action or overview future research possibilities.

Remember that once you accomplish these tasks, unless otherwise directed by your instructor, you are finished. Done. Complete. Don't try to bring in new points or end with a whiz bang(!) conclusion or try to solve world hunger in the final sentence of your conclusion. Simplicity is best for a clear, convincing message.

The preacher's maxim is one of the most effective formulas to follow for argument papers:

Tell what you're going to tell them (introduction).

Tell them (body).

Tell them what you told them (conclusion).

Are Markups Driving the Ups and Downs of Inflation?

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FRBSF Economic Letter 2024-12 | May 13, 2024

How much impact have price markups for goods and services had on the recent surge and the subsequent decline of inflation? Since 2021, markups have risen substantially in a few industries such as motor vehicles and petroleum. However, aggregate markups—which are more relevant for overall inflation—have generally remained flat, in line with previous economic recoveries over the past three decades. These patterns suggest that markup fluctuations have not been a main driver of the ups and downs of inflation during the post-pandemic recovery.

In the recovery from the pandemic, U.S. inflation surged to a peak of over 7% in June 2022 and has since declined to 2.7% in March 2024, as measured by the 12-month change in the personal consumption expenditures (PCE) price index. What factors have been driving the ups and downs of inflation? Production costs are traditionally considered a main contributor, particularly costs stemming from fluctuations in demand for and supply of goods and services. As demand for their products rises, companies need to hire more workers and buy more intermediate goods, pushing up production costs. Supply chain disruptions can also push up the cost of production. Firms may pass on all or part of the cost increases to consumers by raising prices. Thus, an important theoretical linkage runs from cost increases to inflation. Likewise, decreases in costs should lead to disinflation.

Labor costs are an important factor of production costs and are often useful for gauging inflationary pressures. However, during the post-pandemic surge in inflation, nominal wages rose more slowly than prices, such that real labor costs were falling until early 2023. By contrast, disruptions to global supply chains pushed up intermediate goods costs, contributing to the surge in inflation (see, for example, Liu and Nguyen 2023). However, supply chains have more direct impacts on goods inflation than on services inflation, which also rose substantially.

In this Economic Letter , we consider another factor that might drive inflation fluctuations: changes in firms’ pricing power and markups. An increase in pricing power would be reflected in price-cost markups, leading to higher inflation; likewise, a decline in pricing power and markups could alleviate inflation pressures. We use industry-level measures of markups to trace their evolving impact on inflation during the current expansion. We find that markups rose substantially in some sectors, such as the motor vehicles industry. However, the aggregate markup across all sectors of the economy, which is more relevant for inflation, has stayed essentially flat during the post-pandemic recovery. This is broadly in line with patterns during previous business cycle recoveries. Overall, our analysis suggests that fluctuations in markups were not a main driver of the post-pandemic surge in inflation, nor of the recent disinflation that started in mid-2022.

Potential drivers of inflation: Production costs and markups

To support households and businesses during the pandemic, the Federal Reserve lowered the federal funds rate target to essentially zero, and the federal government provided large fiscal transfers and increased unemployment benefits. These policies boosted demand for goods and services, especially as the economy recovered from the depth of the pandemic.

The increase in overall demand, combined with supply shortages, boosted the costs of production, contributing to the surge in inflation during the post-pandemic recovery. Although labor costs account for a large part of firms’ total production costs, real labor costs were falling between early 2021 and mid-2022 such that the increases in prices outpaced those in nominal wages. This makes it unlikely that labor costs were driving the surge in inflation.

Instead, we focus on another potential alternative driver of inflation that resulted from firms’ ability to adjust prices, known as pricing power. As demand for goods surged early in the post-pandemic recovery, companies may have had a greater ability to raise their prices above their production costs, a gap known as markups. Following a sharp drop in spending at the height of the pandemic, people may have become eager to resume normal spending patterns and hence more tolerant to price increases than in the past. In fact, growth of nonfinancial corporate profits accelerated in the early part of the recovery (see Figure 1), suggesting that companies had increased pricing power. Some studies have pointed to the strong growth in nonfinancial corporate profits in 2021 as evidence that increased markups have contributed to inflation (see, for example, Weber and Wasmer 2023). However, the figure also shows that growth in corporate profits is typically volatile. Corporate profits tend to rise in the early stages of economic recoveries. Data for the current recovery show that the increase in corporate profits is not particularly pronounced compared with previous recoveries.

Figure 1 Profit growth for nonfinancial businesses

More importantly, corporate profits are an imperfect measure of a firm’s pricing power because several other factors can drive changes in profitability. For instance, much of the recent rise in corporate profits can be attributed to lower business taxes and higher subsidies from pandemic-related government support, as well as lower net interest payments due to monetary policy accommodation (Pallazzo 2023).

Instead of relying on profits as a measure of pricing power, we construct direct measures of markups based on standard economic models. Theory suggests that companies set prices as a markup over variable production costs, and that markup can be inferred from the share of a firm’s revenue spent on a given variable production factor, such as labor or intermediate goods. Over the period of data we use, we assume that the specific proportion of a company’s production costs going toward inputs does not change. If the share of a firm’s revenue used for inputs falls, it would imply a rise in the firm’s price-cost margin or markup. In our main analysis, we use industry-level data from the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) to compute markups based on the share of revenue spent on intermediate inputs. Our results are similar if we instead use the share of revenue going toward labor costs.

We compare the evolution of markups to that of prices, as measured by the PCE price index, since the recovery from the pandemic. In constructing this price index, the BEA takes into account changes in product characteristics (for instance, size) that could otherwise bias the inflation measure by comparing the prices of inherently different products over time. Similarly, based upon standard economic theory, our markup measure implicitly captures changes in those characteristics (see, for example, Aghion et al. 2023).

The post-pandemic evolution of markups

We examine the evolution of markups in each industry since the third quarter of 2020, the start of the post-pandemic recovery. Figure 2 shows that some sectors, such as the motor vehicles and petroleum industries, experienced large cumulative increases in markups during the recovery. Markups also rose substantially in general merchandise, such as department stores, and for other services, such as repair and maintenance, personal care, and laundry services. Since the start of the expansion, markups in those industries rose by over 10%—comparable in size to the cumulative increases over the same period in the core PCE price index, which excludes volatile food and energy components. However, the surge in inflation through June 2022 was broad based, with prices also rising substantially outside of these sectors. Thus, understanding the importance of markups for driving inflation requires a macroeconomic perspective that examines the evolution of aggregate markups across all sectors of the economy.

Figure 2 Cumulative changes in markups for salient industries

The role of aggregate markups in the economy

To assess how much markup changes contribute to movements in inflation more broadly, we use our industry-level measurements to calculate an aggregate markup at the macroeconomic level. We aggregate the cumulative changes in industry markups, applying two different weighting methods, as displayed in Figure 3. In the first method (green line), we match our industry categories to the spending categories in the core PCE price index for ease of comparison; we then use the PCE weights for each category to compute the aggregate markup. Alternatively, we use each industry’s cost weights to compute the aggregate markup (blue line). Regardless of the weighting method, Figure 3 shows that aggregate markups have stayed essentially flat since the start of the recovery, while the core PCE price index (gray line) rose by more than 10%. Thus, changes in markups are not likely to be the main driver of inflation during the recovery, which aligns with results from Glover, Mustre-del-Río, and von Ende-Becker (2023) and Hornstein (2023) using different methodologies or data. Markups also have not played much of a role in the slowing of inflation since the summer of 2022.

Figure 3 Cumulative changes in aggregate markups and prices

Moreover, the path of aggregate markups over the past three years is not unusual compared with previous recoveries. Figure 4 shows the cumulative changes in aggregate markups since the start of the current recovery (dark blue line), alongside aggregate markups following the 1991 (green line), 2001 (yellow line), and 2008 (light blue line) recessions. Aggregate markups have stayed roughly constant throughout all four recoveries.

Figure 4 Cumulative changes of aggregate markups in recoveries

Firms’ pricing power may change over time, resulting in markup fluctuations. In this Letter , we examine whether increases in markups played an important role during the inflation surge between early 2021 and mid-2022 and if declines in markups have contributed to disinflation since then. Using industry-level data, we show that markups did rise substantially in a few important sectors, such as motor vehicles and petroleum products. However, aggregate markups—the more relevant measure for overall inflation—have stayed essentially flat since the start of the recovery. As such, rising markups have not been a main driver of the recent surge and subsequent decline in inflation during the current recovery.

Aghion, Philippe, Antonin Bergeaud, Timo Boppart, Peter J. Klenow, and Huiyu Li. 2023. “A Theory of Falling Growth and Rising Rents.”  Review of Economic Studies  90(6), pp.2,675-2,702.

Glover, Andrew, José Mustre-del-Río, and Alice von Ende-Becker. 2023. “ How Much Have Record Corporate Profits Contributed to Recent Inflation? ” FRB Kansas City Economic Review 108(1).

Hornstein, Andreas. 2023. “ Profits and Inflation in the Time of Covid .” FRB Richmond Economic Brief 23-38 (November).

Liu, Zheng, and Thuy Lan Nguyen. 2023. “ Global Supply Chain Pressures and U.S. Inflation .” FRBSF Economic Letter 2023-14 (June 20).

Palazzo, Berardino. 2023. “ Corporate Profits in the Aftermath of COVID-19 .” FEDS Notes , Federal Reserve Board of Governors, September 8.

Weber, Isabella M. and Evan Wasner. 2023. “Sellers’ Inflation, Profits and Conflict: Why Can Large Firms Hike Prices in an Emergency?” Review of Keynesian Economics 11(2), pp. 183-213.

Opinions expressed in FRBSF Economic Letter do not necessarily reflect the views of the management of the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco or of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. This publication is edited by Anita Todd and Karen Barnes. Permission to reprint portions of articles or whole articles must be obtained in writing. Please send editorial comments and requests for reprint permission to [email protected]

Cultural Relativity and Acceptance of Embryonic Stem Cell Research

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There is a debate about the ethical implications of using human embryos in stem cell research, which can be influenced by cultural, moral, and social values. This paper argues for an adaptable framework to accommodate diverse cultural and religious perspectives. By using an adaptive ethics model, research protections can reflect various populations and foster growth in stem cell research possibilities.

INTRODUCTION

Stem cell research combines biology, medicine, and technology, promising to alter health care and the understanding of human development. Yet, ethical contention exists because of individuals’ perceptions of using human embryos based on their various cultural, moral, and social values. While these disagreements concerning policy, use, and general acceptance have prompted the development of an international ethics policy, such a uniform approach can overlook the nuanced ethical landscapes between cultures. With diverse viewpoints in public health, a single global policy, especially one reflecting Western ethics or the ethics prevalent in high-income countries, is impractical. This paper argues for a culturally sensitive, adaptable framework for the use of embryonic stem cells. Stem cell policy should accommodate varying ethical viewpoints and promote an effective global dialogue. With an extension of an ethics model that can adapt to various cultures, we recommend localized guidelines that reflect the moral views of the people those guidelines serve.

