collaborative approach to problem solving

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• Published: 11 January 2023

The effectiveness of collaborative problem solving in promoting students’ critical thinking: A meta-analysis based on empirical literature

• Enwei Xu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6424-8169 1 ,
• Wei Wang 1 &
• Qingxia Wang 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  10 , Article number:  16 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Collaborative problem-solving has been widely embraced in the classroom instruction of critical thinking, which is regarded as the core of curriculum reform based on key competencies in the field of education as well as a key competence for learners in the 21st century. However, the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking remains uncertain. This current research presents the major findings of a meta-analysis of 36 pieces of the literature revealed in worldwide educational periodicals during the 21st century to identify the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking and to determine, based on evidence, whether and to what extent collaborative problem solving can result in a rise or decrease in critical thinking. The findings show that (1) collaborative problem solving is an effective teaching approach to foster students’ critical thinking, with a significant overall effect size (ES = 0.82, z  = 12.78, P  < 0.01, 95% CI [0.69, 0.95]); (2) in respect to the dimensions of critical thinking, collaborative problem solving can significantly and successfully enhance students’ attitudinal tendencies (ES = 1.17, z  = 7.62, P  < 0.01, 95% CI[0.87, 1.47]); nevertheless, it falls short in terms of improving students’ cognitive skills, having only an upper-middle impact (ES = 0.70, z  = 11.55, P  < 0.01, 95% CI[0.58, 0.82]); and (3) the teaching type (chi 2  = 7.20, P  < 0.05), intervention duration (chi 2  = 12.18, P  < 0.01), subject area (chi 2  = 13.36, P  < 0.05), group size (chi 2  = 8.77, P  < 0.05), and learning scaffold (chi 2  = 9.03, P  < 0.01) all have an impact on critical thinking, and they can be viewed as important moderating factors that affect how critical thinking develops. On the basis of these results, recommendations are made for further study and instruction to better support students’ critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving.

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Introduction.

Although critical thinking has a long history in research, the concept of critical thinking, which is regarded as an essential competence for learners in the 21st century, has recently attracted more attention from researchers and teaching practitioners (National Research Council, 2012 ). Critical thinking should be the core of curriculum reform based on key competencies in the field of education (Peng and Deng, 2017 ) because students with critical thinking can not only understand the meaning of knowledge but also effectively solve practical problems in real life even after knowledge is forgotten (Kek and Huijser, 2011 ). The definition of critical thinking is not universal (Ennis, 1989 ; Castle, 2009 ; Niu et al., 2013 ). In general, the definition of critical thinking is a self-aware and self-regulated thought process (Facione, 1990 ; Niu et al., 2013 ). It refers to the cognitive skills needed to interpret, analyze, synthesize, reason, and evaluate information as well as the attitudinal tendency to apply these abilities (Halpern, 2001 ). The view that critical thinking can be taught and learned through curriculum teaching has been widely supported by many researchers (e.g., Kuncel, 2011 ; Leng and Lu, 2020 ), leading to educators’ efforts to foster it among students. In the field of teaching practice, there are three types of courses for teaching critical thinking (Ennis, 1989 ). The first is an independent curriculum in which critical thinking is taught and cultivated without involving the knowledge of specific disciplines; the second is an integrated curriculum in which critical thinking is integrated into the teaching of other disciplines as a clear teaching goal; and the third is a mixed curriculum in which critical thinking is taught in parallel to the teaching of other disciplines for mixed teaching training. Furthermore, numerous measuring tools have been developed by researchers and educators to measure critical thinking in the context of teaching practice. These include standardized measurement tools, such as WGCTA, CCTST, CCTT, and CCTDI, which have been verified by repeated experiments and are considered effective and reliable by international scholars (Facione and Facione, 1992 ). In short, descriptions of critical thinking, including its two dimensions of attitudinal tendency and cognitive skills, different types of teaching courses, and standardized measurement tools provide a complex normative framework for understanding, teaching, and evaluating critical thinking.

Cultivating critical thinking in curriculum teaching can start with a problem, and one of the most popular critical thinking instructional approaches is problem-based learning (Liu et al., 2020 ). Duch et al. ( 2001 ) noted that problem-based learning in group collaboration is progressive active learning, which can improve students’ critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Collaborative problem-solving is the organic integration of collaborative learning and problem-based learning, which takes learners as the center of the learning process and uses problems with poor structure in real-world situations as the starting point for the learning process (Liang et al., 2017 ). Students learn the knowledge needed to solve problems in a collaborative group, reach a consensus on problems in the field, and form solutions through social cooperation methods, such as dialogue, interpretation, questioning, debate, negotiation, and reflection, thus promoting the development of learners’ domain knowledge and critical thinking (Cindy, 2004 ; Liang et al., 2017 ).

Collaborative problem-solving has been widely used in the teaching practice of critical thinking, and several studies have attempted to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of the empirical literature on critical thinking from various perspectives. However, little attention has been paid to the impact of collaborative problem-solving on critical thinking. Therefore, the best approach for developing and enhancing critical thinking throughout collaborative problem-solving is to examine how to implement critical thinking instruction; however, this issue is still unexplored, which means that many teachers are incapable of better instructing critical thinking (Leng and Lu, 2020 ; Niu et al., 2013 ). For example, Huber ( 2016 ) provided the meta-analysis findings of 71 publications on gaining critical thinking over various time frames in college with the aim of determining whether critical thinking was truly teachable. These authors found that learners significantly improve their critical thinking while in college and that critical thinking differs with factors such as teaching strategies, intervention duration, subject area, and teaching type. The usefulness of collaborative problem-solving in fostering students’ critical thinking, however, was not determined by this study, nor did it reveal whether there existed significant variations among the different elements. A meta-analysis of 31 pieces of educational literature was conducted by Liu et al. ( 2020 ) to assess the impact of problem-solving on college students’ critical thinking. These authors found that problem-solving could promote the development of critical thinking among college students and proposed establishing a reasonable group structure for problem-solving in a follow-up study to improve students’ critical thinking. Additionally, previous empirical studies have reached inconclusive and even contradictory conclusions about whether and to what extent collaborative problem-solving increases or decreases critical thinking levels. As an illustration, Yang et al. ( 2008 ) carried out an experiment on the integrated curriculum teaching of college students based on a web bulletin board with the goal of fostering participants’ critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving. These authors’ research revealed that through sharing, debating, examining, and reflecting on various experiences and ideas, collaborative problem-solving can considerably enhance students’ critical thinking in real-life problem situations. In contrast, collaborative problem-solving had a positive impact on learners’ interaction and could improve learning interest and motivation but could not significantly improve students’ critical thinking when compared to traditional classroom teaching, according to research by Naber and Wyatt ( 2014 ) and Sendag and Odabasi ( 2009 ) on undergraduate and high school students, respectively.

The above studies show that there is inconsistency regarding the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking. Therefore, it is essential to conduct a thorough and trustworthy review to detect and decide whether and to what degree collaborative problem-solving can result in a rise or decrease in critical thinking. Meta-analysis is a quantitative analysis approach that is utilized to examine quantitative data from various separate studies that are all focused on the same research topic. This approach characterizes the effectiveness of its impact by averaging the effect sizes of numerous qualitative studies in an effort to reduce the uncertainty brought on by independent research and produce more conclusive findings (Lipsey and Wilson, 2001 ).

This paper used a meta-analytic approach and carried out a meta-analysis to examine the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking in order to make a contribution to both research and practice. The following research questions were addressed by this meta-analysis:

What is the overall effect size of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking and its impact on the two dimensions of critical thinking (i.e., attitudinal tendency and cognitive skills)?

How are the disparities between the study conclusions impacted by various moderating variables if the impacts of various experimental designs in the included studies are heterogeneous?

This research followed the strict procedures (e.g., database searching, identification, screening, eligibility, merging, duplicate removal, and analysis of included studies) of Cooper’s ( 2010 ) proposed meta-analysis approach for examining quantitative data from various separate studies that are all focused on the same research topic. The relevant empirical research that appeared in worldwide educational periodicals within the 21st century was subjected to this meta-analysis using Rev-Man 5.4. The consistency of the data extracted separately by two researchers was tested using Cohen’s kappa coefficient, and a publication bias test and a heterogeneity test were run on the sample data to ascertain the quality of this meta-analysis.

Data sources and search strategies

There were three stages to the data collection process for this meta-analysis, as shown in Fig. 1 , which shows the number of articles included and eliminated during the selection process based on the statement and study eligibility criteria.

This flowchart shows the number of records identified, included and excluded in the article.

First, the databases used to systematically search for relevant articles were the journal papers of the Web of Science Core Collection and the Chinese Core source journal, as well as the Chinese Social Science Citation Index (CSSCI) source journal papers included in CNKI. These databases were selected because they are credible platforms that are sources of scholarly and peer-reviewed information with advanced search tools and contain literature relevant to the subject of our topic from reliable researchers and experts. The search string with the Boolean operator used in the Web of Science was “TS = (((“critical thinking” or “ct” and “pretest” or “posttest”) or (“critical thinking” or “ct” and “control group” or “quasi experiment” or “experiment”)) and (“collaboration” or “collaborative learning” or “CSCL”) and (“problem solving” or “problem-based learning” or “PBL”))”. The research area was “Education Educational Research”, and the search period was “January 1, 2000, to December 30, 2021”. A total of 412 papers were obtained. The search string with the Boolean operator used in the CNKI was “SU = (‘critical thinking’*‘collaboration’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘collaborative learning’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘CSCL’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘problem solving’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘problem-based learning’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘PBL’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘problem oriented’) AND FT = (‘experiment’ + ‘quasi experiment’ + ‘pretest’ + ‘posttest’ + ‘empirical study’)” (translated into Chinese when searching). A total of 56 studies were found throughout the search period of “January 2000 to December 2021”. From the databases, all duplicates and retractions were eliminated before exporting the references into Endnote, a program for managing bibliographic references. In all, 466 studies were found.

Second, the studies that matched the inclusion and exclusion criteria for the meta-analysis were chosen by two researchers after they had reviewed the abstracts and titles of the gathered articles, yielding a total of 126 studies.

Third, two researchers thoroughly reviewed each included article’s whole text in accordance with the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Meanwhile, a snowball search was performed using the references and citations of the included articles to ensure complete coverage of the articles. Ultimately, 36 articles were kept.

Two researchers worked together to carry out this entire process, and a consensus rate of almost 94.7% was reached after discussion and negotiation to clarify any emerging differences.

Eligibility criteria

Since not all the retrieved studies matched the criteria for this meta-analysis, eligibility criteria for both inclusion and exclusion were developed as follows:

The publication language of the included studies was limited to English and Chinese, and the full text could be obtained. Articles that did not meet the publication language and articles not published between 2000 and 2021 were excluded.

The research design of the included studies must be empirical and quantitative studies that can assess the effect of collaborative problem-solving on the development of critical thinking. Articles that could not identify the causal mechanisms by which collaborative problem-solving affects critical thinking, such as review articles and theoretical articles, were excluded.

The research method of the included studies must feature a randomized control experiment or a quasi-experiment, or a natural experiment, which have a higher degree of internal validity with strong experimental designs and can all plausibly provide evidence that critical thinking and collaborative problem-solving are causally related. Articles with non-experimental research methods, such as purely correlational or observational studies, were excluded.

The participants of the included studies were only students in school, including K-12 students and college students. Articles in which the participants were non-school students, such as social workers or adult learners, were excluded.

The research results of the included studies must mention definite signs that may be utilized to gauge critical thinking’s impact (e.g., sample size, mean value, or standard deviation). Articles that lacked specific measurement indicators for critical thinking and could not calculate the effect size were excluded.

Data coding design

In order to perform a meta-analysis, it is necessary to collect the most important information from the articles, codify that information’s properties, and convert descriptive data into quantitative data. Therefore, this study designed a data coding template (see Table 1 ). Ultimately, 16 coding fields were retained.

The designed data-coding template consisted of three pieces of information. Basic information about the papers was included in the descriptive information: the publishing year, author, serial number, and title of the paper.

