conclusion for freedom riders essay

Freedom Riders

Written by: bill of rights institute, by the end of this section, you will:.

• Explain how and why various groups responded to calls for the expansion of civil rights from 1960 to 1980

Suggested Sequencing

Use this narrative with The March on Birmingham Narrative; the Black Power Narrative; the Martin Luther King Jr., “Letter from Birmingham Jail,” 1963 Primary Source; the Martin Luther King Jr., “I Have a Dream,” August 28, 1963 Primary Source; the Civil Disobedience across Time Lesson; the The Music of the Civil Rights Movement Lesson; and the Civil Rights DBQ Lesson to discuss the different aspects of the civil rights movement during the 1960s.

After World War II, the civil rights movement sought equal rights and integration for African Americans through a combination of federal action and local activism. One specific area the movement attempted to change was the segregation of interstate travel. In Morgan v. Commonwealth of Virginia (1946), the Supreme Court had ruled that segregated seating on interstate buses was unconstitutional, but the ruling was largely ignored in southern states.

In 1960, the Supreme Court followed up on its earlier decision and ordered the integration of interstate buses and terminals. In 1961, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), which had been formed in 1942, appointed a new national director, James Farmer. Farmer’s idea for a freedom ride to desegregate interstate buses was inspired by the college students who had launched the recent spontaneous and nonviolent sit-ins to desegregate lunch counters, starting in Greensboro, North Carolina. These sit-ins had soon spread to 100 cities across the South. Farmer decided to have an interracial group ride the buses from Washington, DC, to New Orleans to commemorate the anniversary of the Brown v. Board of Education case.

James Farmer was a leader in the civil rights movement and, in 1961, helped organize the first freedom ride.

Members of CORE sent letters to President Kennedy, his brother Attorney General Robert Kennedy, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) director J. Edgar Hoover, the chair of the Interstate Commerce Commission, and the president of the Greyhound Corporation announcing their intentions to make the ride and hoping for protection. CORE decided to move forward despite receiving no response.

The 13 recruits underwent three days of intensive training in the philosophy of nonviolence, role playing the difficult situations they could expect to encounter. On May 4, 1961, six of the riders boarded a Greyhound bus and seven took a Trailways bus, planning to ride to New Orleans. The riders knew they would face racial epithets, violence, and possibly death. They hoped they had the courage to face the trial nonviolently in their fight for equality.

The riders challenged the segregated bus seating, with black participants riding in the “white” sections and riders of both races using segregated lunch counters and restrooms in the Virginia cities of Fredericksburg, Richmond, Farmville, and Lynchburg, but no one seemed to care. After they crossed into North Carolina, one of the black riders was arrested trying to get a shoeshine at a whites-only chair in Charlotte but was soon released. The group faced physical violence for the first time in Rock Hill, South Carolina: John Lewis, a black college student; Albert Bigelow, an older white activist; and Genevieve Hughes, a young white woman, were all assaulted before they were rushed to safety by a local black pastor. Two more riders were arrested and released in Winnsboro, and two riders had to interrupt the ride for other commitments, but four new riders joined.

On May 6, while the rides continued, the attorney general delivered a major civil rights address promising that the Kennedy administration would enforce civil rights laws. Though he seemed more concerned with America’s image abroad during the Cold War, he stated that the administration “will not stand by and be aloof.” The freedom rides presented an opportunity for the attorney general to fulfill that promise.

Attorney General Robert Kennedy was a supporter of enforcing federal civil rights laws. He spoke to CORE in 1963, outside the Justice Department in Washington, DC.

In Augusta and Atlanta, Georgia, the riders ate at desegregated lunch counters and sat in desegregated waiting rooms. They were discovering that different communities throughout several southern states had different racial mores. They met with Martin Luther King Jr., who shared intelligence he had about impending violence in Alabama. A Birmingham police sergeant, Tom Cook, and the public safety commissioner, Bull Connor, were in league with the local Ku Klux Klan (KKK), which was planning a violent reception for the riders in that city. Cook and Connor had agreed that the mob could beat the riders for about 15 minutes before they would send the police and make a show of restoring order. The FBI had informed the attorney general, but neither acted to protect the riders or even to inform them of what awaited them.