Stem cells, characterized by their unique ability to differentiate into various cell types, enable the repair or replacement of damaged tissues. Two primary types of stem cells are somatic stem cells (adult stem cells) and embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells exist in developed tissues and maintain the body’s repair processes. [1] Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are remarkably pluripotent or versatile, making them valuable in research. [2] However, the use of ESCs has sparked ethics debates. Considering the potential of embryonic stem cells, research guidelines are essential. The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) provides international stem cell research guidelines. They call for “public conversations touching on the scientific significance as well as the societal and ethical issues raised by ESC research.” [3] The ISSCR also publishes updates about culturing human embryos 14 days post fertilization, suggesting local policies and regulations should continue to evolve as ESC research develops. [4]  Like the ISSCR, which calls for local law and policy to adapt to developing stem cell research given cultural acceptance, this paper highlights the importance of local social factors such as religion and culture.

I.     Global Cultural Perspective of Embryonic Stem Cells

Views on ESCs vary throughout the world. Some countries readily embrace stem cell research and therapies, while others have stricter regulations due to ethical concerns surrounding embryonic stem cells and when an embryo becomes entitled to moral consideration. The philosophical issue of when the “someone” begins to be a human after fertilization, in the morally relevant sense, [5] impacts when an embryo becomes not just worthy of protection but morally entitled to it. The process of creating embryonic stem cell lines involves the destruction of the embryos for research. [6] Consequently, global engagement in ESC research depends on social-cultural acceptability.

a.     US and Rights-Based Cultures

In the United States, attitudes toward stem cell therapies are diverse. The ethics and social approaches, which value individualism, [7] trigger debates regarding the destruction of human embryos, creating a complex regulatory environment. For example, the 1996 Dickey-Wicker Amendment prohibited federal funding for the creation of embryos for research and the destruction of embryos for “more than allowed for research on fetuses in utero.” [8] Following suit, in 2001, the Bush Administration heavily restricted stem cell lines for research. However, the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005 was proposed to help develop ESC research but was ultimately vetoed. [9] Under the Obama administration, in 2009, an executive order lifted restrictions allowing for more development in this field. [10] The flux of research capacity and funding parallels the different cultural perceptions of human dignity of the embryo and how it is socially presented within the country’s research culture. [11]

b.     Ubuntu and Collective Cultures

African bioethics differs from Western individualism because of the different traditions and values. African traditions, as described by individuals from South Africa and supported by some studies in other African countries, including Ghana and Kenya, follow the African moral philosophies of Ubuntu or Botho and Ukama , which “advocates for a form of wholeness that comes through one’s relationship and connectedness with other people in the society,” [12] making autonomy a socially collective concept. In this context, for the community to act autonomously, individuals would come together to decide what is best for the collective. Thus, stem cell research would require examining the value of the research to society as a whole and the use of the embryos as a collective societal resource. If society views the source as part of the collective whole, and opposes using stem cells, compromising the cultural values to pursue research may cause social detachment and stunt research growth. [13] Based on local culture and moral philosophy, the permissibility of stem cell research depends on how embryo, stem cell, and cell line therapies relate to the community as a whole. Ubuntu is the expression of humanness, with the person’s identity drawn from the “’I am because we are’” value. [14] The decision in a collectivistic culture becomes one born of cultural context, and individual decisions give deference to others in the society.

Consent differs in cultures where thought and moral philosophy are based on a collective paradigm. So, applying Western bioethical concepts is unrealistic. For one, Africa is a diverse continent with many countries with different belief systems, access to health care, and reliance on traditional or Western medicines. Where traditional medicine is the primary treatment, the “’restrictive focus on biomedically-related bioethics’” [is] problematic in African contexts because it neglects bioethical issues raised by traditional systems.” [15] No single approach applies in all areas or contexts. Rather than evaluating the permissibility of ESC research according to Western concepts such as the four principles approach, different ethics approaches should prevail.

Another consideration is the socio-economic standing of countries. In parts of South Africa, researchers have not focused heavily on contributing to the stem cell discourse, either because it is not considered health care or a health science priority or because resources are unavailable. [16] Each country’s priorities differ given different social, political, and economic factors. In South Africa, for instance, areas such as maternal mortality, non-communicable diseases, telemedicine, and the strength of health systems need improvement and require more focus. [17] Stem cell research could benefit the population, but it also could divert resources from basic medical care. Researchers in South Africa adhere to the National Health Act and Medicines Control Act in South Africa and international guidelines; however, the Act is not strictly enforced, and there is no clear legislation for research conduct or ethical guidelines. [18]

Some parts of Africa condemn stem cell research. For example, 98.2 percent of the Tunisian population is Muslim. [19] Tunisia does not permit stem cell research because of moral conflict with a Fatwa. Religion heavily saturates the regulation and direction of research. [20] Stem cell use became permissible for reproductive purposes only recently, with tight restrictions preventing cells from being used in any research other than procedures concerning ART/IVF.  Their use is conditioned on consent, and available only to married couples. [21] The community's receptiveness to stem cell research depends on including communitarian African ethics.

c.     Asia

Some Asian countries also have a collective model of ethics and decision making. [22] In China, the ethics model promotes a sincere respect for life or human dignity, [23] based on protective medicine. This model, influenced by Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), [24] recognizes Qi as the vital energy delivered via the meridians of the body; it connects illness to body systems, the body’s entire constitution, and the universe for a holistic bond of nature, health, and quality of life. [25] Following a protective ethics model, and traditional customs of wholeness, investment in stem cell research is heavily desired for its applications in regenerative therapies, disease modeling, and protective medicines. In a survey of medical students and healthcare practitioners, 30.8 percent considered stem cell research morally unacceptable while 63.5 percent accepted medical research using human embryonic stem cells. Of these individuals, 89.9 percent supported increased funding for stem cell research. [26] The scientific community might not reflect the overall population. From 1997 to 2019, China spent a total of $576 million (USD) on stem cell research at 8,050 stem cell programs, increased published presence from 0.6 percent to 14.01 percent of total global stem cell publications as of 2014, and made significant strides in cell-based therapies for various medical conditions. [27] However, while China has made substantial investments in stem cell research and achieved notable progress in clinical applications, concerns linger regarding ethical oversight and transparency. [28] For example, the China Biosecurity Law, promoted by the National Health Commission and China Hospital Association, attempted to mitigate risks by introducing an institutional review board (IRB) in the regulatory bodies. 5800 IRBs registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry since 2021. [29] However, issues still need to be addressed in implementing effective IRB review and approval procedures.

The substantial government funding and focus on scientific advancement have sometimes overshadowed considerations of regional cultures, ethnic minorities, and individual perspectives, particularly evident during the one-child policy era. As government policy adapts to promote public stability, such as the change from the one-child to the two-child policy, [30] research ethics should also adapt to ensure respect for the values of its represented peoples.

Japan is also relatively supportive of stem cell research and therapies. Japan has a more transparent regulatory framework, allowing for faster approval of regenerative medicine products, which has led to several advanced clinical trials and therapies. [31] South Korea is also actively engaged in stem cell research and has a history of breakthroughs in cloning and embryonic stem cells. [32] However, the field is controversial, and there are issues of scientific integrity. For example, the Korean FDA fast-tracked products for approval, [33] and in another instance, the oocyte source was unclear and possibly violated ethical standards. [34] Trust is important in research, as it builds collaborative foundations between colleagues, trial participant comfort, open-mindedness for complicated and sensitive discussions, and supports regulatory procedures for stakeholders. There is a need to respect the culture’s interest, engagement, and for research and clinical trials to be transparent and have ethical oversight to promote global research discourse and trust.

d.     Middle East

Countries in the Middle East have varying degrees of acceptance of or restrictions to policies related to using embryonic stem cells due to cultural and religious influences. Saudi Arabia has made significant contributions to stem cell research, and conducts research based on international guidelines for ethical conduct and under strict adherence to guidelines in accordance with Islamic principles. Specifically, the Saudi government and people require ESC research to adhere to Sharia law. In addition to umbilical and placental stem cells, [35] Saudi Arabia permits the use of embryonic stem cells as long as they come from miscarriages, therapeutic abortions permissible by Sharia law, or are left over from in vitro fertilization and donated to research. [36] Laws and ethical guidelines for stem cell research allow the development of research institutions such as the King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, which has a cord blood bank and a stem cell registry with nearly 10,000 donors. [37] Such volume and acceptance are due to the ethical ‘permissibility’ of the donor sources, which do not conflict with religious pillars. However, some researchers err on the side of caution, choosing not to use embryos or fetal tissue as they feel it is unethical to do so. [38]

Jordan has a positive research ethics culture. [39] However, there is a significant issue of lack of trust in researchers, with 45.23 percent (38.66 percent agreeing and 6.57 percent strongly agreeing) of Jordanians holding a low level of trust in researchers, compared to 81.34 percent of Jordanians agreeing that they feel safe to participate in a research trial. [40] Safety testifies to the feeling of confidence that adequate measures are in place to protect participants from harm, whereas trust in researchers could represent the confidence in researchers to act in the participants’ best interests, adhere to ethical guidelines, provide accurate information, and respect participants’ rights and dignity. One method to improve trust would be to address communication issues relevant to ESC. Legislation surrounding stem cell research has adopted specific language, especially concerning clarification “between ‘stem cells’ and ‘embryonic stem cells’” in translation. [41] Furthermore, legislation “mandates the creation of a national committee… laying out specific regulations for stem-cell banking in accordance with international standards.” [42] This broad regulation opens the door for future global engagement and maintains transparency. However, these regulations may also constrain the influence of research direction, pace, and accessibility of research outcomes.

e.     Europe

In the European Union (EU), ethics is also principle-based, but the principles of autonomy, dignity, integrity, and vulnerability are interconnected. [43] As such, the opportunity for cohesion and concessions between individuals’ thoughts and ideals allows for a more adaptable ethics model due to the flexible principles that relate to the human experience The EU has put forth a framework in its Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being allowing member states to take different approaches. Each European state applies these principles to its specific conventions, leading to or reflecting different acceptance levels of stem cell research. [44]

For example, in Germany, Lebenzusammenhang , or the coherence of life, references integrity in the unity of human culture. Namely, the personal sphere “should not be subject to external intervention.” [45]  Stem cell interventions could affect this concept of bodily completeness, leading to heavy restrictions. Under the Grundgesetz, human dignity and the right to life with physical integrity are paramount. [46] The Embryo Protection Act of 1991 made producing cell lines illegal. Cell lines can be imported if approved by the Central Ethics Commission for Stem Cell Research only if they were derived before May 2007. [47] Stem cell research respects the integrity of life for the embryo with heavy specifications and intense oversight. This is vastly different in Finland, where the regulatory bodies find research more permissible in IVF excess, but only up to 14 days after fertilization. [48] Spain’s approach differs still, with a comprehensive regulatory framework. [49] Thus, research regulation can be culture-specific due to variations in applied principles. Diverse cultures call for various approaches to ethical permissibility. [50] Only an adaptive-deliberative model can address the cultural constructions of self and achieve positive, culturally sensitive stem cell research practices. [51]

II.     Religious Perspectives on ESC

Embryonic stem cell sources are the main consideration within religious contexts. While individuals may not regard their own religious texts as authoritative or factual, religion can shape their foundations or perspectives.

