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Methodology

• What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on June 19, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

• How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
• How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
• What factors influence employee retention in a large organization?
• How is anxiety experienced around the world?
• How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Table of contents

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography , action research , phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasize different aims and perspectives.

Note that qualitative research is at risk for certain research biases including the Hawthorne effect , observer bias , recall bias , and social desirability bias . While not always totally avoidable, awareness of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data can prevent them from impacting your work too much.

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Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews:  personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
• Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
• You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
• You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analyzing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

• Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
• Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
• Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorize your data.
• Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
• Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasize different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

• Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

• Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

• Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

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Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

• Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

• Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

• Limited generalizability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

• Labor-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

• Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
• Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organization to understand its culture.
• Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
• Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
• Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organize your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

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a method of research that produces descriptive (non-numerical) data, such as observations of behavior or personal accounts of experiences. The goal of gathering this qualitative data is to examine how individuals can perceive the world from different vantage points. A variety of techniques are subsumed under qualitative research, including content analyses of narratives, in-depth interviews, focus groups, participant observation, and case studies, often conducted in naturalistic settings.

SAGE Research Methods Videos

What questions does qualitative research ask.

A variety of academics discuss the meaning of qualitative research and content analysis. Both hypothetical and actual research projects are used to illustrate concepts.

What makes a good qualitative researcher?

Professor John Creswell analyzes the characteristics of qualitative research and the qualitative researcher. He explains that good qualitative researchers tend to look at the big picture, notice details, and write a lot. He discusses how these characteristics tie into qualitative research.

This is just one segment in a series about qualitative research. You can find the rest of the series in our SAGE database, Research Methods: 

Videos covering research methods and statistics

• << Previous: Quantitative Research Methods
• Next: Mixed Methods Study >>
• Last Updated: May 7, 2024 9:51 AM

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• Knowledge Base
• Methodology
• What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on 4 April 2022 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on 30 January 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analysing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analysing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, and history.

• How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
• How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
• What factors influence employee retention in a large organisation?
• How is anxiety experienced around the world?
• How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Table of contents

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography, action research, phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasise different aims and perspectives.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews:  personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
• Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
• You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
• You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves ‘instruments’ in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analysing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

• Prepare and organise your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
• Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
• Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorise your data.
• Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
• Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analysing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasise different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

• Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

• Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

• Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analysing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

• Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

• Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analysing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

• Limited generalisability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalisable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

• Labour-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to test a hypothesis by systematically collecting and analysing data, while qualitative methods allow you to explore ideas and experiences in depth.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

• Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
• Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organisation to understand its culture.
• Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
• Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
• Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organisations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organise your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

Bhandari, P. (2023, January 30). What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 27 July 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/introduction-to-qualitative-research/

Is this article helpful?

Pritha Bhandari

How To Write The Results/Findings Chapter

For qualitative studies (dissertations & theses).

By: Jenna Crossley (PhD). Expert Reviewed By: Dr. Eunice Rautenbach | August 2021

So, you’ve collected and analysed your qualitative data, and it’s time to write up your results chapter. But where do you start? In this post, we’ll guide you through the qualitative results chapter (also called the findings chapter), step by step. 

Overview: Qualitative Results Chapter

• What (exactly) the qualitative results chapter is
• What to include in your results chapter
• How to write up your results chapter
• A few tips and tricks to help you along the way
• Free results chapter template

What exactly is the results chapter?

The results chapter in a dissertation or thesis (or any formal academic research piece) is where you objectively and neutrally present the findings of your qualitative analysis (or analyses if you used multiple qualitative analysis methods ). This chapter can sometimes be combined with the discussion chapter (where you interpret the data and discuss its meaning), depending on your university’s preference.  We’ll treat the two chapters as separate, as that’s the most common approach.

In contrast to a quantitative results chapter that presents numbers and statistics, a qualitative results chapter presents data primarily in the form of words . But this doesn’t mean that a qualitative study can’t have quantitative elements – you could, for example, present the number of times a theme or topic pops up in your data, depending on the analysis method(s) you adopt.

Adding a quantitative element to your study can add some rigour, which strengthens your results by providing more evidence for your claims. This is particularly common when using qualitative content analysis. Keep in mind though that qualitative research aims to achieve depth, richness and identify nuances , so don’t get tunnel vision by focusing on the numbers. They’re just cream on top in a qualitative analysis.

So, to recap, the results chapter is where you objectively present the findings of your analysis, without interpreting them (you’ll save that for the discussion chapter). With that out the way, let’s take a look at what you should include in your results chapter.