The variable information for the experimental design had three variables: the independent variable (instruction method), the dependent variable (critical thinking), and the moderating variable (learning stage, teaching type, intervention duration, learning scaffold, group size, measuring tool, and subject area). Depending on the topic of this study, the intervention strategy, as the independent variable, was coded into collaborative and non-collaborative problem-solving. The dependent variable, critical thinking, was coded as a cognitive skill and an attitudinal tendency. And seven moderating variables were created by grouping and combining the experimental design variables discovered within the 36 studies (see Table 1 ), where learning stages were encoded as higher education, high school, middle school, and primary school or lower; teaching types were encoded as mixed courses, integrated courses, and independent courses; intervention durations were encoded as 0–1 weeks, 1–4 weeks, 4–12 weeks, and more than 12 weeks; group sizes were encoded as 2–3 persons, 4–6 persons, 7–10 persons, and more than 10 persons; learning scaffolds were encoded as teacher-supported learning scaffold, technique-supported learning scaffold, and resource-supported learning scaffold; measuring tools were encoded as standardized measurement tools (e.g., WGCTA, CCTT, CCTST, and CCTDI) and self-adapting measurement tools (e.g., modified or made by researchers); and subject areas were encoded according to the specific subjects used in the 36 included studies.

The data information contained three metrics for measuring critical thinking: sample size, average value, and standard deviation. It is vital to remember that studies with various experimental designs frequently adopt various formulas to determine the effect size. And this paper used Morris’ proposed standardized mean difference (SMD) calculation formula ( 2008 , p. 369; see Supplementary Table S3 ).

Procedure for extracting and coding data

According to the data coding template (see Table 1 ), the 36 papers’ information was retrieved by two researchers, who then entered them into Excel (see Supplementary Table S1 ). The results of each study were extracted separately in the data extraction procedure if an article contained numerous studies on critical thinking, or if a study assessed different critical thinking dimensions. For instance, Tiwari et al. ( 2010 ) used four time points, which were viewed as numerous different studies, to examine the outcomes of critical thinking, and Chen ( 2013 ) included the two outcome variables of attitudinal tendency and cognitive skills, which were regarded as two studies. After discussion and negotiation during data extraction, the two researchers’ consistency test coefficients were roughly 93.27%. Supplementary Table S2 details the key characteristics of the 36 included articles with 79 effect quantities, including descriptive information (e.g., the publishing year, author, serial number, and title of the paper), variable information (e.g., independent variables, dependent variables, and moderating variables), and data information (e.g., mean values, standard deviations, and sample size). Following that, testing for publication bias and heterogeneity was done on the sample data using the Rev-Man 5.4 software, and then the test results were used to conduct a meta-analysis.

Publication bias test

When the sample of studies included in a meta-analysis does not accurately reflect the general status of research on the relevant subject, publication bias is said to be exhibited in this research. The reliability and accuracy of the meta-analysis may be impacted by publication bias. Due to this, the meta-analysis needs to check the sample data for publication bias (Stewart et al., 2006 ). A popular method to check for publication bias is the funnel plot; and it is unlikely that there will be publishing bias when the data are equally dispersed on either side of the average effect size and targeted within the higher region. The data are equally dispersed within the higher portion of the efficient zone, consistent with the funnel plot connected with this analysis (see Fig. 2 ), indicating that publication bias is unlikely in this situation.

This funnel plot shows the result of publication bias of 79 effect quantities across 36 studies.

Heterogeneity test

To select the appropriate effect models for the meta-analysis, one might use the results of a heterogeneity test on the data effect sizes. In a meta-analysis, it is common practice to gauge the degree of data heterogeneity using the I 2 value, and I 2  ≥ 50% is typically understood to denote medium-high heterogeneity, which calls for the adoption of a random effect model; if not, a fixed effect model ought to be applied (Lipsey and Wilson, 2001 ). The findings of the heterogeneity test in this paper (see Table 2 ) revealed that I 2 was 86% and displayed significant heterogeneity ( P  < 0.01). To ensure accuracy and reliability, the overall effect size ought to be calculated utilizing the random effect model.

The analysis of the overall effect size

This meta-analysis utilized a random effect model to examine 79 effect quantities from 36 studies after eliminating heterogeneity. In accordance with Cohen’s criterion (Cohen, 1992 ), it is abundantly clear from the analysis results, which are shown in the forest plot of the overall effect (see Fig. 3 ), that the cumulative impact size of cooperative problem-solving is 0.82, which is statistically significant ( z  = 12.78, P  < 0.01, 95% CI [0.69, 0.95]), and can encourage learners to practice critical thinking.

This forest plot shows the analysis result of the overall effect size across 36 studies.

In addition, this study examined two distinct dimensions of critical thinking to better understand the precise contributions that collaborative problem-solving makes to the growth of critical thinking. The findings (see Table 3 ) indicate that collaborative problem-solving improves cognitive skills (ES = 0.70) and attitudinal tendency (ES = 1.17), with significant intergroup differences (chi 2  = 7.95, P  < 0.01). Although collaborative problem-solving improves both dimensions of critical thinking, it is essential to point out that the improvements in students’ attitudinal tendency are much more pronounced and have a significant comprehensive effect (ES = 1.17, z  = 7.62, P  < 0.01, 95% CI [0.87, 1.47]), whereas gains in learners’ cognitive skill are slightly improved and are just above average. (ES = 0.70, z  = 11.55, P  < 0.01, 95% CI [0.58, 0.82]).

The analysis of moderator effect size

The whole forest plot’s 79 effect quantities underwent a two-tailed test, which revealed significant heterogeneity ( I 2  = 86%, z  = 12.78, P  < 0.01), indicating differences between various effect sizes that may have been influenced by moderating factors other than sampling error. Therefore, exploring possible moderating factors that might produce considerable heterogeneity was done using subgroup analysis, such as the learning stage, learning scaffold, teaching type, group size, duration of the intervention, measuring tool, and the subject area included in the 36 experimental designs, in order to further explore the key factors that influence critical thinking. The findings (see Table 4 ) indicate that various moderating factors have advantageous effects on critical thinking. In this situation, the subject area (chi 2  = 13.36, P  < 0.05), group size (chi 2  = 8.77, P  < 0.05), intervention duration (chi 2  = 12.18, P  < 0.01), learning scaffold (chi 2  = 9.03, P  < 0.01), and teaching type (chi 2  = 7.20, P  < 0.05) are all significant moderators that can be applied to support the cultivation of critical thinking. However, since the learning stage and the measuring tools did not significantly differ among intergroup (chi 2  = 3.15, P  = 0.21 > 0.05, and chi 2  = 0.08, P  = 0.78 > 0.05), we are unable to explain why these two factors are crucial in supporting the cultivation of critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving. These are the precise outcomes, as follows:

Various learning stages influenced critical thinking positively, without significant intergroup differences (chi 2  = 3.15, P  = 0.21 > 0.05). High school was first on the list of effect sizes (ES = 1.36, P  < 0.01), then higher education (ES = 0.78, P  < 0.01), and middle school (ES = 0.73, P  < 0.01). These results show that, despite the learning stage’s beneficial influence on cultivating learners’ critical thinking, we are unable to explain why it is essential for cultivating critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving.

Different teaching types had varying degrees of positive impact on critical thinking, with significant intergroup differences (chi 2  = 7.20, P  < 0.05). The effect size was ranked as follows: mixed courses (ES = 1.34, P  < 0.01), integrated courses (ES = 0.81, P  < 0.01), and independent courses (ES = 0.27, P  < 0.01). These results indicate that the most effective approach to cultivate critical thinking utilizing collaborative problem solving is through the teaching type of mixed courses.

Various intervention durations significantly improved critical thinking, and there were significant intergroup differences (chi 2  = 12.18, P  < 0.01). The effect sizes related to this variable showed a tendency to increase with longer intervention durations. The improvement in critical thinking reached a significant level (ES = 0.85, P  < 0.01) after more than 12 weeks of training. These findings indicate that the intervention duration and critical thinking’s impact are positively correlated, with a longer intervention duration having a greater effect.

Different learning scaffolds influenced critical thinking positively, with significant intergroup differences (chi 2  = 9.03, P  < 0.01). The resource-supported learning scaffold (ES = 0.69, P  < 0.01) acquired a medium-to-higher level of impact, the technique-supported learning scaffold (ES = 0.63, P  < 0.01) also attained a medium-to-higher level of impact, and the teacher-supported learning scaffold (ES = 0.92, P  < 0.01) displayed a high level of significant impact. These results show that the learning scaffold with teacher support has the greatest impact on cultivating critical thinking.

Various group sizes influenced critical thinking positively, and the intergroup differences were statistically significant (chi 2  = 8.77, P  < 0.05). Critical thinking showed a general declining trend with increasing group size. The overall effect size of 2–3 people in this situation was the biggest (ES = 0.99, P  < 0.01), and when the group size was greater than 7 people, the improvement in critical thinking was at the lower-middle level (ES < 0.5, P  < 0.01). These results show that the impact on critical thinking is positively connected with group size, and as group size grows, so does the overall impact.

Various measuring tools influenced critical thinking positively, with significant intergroup differences (chi 2  = 0.08, P  = 0.78 > 0.05). In this situation, the self-adapting measurement tools obtained an upper-medium level of effect (ES = 0.78), whereas the complete effect size of the standardized measurement tools was the largest, achieving a significant level of effect (ES = 0.84, P  < 0.01). These results show that, despite the beneficial influence of the measuring tool on cultivating critical thinking, we are unable to explain why it is crucial in fostering the growth of critical thinking by utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

Different subject areas had a greater impact on critical thinking, and the intergroup differences were statistically significant (chi 2  = 13.36, P  < 0.05). Mathematics had the greatest overall impact, achieving a significant level of effect (ES = 1.68, P  < 0.01), followed by science (ES = 1.25, P  < 0.01) and medical science (ES = 0.87, P  < 0.01), both of which also achieved a significant level of effect. Programming technology was the least effective (ES = 0.39, P  < 0.01), only having a medium-low degree of effect compared to education (ES = 0.72, P  < 0.01) and other fields (such as language, art, and social sciences) (ES = 0.58, P  < 0.01). These results suggest that scientific fields (e.g., mathematics, science) may be the most effective subject areas for cultivating critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

The effectiveness of collaborative problem solving with regard to teaching critical thinking

According to this meta-analysis, using collaborative problem-solving as an intervention strategy in critical thinking teaching has a considerable amount of impact on cultivating learners’ critical thinking as a whole and has a favorable promotional effect on the two dimensions of critical thinking. According to certain studies, collaborative problem solving, the most frequently used critical thinking teaching strategy in curriculum instruction can considerably enhance students’ critical thinking (e.g., Liang et al., 2017 ; Liu et al., 2020 ; Cindy, 2004 ). This meta-analysis provides convergent data support for the above research views. Thus, the findings of this meta-analysis not only effectively address the first research query regarding the overall effect of cultivating critical thinking and its impact on the two dimensions of critical thinking (i.e., attitudinal tendency and cognitive skills) utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving, but also enhance our confidence in cultivating critical thinking by using collaborative problem-solving intervention approach in the context of classroom teaching.

Furthermore, the associated improvements in attitudinal tendency are much stronger, but the corresponding improvements in cognitive skill are only marginally better. According to certain studies, cognitive skill differs from the attitudinal tendency in classroom instruction; the cultivation and development of the former as a key ability is a process of gradual accumulation, while the latter as an attitude is affected by the context of the teaching situation (e.g., a novel and exciting teaching approach, challenging and rewarding tasks) (Halpern, 2001 ; Wei and Hong, 2022 ). Collaborative problem-solving as a teaching approach is exciting and interesting, as well as rewarding and challenging; because it takes the learners as the focus and examines problems with poor structure in real situations, and it can inspire students to fully realize their potential for problem-solving, which will significantly improve their attitudinal tendency toward solving problems (Liu et al., 2020 ). Similar to how collaborative problem-solving influences attitudinal tendency, attitudinal tendency impacts cognitive skill when attempting to solve a problem (Liu et al., 2020 ; Zhang et al., 2022 ), and stronger attitudinal tendencies are associated with improved learning achievement and cognitive ability in students (Sison, 2008 ; Zhang et al., 2022 ). It can be seen that the two specific dimensions of critical thinking as well as critical thinking as a whole are affected by collaborative problem-solving, and this study illuminates the nuanced links between cognitive skills and attitudinal tendencies with regard to these two dimensions of critical thinking. To fully develop students’ capacity for critical thinking, future empirical research should pay closer attention to cognitive skills.