The Qur'an states:

“And indeed We created man from a quintessence of clay. Then We placed within him a small quantity of nutfa (sperm to fertilize) in a safe place. Then We have fashioned the nutfa into an ‘alaqa (clinging clot or cell cluster), then We developed the ‘alaqa into mudgha (a lump of flesh), and We made mudgha into bones, and clothed the bones with flesh, then We brought it into being as a new creation. So Blessed is Allah, the Best of Creators.” [52]

Many scholars of Islam estimate the time of soul installment, marked by the angel breathing in the soul to bring the individual into creation, as 120 days from conception. [53] Personhood begins at this point, and the value of life would prohibit research or experimentation that could harm the individual. If the fetus is more than 120 days old, the time ensoulment is interpreted to occur according to Islamic law, abortion is no longer permissible. [54] There are a few opposing opinions about early embryos in Islamic traditions. According to some Islamic theologians, there is no ensoulment of the early embryo, which is the source of stem cells for ESC research. [55]

In Buddhism, the stance on stem cell research is not settled. The main tenets, the prohibition against harming or destroying others (ahimsa) and the pursuit of knowledge (prajña) and compassion (karuna), leave Buddhist scholars and communities divided. [56] Some scholars argue stem cell research is in accordance with the Buddhist tenet of seeking knowledge and ending human suffering. Others feel it violates the principle of not harming others. Finding the balance between these two points relies on the karmic burden of Buddhist morality. In trying to prevent ahimsa towards the embryo, Buddhist scholars suggest that to comply with Buddhist tenets, research cannot be done as the embryo has personhood at the moment of conception and would reincarnate immediately, harming the individual's ability to build their karmic burden. [57] On the other hand, the Bodhisattvas, those considered to be on the path to enlightenment or Nirvana, have given organs and flesh to others to help alleviate grieving and to benefit all. [58] Acceptance varies on applied beliefs and interpretations.

Catholicism does not support embryonic stem cell research, as it entails creation or destruction of human embryos. This destruction conflicts with the belief in the sanctity of life. For example, in the Old Testament, Genesis describes humanity as being created in God’s image and multiplying on the Earth, referencing the sacred rights to human conception and the purpose of development and life. In the Ten Commandments, the tenet that one should not kill has numerous interpretations where killing could mean murder or shedding of the sanctity of life, demonstrating the high value of human personhood. In other books, the theological conception of when life begins is interpreted as in utero, [59] highlighting the inviolability of life and its formation in vivo to make a religious point for accepting such research as relatively limited, if at all. [60] The Vatican has released ethical directives to help apply a theological basis to modern-day conflicts. The Magisterium of the Church states that “unless there is a moral certainty of not causing harm,” experimentation on fetuses, fertilized cells, stem cells, or embryos constitutes a crime. [61] Such procedures would not respect the human person who exists at these stages, according to Catholicism. Damages to the embryo are considered gravely immoral and illicit. [62] Although the Catholic Church officially opposes abortion, surveys demonstrate that many Catholic people hold pro-choice views, whether due to the context of conception, stage of pregnancy, threat to the mother’s life, or for other reasons, demonstrating that practicing members can also accept some but not all tenets. [63]

Some major Jewish denominations, such as the Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist movements, are open to supporting ESC use or research as long as it is for saving a life. [64] Within Judaism, the Talmud, or study, gives personhood to the child at birth and emphasizes that life does not begin at conception: [65]

“If she is found pregnant, until the fortieth day it is mere fluid,” [66]

Whereas most religions prioritize the status of human embryos, the Halakah (Jewish religious law) states that to save one life, most other religious laws can be ignored because it is in pursuit of preservation. [67] Stem cell research is accepted due to application of these religious laws.

We recognize that all religions contain subsets and sects. The variety of environmental and cultural differences within religious groups requires further analysis to respect the flexibility of religious thoughts and practices. We make no presumptions that all cultures require notions of autonomy or morality as under the common morality theory , which asserts a set of universal moral norms that all individuals share provides moral reasoning and guides ethical decisions. [68] We only wish to show that the interaction with morality varies between cultures and countries.

III.     A Flexible Ethical Approach

The plurality of different moral approaches described above demonstrates that there can be no universally acceptable uniform law for ESC on a global scale. Instead of developing one standard, flexible ethical applications must be continued. We recommend local guidelines that incorporate important cultural and ethical priorities.

While the Declaration of Helsinki is more relevant to people in clinical trials receiving ESC products, in keeping with the tradition of protections for research subjects, consent of the donor is an ethical requirement for ESC donation in many jurisdictions including the US, Canada, and Europe. [69] The Declaration of Helsinki provides a reference point for regulatory standards and could potentially be used as a universal baseline for obtaining consent prior to gamete or embryo donation.

For instance, in Columbia University’s egg donor program for stem cell research, donors followed standard screening protocols and “underwent counseling sessions that included information as to the purpose of oocyte donation for research, what the oocytes would be used for, the risks and benefits of donation, and process of oocyte stimulation” to ensure transparency for consent. [70] The program helped advance stem cell research and provided clear and safe research methods with paid participants. Though paid participation or covering costs of incidental expenses may not be socially acceptable in every culture or context, [71] and creating embryos for ESC research is illegal in many jurisdictions, Columbia’s program was effective because of the clear and honest communications with donors, IRBs, and related stakeholders.  This example demonstrates that cultural acceptance of scientific research and of the idea that an egg or embryo does not have personhood is likely behind societal acceptance of donating eggs for ESC research. As noted, many countries do not permit the creation of embryos for research.

Proper communication and education regarding the process and purpose of stem cell research may bolster comprehension and garner more acceptance. “Given the sensitive subject material, a complete consent process can support voluntary participation through trust, understanding, and ethical norms from the cultures and morals participants value. This can be hard for researchers entering countries of different socioeconomic stability, with different languages and different societal values. [72]

An adequate moral foundation in medical ethics is derived from the cultural and religious basis that informs knowledge and actions. [73] Understanding local cultural and religious values and their impact on research could help researchers develop humility and promote inclusion.

IV.     Concerns

Some may argue that if researchers all adhere to one ethics standard, protection will be satisfied across all borders, and the global public will trust researchers. However, defining what needs to be protected and how to define such research standards is very specific to the people to which standards are applied. We suggest that applying one uniform guide cannot accurately protect each individual because we all possess our own perceptions and interpretations of social values. [74] Therefore, the issue of not adjusting to the moral pluralism between peoples in applying one standard of ethics can be resolved by building out ethics models that can be adapted to different cultures and religions.

Other concerns include medical tourism, which may promote health inequities. [75] Some countries may develop and approve products derived from ESC research before others, compromising research ethics or drug approval processes. There are also concerns about the sale of unauthorized stem cell treatments, for example, those without FDA approval in the United States. Countries with robust research infrastructures may be tempted to attract medical tourists, and some customers will have false hopes based on aggressive publicity of unproven treatments. [76]

For example, in China, stem cell clinics can market to foreign clients who are not protected under the regulatory regimes. Companies employ a marketing strategy of “ethically friendly” therapies. Specifically, in the case of Beike, China’s leading stem cell tourism company and sprouting network, ethical oversight of administrators or health bureaus at one site has “the unintended consequence of shifting questionable activities to another node in Beike's diffuse network.” [77] In contrast, Jordan is aware of stem cell research’s potential abuse and its own status as a “health-care hub.” Jordan’s expanded regulations include preserving the interests of individuals in clinical trials and banning private companies from ESC research to preserve transparency and the integrity of research practices. [78]

The social priorities of the community are also a concern. The ISSCR explicitly states that guidelines “should be periodically revised to accommodate scientific advances, new challenges, and evolving social priorities.” [79] The adaptable ethics model extends this consideration further by addressing whether research is warranted given the varying degrees of socioeconomic conditions, political stability, and healthcare accessibilities and limitations. An ethical approach would require discussion about resource allocation and appropriate distribution of funds. [80]

While some religions emphasize the sanctity of life from conception, which may lead to public opposition to ESC research, others encourage ESC research due to its potential for healing and alleviating human pain. Many countries have special regulations that balance local views on embryonic personhood, the benefits of research as individual or societal goods, and the protection of human research subjects. To foster understanding and constructive dialogue, global policy frameworks should prioritize the protection of universal human rights, transparency, and informed consent. In addition to these foundational global policies, we recommend tailoring local guidelines to reflect the diverse cultural and religious perspectives of the populations they govern. Ethics models should be adapted to local populations to effectively establish research protections, growth, and possibilities of stem cell research.

For example, in countries with strong beliefs in the moral sanctity of embryos or heavy religious restrictions, an adaptive model can allow for discussion instead of immediate rejection. In countries with limited individual rights and voice in science policy, an adaptive model ensures cultural, moral, and religious views are taken into consideration, thereby building social inclusion. While this ethical consideration by the government may not give a complete voice to every individual, it will help balance policies and maintain the diverse perspectives of those it affects. Embracing an adaptive ethics model of ESC research promotes open-minded dialogue and respect for the importance of human belief and tradition. By actively engaging with cultural and religious values, researchers can better handle disagreements and promote ethical research practices that benefit each society.

This brief exploration of the religious and cultural differences that impact ESC research reveals the nuances of relative ethics and highlights a need for local policymakers to apply a more intense adaptive model.

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[5] Concerning the moral philosophies of stem cell research, our paper does not posit a personal moral stance nor delve into the “when” of human life begins. To read further about the philosophical debate, consider the following sources:

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[7] Socially, at its core, the Western approach to ethics is widely principle-based, autonomy being one of the key factors to ensure a fundamental respect for persons within research. For information regarding autonomy in research, see: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, & National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1978). The Belmont Report. Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research.; For a more in-depth review of autonomy within the US, see: Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (1994). Principles of Biomedical Ethics . Oxford University Press.

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[9] Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005, H. R. 810, 109 th Cong. (2001). https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/hr810/text ; Bush, G. W. (2006, July 19). Message to the House of Representatives . National Archives and Records Administration. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/07/20060719-5.html

[10] National Archives and Records Administration. (2009, March 9). Executive order 13505 -- removing barriers to responsible scientific research involving human stem cells . National Archives and Records Administration. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/removing-barriers-responsible-scientific-research-involving-human-stem-cells

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[13] Source for further reading: Tangwa G. B. (2007). Moral status of embryonic stem cells: perspective of an African villager. Bioethics , 21(8), 449–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8519.2007.00582.x , see also Mnisi, F. M. (2020). An African analysis based on ethics of Ubuntu - are human embryonic stem cell patents morally justifiable? African Insight , 49 (4).