What should you include in the results chapter?

As we’ve mentioned, your qualitative results chapter should purely present and describe your results , not interpret them in relation to the existing literature or your research questions . Any speculations or discussion about the implications of your findings should be reserved for your discussion chapter.

In your results chapter, you’ll want to talk about your analysis findings and whether or not they support your hypotheses (if you have any). Naturally, the exact contents of your results chapter will depend on which qualitative analysis method (or methods) you use. For example, if you were to use thematic analysis, you’d detail the themes identified in your analysis, using extracts from the transcripts or text to support your claims.

While you do need to present your analysis findings in some detail, you should avoid dumping large amounts of raw data in this chapter. Instead, focus on presenting the key findings and using a handful of select quotes or text extracts to support each finding . The reams of data and analysis can be relegated to your appendices.

While it’s tempting to include every last detail you found in your qualitative analysis, it is important to make sure that you report only that which is relevant to your research aims, objectives and research questions .  Always keep these three components, as well as your hypotheses (if you have any) front of mind when writing the chapter and use them as a filter to decide what’s relevant and what’s not.

Need a helping hand?

How do I write the results chapter?

Now that we’ve covered the basics, it’s time to look at how to structure your chapter. Broadly speaking, the results chapter needs to contain three core components – the introduction, the body and the concluding summary. Let’s take a look at each of these.

Section 1: Introduction

The first step is to craft a brief introduction to the chapter. This intro is vital as it provides some context for your findings. In your introduction, you should begin by reiterating your problem statement and research questions and highlight the purpose of your research . Make sure that you spell this out for the reader so that the rest of your chapter is well contextualised.

The next step is to briefly outline the structure of your results chapter. In other words, explain what’s included in the chapter and what the reader can expect. In the results chapter, you want to tell a story that is coherent, flows logically, and is easy to follow , so make sure that you plan your structure out well and convey that structure (at a high level), so that your reader is well oriented.

The introduction section shouldn’t be lengthy. Two or three short paragraphs should be more than adequate. It is merely an introduction and overview, not a summary of the chapter.

Pro Tip – To help you structure your chapter, it can be useful to set up an initial draft with (sub)section headings so that you’re able to easily (re)arrange parts of your chapter. This will also help your reader to follow your results and give your chapter some coherence.  Be sure to use level-based heading styles (e.g. Heading 1, 2, 3 styles) to help the reader differentiate between levels visually. You can find these options in Word (example below).

Section 2: Body

Before we get started on what to include in the body of your chapter, it’s vital to remember that a results section should be completely objective and descriptive, not interpretive . So, be careful not to use words such as, “suggests” or “implies”, as these usually accompany some form of interpretation – that’s reserved for your discussion chapter.

The structure of your body section is very important , so make sure that you plan it out well. When planning out your qualitative results chapter, create sections and subsections so that you can maintain the flow of the story you’re trying to tell. Be sure to systematically and consistently describe each portion of results. Try to adopt a standardised structure for each portion so that you achieve a high level of consistency throughout the chapter.

For qualitative studies, results chapters tend to be structured according to themes , which makes it easier for readers to follow. However, keep in mind that not all results chapters have to be structured in this manner. For example, if you’re conducting a longitudinal study, you may want to structure your chapter chronologically. Similarly, you might structure this chapter based on your theoretical framework . The exact structure of your chapter will depend on the nature of your study , especially your research questions.

As you work through the body of your chapter, make sure that you use quotes to substantiate every one of your claims . You can present these quotes in italics to differentiate them from your own words. A general rule of thumb is to use at least two pieces of evidence per claim, and these should be linked directly to your data. Also, remember that you need to include all relevant results , not just the ones that support your assumptions or initial leanings.

In addition to including quotes, you can also link your claims to the data by using appendices , which you should reference throughout your text. When you reference, make sure that you include both the name/number of the appendix , as well as the line(s) from which you drew your data.

As referencing styles can vary greatly, be sure to look up the appendix referencing conventions of your university’s prescribed style (e.g. APA , Harvard, etc) and keep this consistent throughout your chapter.

Section 3: Concluding summary

The concluding summary is very important because it summarises your key findings and lays the foundation for the discussion chapter . Keep in mind that some readers may skip directly to this section (from the introduction section), so make sure that it can be read and understood well in isolation.

In this section, you need to remind the reader of the key findings. That is, the results that directly relate to your research questions and that you will build upon in your discussion chapter. Remember, your reader has digested a lot of information in this chapter, so you need to use this section to remind them of the most important takeaways.