The moderating effects of collaborative problem solving with regard to teaching critical thinking

In order to further explore the key factors that influence critical thinking, exploring possible moderating effects that might produce considerable heterogeneity was done using subgroup analysis. The findings show that the moderating factors, such as the teaching type, learning stage, group size, learning scaffold, duration of the intervention, measuring tool, and the subject area included in the 36 experimental designs, could all support the cultivation of collaborative problem-solving in critical thinking. Among them, the effect size differences between the learning stage and measuring tool are not significant, which does not explain why these two factors are crucial in supporting the cultivation of critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

In terms of the learning stage, various learning stages influenced critical thinking positively without significant intergroup differences, indicating that we are unable to explain why it is crucial in fostering the growth of critical thinking.

Although high education accounts for 70.89% of all empirical studies performed by researchers, high school may be the appropriate learning stage to foster students’ critical thinking by utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving since it has the largest overall effect size. This phenomenon may be related to student’s cognitive development, which needs to be further studied in follow-up research.

With regard to teaching type, mixed course teaching may be the best teaching method to cultivate students’ critical thinking. Relevant studies have shown that in the actual teaching process if students are trained in thinking methods alone, the methods they learn are isolated and divorced from subject knowledge, which is not conducive to their transfer of thinking methods; therefore, if students’ thinking is trained only in subject teaching without systematic method training, it is challenging to apply to real-world circumstances (Ruggiero, 2012 ; Hu and Liu, 2015 ). Teaching critical thinking as mixed course teaching in parallel to other subject teachings can achieve the best effect on learners’ critical thinking, and explicit critical thinking instruction is more effective than less explicit critical thinking instruction (Bensley and Spero, 2014 ).

In terms of the intervention duration, with longer intervention times, the overall effect size shows an upward tendency. Thus, the intervention duration and critical thinking’s impact are positively correlated. Critical thinking, as a key competency for students in the 21st century, is difficult to get a meaningful improvement in a brief intervention duration. Instead, it could be developed over a lengthy period of time through consistent teaching and the progressive accumulation of knowledge (Halpern, 2001 ; Hu and Liu, 2015 ). Therefore, future empirical studies ought to take these restrictions into account throughout a longer period of critical thinking instruction.

With regard to group size, a group size of 2–3 persons has the highest effect size, and the comprehensive effect size decreases with increasing group size in general. This outcome is in line with some research findings; as an example, a group composed of two to four members is most appropriate for collaborative learning (Schellens and Valcke, 2006 ). However, the meta-analysis results also indicate that once the group size exceeds 7 people, small groups cannot produce better interaction and performance than large groups. This may be because the learning scaffolds of technique support, resource support, and teacher support improve the frequency and effectiveness of interaction among group members, and a collaborative group with more members may increase the diversity of views, which is helpful to cultivate critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

With regard to the learning scaffold, the three different kinds of learning scaffolds can all enhance critical thinking. Among them, the teacher-supported learning scaffold has the largest overall effect size, demonstrating the interdependence of effective learning scaffolds and collaborative problem-solving. This outcome is in line with some research findings; as an example, a successful strategy is to encourage learners to collaborate, come up with solutions, and develop critical thinking skills by using learning scaffolds (Reiser, 2004 ; Xu et al., 2022 ); learning scaffolds can lower task complexity and unpleasant feelings while also enticing students to engage in learning activities (Wood et al., 2006 ); learning scaffolds are designed to assist students in using learning approaches more successfully to adapt the collaborative problem-solving process, and the teacher-supported learning scaffolds have the greatest influence on critical thinking in this process because they are more targeted, informative, and timely (Xu et al., 2022 ).

With respect to the measuring tool, despite the fact that standardized measurement tools (such as the WGCTA, CCTT, and CCTST) have been acknowledged as trustworthy and effective by worldwide experts, only 54.43% of the research included in this meta-analysis adopted them for assessment, and the results indicated no intergroup differences. These results suggest that not all teaching circumstances are appropriate for measuring critical thinking using standardized measurement tools. “The measuring tools for measuring thinking ability have limits in assessing learners in educational situations and should be adapted appropriately to accurately assess the changes in learners’ critical thinking.”, according to Simpson and Courtney ( 2002 , p. 91). As a result, in order to more fully and precisely gauge how learners’ critical thinking has evolved, we must properly modify standardized measuring tools based on collaborative problem-solving learning contexts.

With regard to the subject area, the comprehensive effect size of science departments (e.g., mathematics, science, medical science) is larger than that of language arts and social sciences. Some recent international education reforms have noted that critical thinking is a basic part of scientific literacy. Students with scientific literacy can prove the rationality of their judgment according to accurate evidence and reasonable standards when they face challenges or poorly structured problems (Kyndt et al., 2013 ), which makes critical thinking crucial for developing scientific understanding and applying this understanding to practical problem solving for problems related to science, technology, and society (Yore et al., 2007 ).

Suggestions for critical thinking teaching

Other than those stated in the discussion above, the following suggestions are offered for critical thinking instruction utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

First, teachers should put a special emphasis on the two core elements, which are collaboration and problem-solving, to design real problems based on collaborative situations. This meta-analysis provides evidence to support the view that collaborative problem-solving has a strong synergistic effect on promoting students’ critical thinking. Asking questions about real situations and allowing learners to take part in critical discussions on real problems during class instruction are key ways to teach critical thinking rather than simply reading speculative articles without practice (Mulnix, 2012 ). Furthermore, the improvement of students’ critical thinking is realized through cognitive conflict with other learners in the problem situation (Yang et al., 2008 ). Consequently, it is essential for teachers to put a special emphasis on the two core elements, which are collaboration and problem-solving, and design real problems and encourage students to discuss, negotiate, and argue based on collaborative problem-solving situations.

Second, teachers should design and implement mixed courses to cultivate learners’ critical thinking, utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving. Critical thinking can be taught through curriculum instruction (Kuncel, 2011 ; Leng and Lu, 2020 ), with the goal of cultivating learners’ critical thinking for flexible transfer and application in real problem-solving situations. This meta-analysis shows that mixed course teaching has a highly substantial impact on the cultivation and promotion of learners’ critical thinking. Therefore, teachers should design and implement mixed course teaching with real collaborative problem-solving situations in combination with the knowledge content of specific disciplines in conventional teaching, teach methods and strategies of critical thinking based on poorly structured problems to help students master critical thinking, and provide practical activities in which students can interact with each other to develop knowledge construction and critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

Third, teachers should be more trained in critical thinking, particularly preservice teachers, and they also should be conscious of the ways in which teachers’ support for learning scaffolds can promote critical thinking. The learning scaffold supported by teachers had the greatest impact on learners’ critical thinking, in addition to being more directive, targeted, and timely (Wood et al., 2006 ). Critical thinking can only be effectively taught when teachers recognize the significance of critical thinking for students’ growth and use the proper approaches while designing instructional activities (Forawi, 2016 ). Therefore, with the intention of enabling teachers to create learning scaffolds to cultivate learners’ critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem solving, it is essential to concentrate on the teacher-supported learning scaffolds and enhance the instruction for teaching critical thinking to teachers, especially preservice teachers.

Implications and limitations

There are certain limitations in this meta-analysis, but future research can correct them. First, the search languages were restricted to English and Chinese, so it is possible that pertinent studies that were written in other languages were overlooked, resulting in an inadequate number of articles for review. Second, these data provided by the included studies are partially missing, such as whether teachers were trained in the theory and practice of critical thinking, the average age and gender of learners, and the differences in critical thinking among learners of various ages and genders. Third, as is typical for review articles, more studies were released while this meta-analysis was being done; therefore, it had a time limit. With the development of relevant research, future studies focusing on these issues are highly relevant and needed.

Conclusions

The subject of the magnitude of collaborative problem-solving’s impact on fostering students’ critical thinking, which received scant attention from other studies, was successfully addressed by this study. The question of the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking was addressed in this study, which addressed a topic that had gotten little attention in earlier research. The following conclusions can be made:

Regarding the results obtained, collaborative problem solving is an effective teaching approach to foster learners’ critical thinking, with a significant overall effect size (ES = 0.82, z  = 12.78, P  < 0.01, 95% CI [0.69, 0.95]). With respect to the dimensions of critical thinking, collaborative problem-solving can significantly and effectively improve students’ attitudinal tendency, and the comprehensive effect is significant (ES = 1.17, z  = 7.62, P  < 0.01, 95% CI [0.87, 1.47]); nevertheless, it falls short in terms of improving students’ cognitive skills, having only an upper-middle impact (ES = 0.70, z  = 11.55, P  < 0.01, 95% CI [0.58, 0.82]).

As demonstrated by both the results and the discussion, there are varying degrees of beneficial effects on students’ critical thinking from all seven moderating factors, which were found across 36 studies. In this context, the teaching type (chi 2  = 7.20, P  < 0.05), intervention duration (chi 2  = 12.18, P  < 0.01), subject area (chi 2  = 13.36, P  < 0.05), group size (chi 2  = 8.77, P  < 0.05), and learning scaffold (chi 2  = 9.03, P  < 0.01) all have a positive impact on critical thinking, and they can be viewed as important moderating factors that affect how critical thinking develops. Since the learning stage (chi 2  = 3.15, P  = 0.21 > 0.05) and measuring tools (chi 2  = 0.08, P  = 0.78 > 0.05) did not demonstrate any significant intergroup differences, we are unable to explain why these two factors are crucial in supporting the cultivation of critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included within the article and its supplementary information files, and the supplementary information files are available in the Dataverse repository: https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/IPFJO6 .

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Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the graduate scientific research and innovation project of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region named “Research on in-depth learning of high school information technology courses for the cultivation of computing thinking” (No. XJ2022G190) and the independent innovation fund project for doctoral students of the College of Educational Science of Xinjiang Normal University named “Research on project-based teaching of high school information technology courses from the perspective of discipline core literacy” (No. XJNUJKYA2003).

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Xu, E., Wang, W. & Wang, Q. The effectiveness of collaborative problem solving in promoting students’ critical thinking: A meta-analysis based on empirical literature. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 10 , 16 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-01508-1

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How to ace collaborative problem solving

April 30, 2023 They say two heads are better than one, but is that true when it comes to solving problems in the workplace? To solve any problem—whether personal (eg, deciding where to live), business-related (eg, raising product prices), or societal (eg, reversing the obesity epidemic)—it’s crucial to first define the problem. In a team setting, that translates to establishing a collective understanding of the problem, awareness of context, and alignment of stakeholders. “Both good strategy and good problem solving involve getting clarity about the problem at hand, being able to disaggregate it in some way, and setting priorities,” Rob McLean, McKinsey director emeritus, told McKinsey senior partner Chris Bradley  in an Inside the Strategy Room podcast episode . Check out these insights to uncover how your team can come up with the best solutions for the most complex challenges by adopting a methodical and collaborative approach. 

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How to master the seven-step problem-solving process

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How to adopt a collaborative problem-solving approach through 'yes, and' thinking.

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After more than 24 years of coaching, I've noticed that teams and organizations still use traditional problem-solving techniques despite these being either obsolete or ineffective. For example, individuals still attempt to focus and dissect problems on their own with the hope of coming up with a solution by themselves.

I also notice a pattern of clients operating in silos. They have a tendency to equate the ability to solve problems by themselves as a form of independence and initiative. This works only to a certain degree. As the problem becomes more complex, this solo-solving technique becomes ineffective. Instead, teams should tap into the increasingly diverse and multidisciplinary pool that makes up the workforce. Not only is this useful for performance and productivity but also for problem solving.

I have found the collaborative problem-solving approach, by Alexander Hancock , to be an effective approach to achieving clients’ objectives. Collaborative problem solving occurs as you collaborate with other people to exchange information, ideas or perspectives. The essence of this type of collaboration is based on “yes, and” thinking – building on and valuing each other’s ideas.

Any individual, team or company can take advantage of this approach. I have found this approach to be most effective for companies facing problems that involve team members from different departments, backgrounds and personalities. This is also an approach that is usually unique to the coaching profession.

In any situation, when someone comes to you as a leader with a problem to discuss, your role is to help him or her look for the causes and discover solutions. Your role is not to resolve the problem alone but to guide them through collaborative problem-solving approach.