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[17] Department of Health Republic of South Africa. (2021). Health Research Priorities (revised) for South Africa 2021-2024 . National Health Research Strategy. https://www.health.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/National-Health-Research-Priorities-2021-2024.pdf

[18] Oosthuizen, H. (2013). Legal and Ethical Issues in Stem Cell Research in South Africa. In: Beran, R. (eds) Legal and Forensic Medicine. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32338-6_80 , see also: Gaobotse G (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

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[21] Kooli, C. Review of assisted reproduction techniques, laws, and regulations in Muslim countries.  Middle East Fertil Soc J   24 , 8 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43043-019-0011-0 ; Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[22] Pang M. C. (1999). Protective truthfulness: the Chinese way of safeguarding patients in informed treatment decisions. Journal of medical ethics , 25(3), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.25.3.247

[23] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[24] Wang, Y., Xue, Y., & Guo, H. D. (2022). Intervention effects of traditional Chinese medicine on stem cell therapy of myocardial infarction.  Frontiers in pharmacology ,  13 , 1013740. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.1013740

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[30] Chen, H., Wei, T., Wang, H.  et al.  Association of China’s two-child policy with changes in number of births and birth defects rate, 2008–2017.  BMC Public Health   22 , 434 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12839-0

[31] Azuma, K. Regulatory Landscape of Regenerative Medicine in Japan.  Curr Stem Cell Rep   1 , 118–128 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40778-015-0012-6

[32] Harris, R. (2005, May 19). Researchers Report Advance in Stem Cell Production . NPR. https://www.npr.org/2005/05/19/4658967/researchers-report-advance-in-stem-cell-production

[33] Park, S. (2012). South Korea steps up stem-cell work.  Nature . https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2012.10565

[34] Resnik, D. B., Shamoo, A. E., & Krimsky, S. (2006). Fraudulent human embryonic stem cell research in South Korea: lessons learned.  Accountability in research ,  13 (1), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/08989620600634193 .

[35] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[36] Association for the Advancement of Blood and Biotherapies.  https://www.aabb.org/regulatory-and-advocacy/regulatory-affairs/regulatory-for-cellular-therapies/international-competent-authorities/saudi-arabia

[37] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia.  BMC medical ethics ,  21 (1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[38] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics , 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

Culturally, autonomy practices follow a relational autonomy approach based on a paternalistic deontological health care model. The adherence to strict international research policies and religious pillars within the regulatory environment is a great foundation for research ethics. However, there is a need to develop locally targeted ethics approaches for research (as called for in Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6), this decision-making approach may help advise a research decision model. For more on the clinical cultural autonomy approaches, see: Alabdullah, Y. Y., Alzaid, E., Alsaad, S., Alamri, T., Alolayan, S. W., Bah, S., & Aljoudi, A. S. (2022). Autonomy and paternalism in Shared decision‐making in a Saudi Arabian tertiary hospital: A cross‐sectional study. Developing World Bioethics , 23 (3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12355 ; Bukhari, A. A. (2017). Universal Principles of Bioethics and Patient Rights in Saudi Arabia (Doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University). https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/124; Ladha, S., Nakshawani, S. A., Alzaidy, A., & Tarab, B. (2023, October 26). Islam and Bioethics: What We All Need to Know . Columbia University School of Professional Studies. https://sps.columbia.edu/events/islam-and-bioethics-what-we-all-need-know

[39] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[40] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[41] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[42] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[43] The EU’s definition of autonomy relates to the capacity for creating ideas, moral insight, decisions, and actions without constraint, personal responsibility, and informed consent. However, the EU views autonomy as not completely able to protect individuals and depends on other principles, such as dignity, which “expresses the intrinsic worth and fundamental equality of all human beings.” Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[44] Council of Europe. Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (ETS No. 164) https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=164 (forbidding the creation of embryos for research purposes only, and suggests embryos in vitro have protections.); Also see Drabiak-Syed B. K. (2013). New President, New Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Policy: Comparative International Perspectives and Embryonic Stem Cell Research Laws in France.  Biotechnology Law Report ,  32 (6), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1089/blr.2013.9865

[45] Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[46] Tomuschat, C., Currie, D. P., Kommers, D. P., & Kerr, R. (Trans.). (1949, May 23). Basic law for the Federal Republic of Germany. https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf

[47] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Germany . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-germany

[48] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Finland . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-finland

[49] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Spain . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-spain

[50] Some sources to consider regarding ethics models or regulatory oversights of other cultures not covered:

Kara MA. Applicability of the principle of respect for autonomy: the perspective of Turkey. J Med Ethics. 2007 Nov;33(11):627-30. doi: 10.1136/jme.2006.017400. PMID: 17971462; PMCID: PMC2598110.

Ugarte, O. N., & Acioly, M. A. (2014). The principle of autonomy in Brazil: one needs to discuss it ...  Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes ,  41 (5), 374–377. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-69912014005013

Bharadwaj, A., & Glasner, P. E. (2012). Local cells, global science: The rise of embryonic stem cell research in India . Routledge.

For further research on specific European countries regarding ethical and regulatory framework, we recommend this database: Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Europe . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-europe   

[51] Klitzman, R. (2006). Complications of culture in obtaining informed consent. The American Journal of Bioethics, 6(1), 20–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265160500394671 see also: Ekmekci, P. E., & Arda, B. (2017). Interculturalism and Informed Consent: Respecting Cultural Differences without Breaching Human Rights.  Cultura (Iasi, Romania) ,  14 (2), 159–172.; For why trust is important in research, see also: Gray, B., Hilder, J., Macdonald, L., Tester, R., Dowell, A., & Stubbe, M. (2017). Are research ethics guidelines culturally competent?  Research Ethics ,  13 (1), 23-41.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016116650235

[52] The Qur'an  (M. Khattab, Trans.). (1965). Al-Mu’minun, 23: 12-14. https://quran.com/23

[53] Lenfest, Y. (2017, December 8). Islam and the beginning of human life . Bill of Health. https://blog.petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2017/12/08/islam-and-the-beginning-of-human-life/

[54] Aksoy, S. (2005). Making regulations and drawing up legislation in Islamic countries under conditions of uncertainty, with special reference to embryonic stem cell research. Journal of Medical Ethics , 31: 399-403.; see also: Mahmoud, Azza. "Islamic Bioethics: National Regulations and Guidelines of Human Stem Cell Research in the Muslim World." Master's thesis, Chapman University, 2022. https://doi.org/10.36837/ chapman.000386

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[57] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

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[59] There is no explicit religious reference to when life begins or how to conduct research that interacts with the concept of life. However, these are relevant verses pertaining to how the fetus is viewed. (( King James Bible . (1999). Oxford University Press. (original work published 1769))

Jerimiah 1: 5 “Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee…”

In prophet Jerimiah’s insight, God set him apart as a person known before childbirth, a theme carried within the Psalm of David.

Psalm 139: 13-14 “…Thou hast covered me in my mother's womb. I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made…”

These verses demonstrate David’s respect for God as an entity that would know of all man’s thoughts and doings even before birth.

[60] It should be noted that abortion is not supported as well.

[61] The Vatican. (1987, February 22). Instruction on Respect for Human Life in Its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation Replies to Certain Questions of the Day . Congregation For the Doctrine of the Faith. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19870222_respect-for-human-life_en.html

[62] The Vatican. (2000, August 25). Declaration On the Production and the Scientific and Therapeutic Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells . Pontifical Academy for Life. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdlife/documents/rc_pa_acdlife_doc_20000824_cellule-staminali_en.html ; Ohara, N. (2003). Ethical Consideration of Experimentation Using Living Human Embryos: The Catholic Church’s Position on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Human Cloning. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology . Retrieved from https://article.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/30/2-3/pii/2003018/77-81.pdf.

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[78] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[79] International Society for Stem Cell Research. (2024). Standards in stem cell research . International Society for Stem Cell Research. https://www.isscr.org/guidelines/5-standards-in-stem-cell-research

[80] Benjamin, R. (2013). People’s science bodies and rights on the Stem Cell Frontier . Stanford University Press.

Mifrah Hayath

SM Candidate Harvard Medical School, MS Biotechnology Johns Hopkins University

Olivia Bowers

MS Bioethics Columbia University (Disclosure: affiliated with Voices in Bioethics)

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Characterizing Community Forests in the United States

Current affiliation: University of North Carolina Wilmington, Environmental Science, Wilmington, NC, USA

Current affiliation: US Department of the Interior, Office of Collaborative Action and Dispute Resolution Washington, DC, USA

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Reem Hajjar, Kathleen McGinley, Susan Charnley, Gregory E Frey, Meredith Hovis, Frederick W Cubbage, John Schelhas, Kailey Kornhauser, Characterizing Community Forests in the United States, Journal of Forestry , Volume 122, Issue 3, May 2024, Pages 273–284, https://doi.org/10.1093/jofore/fvad054

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Research on community forests (CFs), primarily governed and managed by local forest users in the United States, is limited, despite their growth in numbers over the past decade. We conducted a survey to inventory CFs in the United States and better understand their ownership and governance structures, management objectives, benefits, and financing. The ninety-eight CFs in our inventory are on private, public, and tribal lands. They had various ways of soliciting input from, or sharing decision-making authority with, local groups, organizations, and citizens. Recreation and environmental services were the most important management goals, but timber production occurred on more than two-thirds of CFs, contributing to income on many CFs, along with a diversity of other income sources to fund operations. We discuss the difficulties in creating a comprehensive CF inventory and typology given the diversity of models that exist, reflecting local social and environmental conditions and the bottom-up nature of community forestry in the United States.

Study Implications: Despite their small footprint in the United States, community forests are a rapidly developing model of forest ownership, governance, and management that helps protect forestlands and open space and demonstrates how market and nonmarket forest goods and services can be produced for broad and enduring community benefits. This study inventories and characterizes community forests in the United States to increase understanding of this model, its prevalence, and its potential. It provides a baseline of information that serves as a foundation for further exploration and research on the impacts and contributions of community forests.

Over the past few decades, many countries have increasingly promoted community forests (CFs) as a way to conserve forests, enhance rural livelihoods, and recognize the traditional and customary rights of local forest users to access, use, and manage forests ( Hajjar et al. 2021 ; Lund et al. 2018 ). CFs are delineated forest areas where community members have access to natural resources, are engaged in their governance, and receive indirect and direct benefits from their management ( Charnley and Poe 2007 ; McDermott and Schreckenberg 2009 ). Although CFs have existed in many forms across the globe for centuries, these more recent efforts are typically formal, government-sanctioned, and often government-sponsored. A total 14% of the world’s forests, and 28% of forests in low- and middle-income countries, are currently owned or managed by Indigenous peoples and local communities ( Rights and Resources Initiative 2018 ). Internationally, CF initiatives span a broad range of tenure regimes, institutional arrangements, relationships between communities and higher levels of government, activities, and outcomes that have evolved in line with local contexts, conditions, needs, and goals ( Charnley and Poe 2007 ; Hajjar and Molnar 2016 ).

In the United States, CFs have also existed in diverse forms for centuries ( Baker and Kusel 2003 ; McCullough 1995 ), although as elsewhere, formally designated community forests have been increasing in number since the 1990s. This relatively recent trend is likely driven by several factors. First, vertically integrated forest products companies nationwide have been divesting of their industrial timberlands since the late 1980s for economic reasons ( Zhang 2021 ), causing a large-scale shift in timberland ownership from industrial to institutional investors ( Zhang 2021 ). To prevent residential development, maintain access to local forests, conserve forest resources, and keep working forests working to provide economic opportunities for local residents, initiatives to acquire industrial timberland and manage it as CFs have proliferated ( Belsky 2008 ). Second, private family forest owners are aging; the average age of the primary decision-maker over family forestlands is 65 and, for about 20% of these ownerships, 75 or older ( Butler et al. 2021 ). Keeping their family forestland intact for future generations is a top concern for family forest owners ( Butler et al. 2021 ). If their descendants are uninterested or unable to keep this land in the family, community groups or municipalities may wish to acquire it as a CF to prevent its subdivision and fragmentation and provide community benefits.