Importantly, the concluding summary should not present any new information and should only describe what you’ve already presented in your chapter. Keep it concise – you’re not summarising the whole chapter, just the essentials.

Tips for writing an A-grade results chapter

Now that you’ve got a clear picture of what the qualitative results chapter is all about, here are some quick tips and reminders to help you craft a high-quality chapter:

• Your results chapter should be written in the past tense . You’ve done the work already, so you want to tell the reader what you found , not what you are currently finding .
• Make sure that you review your work multiple times and check that every claim is adequately backed up by evidence . Aim for at least two examples per claim, and make use of an appendix to reference these.
• When writing up your results, make sure that you stick to only what is relevant . Don’t waste time on data that are not relevant to your research objectives and research questions.
• Use headings and subheadings to create an intuitive, easy to follow piece of writing. Make use of Microsoft Word’s “heading styles” and be sure to use them consistently.
• When referring to numerical data, tables and figures can provide a useful visual aid. When using these, make sure that they can be read and understood independent of your body text (i.e. that they can stand-alone). To this end, use clear, concise labels for each of your tables or figures and make use of colours to code indicate differences or hierarchy.
• Similarly, when you’re writing up your chapter, it can be useful to highlight topics and themes in different colours . This can help you to differentiate between your data if you get a bit overwhelmed and will also help you to ensure that your results flow logically and coherently.

If you have any questions, leave a comment below and we’ll do our best to help. If you’d like 1-on-1 help with your results chapter (or any chapter of your dissertation or thesis), check out our private dissertation coaching service here or book a free initial consultation to discuss how we can help you.

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This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

21 Comments

This was extremely helpful. Thanks a lot guys

Hi, thanks for the great research support platform created by the gradcoach team!

I wanted to ask- While “suggests” or “implies” are interpretive terms, what terms could we use for the results chapter? Could you share some examples of descriptive terms?

I think that instead of saying, ‘The data suggested, or The data implied,’ you can say, ‘The Data showed or revealed, or illustrated or outlined’…If interview data, you may say Jane Doe illuminated or elaborated, or Jane Doe described… or Jane Doe expressed or stated.

I found this article very useful. Thank you very much for the outstanding work you are doing.

What if i have 3 different interviewees answering the same interview questions? Should i then present the results in form of the table with the division on the 3 perspectives or rather give a results in form of the text and highlight who said what?

I think this tabular representation of results is a great idea. I am doing it too along with the text. Thanks

That was helpful was struggling to separate the discussion from the findings

this was very useful, Thank you.

Very helpful, I am confident to write my results chapter now.

It is so helpful! It is a good job. Thank you very much!

Very useful, well explained. Many thanks.

Hello, I appreciate the way you provided a supportive comments about qualitative results presenting tips

I loved this! It explains everything needed, and it has helped me better organize my thoughts. What words should I not use while writing my results section, other than subjective ones.

Thanks a lot, it is really helpful

Thank you so much dear, i really appropriate your nice explanations about this.

Thank you so much for this! I was wondering if anyone could help with how to prproperly integrate quotations (Excerpts) from interviews in the finding chapter in a qualitative research. Please GradCoach, address this issue and provide examples.

what if I’m not doing any interviews myself and all the information is coming from case studies that have already done the research.

Very helpful thank you.

This was very helpful as I was wondering how to structure this part of my dissertation, to include the quotes… Thanks for this explanation

This is very helpful, thanks! I am required to write up my results chapters with the discussion in each of them – any tips and tricks for this strategy?

For qualitative studies, can the findings be structured according to the Research questions? Thank you.

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Guide for Thesis Research

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Basics of Methodology

Research is a process of inquiry that is carried out in a pondered, organized, and strategic manner. In order to obtain high quality results, it is important to understand methodology.

Research methodology refers to how your project will be designed, what you will observe or measure, and how you will collect and analyze data. The methods you choose must be appropriate for your field and for the specific research questions you are setting out to answer.

A strong understanding of methodology will help you:

• apply appropriate research techniques
• design effective data collection instruments
• analyze and interpret your data
• develop well-founded conclusions

Below, you will find resources that mostly cover general aspects of research methodology. In the left column, you will find resources that specifically cover qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods research.

General Works on Methodology

Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research

Mixed Methods Research

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Home » Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Qualitative Research – Methods, Analysis Types and Guide

Table of Contents

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a type of research methodology that focuses on exploring and understanding people’s beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and experiences through the collection and analysis of non-numerical data. It seeks to answer research questions through the examination of subjective data, such as interviews, focus groups, observations, and textual analysis.