Attitudes For Collaborative Problem Solving

Hancock provides the list below of attitudes that are best paired with the approach:

• Win-win abundance thinking:  Collaboration allows you to work with others to develop solutions that will benefit you both. The key concept is to believe that it is possible to create a synergistic solution before you create them. It is not "you vs. me" — we can both succeed. Develop an "abundance mentality" — there is enough for everyone. “If you win, we all win.”

• Patience:  Collaboration takes time. You need to recognize that you are both helping one another to reach a resolution, and it may take more than one meeting to discuss. You will often need to work together over time to reach a satisfying solution that you will both agree on.

• “Yes, and” thinking:  Move away from polarized (either/or) thinking, and develop a “yes, and” way of thinking. This thinking is supporting a suggested idea and building on the idea to make it better.

Benefits Of Collaborative Problem Solving

Collaborative problem solving opens communication and builds trust in the relationship as you and your co-collaborator discover that you are both working together toward a shared outcome. This increases a joint commitment to the relationship and to the organization. It also indicates a commitment to helping others reach their goals and objectives, and to improve everyone’s performance for the company or the organization. Collaborative communication also encourages finding creative solutions. This increases the likelihood that others will take ownership of an issue and its solution.

Collaborative Problem-Solving Techniques

There are techniques that can help you engage in collaborative communication. Here are a few examples:

• Build on and connect ideas, rather than discarding one idea and looking for another one.

• Explore the strengths and drawbacks of each idea, compare and balance the pluses and drawbacks of each idea.

• Convert drawbacks to new possibilities. Try to find ways to integrate and combine new possibilities into an existing idea.

• When sharing your own opinion, make sure you offer it as a suggestion and not as a directive. The intention of collaborative problem solving is to provide a catalyst for exploration and consideration, instead of having the other person accept your advice or direction.

The collaborative problem-solving approach paves ways to open communication, trust, better planning and smooth implementation of a plan or strategy.

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Collaborative Problem Solving: What It Is and How to Do It

What is collaborative problem solving, how to solve problems as a team, celebrating success as a team.

Problems arise. That's a well-known fact of life and business. When they do, it may seem more straightforward to take individual ownership of the problem and immediately run with trying to solve it. However, the most effective problem-solving solutions often come through collaborative problem solving.

As defined by Webster's Dictionary , the word collaborate is to work jointly with others or together, especially in an intellectual endeavor. Therefore, collaborative problem solving (CPS) is essentially solving problems by working together as a team. While problems can and are solved individually, CPS often brings about the best resolution to a problem while also developing a team atmosphere and encouraging creative thinking.

Because collaborative problem solving involves multiple people and ideas, there are some techniques that can help you stay on track, engage efficiently, and communicate effectively during collaboration.

• Set Expectations. From the very beginning, expectations for openness and respect must be established for CPS to be effective. Everyone participating should feel that their ideas will be heard and valued.
• Provide Variety. Another way of providing variety can be by eliciting individuals outside the organization but affected by the problem. This may mean involving various levels of leadership from the ground floor to the top of the organization. It may be that you involve someone from bookkeeping in a marketing problem-solving session. A perspective from someone not involved in the day-to-day of the problem can often provide valuable insight.
• Communicate Clearly.  If the problem is not well-defined, the solution can't be. By clearly defining the problem, the framework for collaborative problem solving is narrowed and more effective.
• Expand the Possibilities.  Think beyond what is offered. Take a discarded idea and expand upon it. Turn it upside down and inside out. What is good about it? What needs improvement? Sometimes the best ideas are those that have been discarded rather than reworked.
• Encourage Creativity.  Out-of-the-box thinking is one of the great benefits of collaborative problem-solving. This may mean that solutions are proposed that have no way of working, but a small nugget makes its way from that creative thought to evolution into the perfect solution.
• Provide Positive Feedback. There are many reasons participants may hold back in a collaborative problem-solving meeting. Fear of performance evaluation, lack of confidence, lack of clarity, and hierarchy concerns are just a few of the reasons people may not initially participate in a meeting. Positive public feedback early on in the meeting will eliminate some of these concerns and create more participation and more possible solutions.
• Consider Solutions. Once several possible ideas have been identified, discuss the advantages and drawbacks of each one until a consensus is made.
• Assign Tasks.  A problem identified and a solution selected is not a problem solved. Once a solution is determined, assign tasks to work towards a resolution. A team that has been invested in the creation of the solution will be invested in its resolution. The best time to act is now.
• Evaluate the Solution. Reconnect as a team once the solution is implemented and the problem is solved. What went well? What didn't? Why? Collaboration doesn't necessarily end when the problem is solved. The solution to the problem is often the next step towards a new collaboration.

The burden that is lifted when a problem is solved is enough victory for some. However, a team that plays together should celebrate together. It's not only collaboration that brings unity to a team. It's also the combined celebration of a unified victory—the moment you look around and realize the collectiveness of your success.

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5 Expert Collaborative Problem-Solving Strategies

Lorin mccann.

• December 9th, 2015

You don’t need to be an executive to initiate powerful change within your organization. According to collaboration expert Jane Ripley, collaboration begins with you.

Expecting superiors, employees, coworkers, or other departments to take responsibility will get you nowhere, fast. Instead, adopt collaboration as a personal responsibility and be unafraid to take initiative — it doesn’t matter if you’re an entry-level employee or a seasoned executive.

Jane Ripley is a collaboration expert and co-author of the book Collaboration Begins With You: Be a Silo Buster along with Ken Blanchard and Eunice Parisi-Carew (you can follow Jane on Twitter: @WiredLeadership ). Jane draws on her research working with companies ranging from small businesses and entrepreneurs to large, multi-national enterprises to talk about collaborative problem-solving strategies professionals can use no matter what organizational level they’re at.

Initiating collaborative problem-solving within an organization is a complex task, with many moving parts. Jane describes it well: “Imagine you’re in the aircraft and there’s this dashboard. You’ve got to try and get all the buttons and levers in the right places.” Collaboration within an organization is also a complex process.

The approach Jane and her co-authors adopt in their books aims to simplify a complex subject with actionable models, including the UNITE model for collaborative problem-solving:

U = Utilize difference N = Nurture safety and trust I = Involve others in creating a clear purpose, values, and goals T = Talk openly E = Empower yourself and others

Executives can use these strategies to transform the culture and impact of their organizations from the company culture from the top down. Alternatively,entry-level employees can adopt the same strategies to accelerate professional growth while offering enormous value to their organizations from the bottom up.

In this post, we’ll look at each of the elements of the UNITE model — and what you need to know to put them into action.  

1. Utilize differences in collaborative problem-solving

Collaborative problem-solving relies on the presence of multiple perspectives.

Jane advises to remember that different perspectives are not personal. In fact, conflict is important.

Fear of contrasting opinions often indicates a competitive mindset, not a collaborative one. This only creates more problems rather than solving them.

“The power,” Jane says, “is in the combination of perspectives.”  

2. Nurture safety and trust within your organization

Effective collaboration is impossible when trust isn’t a part of the culture.

Jane elaborates: “My co-author, Eunice Parisi-Carew, always says, ‘Fear is the number one inhibitor to collaboration, because if you’re inhibited, you won’t contribute, and if you don’t contribute nobody will know that you have a different perspective.’”

In fact, trust is one of the most crucial elements in being a silo-buster; it plays enormous role in preventing bottlenecks and accelerating growth.

“Some people come to the workplace trusting everybody, and they get let down. Other people come to the workplace believing nobody will do the work as well as they can. Those people try to do it all and become a bottleneck,” Jane explains.

Low trust within an organization rarely goes unnoticed. Even if executives are unaware of the problem, employees always are — it negatively impacts their ability to be effective.

A tell-tale sign of a low-trust culture for leaders is when people don’t contribute ideas. Jane shares a classic example: “When the leader sits at the meeting and says, ‘I’ve got this new thing that’s been handed to us from headquarters, now we’ve got to implement XYZ initiative. Any ideas?’ And…there’s no response.”

Silence follows because, as Jane explains, “not usually because [the employees] don’t have any ideas, it’s just that they just don’t want to voice them” — for fear of criticism, negative feedback, no feedback, or backlash.  

3. Involve others for effective collaborative problem-solving

According to Jane, “Not all the best ideas come from the top, and not all the best ideas come from a specific group. Marketing can have a very valuable perspective on the use of collaborative software, and so can IT.”

It may be uncomfortable to involve people and departments with whom you don’t currently have a relationship, but it’s essential for effective collaborative problem-solving. Even as an entry-level employee, you can take the initiative to open the lines of communication to other people within your organization.

Invite someone to lunch — or suggest involving someone from another department in a final review on a project that could use their feedback. It’s a simple way to begin, but it’s powerful.  

4. Don’t be afraid to talk openly

How important is speed to your organization? On a scale of one to ten it’s probably an eight, nine, or ten.

According to Jane, speed is the number-one benefit of talking openly, or transparency: “If you’ve all got the same information, you can all make decisions and bring those pieces of information together to solve the problem more quickly.” Alternatively, a lack of transparency creates confusion, more meetings, and more discussion.

“So now you’ve got a [unproductive] discussion instead of having everybody on the same level playing field all coming at it from the same approach, able to look at the data or the information and critically evaluate that,” she adds.

And speed isn’t the only benefit of talking openly. As counterintuitive as it may seem, so is security.

Jane often talks about information theft when discussing transparency. “When information is kept in silos you open up an opportunity for other people to prosper from it,” she says. “So an unscrupulous individual can take that information and do what they like with it, whereas if it’s common knowledge, it’s in the public domain, [and] they have no more power.”  

5. Don’t wait to empower yourself and others

As a leader, empowering your organization starts with you. As an employee, it’s no different! You can’t wait for someone at the top to make the shift before you allow yourself to as well.

Jane shares insights into how both leaders and employees can take take steps to empower themselves, and in doing so empower others:

Firstly, leaders must discard a competitive mindset in favor of a collaborative one.

“Empowering yourself and others is the big part for the leader. [Leaders] are coaching for competence, creating clarity around goals, and setting boundaries. They’re removing roadblocks, sharing their networks, and giving opportunities to build knowledge… it’s how they help an individual become collaborative and make a greater contribution [to the organization].”

Instead of keeping your knowledge, network, and expertise close to the vest as a leader, share it openly with your employees. Not only will your experiences add enormous value to their professional growth, it will also empower them to be more effective in their jobs. They’ll also trust and appreciate you more.

Employees can also take initiative within their organization, regardless of the current company culture. They can start by offering their ideas, insights — even their networks.

Jane says, “It always amazes me how, particularly with the millennial generation, that they’re networked electronically they have some phenomenal people in their networks and can bring those equally to leaders who are sitting in a position maybe four, five, six, seven years older than them, it’s tremendous.”  

People are innately collaborative

Jane ties together the concepts and action steps surrounding collaborative problem with a familiar example:

“People are innately collaborative. We do it innately and we do it socially. If somebody wants to throw a party everybody says,‘What should I bring?’‘What shall I do?’ ‘I’ll do the decorating!’

And yet, when they come to work, ‘Oh, wait a minute, the decorating belongs to that department, refreshments belongs to that department, so now we need a meeting.’”

“We’re wired,” Jane explains, “for collaboration, and it’s our workplace habits, systems, and beliefs that get in the way. For better collaborative problem-solving where you work, you don’t need more meetings.”

Instead, work on building a culture of collaboration by utilizing difference, nurturing safety and trust, involving others in creating a clear purpose, values, and goals, talking openly, and empowering yourself and others. And that’s something we all can do.

Lorin is an inbound marketer and demand generation specialist at Lotus Growth , a B2B marketing consultancy. She also helps entrepreneurs kick off new digital marketing strategies at Vrtical . Read more by Lorin McCann »

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Collaborative Problem Solving

Strategy overview.

• 1 – Clarify Intentions
• 2 – Background Inquiry
• 3 – Process Design
• 4 – Group Launch
• 5 – Issue Analysis
• 6 – Generate Options
• 7 – Evaluate Options
• 8 – Produce Documents
• 9 – Executive Review
• Download PDF of Strategy
• Download PDF of Tools
• About Kem Lowry

It is increasingly difficult to craft plans, policies, and programs that are regarded as legitimate and sustainable without the direct engagement of representatives from multiple agencies, corporations, and non-governmental organizations.  Cross-sector collaborations of this type are designed to engage well-informed stakeholders in a process of sustained problem solving; the end product is often a policy document that can help to establish legislation, regulations, and standards.