Third, Indigenous peoples in the United States have regained greater control over ancestral lands, including forestlands, both on and off tribal trust lands over the past several decades ( McGinley et al. 2022 ). Some tribes have acquired forestland through fee simple purchase, including with funding designated for CF creation, and established CFs on those lands ( McGinley et al. 2022 ). Fourth, the 1990s saw a dramatic increase in citizen participation in decision-making about the management of public forestlands ( Baker and Kusel 2003 ; Charnley and Poe 2007 ). This trend has persisted, with community-based organizations, community members, forest collaborative groups, and other stakeholders playing a greater role in management decision-making and collaborative forest stewardship on federal lands ( Davis et al. 2020 ). In some cases, these arrangements may exhibit the characteristics of a CF.

Simultaneously, several programs providing funding for land acquisition to create CFs have arisen in the past two decades ( McGinley et al. 2022 ). Access to funding along with the emergence of supportive policies, organizations providing technical assistance, and practitioner networks have fostered a more favorable environment for CF creation since the 2000s ( Frey et al. forthcoming ). These trends have played out somewhat differently in different locations, but together they have contributed to a nationwide rise in CFs in the United States.

Unlike many other countries around the world with communal property systems, CFs in the United States do not exist as a distinct land tenure or ownership class. CFs have been established on a variety of public, private, and tribal lands and have diverse land tenure arrangements ( McGinley et al. 2022 ). Furthermore, there is no universally accepted definition of a CF in the United States ( Frey et al. forthcoming ). These two facts make studying CFs in the United States, as a distinct form of forest tenure, management, and governance, challenging. Literature on US CFs, most of it published since the 1990s, has primarily been descriptive in nature, relying on limited numbers of case studies to elaborate on the various motivations for creating CFs and the institutional and political context that pushed them forward ( Belsky 2015 ; McCarthy 2006 ); development of mechanisms and institutional arrangements for governance ( Abrams 2023 ; Abrams et al. 2015 ; Belsky and Barton 2018 ); and their potential benefits ( Christoffersen et al. 2008 ; Lyman et al. 2014 ). Belsky (2008) proposed a typology of CFs defined by who owns the CF—Indigenous groups, towns or municipalities, or community-based conservation organizations. A key message of the scientific literature is that a vast diversity of CFs exists in the United States, reflecting the diverse social, economic, and ecological contexts in which they occur.

To our knowledge, no prior research has attempted to document or characterize the full suite of CFs in the United States. Thus, the goals of this paper are to (1) identify, inventory, and characterize CFs in the United States; (2) enhance understanding of their ownership and governance structures, management objectives, and sources of income; (3) extend the discussion of the variability in forms of CFs and build on previous work to refine a CF typology; and (4) problematize how we recognize CFs in the United States (i.e., what is included, what is not, and why).

Defining CFs 1

A common but broad premise of CFs internationally is that place-based communities have some role in determining how local forests are to be managed for community benefit ( Hajjar et al. 2021 ). In the United States, communities associated with CFs are frequently not only place-based but also communities of interest and practice or some combination of these ( McGinley et al. 2022 ), complicating the notion of “community” and “local” (see Brosius et al. [2005 ] for a discussion). For purposes of deciding what to include in this study, we considered the following attributes of CFs, which are prevalent in the literature on US CFs (see Frey et al. forthcoming ): (1) ownership or tenure by a local governmental or nongovernmental organization (NGO) on behalf of the community; (2) communities are substantively involved in forest management and governance; (3) communities have secure rights to access and benefit from the forest; (4) social and economic benefits for local communities are a management priority; and (5) forest conservation values are permanently protected.

Creating a CF Inventory

To catalogue and characterize CFs in the United States, we first undertook an inventory of existing CFs, aiming to be as comprehensive as possible. Given the lack of a consistent definition or model of CFs, we used a hybrid approach to identify them ( Frey et al. forthcoming ). This meant first searching for entities that self-identify their property or initiative as a CF and for those that have participated in programs or policies related to CFs. Then we overlaid a series of inclusion criteria based on the attributes of CFs outlined above. Therefore, to be included in our study, local communities had to have rights of access and use and some form of management responsibility or decision-making authority (beyond consultation) over local forests. Additionally, these forests were managed to promote ecological sustainability and contribute to conservation while creating tangible local community benefits as a management priority.

We began by compiling a list of CFs and related information from a US Endowment for Forestry and Communities study ( Christoffersen et al. 2008 ) and a previous exploratory project ( Hovis et al. 2022 ). We then added to this list, drawing from CF lists provided by organizations that work with and support them, such as the Ford Foundation, the Northwest Community Forest Coalition, the Northern Forest Center, the Trust for Public Lands, the Open Space Institute, and the USDA Forest Service (Forest Service) Community Forest and Open Space Conservation Program. We also used Google Search Engine to identify any additional CFs not already included in our list. Search terms included: state name AND community forest OR community managed forest OR community-based forest OR town forest. We further consulted with various professionals in our networks involved with CFs (e.g., via the Northwest Community Forest Coalition annual meeting) to ensure the comprehensiveness of our list. Finally, we consulted with two project advisory committees that we set up at the start of the funded project under which this research was undertaken: one, a research advisory committee consisting of CF professionals across select government agencies, CF coalitions, and networks; the other, a tribal forestry advisory committee consisting of representatives of tribes with CFs and tribal natural resources networks.

We also used Google Search Engine to record any information on the identified CFs, usually landing on the websites of CF owners or their supporters. This information typically included the group name, forest location, acreage, landowner, governance, management objectives, history, URL, and contact information. Searches and consultations took place between 2019 and 2023, with more CFs identified and added continually as we heard of cases that were missed in our searches or that were being newly created. We examine the limitations of this approach in the Discussion section.

We initially located 136 possible CFs in the United States using these methods. Of these, thirty-two clearly did not meet our criteria, and we were unable to find additional information or contacts for eleven. To the remaining ninety-three CFs that met our inclusion criteria and for which we had contact information, we sent an internet-based survey using Qualtrics. We requested that a CF manager or other person familiar with the CF fill out the survey. The survey included questions about the CF, such as size, forest type, ownership, decision-making, who is involved in day-to-day management, management priorities, rules of access and use, and financing. Although most survey questions were designed to capture objective characteristics of the CF (i.e., size, ownership, etc.), we acknowledge that answers to a question asking about “management priorities” may not reflect the diversity of priorities a community may have for its forests. Rather, we expected that a CF manager responding to the survey would choose priorities that were being explicitly managed for, consistent with their management plan or mission statement.

To increase response rates ( Dillman et al. 2014 ), we followed up by sending reminder emails after 2 and 4 weeks and then through phone calls where phone numbers were available. Following this, for all nonresponses or cases where contact information could not be located, we filled out the survey ourselves to the extent possible using CF websites and other available resources. Not all survey questions had responses readily available from website sources, and so these surveys were not as complete. This resulted in some topic areas having smaller sample sizes, as displayed in the Results section. We also followed this protocol for newly identified CFs throughout the time period of the research (either newly created CFs or CFs discovered through our networks that met our criteria), for a combined total of ninety-eight CFs recorded up to April 2023. Survey responses were tabulated in SPSS, where descriptive statistics (frequencies and crosstabs) were used to show patterns across various CF characteristics.

We refer to three regions in discussing our results based on the Forest Service Resources Planning Act Assessment (RPA) regions: the West, combining the Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain RPA regions, including CFs in Montana, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, California, and Arizona; the North, which includes CFs found in Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, Connecticut, Michigan, and Wisconsin; and the South, which includes CFs in Georgia, North and South Carolina, Virginia, and Puerto Rico.

We collected data on ninety-eight CFs across the United States, constituting the sample used for this study ( SI Table 1 ). The survey response rate was 87% (eighty-five of ninety-eight); for the remaining thirteen survey nonresponses, we gathered information from internet sources. We expect the number of CFs to continue to grow in the coming years: after closing the survey in April 2023, we learned of at least four additional initiatives that were close to acquiring CF lands and nine that were seeking funds to purchase CF land. We believe that ninety-eight is close to the current total number of self-identifying CFs in the United States but acknowledge that it is likely an undercount of actual CFs that meet our inclusion criteria. We discuss the difficulties in accurately capturing all US CFs in the Discussion section. Rather than thinking of our sample as a complete inventory of all US CFs, we consider it sufficient for characterizing different types of CFs in the United States.

Location, Year Established, and Size

The greatest number of CFs per state were found in West Coast states ( figure 1 ; Washington, fourteen CFs; Oregon, twelve; California, nine); northeastern states (Maine, twelve CFs; Vermont, nine; New Hampshire, eight); and the upper midwestern states of Michigan and Wisconsin (five each). Fewer were located in southern states, with a handful spread across Georgia, North and South Carolina, and Virginia. The earliest recorded CFs in our sample were created in the 1930s and 1940s ( figure 2 ), mostly city and county forests in the northwestern United States (Montesano Community Forest, Hood River County Forest, Ashland Forestlands, Arcata Community Forest), and two town forests that self-describe as CFs in the Northeast (Gorham Town Forest, Mendon Town Forest). Most CFs in our sample were created after 2010 when there was a sharp increase in the number of CFs in all regions. This time period corresponded with new legislative support for CFs in some states (e.g., Washington State’s 2011 Community Forest Trust legislation) and at the federal level (e.g., the Forest Service's 2011 Community Forest Program), which have helped tribes, local governments, and nonprofit organizations acquire land at risk of development to establish CFs.

Location of CFs in our database. In this article, we refer to three regions in discussing our results: the West, which includes CFs found in Montana, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, California, and Arizona; the North, which includes Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, Connecticut, Michigan, and Wisconsin; and the South, which includes Georgia, North and South Carolina, Virginia, and Puerto Rico.

Number of CFs in the United States since 1930.

The total area covered by CFs in our inventory is 436,411 acres (ac). Of this total, 87% of CFs were smaller than 5,000 ac ( figure 3 ), and 63% were less than 1,000 ac. By region, median sizes of CFs were: 1,360 ac in the West, 375 ac in the North, and 334 ac in the South. Nine CFs in the West were 5,000 ac or larger, compared to four in the North and none in the South. The majority of CFs less than 1,000 ac (thirty-nine of sixty-one CFs) were located in the North, with over half of those being between 100 and 500 ac (twenty-five of thirty-nine CFs). A total of 76% of reporting CFs said their forests were located on one contiguous parcel and 24% were on multiple unconnected parcels (varying from two to seventeen parcels).

Acreage of CFs across regions.