The Greyhound bus departed Atlanta on the morning of May 14. The first group reached a stop in Anniston, Alabama, where an angry mob of whites armed with guns, bats, and brass knuckles surrounded the bus. Two undercover Alabama Highway Patrol officers on the bus quickly locked the doors, but members of the crowd smashed its windows. The Anniston police temporarily restored order and the bus left, trailed by 30 to 40 cars that then surrounded it and forced it to stop. Suddenly, a member of the crowd hurled flaming rags into the bus, and it exploded into flames. The riders climbed out through windows and the doors, barely escaping with their lives. The mob assaulted them and used a baseball bat on the skull of a young black male, Hank Thomas, before an undercover officer fired his gun into the air and a fuel tank exploded, dispersing the crowd. The riders went to the hospital, where they were refused care and were driven in activists’ cars to Birmingham.

A Greyhound bus carrying freedom riders was firebombed by an angry mob while in Anniston, Alabama, in 1961. Forced to evacuate, the passengers were then assaulted. (credit: “Freedom Riders Bus Attack” by Federal Bureau of Investigation)

The riders on the Trailways bus were terrorized by KKK hoodlums who boarded in Atlanta. At first, the white supremacists merely taunted the riders with warnings about the violence that awaited them in Birmingham, but when the riders sat in the white section of the bus, horrific violence erupted. Two riders were punched in the face and knocked to the floor where they were repeatedly kicked and beaten into unconsciousness. Two other riders tried to intervene peacefully and suffered the same fate. They were dragged to the back of the bus and dumped there.

Bull Connor carried out his plan not to post officers at the Birmingham bus station, with the excuse that it was Mother’s Day. Consequently, another large mob awaited the riders and forced them off the bus and assaulted them. Riders Ike Reynolds and Charles Person were knocked down and bloodied by a series of vicious blows. An older white rider, Jim Peck, was struck in the head several times, opening a wound that required 53 stitches. Peck later told a reporter that he endured the violence courageously to “show that nonviolence can prevail over violence.” The police finally showed up after the allotted 15 minutes but made no arrests. Other riders escaped, and they all met at Reverend Fred Shuttleworth’s church.

Americans across the country learned about the violence as the images of burning buses and beaten riders were broadcast on television and printed in newspapers. President Kennedy was preparing for a foreign summit and wanted the freedom riders to stop causing controversy. Attorney General Kennedy tried to persuade the Alabama governor, John Patterson, to protect the riders but was frustrated in the attempt. Also exasperated by Greyhound’s unwillingness to provide a new bus for the riders, the attorney general sent one federal official, John Seigenthaler, to the riders in Birmingham.

The riders planned to go to Montgomery and continue to New Orleans but could not find a bus. They reluctantly settled on flying to their final destination but had to wait out bomb threats before quietly boarding a flight. Although the CORE freedom ride was over, Diane Nash, a black student at Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee, was inspired by their example. She coordinated additional freedom rides to desegregate interstate travel, which immediately proceeded from Nashville to Birmingham to finish the ride.

On Wednesday, the new group of riders were met at the Birmingham terminal by the police, who quickly arrested them. The riders went on a hunger strike in jail and were dumped on the side of the road more than 100 miles away in Tennessee before sunrise on Friday. However, they simply drove back to Birmingham, where they attempted to board a bus for Montgomery, but the terrified driver refused to let them on. The Kennedy administration negotiated a settlement in which the state police were to protect the bus bound for Montgomery.

The bus pulled into the Birmingham station, but the police cars disappeared. The freedom riders faced another horrendous scene: a crowd armed with bricks, pipes, baseball bats, and sticks yelling death threats. A young white man, Jim Zwerg, stepped off the bus first and was dragged down into the mob and knocked unconscious. Two female riders were pummeled, one by a woman swinging a purse and repeatedly hitting her in the head, the other by a man punching her repeatedly in the face.