This strategy requires that participants understand the logic of each stage of the process in order to build commitment toward a consensus perspective. Group members engage in clarifying the problem, analyzing potential strategies, crafting recommendations, evaluating draft documents, and delivering a report for which there is a high level of consensus and commitment.

An issue that is of sufficient importance and a convener who is of sufficient stature are among the critical success factors that will mobilize the necessary resources and participants for a  cross-sector collaboration of this type.

Cross-sector collaboration provides both the forum and the strategy for engaging the most knowledgeable stakeholders in sustained problem solving.

Stage 1: Clarify Intentions Identify the expectations of conveners to help them envision how the process might be organized, who might be participating, what time and resources will likely be required, and what the outcomes might be.

Stage 2: Background Inquiry Gather first- and second-hand background information to determine which issues should figure into the tailored design of a collaborative process.

Stage 3: Process Design Develop a provisional process design explaining the logic and outputs of each phase in order to garner participants’ early commitment to the process and the products.

Stage 4: Group Launch Introduce the participants and process, and start building trust and confidence by collaborating on a group charter and amending the process plan to reflect group concerns.

Stage 5: Issue Analysis Develop a shared understanding of the issue and identify those aspects that are most amenable to intervention.

Stage 6: Generate Options Identify and analyze a range of alternative strategies for addressing a problem or taking advantage of an opportunity.

Stage 7: Evaluate Options Evaluate strategies and choose between them using criteria the group selects.

Stage 8: Produce Documents Develop a plan, set of recommendations, or policy document that describes the strategy the group has developed, the rationale for the strategy, and the process by which it was developed.

Stage 9: Executive Review Present and explain the report to the executive or convener in a way that it is understood, accepted, and supported.

Related Examples

Designing the future of kakaako makai, related tools/resources.

• Critical success factors for Collaborative Problem Solving

The Six-Step Problem-Solving Model: A Collaborative Approach to Workplace Challenges

Introduction.

Arvind Singh Kamlakar

In today’s fast-paced business environment, addressing challenges is an inevitable part of growth. However, it’s not just about finding solutions, but about choosing the right approach to problem-solving. Enter the Six Step Problem-Solving Model — a systematic, collaborative method a team can adopt to address complex challenges efficiently.

What is the Six Step Problem-Solving Model?

It is a collaborative and systematic approach to addressing problems. Instead of tackling issues haphazardly, this model encourages a sequential process that ensures thoroughness and consistency.

Key Advantages

• Promotes a shared understanding, eliminating biases and ensuring greater objectivity.
• Prevents divergence into multiple problems, ensuring focus.
• Encourages consensus, reducing confusion from multiple techniques.
• Streamlines decision-making with justified solutions.

The Six Sequential Steps

• Define the Problem: Understand the context, background, and symptoms. Techniques like brainstorming, interviewing, and questionnaires aid this step.
• Determine the Root Cause(s): Dig deep to find the underlying causes using tools like fishbone diagrams and Pareto analysis.
• Develop Alternative Solutions: Generate and relate many potential solutions to the root causes.
• Select a Solution: Evaluate and choose the most feasible and favored solution.
• Implement the Solution: Set up the project, outline key milestones, and initiate actions.
• Evaluate the Outcome: Monitor implementation, check milestones, and ensure desired outcomes.

It’s a cyclical process where teams can revisit previous steps for refinement.

The Continuous Improvement Ethos

Central to the model is the ethos of continuous improvement. Rather than seeking a one-time fix, the goal is to adapt and evolve solutions to new challenges, making it a dynamic and sustainable approach.

The Six Step Problem Solving Model isn’t just a method; it’s a mindset. A mindset that ensures problems are tackled systematically and collaboratively, driving teams towards effective, justifiable solutions.

Source: Free Management eBooks *

Written by Arvind Singh Kamlakar

Staff Data Engineer

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Collaborative problem solving: Overcome challenges with effective solutions & techniques

Learn the most effective solutions and techniques for teamwork and collaboration.

Supriya Sarkar

Problem-solving

Promoting collaborative problem-solving is a fundamental imperative for any organization. The conventional approach to problem-solving, which often places an undue burden on a single individual, is not without its drawbacks. These include a heightened risk of errors, underutilization of the diverse talent pool, and the constraining nature of this approach.

On the contrary, when embracing problem-solving through team collaboration, organizations stand to gain a significant boost in productivity and overall performance. This approach leverages collective intelligence, creativity, and skills, leading to more effective and innovative solutions.

Can collaborative problem-solving fail?

A collaborative problem-solving approach undoubtedly offers numerous advantages, yet it is not free from challenges. Collaboration issues frequently stem from factors like inadequate communication, limited diversity of thought, lack of trust, and interpersonal conflicts. Regrettably, organizations often overlook these challenges. This leads to detrimental impacts on project timelines, budget efficiency, and even on the project success.

How can you solve collaboration challenges?

Clear communication.

Poor communication stands out as a predominant cause for the failure of numerous collaboration efforts. When team members lack clarity about the problem at hand, their designated roles, shared objectives, or the processes, collaboration initiatives are prone to falter. In order to ensure the success of collaborative endeavors, it is essential to communicate the following key aspects explicitly:

• Define the problem and establish clear goals.
• Allocate roles and responsibilities within the team.
• Set realistic timelines for the project.
• Identify the methods and tools in use.

Furthermore, fostering an environment that encourages team members to contribute suggestions and ideas is paramount. Implementing a feedback mechanism facilitates a two-way communication flow, allowing for valuable insights, the development of empathy, and the cultivation of trust. 

Build Trust

Trust is the crucial element in any collaborative effort. When team members trust one another, it creates an environment where ideas, opinions, and alternative solutions can flow freely without fear of being judged or criticized. For leaders, the imperative of nurturing trust within their teams cannot be over-emphasized. Trust is the catalyst that allows team members to open up about their challenges and concerns without hesitation. Building trust also improves accountability, team alignment, and satisfaction. 

Open communication plays a pivotal role in cultivating and cementing trust. Regular, transparent, and honest communication becomes the bridge that solidifies the bonds of trust within the team, creating an atmosphere where collaboration and shared success thrive.

Appreciation

Appreciation plays a pivotal role in maintaining team motivation. While constructive feedback helps refine and optimize workflow, acknowledging and celebrating team members’ contributions goes a step further by instilling confidence and trust. Recognizing the efforts and achievements of your team not only uplifts morale but also reinforces the belief that their work is valued and significant. Appreciating team members will create a more positive and motivated work environment, leading to better collaborative effort for the team's success and cohesion.

Workplace Diversity

Diversity involves welcoming individuals from different backgrounds, encompassing diverse experiences, skills, cultures, lifestyles, and education. It is a valuable asset in the workplace as it broadens perspectives and enhances collaborative problem-solving. Workplace diversity fosters creativity, encourages fresh approaches, and sparks innovation. On the contrary, a team lacking diversity may find itself constrained by a narrow outlook, resulting in conventional and less effective solutions. In essence, embracing diversity leads to a rich and more dynamic environment that fuels innovation and success.

Continuous Learning

Learning is the cornerstone of growth for individuals, teams, leaders, and companies. Prioritizing learning and upskilling within your team doesn't just boost efficiency and effectiveness; it injects fresh, advanced problem-solving approaches.

However, it's not just successes but also failures that hold significant value. Failure often provides insights and lessons that no formal course can offer. It is essential for a team to examine past mistakes and learn from them. This process fosters personal and collective development, sparks innovation, and safeguards against the recurrence of prior errors.

Recognizing and reflecting as a team should become a routine practice. Capture and document important lessons, data, and insights from failures and utilize this knowledge to tackle future challenges more effectively.

Making collaborative communication engaging will help you get the best out of the team. Below are a few helpful techniques that you can put into action.

Helpful techniques to make collaborative communication engaging

1- build on ideas.

Encourage a culture of collaboration by building on each other's ideas rather than resorting to an either/or mentality. Embrace team members' suggestions as opportunities for growth and innovation. Acknowledging and incorporating their input fosters a more inclusive and dynamic environment.

2- SWOT Analysis

Utilize a SWOT analysis technique to analyze proposed ideas critically. Evaluate their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. This structured approach allows for a more comprehensive examination before accepting or rejecting suggestions, leading to well-informed decisions.

3- Incorporate New Possibilities

Keep an open mind and explore how to integrate new possibilities into existing ideas. By synergizing innovative concepts with established ones, you can enhance the effectiveness of your solutions. This approach promotes adaptability and continuous improvement.

4- Win-Win Approach

Embrace a "win-win" philosophy when communicating with your team. Foster a collective mindset, shifting from "you vs. me" to "we." This mindset encourages cooperation, shared responsibility, and a sense of unity. Collaborative problem-solving is most effective when team members are aligned on their objectives and work together harmoniously.

Collaborative problem-solving capitalizes on the collective talents of your team. Creative minds, combined with positive and open communication, can yield innovative solutions that an individual may not discover. To maximize the potential of the team members, nurture a culture of collaboration and open dialogue.

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5 Tips to Make Collaborative Problem Solving Work for Your Team

January 25, 2021 - 5 min read

For project managers, the art of problem solving lies in getting people together who all have their own areas of expertise and then finding the most effective and efficient way to move forward. This can be a complicated, painstaking process, and it's often easy to lose sight of the big picture along the way. Still, by taking on collaborative problem solving with clear goals, leaders are more likely to discover smart, creative solutions to help the team progress in its mission.

Here are five tips that can make the difference in coming up with powerful, collaborative problem solving techniques that work for your unique projects:

1. Bring the Right Attitude to the Table

A collaborative problem solving approach starts with setting everyone's expectations appropriately and coming in to a meeting ready to hear and discuss many different viewpoints . Working together means presenting a variety of ideas and finding useful ways to draw connections instead of treating the project as a competition. That doesn't mean every suggestion is going to be a good one or practical with the available time and budget, but sometimes even noting the drawbacks to a particular proposal can come to inspire a productive new line of thinking. If you say you're collaborating, make sure everyone's attitude is to reflect what you say in your actions. Check out this video for some examples.

2. Individual Problem Solving is Essential to Collaborative Problem Solving

Though fresh perspectives are helpful, connecting with the group is often not the best starting point for working through complex issues. Before following a collaborative problem solving model to pull team members together, it's important to let individuals have some time to develop ideas on their own . Too much discussion during this phase can end up stifling creativity, discouraging team members from following lines of independent thinking that often lead to the very best solutions.

3. Split up into Smaller Groups

When the time does come to bring people together for collaborative problem solving, keeping the sizes of groups under control will help everyone get more done. Staying connected and getting assistance from across the team can help a great deal during the information-gathering phase, but breaking off into smaller groups will generate more effective problem solving activities. These focused clusters will come up with a wider range of theories and potential answers that can then be evaluated and implemented among the larger team.

4. Allow Space for Innovation and Conflict

Group discussions yield the best results when leaders allow some room for flexibility and let the conversation go down some unexpected paths. Keep these guidelines in mind as you lead team meetings:

• Leaders should strive to create a space where talented people are free to voice their ideas.
• For collaborative problem solving to work, team members need to feel like even thoughts that may be a little unusual or difficult to understand at first are welcomed in the room.
• At the same time, the group should be comfortable expressing disagreement and pointing out problems.

With supportive leadership, this kind of open exchange reveals what concepts have the best chance of success. An idea grows into a plan of action when the members of the team bring their best suggestions and then ask tough questions and challenge one another.

5. Make Communication and Progress Transparent

As a project goes forward, leaders must keep the lines of communication among the team members open. Every individual taking part should understand how each assigned task is related and how they ultimately contribute to the overall goals. That's where a solution like Wrike comes in handy, offering the tools for managing workloads , monitoring timelines and sharing drafts.

Solving tricky business problems takes teamwork. Good leaders learn how to use the right strategies and tools to draw out great ideas from each worker and collaborate with the whole group to put them into action.

Occasionally we write blog posts where multiple people contribute. Since our idea of having a gladiator arena where contributors would fight to the death to win total authorship wasn’t approved by HR, this was the compromise.