Ownership, Decision-Making Authority, and Management

As indicated in figure 4 , CFs in our sample were primarily owned by either a local government body (town, city, or county government) or by an NGO (e.g., a community-based organization, land trust, or other nonprofit). In the West, CFs were mostly purchased from private corporate owners (industrial timber companies, timber investment management organizations [TIMOs], or real estate investment trusts). In the North, CF lands were mostly acquired from private family forest owners. Ownership types included CFs of various sizes, although CFs larger than 1,000 ac tended to be held by a government body, whereas the majority of NGO-held CFs were smaller than 1,000 ac ( SI Table 2 ).

Ownership of CFs: (a) current landowner of forestlands designated as CFs and (b) previous landowners from whom the current landowner acquired the CF land. “Joint ownership” in (a) were parcels jointly owned by a local government body and a land trust ( n  = 3), a private utilities firm ( n  = 1), or a university ( n  = 1); a tribe and a conservancy ( n  = 1); and a land trust and private equity firm ( n  = 1). “Other” in (b) were parcels that were pieced together from multiple ownerships.

Land ownership largely corresponded with the entity with ultimate decision-making authority over management, access, and use of the CF ( SI Figure 1 ). Government agencies largely had authority over government-owned CFs, tribes over tribally owned CFs, and NGOs over the land they owned. These entities had various ways of soliciting input from, or sharing decision-making authority with, local groups, organizations, and citizens. In some cases, this was institutionalized through formal joint decision-making processes. For example, there were eleven cases of local government ownership (town, city, or county-owned forests) where decision-making authority was jointly held by both that government body and formal citizen councils or committees established for this purpose. In other cases, although respondents did not describe decision-making as “joint,” they involved community members through mechanisms such as advisory committees and boards made up of local citizens, formal community and public consultation processes (mostly for city or town government ownerships), or various events, regular meetings, and other formal and informal mechanisms that sought community input (mostly for NGO ownerships). Local groups and volunteers contributed to day-to-day management of CFs across most ownerships ( SI Figure 2 ). In particular, various recreation-related volunteer groups helped to maintain trail systems. Otherwise, in many cases, forest consultants or forestry professionals from government agencies or NGOs contributed to forest planning and stewardship.

Management Goals and Allowed Activities

Survey respondents were asked to select the top four goals, from a list of options, that the CF was managed for ( figure 5 ). Across the country, the vast majority of CFs stated that recreation was a top management goal (82% of ninety-five reporting CFs). Collectively, conservation-oriented goals (watershed, habitat or open space protection, biodiversity conservation and restoration, and carbon sequestration, totaling 98% of reporting CFs), as well as other nonextractive goals (education, recreation, and cultural heritage protection, totaling 93% of reporting CFs) were much more prominent than extraction-oriented goals (timber production, nontimber forest products (NTFPs) management, agroforestry, and livestock grazing, totaling 47% of reporting CFs). However, timber production was among the top four management goals reported across the sample as a whole.

Primary management goals. Respondents were asked to list top four management goals for their CF.

There were few strong patterns between ownership type and management goals ( SI Table 3 ). Recreation was listed as one of the top management goals in over 75% of cases across CF ownership types, except for tribal (two of five CFs) and private corporate (one of two) owned CFs. All but two CFs owned by local governments listed a conservation-oriented goal. Half of local government-owned (twenty-two of forty-four CFs) and half of NGO-owned CFs (fifteen of thirty-two CFs) listed an extractive-oriented goal. Of the five tribal-owned CFs in our sample, only one listed an extractive-oriented goal (agroforestry) as a primary management goal and only one indicated that timber was produced but not as a primary goal. Local government and NGO-owned CFs reported slightly more often that producing timber was a primary goal (government: nineteen CFs listed it as a primary goal, twelve as a nonprimary goal, and twelve do not produce timber; NGO: thirteen, ten, and six, respectively).

Although timber production occurred on 70% of reporting CFs (sixty-five of ninety-three reporting CFs; figure 6A ), in almost half of those cases (twenty-eight of sixty-five cases) timber production was not one of the top four primary management goals of the CF. Geographically, no CFs in the southern region produced timber as a primary goal. In the North, slightly more CFs produced timber as a primary goal than not as a primary goal (twenty versus sixteen CFs), with only nine reporting no timber production. In the West, seventeen CFs reported producing timber as a primary goal, with ten producing but not primary and ten not producing. Timber production occurred across all acreages ( figure 6B ), including on almost two-thirds of the smallest CFs in our study (<1,000 ac) and on all CFs larger than 5,000 ac (although not always as a primary goal). Similarly, timber production occurred across all ownership types ( figure 6C ), whether as a primary goal or not. Of those engaged in timber production, a private consulting forester was used to oversee timber sales in 43% of fifty-one reporting cases, and internal staff from the CF owner in 26% of cases. Across ownerships, the entity that did the logging was most often a private contracting company (70% of fifty reporting cases). These entities were located at a place within 25 miles of the CF in 52% of forty-two reporting cases, or 26–50 miles in 33% of cases.

Status of timber production across CFs (a) by region, (b) CF size, and (c) ownership type.

Community forests had a variety of rules related to which activities were allowed and whether permits from CF owners were needed if allowed ( SI Figure 3 ). Motorized recreation, camping, and commercial uses of firewood or NTFPs were only allowed in a handful of CFs, often with the requirement of a free or paid permit. Hunting and fishing, in accordance with state regulations, were allowed in more than half of the reporting cases (69% of sixty-five reporting cases and 78% of sixty reporting cases, respectively) and rarely required a permit from CF owners. Personal use of firewood and other NTFPs were allowed in 22% and 40% of sixty-three reporting cases, respectively, although firewood use often required a permit. Altogether, 85% of sixty-six reporting cases allowed some nontimber extractive activities for personal use (either firewood, other NTFPs, hunting, or fishing). Only one CF did not allow recreation and four allowed it only with a free permit. In almost all cases, the same rules applied to the local community as to the general public, except for a few instances where NTFP and firewood use were limited to local community members.

Income Generation and Budgetary Support

A number of CFs across ownerships generated revenue from forest products and services (80% of forty-nine reporting CFs), mostly from timber sales ( figure 7 ; SI Table 4 ), although two-thirds of those reporting revenue generation stated that timber contributed to less than 30% of their budget. The few instances of revenue from hunting leases and payments for ecosystem services (mainly carbon offsets) were mostly reported in CFs owned by private nonprofits, whereas grazing permits or agriculture revenue were only reported in three state or local government-owned CFs ( SI Table 4 ). Timber revenue was reported across all ownerships where timber harvest occurred, except for the two cases of state government ownership, where it is anticipated in the future, once the forest regains commercial value following harvest by the previous owner.

Main sources of revenue generated from forest activities in 48 reporting CFs by region.

Grants from federal or state governments were the most frequently cited sources of annual budgetary support from 2018 to 2020, the period we asked about (70% of fifty-three reporting CFs; figure 8 ; SI Figure 4 ), although almost two-thirds of those CFs stated that grants contributed to less than 30% of their budget. Unsurprisingly, government-owned CFs more often reported (federal, state, or local) government sources for budgetary support. Local government-owned CFs were more reliant on local government funds: 71% of twenty-four reporting local government CFs stated they received funding from local governments (50% of them stating that they received more than 60% of their budget from this source), with only a handful of nongovernment owned CFs reporting support from this source. The NGO-owned CFs reported relying on donations from local community members and fundraiser events much more often than government-owned CFs (in three cases, community donations made up more than 60% of the budget). We did not track sources of funds used for acquiring forestlands in our survey.

Sources of budgetary support 2018–2020 by ownership type. Public ownership includes federal, state, and local governments, and private ownership includes both corporate and nonprofits. Polygons indicate largest differences between private and public ownerships.

As the results indicate, there are a variety of ownership and governance forms that CFs currently take in the United States, a variety of benefits that they provide, and a diversity of income sources that they rely on. As stated above, one goal of this study was to discuss the variability in CFs and develop a robust typology of them. Although Belsky (2008) proposed a CF typology based on ownership types, given the diversity of CFs we encountered in our survey (including within ownership types), we intended to develop a typology based on key characteristics, including ownership, decision-making, operational management, goals, size, and income sources. Two-step cluster analyses and Pearson’s χ 2 tests were performed to assess whether the CFs in our dataset could be empirically grouped according to various combinations of these characteristics. However, limited patterns emerged for creating definitive statistical typologies. Instead, we discuss here some emergent qualitative patterns based on the descriptive statistics reported in the Results section, reflect on the diversity of CFs in the United States, and propose a basic typology for practical purposes. Finally, we discuss the difficulties in creating a comprehensive CF inventory for the United States, given this diversity.

Ownership type emerged as a factor that seemed to shape some key functions of a CF—specifically, decision-making authority and sources of budgetary support. Publicly owned CFs (mostly by local city or town government) more often reported having either a government entity as ultimate decision-making authority or joint authority between local government and citizen councils or other local groups. They were also more reliant on government funding for budgetary support, either through federal or state grants, local government funds, or combinations of these. Privately owned CFs (mostly community-based organizations and local land trusts) more often reported having those same owners make decisions about the CF and less often reported that they formally engage in joint decision-making (although it is difficult to ascertain actual community participation in governance with our survey research design). They also more often reported relying on community donations and fundraiser events than local government funds. All five tribally owned CFs in our dataset were run by tribes themselves, including decision-making authority and operational management. Besides these basic characteristics, however, ownership type seems to have little influence on the size of CFs, management goals, allowed activities, timber production (equally present in public and private CFs), or earned income sources.

We saw moderate regional differences in ownership and size (more government ownership and larger sizes in the West), and who the CF owner bought their forestland from. Ownership history may help explain why the median size of CFs in the West was considerably larger than in the North. The majority of CF lands in the West were purchased from private corporate forest owners, whose holdings are often in the hundreds of thousands of acres ( Sass et al. 2021 ), and from TIMOs in particular, which typically sell land every 10 to 15 years ( Zhang 2021 ). In contrast, the majority of CF lands in the North were purchased from family forest owners; approximately 90% of these ownerships in the United States are under 50 ac ( Butler et al. 2021 ). Yet CFs larger than 5,000 ac occur in both the North and the West.

In both these regions, timber production often occurred across CFs of all sizes and was a primary management goal in roughly equal frequency, although not in our small sample of southern CFs. Timber production was not limited to any particular ownership type, or size class, of CF; rather, the potential to harvest timber as a management goal and source of revenue generation is likely influenced by the nature of the forest assets contained in a particular CF. Those with productive timberlands are presumably more likely than those lacking them to have timber production as a primary management goal. However, it may take years for this goal to be realized if the former owner recently harvested a substantial amount of commercial timber. All CFs across regions emphasized conservation goals, but forest restoration (phrased in the survey as “forest restoration, including wildfire management”) was cited more often in the West. Almost all CFs allowed public access for recreation and many for nontimber extractive activities for personal use. It is likely that some CFs regulate access more than others, but we could not capture this variation in our survey.

The difficulty in creating a typology of CFs is unsurprising given that, by definition, CFs reflect the values and priorities of the communities in which they are situated. Other historical, social, economic, and environmental factors also likely influence their characteristics. Additionally, policies and programs that provide funding opportunities to support CFs and their operations vary by state, influencing their sources of budgetary support. Investigating underlying factors that lead to the diversity in CF models and characteristics is a rich area for further research.