Seigenthaler attempted to rescue the women by putting them into his car and driving away, but he was dragged from the car and knocked unconscious with a pipe and kicked in the ribs. A young black rider, William Barbee, was beaten into submission with a baseball bat and suffered permanent brain damage. A black bystander was even set afire after having kerosene thrown on him. The mayhem ended when a state police officer fired warning shots into the ceiling of the station. All the riders needed medical attention and were rushed to a local hospital.

That night, Martin Luther King Jr. came to Montgomery. Protected by a ring of federal marshals, King addressed a mass rally at First Baptist Church. He told the assembly, “Alabama will have to face the fact that we are determined to be free. The main thing I want to say to you is fear not, we’ve come too far to turn back . . . We are not afraid and we shall overcome.” Meanwhile, a white riot had erupted outside the church, and congregants spent the night inside.

A compromise was worked out two days later to get the riders out of Alabama and send them to Mississippi. A total of 27 freedom riders boarded the buses safely, accompanied by the Alabama National Guard, which, to the riders, defeated the purpose of challenging segregated seating on the bus. They were all arrested in Jackson in the bus depot for violating segregation statutes and were taken to jail. In the coming weeks, additional rides were made, but all suffered the same fate and more than 80 riders landed in jail under deplorable conditions.

Freedom riders Priscilla Stephens, from CORE, and Reverend Petty D. McKinney, from Nyack, New York, are shown after their arrest by the police in Tallahassee, Florida, in June 1961.

During the summer, the national media and many Americans lost interest in the freedom rides. A Gallup Poll in mid-June showed that a majority of Americans supported desegregated interstate travel and the use of federal marshals to enforce it. However, 64 percent of Americans disapproved of the rides after initial expressions of sympathy, and 61 percent thought civil rights should be achieved gradually instead of through direct action.

The civil rights movement was undeterred by such popular opinion. The 1960 Greensboro sit-ins and the 1961 freedom rides created a new momentum in the struggle for equal rights and freedom. Over the next few years, civil rights activists directly confronted segregation through nonviolent tactics at places like Birmingham and Selma to arouse the national conscience and to pressure the federal government for passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Review Questions

1. The freedom rides in 1961 were most directly inspired by

• the lunch counter sit-ins started in Greensboro, North Carolina
• the Supreme Court’s decision in Brown v. Board of Education
• the Supreme Court’s decision in Morgan v. Commonwealth
• the formation of the Congress of Racial Equality

2. Freedom riders from the early 1960s were best known for

• inciting violent protests against urban policing policies
• providing transportation to those participating in the Montgomery bus boycott
• boycotting travel on segregated buses across the South
• challenging segregated seating on interstate bus routes

3. Response to the freedom riders as they travelled throughout the South illustrated

• uniformly violent opposition to their actions
• varied racial attitudes and reactions on the part of southerners
• widespread indifference
• local support and public mobilization of the black community

4. The freedom riders encountered the most violent reactions to their methods in

• Lynchburg, Virginia
• Charlotte, North Carolina
• Atlanta, Georgia
• Birmingham, Alabama

5. The federal government’s response to the freedom rides was characterized generally by

• overwhelming support, including federal protection of the riders
• the full support of Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy and President John F. Kennedy, but not of Congress
• observation and information gathering but limited actual support
• official training in nonviolent tactics but little overt support

6. Compared with earlier tactics in the movement, in the early 1960s, new civil rights groups advocated greater emphasis on

• taking direct action
• working through the federal court system
• inciting violent revolution
• electing local officials sympathetic to their cause

7. The actions of the freedom riders most directly contributed to the

• Brown v. Board of Education decision
• Civil Rights Act of 1964
• Voting Rights Act of 1965
• election of President John F. Kennedy

Free Response Questions

• Explain how the freedom riders of the early 1960s drew upon the U.S. Constitution to justify their actions.
• Explain how the freedom rides of the early 1960s represented an evolution in the methods of the civil rights movement.