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12 Collaboration Strategies to Transform Your Team’s Performance

Imagine walking into a bustling office, where the energy is palpable and ideas flow freely. You can feel the synergy as colleagues from different backgrounds come together, each bringing their unique perspectives to the table. This is the power of effective collaboration in action. In today’s fast-paced work environment, the ability to work seamlessly with others isn’t just a nice-to-have skill – it’s essential for success. Whether you’re part of a small startup or a large corporation, mastering the art of teamwork can be the difference between merely surviving and truly thriving. But how do we foster this collaborative spirit? How can we ensure that our collective efforts amount to more than the sum of their parts? Let’s explore some strategies that can transform your team from a group of individuals into a cohesive, high-performing unit.

What Are Collaboration Strategies?

Collaboration strategies are systematic approaches to promoting or requiring teamwork within an organization. The steps involved in these strategies can vary, but the ultimate goal is to create a synergy where the collective output is greater than the sum of individual efforts. Successful implementation of collaboration strategies can mitigate conflicts, streamline operations, and ensure that everyone is aligned with the organizational vision.

Importance of Team Collaboration in the Workplace

Team collaboration is essential for numerous reasons:

Increases Efficiency: When team members collaborate effectively, they can divide tasks according to individual strengths, leading to faster and more efficient project completion.

Boosts Creativity: Diverse teams that collaborate bring varied perspectives to the table, fostering a more innovative environment where unique ideas can thrive.

Enhances Problem-Solving: Group brainstorming sessions often lead to multi-faceted solutions that one person alone might overlook. By pooling knowledge and expertise, teams can tackle complex problems more effectively.

Improves Communication: Regular collaboration opens up channels for ongoing communication, reducing misunderstandings and ensuring that everyone is on the same page.

Key Values of Effective Team Collaboration

Successful collaborative teams share certain core values:

Clarity: Clearly defined roles, responsibilities, and goals minimize confusion and ensure that everyone knows their contribution’s impact.

Trust: Trusting team members to complete their tasks gives everyone the confidence to work independently yet cohesively.

Efficiency: Streamlined processes and effective communication save time and resources, making the collaboration more productive.

Accountability : Holding team members accountable for their deliverables ensures that everyone stays committed to the team’s objectives.

Positivity: A positive team environment fosters motivation and reduces stress, making collaboration more enjoyable and sustainable.

Examples of Team Collaboration

Several examples highlight the power of effective team collaboration:

Group Brainstorming Sessions: These sessions allow team members to pool their ideas in a safe and structured environment, promoting creativity and innovation.

Diverse Project Teams: Teams composed of members from different departments or backgrounds bring a variety of skills and viewpoints, leading to more comprehensive and effective solutions.

Honest Communication: Open channels for feedback and discussion enable teams to address issues promptly and constructively, maintaining a strong sense of unity and purpose.

Visual Collaboration Tools: Platforms like Creately help teams visually map out strategies, track progress, and manage projects in a centralized and organized manner.

By understanding and implementing these team collaboration skills and cooperative strategies, teams can significantly enhance their performance and achieve their objectives more effectively.

12 Collaboration Strategies to Boost Productivity

1. establish clear and measurable goals.

Setting clear and measurable goals is a critical first step in any collaboration strategy. Clear goals increase accountability and transparency, giving explicit direction and focus to team efforts. When team members understand what they are working towards, they are more motivated and aligned with the project’s objectives. Well-defined goals also facilitate better communication and synchronization among team members.

How to Set Measurable Goals

To ensure goals are actionable, it is essential to make them measurable. This provides a yardstick for evaluating progress and success. One popular method to achieve this is by using SMART goal templates . SMART stands for Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound. This method ensures that objectives are clear and attainable within a specified timeframe.

Specific: Clearly define what is to be achieved.

Measurable: Set criteria to measure progress and success.

Achievable: Ensure goals are within your team’s capabilities.

Relevant: Align goals with broader business objectives.

Time-bound: Establish a timeline for goal completion.

• Ready to use
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Implementing tools like Creately can significantly aid in goal setting and tracking. This visual workspace allows teams to plan, visualize, and execute collaboration strategies effectively. By integrating goals, timeliness, and responsibilities into a consolidated framework, Creately ensures all team members are aligned with the overarching vision and can easily track progress against set objectives.

Effective collaboration strategies lie at the heart of any high-performing team. These strategies foster an environment where team members can efficiently work together towards common goals, leveraging their unique skills and perspectives. Understanding the importance of team collaboration in the workplace and implementing key values can significantly enhance productivity, innovation, and overall team satisfaction.

2. Create a detailed Collaboration Plan

Creating a detailed collaboration plan is essential for successfully navigating challenges and streamlining teamwork processes. A well-drafted plan serves as a roadmap, helping teams identify potential obstacles early and plot routes around them. Here’s what your collaboration plan should include:

• Team Roles: Clearly define the roles and responsibilities of each team member. This prevents overlap and ensures accountability within the team.

Timelines: Establish realistic deadlines for each stage of the project. This ensures that all team members are aligned and working towards the same timeline.

Resources: Identify the tools, technologies, and other resources required to accomplish your goals effectively.

Training: Determine any necessary training or skill development required for team members to perform their roles effectively.

Communication Methods: Define how the team will communicate, including which tools will be used for messaging, file sharing, and meetings.

Conflict Resolution: Outline strategies for preventing and resolving conflicts within the team. This can include pre-established protocols for mediation or steps to escalate issues.

Budget and Resource Allocation: Clearly state the budget for the project and how resources will be distributed among tasks and team members.

3. Set Standards and Expectations

To achieve effective team collaboration, it’s crucial to establish clear standards and expectations. These guidelines provide a foundation that promotes accountability, clarity, and consistent performance across the team. When standards are well-defined and communicated, they offer several advantages:

Promote Accountability: Clearly outlined responsibilities ensure that each team member knows what is expected, reducing ambiguity and enhancing individual accountability.

Enhance Clarity: Written expectations serve as a reference point for team conduct and performance, mitigating misunderstandings and conflicts.

Foster Consistency: Standards create a uniform approach to tasks and interactions, which helps maintain a steady and reliable performance.

Enable Fair Evaluations: By setting measurable benchmarks, periodic evaluations become fair and objective, allowing for transparent assessments of progress and areas for improvement.

How to Establish Team Expectations

Creating effective standards and expectations involves several steps:

Document Communal Values : Define the core values that the team commits to uphold, such as respect, integrity, and collaboration.

Map Out Processes : Clearly outline the processes for completing tasks, ensuring everyone understands their role and the flow of operations.

Define Conduct Guidelines: Set expectations for team conduct, including communication norms, response times, and conflict resolution strategies.

Assign Leadership Functions: Specify the responsibilities of team leaders and how they will support the team in achieving its goals.

Evaluate Periodically: Schedule regular check-ins to assess adherence to standards and make necessary adjustments to facilitate ongoing improvement.

Tools like Creately can be instrumental in setting and visualizing these standards, offering visual templates and collaborative features that bring clarity and coherence to the process. By leveraging these resources, teams can ensure that everyone is aligned and moving towards common objectives.

4. Encourage Creativity and Innovation

Creativity is the lifeblood of innovation and problem-solving within a team. Encouraging out-of-the-box thinking enables team members to explore new possibilities and approaches, leading to groundbreaking solutions. This approach can significantly enhance team collaboration skills by fostering a culture where every idea is valued and considered.

To cultivate a creative atmosphere, it’s vital to employ techniques that promote idea generation and risk-taking. Here are some methods to get you started:

• Mind Mapping: Use mind maps to visually organize information and generate ideas. This can help in connecting different concepts and uncovering innovative solutions.
• Brainstorming Sessions: Regular brainstorming sessions provide a platform for team members to pitch their ideas freely. To maximize effectiveness, establish a judgment-free environment where every contribution is valued. Check out the Brainstorming Guide for more tips on effective brainstorming.

Idea Challenges: Pose specific challenges or roadblocks within the project and encourage team members to come up with unique solutions. This not only stimulates creative thinking but also enhances problem-solving skills.

Innovation Labs: Create dedicated spaces such as innovation labs where teams can experiment with new ideas without the pressure of immediate results.

These strategies not only enhance creativity but also improve cooperative strategies by enabling team members to build on each other’s ideas. Leveraging tools like Creately, a visual workspace, can further support these creative processes by providing a shared platform for planning, visualizing, and executing these strategies effectively.

5. Foster a Culture of Knowledge Sharing

Building a culture of knowledge sharing within your team significantly boosts learning and adaptation. When team members feel comfortable sharing their insights, experiences, and skills, it creates a collaborative environment where everyone grows together. This practice enhances not only individual expertise but also team performance, making it easier to tackle complex challenges.

To cultivate an environment of knowledge sharing, it’s crucial to create comfortable spaces for open discussion. Whether through regular meetings, virtual town halls, or dedicated online forums, providing platforms where team members can openly discuss their thoughts encourages a free exchange of ideas.

Reward Contributions: Recognize and reward employees for their active contributions to knowledge sharing. This could be through formal recognition programs, bonuses, or other incentives.

Encourage Peer Learning: Facilitate mentorship opportunities and peer learning sessions where members can impart and acquire new skills.

Utilize Technology: Leverage tools to create a centralized platform for sharing knowledge visually. Visual tools aid in capturing complex ideas and make information easily accessible to everyone.

Teams can brainstorm, map processes, and document insights in real-time, ensuring everyone stays on the same page. Its advanced features for workflow management and diagramming make it an ideal tool for fostering a collaborative culture.

Benefits of Knowledge Sharing

Embracing a culture of knowledge sharing offers numerous benefits, such as:

Improved Collaboration: When information flows freely, it enhances team collaboration and effectiveness.

Increased Innovation: Open exchange of ideas leads to more creative solutions and innovation.

Better Decision-Making: Access to diverse perspectives and collective knowledge empowers better decision-making.

By prioritizing knowledge sharing, your team will become more agile and better equipped to meet any challenges head-on, driving continuous improvement and success.

6. Track Results and Celebrate Teamwork

To align your team’s efforts with your overarching collaboration goals, tracking progress is paramount. Effective progress tracking helps identify areas of success and pinpoint where improvements are needed.

• Use Metrics: Utilize Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) and Objectives and Key Results (OKRs) to measure progress effectively. This data-driven approach ensures that your team stays focused on achieving its objectives.
• Gather Feedback: Encourage regular peer reviews and the use of project management software to solicit continuous feedback. This can provide valuable insights into team dynamics and areas for future improvement.
• Document Success: Keep detailed records of milestones, achievements, and lessons learned. Over time, this documentation can serve as a blueprint for best practices and a motivational tool for your team.

7. Utilize a Shared, Organized Workspace

A shared workspace acts as the nucleus of collaboration strategies, offering a centralized location for all collaborative activities. This setup is especially beneficial for remote and cross-functional teams, providing a unified platform for communication, document sharing, and project management. By utilizing a shared and organized workspace, teams can streamline workflows, ensuring that everyone is on the same page and has access to the necessary resources.

Implementing an Organized Workspace with Creately

Tools like our Visual Collaboration & Diagramming Platform are indispensable for creating such an organized workspace. Creately allows teams to plan, visualize, and execute their collaboration strategies effectively. The platform integrates seamlessly with other systems, offering robust tools tailored for both educational and professional settings.

Using Creately, teams can create mind maps, flowcharts, and other visual aids to make project planning more intuitive and transparent. This visual workspace not only improves efficiency but also supports the free-flow exchange of ideas, fostering creativity and innovation. It enhances team collaboration skills by centralizing information, making it easily accessible for all team members.

Exploring Visual Collaboration Tools

For teams looking to dive deeper into the functionalities of visual collaboration tools, understanding how to use them effectively is crucial.. These tools are designed to facilitate various team collaboration techniques, from brainstorming to detailed project tracking.

In conclusion, a shared, organized workspace is vital for enhancing your team’s performance. It not only centralizes all collaborative tools and resources but also fosters an environment where creativity and efficiency thrive.

8. Define Team Roles and Responsibilities

Defining clear and specific team roles and responsibilities is fundamental for collaboration strategies that optimize team performance. By establishing well-defined roles, teams can prevent overlap, enhance accountability, and improve overall efficiency and morale. Below, we delve into the importance of role clarity and the steps to set these roles within your team effectively.