The second phase of our research (a larger project than reported here, aiming to better understand how CFs contribute to conservation and rural prosperity in the United States) uses a case-study sampling approach based on two characteristics that we postulated would be important distinguishing features of a typology: ownership of the CF and whether timber production is a primary management goal of the CF ( Table 1 ). We acknowledge that our survey results do not show that these two characteristics are statistically related to many other factors examined here but reasoned that ownership can influence CF governance and financing mechanisms, and that the role (or lack thereof) of timber production reflects the CF’s management goals, forest resources, financing mechanisms, and benefit streams. We recognize that CFs produce a host of benefits for communities beyond timber production. However, whether a CF prioritizes timber, harvests timber but does not prioritize it, or does not harvest timber emerged as an effective way to distinguish groups of CFs from each other in terms of their management priorities and resulting benefit streams. Otherwise, most CFs shared recreation and conservation-related goals.

A basic typology based on ownership and whether timber is a primary management goal of the CF. Percentages (in parentheses) reflect percentage of eighty-two CFs in our inventory that reported on timber status and ownership.

The diversity of CFs in the United States also reflects the grassroots nature of community forests across the country, making them somewhat unique relative to community forests globally. In many low- and middle-income countries, community forests are forests managed using a top-down model imposed and defined by national CF policies or land reforms and extensive financial and technical support from external donor organizations (e.g., national or international NGOs, multilateral/bilateral aid agencies), with communities receiving some rights and many responsibilities for forest management ( Charnley 2023 ; Hajjar et al. 2021 ; Ribot et al. 2006 ). In contrast, in the United States, CF establishment is typically driven from the bottom up, in most cases through local governments, locally based NGOs, or groups of citizens that come together to protect their local forests. There is no distinct CF tenure category at the national level and few national or state-level policies associated with community forests in the United States. Exceptions include Washington and New York states, where there are legislatively approved funding sources 2 to support CF acquisition and associated policy requirements once established, and the national-level Forest Service Community Forest and Open Space Conservation Program, which has supported the acquisition of numerous CFs in our inventory. This more grassroots approach results in a broad range of ownership, management, governance types, and rights and responsibilities among community members relative to many other countries. It also makes CFs somewhat hard to pinpoint in the United States, posing challenges for efforts to inventory them.

Stemming from this diversity in CFs, a key difficulty we faced in undertaking this inventory was determining what to include. Our approach to including CFs that self-identify as such or had participated in a program or policy related to CFs and met our criteria was naturally limiting. Although this approach was necessary to make an inventory possible, we acknowledge that many more CFs potentially exist than we included here, depending on how a CF is defined. In particular, our inventory captured many town forests and land trust forestlands, some tribal forests, and some state and federal forests. Yet these general ownership categories need further examination.

Town forests are local government-owned forests common across much of New England and the Northeast and in many cases may be considered CFs. They have long been established to generate income from timber and other resources for town budgets or specific projects and public services, to protect water, soil, and wildlife habitat, and to provide recreation and education opportunities for local community members and others ( Baker and Kusel 2003 ; Brown 1941 ; Hovis et al. 2022 ; McCullough 1995 ). The local ownership, management, and benefits of many town forests fulfill most of the criteria of CFs as laid out above. However, the acquisition and designation of a town forest does not guarantee its long-term protection from sale or development, and depending on how much the community participates in governance, it may or may not fulfil the governance criterion of CFs ( McGinley et al. 2022 ).

Similarly, many land trusts own forestlands that could be considered CFs, depending on how these forests are governed and managed, potentially increasing the number and extent of CFs in the United States. However, land trusts may not provide access for local communities or the general public to their forested land, may not provide for local community participation in decision-making, or may not manage their forests specifically for local benefits.

The extent to which tribal forests should be considered CFs is also complicated. Most tribal lands are trust lands, with about 56 million acres of land held in trust for tribes by the federal government (2.3% of US land area; DOI 2023 ). Although these lands are managed for the benefit of individual tribes, forest management activities take place under the direction of forest management and integrated resource management plans developed under the federal Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) guidelines and are subject to BIA approval. Since the passage of the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975 (Public Law 93-638), an increasing number of tribes have established contracts, known as 638 contracts, with the BIA by which tribal government forestry departments assume management responsibilities for forests on trust lands. These contracts are initiated by a formal request by a tribe to the BIA. By 2011, 112 tribes had taken advantage of these self-determination/self-governance opportunities for forest management, compared to 187 that relied on BIA to manage their lands directly ( Gordon et al. 2013 ). Given this complexity in governance, it is unclear to what extent the trust lands of individual tribes meet the criteria of CFs; such classification should be undertaken by tribes themselves. Tribes can also purchase and own fee lands to which they hold title. The five tribally owned CFs in our sample (they self-identify as such) were purchased this way from private landowners. Further research on tribal forests could explore the variations in ownership, benefits, and management of these forests on trust and fee lands.

Our inventory includes two CFs owned by Washington State and one that occurs on federal lands in California. These cases may appear to contradict our defining attributes of a CF, namely that they have local, long-term ownership or tenure, and that communities have significant decision-making authority. We included the state and federal CFs in our inventory primarily because they self-identified as CFs. However, they also display several attributes of a CF. The two state-owned CFs were acquired through Washington’s 2011 Community Forest Trust Program ( WA DNR, n.d. ). The legislation that created the program stipulated that CFs acquired with program funds (from state budget appropriations) be state-owned, and that state agencies have ultimate decision-making authority. But the legislation also stipulated that state-owned CFs have an advisory committee composed of roughly twenty members representing diverse stakeholder interests to inform those decisions and co-develop forest management plans with citizen input, and that CF management objectives should reflect the values of local communities ( WA Legislature 2011 ).

Regarding the federally owned case, Weaverville CF, the community manages the CF through a 10-year renewable cooperative stewardship agreement between the Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management (who own and administer different parts of the CF), and the local county resource conservation district (RCD) ( Frost 2014 ; Kelly 2018 ). The RCD is responsible for implementing forest management activities and is governed by a board of directors that oversees CF management, with input from a steering committee composed of ten to fifteen members, including local citizens and agency and RCD staff. Local residents have opportunities to provide input at community meetings that occur once or twice annually. The CF is managed to meet local community needs and priorities, such as wildfire risk reduction, habitat improvement for fish and wildlife, and recreation ( Frost 2014 ; Kelly 2018 ).

The question of whether CFs in the United States that self-identify as such should be considered CFs if they occur on land that is state- or federally owned—with the government retaining ultimate decision-making authority—deserves more attention and is a matter of debate among some practitioners and scholars (see Frey et al. forthcoming ). The international literature recognizes CFs that occur on national government-owned land where communities have concessions to manage the forests for a specified time period (e.g., several CFs in Canada [ Teitelbaum et al. 2006 ], Cameroon [ Piabuo et al. 2018 ], Guatemala [ Taylor 2010 ]); and CFs on national government land that are comanaged by the state and local communities (e.g., Tanzania; Blomley and Ramadhani, 2006 ). This highlights the importance of taking into account the governance criterion in defining CFs in the United States—the level of community involvement in decision-making—just as with town forests and land trusts, and opens the door for potential additional CFs on public lands that might fit the criteria but were not captured here.

The CFs we identified comprise less than 0.1% of all forests in the United States but are a rapidly developing model of forest ownership, governance, and management that provides local community benefits. They take a creative approach to funding and managing local forestlands through public, NGO, or tribal structures, generated income sources, and grant and donor fundraising. They have continued long-standing town and tribal forest ownership and management, helped protect forestlands and open space from imminent development, and offered innovative ways to form explicit community partnerships to manage existing public and private landscapes. As they solidify income sources and management capability, they also might serve as a new model of how market and nonmarket goods and services can be produced on forestlands for broad and enduring community benefits.

We have likely not included all individual CFs in the United States in this study and may have significant undercounts of certain types of CFs. Potential undercounts stem largely from ambiguity over which town, tribal, and private (e.g., land trust-held) forests meet our CF definition and criteria and lingering questions over whether CFs exist on federal lands. Nevertheless, the inventory will increase continually as communities develop proposals for CFs and obtain acquisition funding each year and new research is carried out. To help address this research limitation, we plan to create a centralized, publicly accessible repository that can serve as a living inventory to be updated as more CFs are either acknowledged as such or created. Although incomplete, our current inventory captures a fair representation of the variety of CF models in the United States, reflecting a diversity of ownerships, governance structures, management goals, benefit streams, and more.

This initial research to inventory and describe US CFs provides a sound base for further exploration. Future research could further explore levels of local participation in forest management and governance and when and how these variables would qualify a forest as a CF on public, private, or tribal lands. More in-depth research could also help refine our CF typology to include characteristics hard to ascertain from a survey instrument, such as level of community involvement or capacity and organizational development stage (e.g., incipient or mature). Furthermore, as more NGO-owned and town-owned forests self-identify with the label “community forest,” the consequences, advantages, and disadvantages of using that label will need further examination.

Future research could also compare CF models with traditional (noncommunity based) private and public forest ownerships to highlight their relative differences, advantages, and disadvantages. For example, some CF models share similarities but also have important differences with private family forest ownerships in terms of priority management objectives and timber production ( Butler et al. 2021 ; Shanafelt et al. 2023 ), warranting a systematic comparison of ownership types. Finally, we began this exercise of inventorying CFs in the United States to better understand their contributions to conservation and rural prosperity. Better understanding the ability of communities to capture CF monetary and nonmonetary benefits (and to do so equitably) can help inform the design of policies, programs, and actions to best support CFs.

Supplementary data are available at Journal of Forestry online.

This study was funded in part by the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture, Agriculture and Food Research Initiative (AFRI) Award number 2021-67023-34426. Partial funding was also provided by the USDA Forest Service’s Southern Research Station, Pacific Northwest Research Station, and International Institute of Tropical Forestry as well as Oregon State University and North Carolina State University.

The authors are developing a publicly accessible repository of community forests. In the meantime, the data used in this study will be made available upon reasonable request.

Abrams , Jesse. 2023 . Forest Policy and Governance in the United States . New York, NY : Routledge .

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Zhang , Daowei. 2021 . From Backwoods to Boardrooms: The Rise of Institutional Investment in Timberland . Corvallis, OR : Oregon State University Press .

Community forests, community forestry, and community-based forestry are terms that are often used interchangeably in the U.S. literature; however, see Frey et al. (forthcoming) and Belsky (2008) for a discussion of important differences.

The Washington State Community Forests Program was established by the state legislature in 2019 to provide grant funding for CF acquisition ( https://rco.wa.gov/grant/community-forests-program/ ). The New York Community Forest Conservation Grant program similarly funds municipal land acquisitions for community forests ( https://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/124345.html#:~:text=and%20contact%20information-,Program%20Overview,Leadership%20and%20Community%20Protection%20Act ).

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Research review: frequency of ddgs supplementation impacts gains of yearlings on grass.

This article is a review of the 2024 Nebraska Beef Cattle Report, Strategies for DDGS Supplementation Frequency to Grazing Yearling Steers .