AP Practice Questions

1. The events in the image most directly led to

• a Supreme Court decision declaring segregation unconstitutional
• increased support for passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
• the development of the counterculture
• Martin Luther King Jr.’s becoming a civil rights leader

2. The event in the photograph contributed to which of the following?

• Debates over the role of government in American life
• An increase in public confidence in political institutions
• Domestic opposition to containment
• The abandonment of direct-action techniques to achieve civil rights

3. The event in the image was most directly shaped by

• the techniques and strategies of the anti-war movement
• desegregation of the armed forces
• a desire to achieve the promise of the Fourteenth Amendment
• Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society program

Primary Sources

James Farmer: letters to President John Kennedy. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum . 1961. https://www.jfklibrary.org/learn/education/students/leaders-in-the-struggle-for-civil-rights/james-farmer

Suggested Resources

Arsenault, Raymond. Freedom Rides: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.

Branch, Taylor. Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954-1963 . New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988.

Chafe, William. Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980.

Dudziak, Mary L. Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000.

Graham, Hugh Davis. The Civil Rights Era: Origins and Development of National Policy . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990.

Lawson, Stephen F., and Charles Payne. Debating the Civil Rights Movement, 1945-1968 . Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998.

Salmond, John A. “My Mind Set on Freedom:” A History of the Civil Rights Movement, 1954-1968 . Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1997.

Stern, Mark. Calculating Visions: Kennedy, Johnson, and Civil Rights . New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992.

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Civil Rights Movement in “Freedom Riders” Documentary Essay

In general, a documentary called “Freedom Riders” directed by Stanley Nelson provides a comprehensive overview of the crucial, terrible events regarding the civil right movement that happened at the beginning of the 1960s. This episode greatly undermines the image of American liberty that was propagandized at that time (Nelson). As a commemoration of the fiftieth anniversary of freedom movements, Nelson’s movie is a story of segregation and racism, abhorrence, courage, and the general brutality of the depicted events.

The film starts with the description of the events occurred in 1961. Thus, at the beginning of 1961, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) along with Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) attempted to manage the problem of segregation between white and black people in public transport. The strategies and the main purpose of these organizations were almost the same.

The main advantage of their strategies was that they explicitly showed that the social segregation causes only negative effects. The main disadvantage of the strategies was that their actions were in most cases ineffective (“Civil Rights Movement”). Thus, they decided to send young activists of both races, most of which being students, on a bus trip through the US’s southern states. As a result, people who saw them expressed a high degree of violence, with which even law enforcers did not want to deal.

The beginning of the story depicts two buses departing from Atlanta in 1961. The destination was Birmingham in Alabama. The initiators of this trip knew that the activists would face hostility, but they could not predict the consequences of this confrontation. One of the buses was already burned in Anniston, Alabama. The second bus continued moving without knowing what had happened to the first one (Nelson). However, the amount of courage that they had was enough to continue their journey even if they were warned about the events occurred with the first bus.

At that time, Birmingham was one of the most racially segregated cities in the whole country. The mayor of this city was Bull Connor, who, being a police commissioner, was obsessed with the idea of racism. Connor gathered many members of the Ku Klux Klan in order to destroy the buses and neutralize the passengers (“Civil Rights Movement”). Another character of the movie, John Patterson, the governor of Alabama, was ordered by the federal government to provide protection to the activists. In the present-time interview, he claims that he was afraid of confronting Connor and, being a political opportunist, he supported the Ku Klux Klan position.

The film conveys the idea of powerlessness of justice which was sustained by the emotionally unstable racist fanatics. Moreover, the Supreme Court twice attempted to abolish the law about the racial segregation in public transport twice, one being in 1946 and the other – in 1960, both ending with failures.

By the end of 1961, the number of people participating in the freedom movements had considerably increased. Many of them were attacked by radical and arrested by the police. Eventually, in September of 1961, the Interstate Commerce Commission ended the segregation in public transport, which was a great triumph of the civil rights movement (Nelson). Thus, the film ends with this event stating that another milestone on the road to freedom was successfully reached on that day.

Additionally, the changing media landscape in the 1960s provided a great opportunity for civil rights activists to advance their claims. They emphasized that the history had shown that the first the abolition of slavery in 1863 and then the acceptance of black people had brought only positive changes to the country and its citizens. Comparing today’s civil rights movement with that happening almost sixty years ago, it is important to mention that although some of those problems remained.