When team members understand their individual responsibilities, it reduces confusion and potential conflicts, leading to a more cohesive and productive work environment. Clear roles prevent overlap in duties, saving time and resources. This also ensures that each task is appropriately assigned to the right individual, maximizing their strengths and expertise. Furthermore, when responsibilities are clearly outlined, team members are more likely to take ownership of their work, leading to increased accountability and motivation.

Steps to Clearly Define Team Roles

Identify Project Needs: Start by understanding the scope of the project or task at hand. Determine what roles are essential to accomplish the goals.

Analyze Team Strengths: Assess the strengths and skills of your team members. Assign roles that align with their expertise and interests.

Create Role Descriptions: Write detailed descriptions for each role. Include specific duties, expectations, and necessary resources for each position.

Communicate Clearly: Ensure that all team members understand their roles and the roles of others. This will promote transparency and collaboration.

Use Templates: Utilize tools such as a Roles and Responsibilities Template to streamline and document the process.

Review Periodically: Regularly revisit and adjust roles as projects progress or team dynamics change. Continuous evaluation helps in keeping the collaboration strategy effective.

Implementing clear role definitions is a cornerstone of effective team collaboration skills and ensures that cooperation among team members remains seamless and productive. This strategy not only prevents misunderstandings but also empowers your team to work confidently towards shared goals.

In today’s fast-paced work environment, incorporating technology for enhanced collaboration is essential. Leveraging technological tools facilitates smoother communication and coordination among team members. These tools streamline processes and help maintain a steady workflow, ensuring that every team member has access to necessary resources.

9. Promote Open Communication Channels

Open communication is the cornerstone of any effective team collaboration strategy. It establishes trust among team members, encourages honesty, and facilitates constructive feedback, which are essential for maintaining a cooperative and productive work environment. In an ecosystem where everyone feels confident to voice their thoughts and concerns, innovative ideas can flourish, and misunderstandings can be minimized..

There are several ways to establish open communication channels within your team:

• Regular Check-Ins: Schedule frequent meetings or stand-ups to discuss project progress, address any issues, and share insights.

Feedback Systems : Implement anonymous feedback mechanisms to make it easier for team members to share honest opinions without fear of repercussion.

Document Sharing Platforms: Use tools like Creately to facilitate the sharing of documents, making information easily accessible to everyone.

Inclusive Participation: Encourage every team member to contribute during meetings and brainstorming sessions, ensuring all voices are heard.

Clear Guidelines: Establish guidelines for how and when to communicate, using multiple channels such as emails, direct messages, and organized team meetings.

Incorporating these practices will not only enhance open communication but also elevate your team’s overall collaborative abilities.

By promoting open communication, teams can effectively share resources and efforts, leading to an improved collaborative environment. This principle, coupled with the use of structured communication tools such as those provided by Creately, can transform team dynamics, making it easier to align on goals and drive collective success.

10. Lead By Example

In any collaborative environment, leadership plays a pivotal role in shaping team behavior. When team leaders model the collaboration strategies they wish to see in their teams, it sets a powerful precedent. This approach cultivates a culture where team collaboration skills are not just encouraged but exemplified every day.

To truly lead by example:

Encourage Open Communication: Make yourself approachable and foster an environment where team members feel comfortable sharing ideas, feedback, and concerns.

Engage in Co-Creation: Participate actively in brainstorming sessions and collaborative projects. Show your team that their inputs and ideas are valued.

Promote Positivity : How you handle setbacks and celebrate successes will influence your team’s morale. Approach challenges as opportunities for growth.

Be Transparent: Communicate your decisions and the reasoning behind them. Transparency builds trust and helps the team understand the direction and goals.

Effective use of tools like those offered by Creately can enhance team collaboration. Its visual workspace aids in planning, visualizing, and executing collaborative strategies efficiently. It integrates seamlessly with other systems, creating a comprehensive environment for fostering open communication and co-creation. For more on improving collaboration, you can read the Complete Guide to Virtual Strategic Planning .

11. Recognize and Reward Effective Teamwork

Recognition is a vital element in fostering team collaboration and boosting morale. By publicly acknowledging the efforts of team members, you not only validate their hard work but also encourage continued excellence. Honoring effective teamwork through recognition enhances overall team motivation and promotes a cooperative atmosphere. Recognized employees are more likely to feel valued and engaged, which can lead to higher job satisfaction and productivity.

Effective Ways to Reward Teamwork

While verbal praise is beneficial, incorporating formal rewards can significantly enhance your recognition strategy. Here are some effective methods:

Bonuses and Financial Rewards: Monetary incentives can be a powerful motivation for employees to collaborate effectively.

Promotions and Career Advancement: Recognize collaborative efforts by offering opportunities for career growth.

Public Acknowledgment: Celebrate team achievements in company meetings, newsletters, or social media channels.

Awards and Certificates: Recognize the contributions of team members with awards or certificates of excellence.

Team-Building Activities: Organize events that reward team efforts while also fostering further collaboration, such as team lunches or outings.

A consistent strategy for recognizing and rewarding teamwork helps solidify collaboration strategies and promotes a culture where cooperative efforts are valued.

12. Foster Diversity and Inclusion

Diversity and inclusion are not just buzzwords; they are critical components of successful collaboration. Diverse teams bring varied perspectives, skills, and experiences that enhance creativity and innovation. This influx of different ideas leads to more effective problem-solving and drives better decision-making. When team members feel their unique contributions are valued, they are more motivated and engaged, positively impacting overall team performance.

Building an inclusive team culture requires intentional effort and a strategic approach. Here are some key steps to foster inclusion within your team:

Implement Inclusive Policies: Create clear policies that promote diversity and prevent discrimination. This sets a foundation for an inclusive work environment.

Provide Diversity Training: Regular training sessions can help team members understand the value of diversity and how to collaborate with colleagues from different backgrounds.

Encourage Open Dialogue: Cultivate an environment where team members feel comfortable sharing their ideas and experiences. Open dialogue fosters mutual respect and understanding.

Celebrate Differences: Recognize and celebrate the diverse backgrounds and achievements of your team members. This can be done through team events, newsletters, or social media shout-outs.

Leverage Diverse Perspectives : Actively seek out the input of team members with different perspectives during brainstorming sessions and decision-making processes.

Mentorship Program s: Establish mentorship programs that pair new or junior employees with experienced team members from different backgrounds, fostering knowledge sharing and mutual growth.

Creately’s collaborative platform allows for seamless planning, visualization, and execution of projects, ensuring that every team member’s voice is heard and valued. By implementing such strategies and leveraging the right tools, you can create a vibrant, inclusive culture that drives team collaboration and performance to new heights.

Join over thousands of organizations that use Creately to brainstorm, plan, analyze, and execute their projects successfully.

FAQs on Collaboration Strategies

What are the 7 c’s of strategic collaboration, what are the 5 principles of collaboration, what are the 4 key elements of managing collaboration process, more related articles.

Chiraag George is a communication specialist here at Creately. He is a marketing junkie that is fascinated by how brands occupy consumer mind space. A lover of all things tech, he writes a lot about the intersection of technology, branding and culture at large.

• Idaho Youth Ranch Website

Collaborative Problem Solving: A Resource Guide for Counselors Addressing Family Issues

Idaho Youth Ranch May 4, 2023 10:12:47 PM

Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS) is an evidence-based approach that focuses on understanding and addressing the root causes of challenging behavior in children and adolescents. Developed by Dr. Ross Greene, CPS aims to foster empathy, communication, and collaboration between parents, children, and professionals, ultimately leading to more effective and lasting solutions for family issues. This resource guide provides an overview of the CPS model, outlines the key principles and steps involved, and offers practical tips and strategies for counselors working with families.  

The Collaborative Problem Solving Model 

1. Understanding the CPS Philosophy

CPS is grounded in the belief that children do well if they can. The approach posits that challenging behavior is not due to a lack of motivation, attention-seeking, or manipulation but rather a result of lagging skills and unsolved problems. By understanding and addressing these underlying factors, counselors can help families develop more effective, compassionate, and sustainable solutions.  

2. Key Principles of CPS 

Empathy: The foundation of the CPS model is empathic understanding, which involves recognizing and validating the feelings and perspectives of all family members.  

Collaboration: CPS emphasizes the importance of working together rather than relying on unilateral decision-making or power-based approaches.  

Skill-building: The approach focuses on identifying and addressing lagging skills, such as emotion regulation, problem-solving, and communication, to promote lasting change.  

Implementing the Collaborative Problem Solving Process 

The first step in the CPS process is to identify the specific skills that a child may be struggling with. This can be done through a combination of observation, interviews, and assessments. Some common lagging skills include:  

Emotional regulation  

Flexibility  

Impulse control  

Problem-solving  

Communication  

Once lagging skills have been identified, the next step is to determine the specific situations or problems that are causing difficulties for the child and family. Unsolved problems are often characterized by predictability and can be uncovered through discussions with family members and the child.  

3. The Three Steps of Collaborative Problem Solving

The CPS process involves three primary steps, which can be adapted and tailored to the unique needs and circumstances of each family.  

• Step 1: Empathy

Begin by gathering information and understanding the child’s perspective on the problem. This step involves active listening, validating emotions, and demonstrating genuine curiosity.  

• Step 2: Define Adult Concerns

Clearly articulate the parent or caregiver’s concerns and needs regarding the situation. This step promotes mutual understanding and acknowledges the importance of addressing both the child’s and the adult’s concerns.  

• Step 3: Invitation to Collaborate 

Invite the child and parent to brainstorm possible solutions together. Encourage them to consider a range of ideas and evaluate each option based on its feasibility and effectiveness in addressing both the child’s and the adult’s concerns.  

Tips and Strategies for Counselors 

1. Build Rapport and Establish Trust 

Establishing a strong therapeutic alliance with both the child and the parent is essential for the success of CPS. Be patient, empathetic, and transparent in your approach in order to foster trust and cooperation.  

2. Use Reflective Listening and Validation 

Active listening and validation are crucial tools in the CPS process. Reflect back the emotions and concerns of family members to ensure they feel heard and understood.  

3. Encourage Open Communication 

Create a safe and non-judgmental environment that encourages open communication and allows family members to express their thoughts, feelings, and concerns without fear of criticism or rejection.  

4. Be Flexible and Adaptable 

Each family is unique, and the CPS process may need to be adapted to suit their specific needs and circumstances. Be prepared to modify your approach, pacing, and techniques as needed to best support the family.  

5. Provide Support and Guidance  

As a counselor, your role is to facilitate the CPS process and provide guidance and support to the family throughout. Offer suggestions, ask probing questions, and share relevant resources to help family members develop their problem-solving skills.  

6. Monitor Progress and Adjust 

Regularly assess the family’s progress and the effectiveness of the solutions they’ve implemented. Be prepared to revisit and adjust the problem-solving process as needed, based on the family’s evolving needs and circumstances.  

7. Encourage Skill-Building 

As part of the CPS process, help family members develop and practice the skills necessary to address their unsolved problems effectively. This may include offering resources, psychoeducation, or skill-building exercises to support growth in areas such as emotion regulation, communication, and flexibility.  

Collaborative Problem Solving offers a compassionate and effective approach to addressing challenging behaviors and family issues. By understanding the underlying causes of these difficulties and engaging in a collaborative, empathic problem-solving process, counselors can help families develop lasting solutions and strengthen their relationships. By following the principles and steps outlined in this resource guide and adapting your approach to meet the unique needs of each family, you can support families in achieving positive, sustainable change.  

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Collaborative Problem Solving: An Evidence-Based Approach to Implementation and Practice (Current Clinical Psychiatry) 1st ed. 2019 Edition

This book is the first to systematically describe the key components necessary to ensure successful implementation of Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS) across mental health settings and non-mental health settings that require behavioral management. This resource is designed by the leading experts in CPS and is focused on the clinical and implementation strategies that have proved most successful within various private and institutional agencies. The book begins by defining the approach before delving into the neurobiological components that are key to understanding this concept. Next, the book covers the best practices for implementation and evaluating outcomes, both in the long and short term. The book concludes with a summary of the concept and recommendations for additional resources, making it an excellent concise guide to this cutting edge approach.

Collaborative Problem Solving is an excellent resource for psychiatrists,psychologists, social workers, and all medical professionals working to manage troubling behaviors. The text is also valuable for readers interested in public health, education, improved law enforcement strategies, and all stakeholders seeking to implement this approach within their program, organization, and/or system of care.