The situation

Protein supplementation can be provided to cows daily, once every three days, or once every six days without impacting body weight or body condition score. By reducing the frequency of feeding from every day to once every three or six days, producers can reduce labor and feeding expenses.

Distillers grains is often used to supplement cattle on pasture, but the impact of supplementation frequency on gains of yearlings has shown inconsistent results.

A recent study was completed by the University of Nebraska-Lincoln to further evaluate the performance of yearling steers grazing smooth bromegrass pasture supplemented with dry distillers grains plus solubles (DDGS) either daily or three times a week. Steers went to grass in May weighing 700 lb and either received no supplementation, 5.6 lb DDGS daily, or 13 lb DDGS three times a week (dry matter basis) for a 97-day grazing period. 

• Non-supplemented steers gained 1.86 pounds per day on grass.
• Steers supplemented DDGS three times a week gained 2.45 pounds per day.
• Steers supplemented daily gained 2.75 pounds per day.

The differences in gain were reflected in similar differences in ending weight: 878 lb for non-supplemented steers, 933 lb for steers supplemented three times a week, and 961 lb for steers supplemented daily. These results support previous research by the University of Nebraska-Lincoln ( 2003 Nebraska Beef Cattle Report ) which showed supplementing heifers DDGS three times a week reduced gain by approximately 10% compared to daily supplementation. 

While reducing supplementation frequency to yearlings on grass may reduce labor and feeding expenses, it is important to consider how much gain is being sacrificed and the impact on ending weight. Depending on the distance traveled to provide supplementation, only supplementing three times a week vs. daily may make up for the reduction in gain per pound of supplement provided. Daily supplementation costs and target weight gain during the growing phase should be evaluated when determining the appropriate supplementation strategy for an operation.   

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China’s Approach to Foreign Policy Gets Largely Negative Reviews in 24-Country Survey

Still, views of china – and its soft power – are more positive in middle-income countries, table of contents.

• Road map to the report
• How views of China have changed in recent years
• Views of China by age group
• How views of China’s international behavior have changed over time
• Most say China does not contribute to world peace and stability
• China seen as interventionist
• How opinions about which country is the world’s top economy have changed in recent years
• Many who see China as the world’s leading economic power also see it as a good thing
• Chinese investment seen as an economic benefit
• How views of Chinese soft power vary by age
• Views of Chinese technology
• How confidence in Xi has changed over time
• How confidence in Xi varies by age
• Acknowledgments
• Methodology

This Pew Research Center analysis focuses on public opinion of China and President Xi Jinping in 24 countries in North America, Europe, the Middle East, the Asia-Pacific region, sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. The report explores views of China’s role in the world, including as an economic power, and perceptions of Chinese soft power. This is the first year since 2019 that the Global Attitudes Survey has included countries from Africa and Latin America, which were not included more recently due to the coronavirus outbreak .

For non-U.S. data, this report draws on nationally representative surveys of 27,285 adults conducted from Feb. 20 to May 22, 2023. All surveys were conducted over the phone with adults in Canada, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, South Korea, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom. Surveys were conducted face to face in Argentina, Brazil, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Israel, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, Poland and South Africa. In Australia, we used a mixed-mode probability-based online panel.

In the United States, we surveyed 3,576 U.S. adults from March 20 to 26, 2023. Everyone who took part in this survey is a member of the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP), an online survey panel that is recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses. This way nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other categories. Read more about the ATP’s methodology .

Here are the questions used for the report , along with responses, and the survey methodology .

Views of China are broadly negative across 24 countries in a new Pew Research Center survey: A median of 67% of adults express unfavorable views of the country, while 28% have a favorable opinion.

Negative views extend to evaluations of China’s international actions. Despite several high-profile diplomatic initiatives by Beijing over the past year – such as brokering a peace deal between Saudi Arabia and Iran and issuing a 12-point proposal for the end of violence in Ukraine – a median of 71% think China does not contribute to global peace and stability.

Most people also think China does not take into account the interests of other countries in its foreign policy (76%) and a median of 57% say China interferes in the affairs of other nations a great deal or fair amount.

Still, attitudes toward China are somewhat rosier in middle-income than high-income countries. Across eight middle-income countries – places Pew Research Center has not surveyed since 2019 due to the challenges of conducting face-to-face interviews during the pandemic – India stands out as the only middle-income country in which a majority has unfavorable views of China. And in three middle-income countries – Kenya, Mexico and Nigeria – a majority even gives China a positive rating.

Fewer in these middle-income countries also criticize China’s global behavior, and many more see China’s “soft power” appeal. Indeed, publics in these middle-income countries offer relatively favorable ratings for China’s entertainment products, its universities and its standard of living – while few in most high-income countries agree.

Across all 24 countries surveyed, however, there is more agreement about China’s technology. A median of 69% describe China’s technological achievements as the best or above average relative to other wealthy nations, with similar shares in high- and middle-income countries. A median of 54% also see China’s military as among the best in the world.

But views of the country as the world’s foremost economic power have faltered somewhat in recent years. More people now name the United States as the top economic power than China (a median of 42% vs. 33%, respectively). Much of this shift has come in high-income countries, where the share naming China has fallen in nearly every surveyed country – including by double digits in Germany, the Netherlands, Poland and Sweden.

In the U.S., where equal shares (43%) called China and the U.S. the world’s leading economic power in 2022, views have shifted significantly over the past year ; now, Americans are 10 percentage points more likely to name the U.S. than China (48% vs. 38%). (For more on American views of China, read “ Americans are Critical of China’s Global Role – as Well as Its Relationship With Russia ”.)

These findings come from a new Pew Research Center survey conducted from Feb. 20 to May 22, 2023, among more than 30,000 people in 24 countries. Below are some of the other findings regarding China’s overall image, views of Chinese foreign policy, ratings of President Xi Jinping, opinions about Chinese soft power and its economic power.

Overall ratings for China

Across many high-income countries surveyed, which are in North America, Western Europe and parts of the Asia-Pacific region, a large majority has unfavorable views of China, as has been the case for multiple years . Indeed, in almost every high-income country surveyed, negative views currently stand at or near historic highs. In most countries, this does not reflect a significant increase over last year; rather, negative views have simply remained high in recent years. One notable exception is Poland, where negative views have increased 12 points during a period of strained bilateral relations , perhaps related to China’s handling of the war in Ukraine.

Views of China in middle-income countries are relatively more positive. Still, negative ratings in most of these countries have also grown since the countries were last surveyed, pre-pandemic. In South Africa and Mexico, for example, opinions have turned somewhat more negative since 2019, and in Argentina, Brazil and India, negative views have even reached historic highs. In India, military conflicts along a contested border may have contributed to the 21 percentage point increase in unfavorable opinion.

China’s role on the world stage

Majorities in most countries do not think China takes into account the interests of countries like theirs. In Canada, France, Israel, Spain and Sweden, around half or more say China doesn’t consider them at all . Only in the three sub-Saharan African countries surveyed, as well as in Indonesia, does around half or more of the public feel like China listens to their country.

A median of 71% also think China does little or nothing at all to contribute to global peace and stability, compared with a median of 23% who say it is doing a great deal or a fair amount. Australians, Canadians, Indians, Israelis and South Koreans are particularly likely to say China is doing nothing at all to help with global peace and stability.

Most also see China as an interventionist power. A median of 57% say China does interfere a great deal or a fair amount in the affairs of other countries, while a median of 35% say it does not do so much or at all. Around seven-in-ten or more in Australia, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Spain and the U.S. see China getting involved in the affairs of other countries – and many of these places also stood out for the high share who said China’s involvement in domestic politics in their own country was a very serious problem in a 2022 Pew Research Center survey .

But the country which is most likely to see China interfering in the affairs of other countries in this year’s survey is Italy (82%). Italy, which was the only G7 country to join China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) , was debating leaving the initiative at the time that the survey was conducted, but treading delicately for fear of stoking possible Chinese retribution against Italian businesses.

Attitudes toward Xi

Few in the 24 countries surveyed have confidence in Chinese President Xi Jinping to do the right thing regarding world affairs. Across most of Western Europe, the U.S., Canada and much of the Asia-Pacific region, around half in each country say they have no confidence in him at all . Indonesia, Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa stand out as the only countries where a majority or plurality have confidence in his leadership.

Confidence in Xi is closely related to views of China more broadly. In each country surveyed people with unfavorable views of China are more likely to have little confidence in the Chinese president, and vice versa.

Chinese soft power

When it comes to elements often considered part of a country’s “soft power,” China’s technological achievements receive high marks, though fewer say the same about its universities, entertainment products or standard of living.

In fact, outside of South Korea, nearly half or more in every country say Chinese technological advancements are the best in the world or above average relative to other wealthy nations. And in many of the middle-income countries, around four-in-ten call Chinese technology the best in the world.

Middle-income countries – many of which are increasingly reliant on Chinese companies like Huawei for components of their 4G and 5G systems – were also asked specifically about technology such as phones, tablets or computers made by Chinese companies. Across these eight countries, there is a relatively widespread sense that these products are well-made. Middle-income publics are more divided when it comes to their cost: A median of 50% describe them as inexpensive, while 44% call them costly.

They are also somewhat divided when it comes to whether technological products made by Chinese companies protect people’s personal data (a median of 45%) or make their data unsafe (40%). (Americans were asked a different but related question about Chinese social media companies; large majorities have little confidence that they will use personal information responsibly or follow privacy policies.)

In every country, at least a plurality – and often a majority – also see China’s “hard power,” its military, as one of the best in the world or above average.

Chinese economic power

Fewer name China as the world’s leading economic power than the U.S. (a median of 33% vs. 42%). And, in many countries, the share naming China as the world’s leading economy has gone down in recent years.

Interestingly, China’s image as an economic superpower is stronger in high-income countries than middle-income ones. Italy, for example, is the only country where a majority (55%) calls China the leading economic power.

Still, people in middle-income countries do recognize economic benefits from their relations with China. A different survey question, asked only in these countries, finds that around half or more in six middle-income countries say their nation’s economy has benefited a great deal or a fair amount from Chinese investment. In Nigeria, Kenya and South Africa, around seven-in-ten or more say this.

In the U.S., Americans were also asked to name the country which poses the top threat to the U.S. Not only was China the top answer, by far, but Americans see it as both an economic and a national security threat – in sharp contrast to Russia, which is primarily seen as a security threat. To read more about this related analysis, see “ Americans name China as the top threat facing the U.S. ”

The chapters that follow discuss these findings and others in more detail:

• Chapter 1 looks at overall opinion of China across the countries surveyed, including how perceptions have shifted over the years
• Chapter 2 considers the negative and positive roles China plays in international affairs
• Chapter 3 reviews global public opinion about which country is the world’s leading economic power
• Chapter 4 explores perceptions of Chinese soft power, summarizing how people across 24 countries rate China compared with other wealthy nations
• Chapter 5 examines confidence in Chinese President Xi Jinping to do the right thing in world affairs

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Americans Remain Critical of China

How people in hong kong view mainland china and their own identity, in east asia, many people see china’s power and influence as a major threat, u.s.-germany relationship remains solid, but underlying policy differences begin to show, how views of the u.s., china and their leaders have changed over time, most popular, report materials.

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