However, currently, there are no such clashes between different races as those in the 1960s (“Civil Rights Movement”). In fact, the situation with racism and the protection of civil rights has become much better than it was sixty years ago.

Works Cited

“ Civil Rights Movement. ” History , 2016. Web.

Danhof, Clarence. Change in Agriculture: The Northern United States . Harvard University Press, 2012.

Demaree, Albert Lowther. The American Agricultural Press, 1819-1860 . Columbia University Press, 2014.

Nelson, Stanley. “Freedom Riders (A Documentary on NonViolent Civil Right Movement in the US).” YouTube , uploaded by Socko Pricket. 2012. Web.

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The Legacy of the Freedom Riders: Champions of Civil Rights

This essay about the Freedom Riders illustrates their crucial role in the American civil rights movement. Originating in 1961 these courageous individuals supported by organizations like CORE and SNCC challenged the entrenched segregation laws in the Southern United States by riding interstate buses in mixed racial groups. Their actions tested Supreme Court rulings that mandated desegregation provoking violent responses that garnered national attention and pressured political leaders. The essay highlights the physical dangers faced by the Riders their perseverance leading to significant policy changes like the removal of segregated signs in bus terminals and their enduring influence on civil rights advocacy and the broader quest for justice and equality in America.

How it works

In the tapestry of American history few threads are as bold and vivid as those woven by the Freedom Riders. This group of brave individuals a diverse coalition of races and backgrounds embarked on a series of bus trips through the American South in 1961 to challenge the segregationist policies that were still rampant despite laws that mandated desegregation in interstate travel. Their story isn’t just a footnote in history books but a profound lesson on courage solidarity and the ongoing struggle for justice.

The term “Freedom Riders” refers to the men and women who inspired by earlier efforts to challenge racial segregation joined forces under the sponsorship of the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) and later the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). Their mission was clear yet daunting: to ride interstate buses in mixed racial groups to test and challenge the non-enforcement of the United States Supreme Court decisions Morgan v. Virginia (1946) and Boynton v. Virginia (1960) which ruled that segregated public buses were unconstitutional.

The Freedom Riders’ strategy was both simple and subversive. By sitting in racially mixed groups and refusing to adhere to the ‘Jim Crow’ laws that dictated racial segregation in bus terminals they aimed to provoke a response that would necessitate federal action. This was not merely a bus trip; it was a deliberate act of civil disobedience designed to ignite change and awaken the national consciousness.

The journeys of the Freedom Riders were fraught with danger. In Anniston Alabama one of their buses was firebombed forcing the passengers to flee for their lives. In Birmingham they were met with violent resistance from local mobs often with the police turning a blind eye or arriving too late. The images of these brutal encounters broadcasted across national and international media brought unprecedented attention to the civil rights movement swaying public opinion in favor of the Riders and increasing pressure on political leaders.

Despite the physical violence and intimidation the Freedom Riders pressed on. Their persistence led Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy to petition the Interstate Commerce Commission to enforce even stricter desegregation policies in interstate travel. By November of the same year the “whites only” and “colored only” signs in bus stations began to come down marking a significant victory for the movement.

The impact of the Freedom Riders extends beyond these tangible victories. They exemplified the power of nonviolent protest and the effectiveness of direct action. They inspired thousands from ordinary citizens to influential leaders to get involved in the civil rights movement. Their legacy is reflected in subsequent acts of civil disobedience and in the broader shift towards a more just society.

The story of the Freedom Riders is a powerful reminder that change often comes from the courage to confront injustice head-on. It teaches us that laws alone do not alter society; people do. The Riders were not merely passengers on a bus; they were drivers of social change. Their journey marked by both immense adversity and triumph continues to inspire those who fight for equality and justice around the world today.

In remembering the Freedom Riders we are reminded of the ongoing journey towards freedom and equality. Their legacy is not encapsulated in the victories alone but in the spirit of resistance and unity that they embodied. It is a call to action that resonates even in modern times urging each generation to contribute to the perpetual fight for a fair and equitable society.

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Home / Essay Samples / Social Issues / Civil Disobedience / Civil Disobedience: Freedom Riders

Civil Disobedience: Freedom Riders

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