• ISBN-10 3030126293
• ISBN-13 978-3030126292
• Edition 1st ed. 2019
• Publisher Springer
• Publication date June 18, 2019
• Part of series Current Clinical Psychiatry
• Language English
• Dimensions 5 x 0.47 x 8 inches
• Print length 223 pages
• See all details

Editorial Reviews

From the back cover, about the author.

Alisha Pollastri, Ph.D. Massachusetts General Hospital Psychiatry: Think:Kids 151 Merrimac Street Boston MA 02114

Michael Hone Massachusetts General Hospital Psychiatry: Think:Kids 151 Merrimac Street Boston MA 02114

Product details

• Publisher ‏ : ‎ Springer; 1st ed. 2019 edition (June 18, 2019)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• Paperback ‏ : ‎ 223 pages
• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 3030126293
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-3030126292
• Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 1 pounds
• Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 5 x 0.47 x 8 inches
• #1,676 in Psychiatry (Books)
• #2,631 in Medical Clinical Psychology
• #3,356 in Social Work (Books)

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• Each person respectfully and briefly presents his/her understanding of the issue or of the decision that needs to be made.
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• This discussion continues until each person is clear about each other's understanding of the issue and each person feels heard.
• The issue is defined specifically and as non-personally as possible.
• (Optional) Criteria are defined that possible solutions must have in order to be successful.
• Each person presents possible solutions.
• While this is occurring, the other people are ONLY listening, reflecting and asking clarifying questions.
• Once it is agreed upon that all possible solutions have been generated, respectful discussion occurs around the costs/benefits of each solution or how effectively each solution meets earlier defined criteria.
• The solution with the most potential of working best, or meeting most criteria, is selected to be implemented.
• If necessary, an action plan is developed (Who, What, When, Where, How, etc.)
• A date/time is scheduled for checking in.

• Research and Studies of Collaborative Problem Solving »

Research and Studies of Collaborative Problem Solving

This is the full list of published studies on Collaborative Problem Solving.

• Ashworth, K., Tapsak, S., & Li, S. T. (2012). Collaborative Problem Solving: Is empathy the active ingredient?   Graduate Student Journal of Psychology ,  14 , 83-92.
• Basso, R. V. J. & Graham, J. W. (2016). A longitudinal intervention study to reduce aggression by children ages 4-11 .  Journal of Behavior Therapy and Mental Health, 1(2) :12-23.
• Becker, K. D., Chorpita, B. F., & Daleiden, E. L. (2011). Improvement in symptoms versus functioning: How do our best treatments measure up?   Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research ,  38 (6), 440-458.
• Black, V., Bobier, C., Thomas, B., Prest, F., Ansley, C., Loomes, B., Eggleston, G., & Mountford, H. (2020). Reducing seclusion and restraint in a child and adolescent inpatient area: implementation of a collaborative problem-solving approach .  Australasian Psychiatry , 1-7.
• Bonnell, W., Alatishe, Y. A., & Hofner, A. (2014). The effects of a changing culture on a child and adolescent psychiatric inpatient unit .  Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry ,  23 (1), 65.
• Epstein, T., & Saltzman-Benaiah, J. (2010). Parenting children with disruptive behaviors: Evaluation of a Collaborative Problem Solving pilot program .  Journal of Clinical Psychology Practice ,  1 (1), 27-40.
• Ercole‐Fricke, E., Fritz, P., Hill, L. E., & Snelders, J. (2016). Effects of a Collaborative Problem‐Solving approach on an inpatient adolescent psychiatric unit .  Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing ,  29 (3), 127-134.
• Gathright, M. M., Holmes, K. J., Morris, E. M., & Gatlin, D. A. (2016). An innovative, interdisciplinary model of care for inpatient child psychiatry: An overview .  The journal of behavioral health services & research ,  43 (4), 648-660.
• Greene, R. W., Ablon, J. S., & Goring, J. C. (2003). A transactional model of oppositional behavior: Underpinnings of the Collaborative Problem Solving approach .  Journal of Psychosomatic Research ,  55 (1), 67-75.
• Greene, R. W., Ablon, J. S., Goring, J. C., Raezer-Blakely, L., Markey, J., Monuteaux, M. C., ... & Rabbitt, S. (2004). Effectiveness of Collaborative Problem Solving in affectively dysregulated children with oppositional-defiant disorder: Initial findings .  Journal of consulting and clinical psychology ,  72 (6), 1157.
• Greene, R. W., Ablon, J. S., & Martin, A. (2006). Use of Collaborative Problem Solving to reduce seclusion and restraint in child and adolescent inpatient unit s.  Psychiatric Services ,  57 (5), 610-612.
• Hart, S. C., & DiPerna, J. C. (2017). Teacher beliefs and responses toward student misbehavior: Influence of cognitive skill deficit s.  Journal of applied school psychology ,  33 (1), 1-15.
• Heath, G. H., Fife‐Schaw, C., Wang, L., Eddy, C. J., Hone, M. J., & Pollastri, A. R. (2020). Collaborative Problem Solving reduces children's emotional and behavioral difficulties and parenting stress: Two key mechanisms . Journal of Clinical Psychology.
• Holmes, K. J., Stokes, L. D., & Gathright, M. M. (2014). The use of Collaborative Problem Solving to address challenging behavior among hospitalized children with complex trauma: A case series .  Residential Treatment for Children & Youth ,  31 (1), 41-62.
• Johnson, M., Östlund, S., Fransson, G., Landgren, M., Nasic, S., Kadesjö, B., ... & Fernell, E. (2012). Attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder with oppositional defiant disorder in Swedish children–an open study of Collaborative Problem Solving .  Acta Paediatrica ,  101 (6), 624-630.
• Kulkarni, G., Deshmukh, P., & Barzman, D. (2010). Collaborative Problem Solving (CPS) as a primary method of addressing acute pediatric pathological aggression along with other modalities .  Psychiatric quarterly ,  81 (2), 167-175.
• Martin, A., Krieg, H., Esposito, F., Stubbe, D., & Cardona, L. (2008). Reduction of restraint and seclusion through Collaborative Problem Solving: A five-year prospective inpatient study .  Psychiatric Services ,  59 (12), 1406-1412.
• Mohr, W. K., Martin, A., Olson, J. N., Pumariega, A. J., & Branca, N. (2009). Beyond point and level systems: Moving toward child‐centered programming .  American Journal of Orthopsychiatry ,  79 (1), 8-18.
• Open Arms Program of the Cambridge Hospital Child Assessment Unit, Cambridge, Massachusetts. (2003). 2003 APA Gold Award: A more compassionate model for treating children with severe mental disturbances .  Psychiatric Services ,  54 (11), 1529-1531.
• Pollastri, A. R., Epstein, L. D., Heath, G. H., & Ablon, J. S. (2013). The Collaborative Problem Solving approach: Outcomes across settings .  Harvard Review of Psychiatry ,  21 (4), 188-199.
• Pollastri, A. R., Lieberman, R. E., Boldt, S. L., & Ablon, J. S. (2016). Minimizing seclusion and restraint in youth residential and day treatment through site-wide implementation of Collaborative Problem Solving .  Residential Treatment for Children & Youth ,  33 (3-4), 186-205.
• Pollastri, A. R., Rosenbaum, C., & Ablon, J. S. (2019). Disruptive Behavior Disorders . In  The Massachusetts General Hospital Guide to Learning Disabilities  (pp. 207-220). Humana Press, Cham.
• Pollastri, A.R., Wang, L., Eddy C.J., Ablon, J. S. An open trial of Collaborative Problem Solving in a naturalistic outpatient setting . Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry 2022; 28(2): 512-524.
• Pollastri, A. R., Wang, L., Raftery-Helmer, J. N., Hurley, S., Eddy, C. J., Sisson, J., Thompson, N., & Ablon, J. S. (2022). Development and evaluation of an audio coding system for assessing providers’ integrity to Collaborative Problem Solving in youth-service settings .  Professional Psychology: Research and Practice , online first.
• Pollastri, A. R., Wang, L., Youn, S. J., Ablon, J. S., & Marques, L. (2020). The value of implementation frameworks: Using the active implementation frameworks to guide system‐wide implementation of Collaborative Problem Solving . Journal of Community Psychology .
• Regan, K. M., Curtin, C., & Vorderer, L. (2006). Paradigm shifts in inpatient psychiatric care of children: approaching child‐and family‐centered care .  Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing ,  19 (1), 29-40.
• Schaubman, A., Stetson, E., & Plog, A. (2011). Reducing teacher stress by implementing Collaborative Problem Solving in a school setting .  School Social Work Journal ,  35 (2), 72-93.
• Stetson, E. A., & Plog, A. E. (2016).  Collaborative Problem Solving in schools: Results of a year-long consultation project .  School Social Work Journal ,  40 (2), 17-36.
• Stewart, S. L., Rick, J., Currie, M., & Rielly, N. (2009).  Collaborative Problem Solving approach in clinically referred children: A residential program evaluation .  Unpublished manuscript, Department of Applied Research and Education Child and Parent Resource Institute, London, Ontario, Canada .
• Stoll, S. J., Hartman, J. D., Paxton, D., Wang, L., Ablon, J. S., Perry, B. D., & Pollastri, A. R. (2023). De-Implementing a Point and Level System in Youth Residential Care without Increased Safety Risk: A Case Study . Residential Treatment for Children & Youth. Online first.
• Valenkamp, M., Delaney, K., & Verheij, F. (2014). Reducing seclusion and restraint during child and adolescent inpatient treatment: Still an underdeveloped area of research .  Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing ,  27 (4), 169-174.
• Wang, L., & Pollastri, A. R. (2019).   User’s Guide to the Collaborative Problem Solving Adherence & Impact Measures (CPS-AIMs) . Think:Kids, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School.
• Wang, L., Pollastri, A. R., Vuijk, P. J., Hill, E. N., Lee, B. A., Samkavitz, A., … & Doyle, A. E. (2019). Reliability and Validity of the Thinking Skills Inventory, a Screening Tool for Cross-Diagnostic Skill Deficits Underlying Youth Behavioral Challenges .  Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment ,  41 (1), 144-159.
• Wang, L., Stoll, S. J., Eddy, C. J., Hurley, S., Sisson, J., Thompson, N., Raftery-Helmer, J. N., Ablon, J. S., Pollastri, A. R. (2023). Pragmatic fidelity measurement in youth service settings .  Implementation Research and Practice ,  4,  1-13.
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Collaborative Problem Solving Tasks

• First Online: 01 January 2014

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• Esther Care 5 ,
• Patrick Griffin 5 ,
• Claire Scoular 5 ,
• Nafisa Awwal 5 &
• Nathan Zoanetti 6  

Part of the book series: Educational Assessment in an Information Age ((EAIA))

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This chapter outlines two distinct types of collaborative problem solving tasks – content-free and content-dependent – each allowing students to apply different strategies to solve problems collaboratively. Content-free tasks were developed to emphasise the enhancement of inductive and deductive thinking skills. Content-dependent tasks allow students to draw on knowledge gained through traditional learning areas or subjects within the curriculum. The collaborative problem solving framework emphasises communication for the purpose of information gathering, identification of available and required information, identification and analysis of patterns in the data, formulation of contingencies or rules, generalisation of rules, and test hypotheses. Characteristics of tasks which were identified as appropriate for eliciting collaborative problem solving processes are reported and illustrated by exemplar items.

The views expressed N. Zoanetti, in this chapter are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority.

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Assessment Research Centre, Melbourne Graduate School of Education, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia

Esther Care, Patrick Griffin, Claire Scoular & Nafisa Awwal

Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority, East Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Nathan Zoanetti

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Correspondence to Esther Care .

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Appendix: Collaborative Problem Solving Tasks

In this appendix, screenshots of collaborative problem solving tasks, not described in detail in this chapter, are presented. The tasks are Hexagons, Hot Chocolate, Plant Growth, Small Pyramids, Shared Garden, Sunflower, Warehouse, Light box.

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Care, E., Griffin, P., Scoular, C., Awwal, N., Zoanetti, N. (2015). Collaborative Problem Solving Tasks. In: Griffin, P., Care, E. (eds) Assessment and Teaching of 21st Century Skills. Educational Assessment in an Information Age. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9395-7_4

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9395-7_4

Published : 06 September 2014

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Online ISBN : 978-94-017-9395-7

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