Qualitative research aims to uncover the meaning and significance of social phenomena, and it typically involves a more flexible and iterative approach to data collection and analysis compared to quantitative research. Qualitative research is often used in fields such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, and education.

Qualitative Research Methods

Qualitative Research Methods are as follows:

One-to-One Interview

This method involves conducting an interview with a single participant to gain a detailed understanding of their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. One-to-one interviews can be conducted in-person, over the phone, or through video conferencing. The interviewer typically uses open-ended questions to encourage the participant to share their thoughts and feelings. One-to-one interviews are useful for gaining detailed insights into individual experiences.

Focus Groups

This method involves bringing together a group of people to discuss a specific topic in a structured setting. The focus group is led by a moderator who guides the discussion and encourages participants to share their thoughts and opinions. Focus groups are useful for generating ideas and insights, exploring social norms and attitudes, and understanding group dynamics.

Ethnographic Studies

This method involves immersing oneself in a culture or community to gain a deep understanding of its norms, beliefs, and practices. Ethnographic studies typically involve long-term fieldwork and observation, as well as interviews and document analysis. Ethnographic studies are useful for understanding the cultural context of social phenomena and for gaining a holistic understanding of complex social processes.

Text Analysis

This method involves analyzing written or spoken language to identify patterns and themes. Text analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative text analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Text analysis is useful for understanding media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.

This method involves an in-depth examination of a single person, group, or event to gain an understanding of complex phenomena. Case studies typically involve a combination of data collection methods, such as interviews, observations, and document analysis, to provide a comprehensive understanding of the case. Case studies are useful for exploring unique or rare cases, and for generating hypotheses for further research.

Process of Observation

This method involves systematically observing and recording behaviors and interactions in natural settings. The observer may take notes, use audio or video recordings, or use other methods to document what they see. Process of observation is useful for understanding social interactions, cultural practices, and the context in which behaviors occur.

Record Keeping

This method involves keeping detailed records of observations, interviews, and other data collected during the research process. Record keeping is essential for ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the data, and for providing a basis for analysis and interpretation.

This method involves collecting data from a large sample of participants through a structured questionnaire. Surveys can be conducted in person, over the phone, through mail, or online. Surveys are useful for collecting data on attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, and for identifying patterns and trends in a population.

Qualitative data analysis is a process of turning unstructured data into meaningful insights. It involves extracting and organizing information from sources like interviews, focus groups, and surveys. The goal is to understand people’s attitudes, behaviors, and motivations

Qualitative Research Analysis Methods

Qualitative Research analysis methods involve a systematic approach to interpreting and making sense of the data collected in qualitative research. Here are some common qualitative data analysis methods:

Thematic Analysis

This method involves identifying patterns or themes in the data that are relevant to the research question. The researcher reviews the data, identifies keywords or phrases, and groups them into categories or themes. Thematic analysis is useful for identifying patterns across multiple data sources and for generating new insights into the research topic.

Content Analysis

This method involves analyzing the content of written or spoken language to identify key themes or concepts. Content analysis can be quantitative or qualitative. Qualitative content analysis involves close reading and interpretation of texts to identify recurring themes, concepts, and patterns. Content analysis is useful for identifying patterns in media messages, public discourse, and cultural trends.

Discourse Analysis

This method involves analyzing language to understand how it constructs meaning and shapes social interactions. Discourse analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as conversation analysis, critical discourse analysis, and narrative analysis. Discourse analysis is useful for understanding how language shapes social interactions, cultural norms, and power relationships.

Grounded Theory Analysis

This method involves developing a theory or explanation based on the data collected. Grounded theory analysis starts with the data and uses an iterative process of coding and analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data. The theory or explanation that emerges is grounded in the data, rather than preconceived hypotheses. Grounded theory analysis is useful for understanding complex social phenomena and for generating new theoretical insights.

Narrative Analysis

This method involves analyzing the stories or narratives that participants share to gain insights into their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. Narrative analysis can involve a variety of methods, such as structural analysis, thematic analysis, and discourse analysis. Narrative analysis is useful for understanding how individuals construct their identities, make sense of their experiences, and communicate their values and beliefs.

Phenomenological Analysis

This method involves analyzing how individuals make sense of their experiences and the meanings they attach to them. Phenomenological analysis typically involves in-depth interviews with participants to explore their experiences in detail. Phenomenological analysis is useful for understanding subjective experiences and for developing a rich understanding of human consciousness.

Comparative Analysis

This method involves comparing and contrasting data across different cases or groups to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can be used to identify patterns or themes that are common across multiple cases, as well as to identify unique or distinctive features of individual cases. Comparative analysis is useful for understanding how social phenomena vary across different contexts and groups.

Applications of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research has many applications across different fields and industries. Here are some examples of how qualitative research is used:

• Market Research: Qualitative research is often used in market research to understand consumer attitudes, behaviors, and preferences. Researchers conduct focus groups and one-on-one interviews with consumers to gather insights into their experiences and perceptions of products and services.
• Health Care: Qualitative research is used in health care to explore patient experiences and perspectives on health and illness. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with patients and their families to gather information on their experiences with different health care providers and treatments.
• Education: Qualitative research is used in education to understand student experiences and to develop effective teaching strategies. Researchers conduct classroom observations and interviews with students and teachers to gather insights into classroom dynamics and instructional practices.
• Social Work : Qualitative research is used in social work to explore social problems and to develop interventions to address them. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with individuals and families to understand their experiences with poverty, discrimination, and other social problems.
• Anthropology : Qualitative research is used in anthropology to understand different cultures and societies. Researchers conduct ethnographic studies and observe and interview members of different cultural groups to gain insights into their beliefs, practices, and social structures.
• Psychology : Qualitative research is used in psychology to understand human behavior and mental processes. Researchers conduct in-depth interviews with individuals to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
• Public Policy : Qualitative research is used in public policy to explore public attitudes and to inform policy decisions. Researchers conduct focus groups and one-on-one interviews with members of the public to gather insights into their perspectives on different policy issues.

How to Conduct Qualitative Research

Here are some general steps for conducting qualitative research:

• Identify your research question: Qualitative research starts with a research question or set of questions that you want to explore. This question should be focused and specific, but also broad enough to allow for exploration and discovery.
• Select your research design: There are different types of qualitative research designs, including ethnography, case study, grounded theory, and phenomenology. You should select a design that aligns with your research question and that will allow you to gather the data you need to answer your research question.
• Recruit participants: Once you have your research question and design, you need to recruit participants. The number of participants you need will depend on your research design and the scope of your research. You can recruit participants through advertisements, social media, or through personal networks.
• Collect data: There are different methods for collecting qualitative data, including interviews, focus groups, observation, and document analysis. You should select the method or methods that align with your research design and that will allow you to gather the data you need to answer your research question.
• Analyze data: Once you have collected your data, you need to analyze it. This involves reviewing your data, identifying patterns and themes, and developing codes to organize your data. You can use different software programs to help you analyze your data, or you can do it manually.
• Interpret data: Once you have analyzed your data, you need to interpret it. This involves making sense of the patterns and themes you have identified, and developing insights and conclusions that answer your research question. You should be guided by your research question and use your data to support your conclusions.
• Communicate results: Once you have interpreted your data, you need to communicate your results. This can be done through academic papers, presentations, or reports. You should be clear and concise in your communication, and use examples and quotes from your data to support your findings.

Examples of Qualitative Research

Here are some real-time examples of qualitative research:

• Customer Feedback: A company may conduct qualitative research to understand the feedback and experiences of its customers. This may involve conducting focus groups or one-on-one interviews with customers to gather insights into their attitudes, behaviors, and preferences.
• Healthcare : A healthcare provider may conduct qualitative research to explore patient experiences and perspectives on health and illness. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with patients and their families to gather information on their experiences with different health care providers and treatments.
• Education : An educational institution may conduct qualitative research to understand student experiences and to develop effective teaching strategies. This may involve conducting classroom observations and interviews with students and teachers to gather insights into classroom dynamics and instructional practices.
• Social Work: A social worker may conduct qualitative research to explore social problems and to develop interventions to address them. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with individuals and families to understand their experiences with poverty, discrimination, and other social problems.
• Anthropology : An anthropologist may conduct qualitative research to understand different cultures and societies. This may involve conducting ethnographic studies and observing and interviewing members of different cultural groups to gain insights into their beliefs, practices, and social structures.
• Psychology : A psychologist may conduct qualitative research to understand human behavior and mental processes. This may involve conducting in-depth interviews with individuals to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
• Public Policy: A government agency or non-profit organization may conduct qualitative research to explore public attitudes and to inform policy decisions. This may involve conducting focus groups and one-on-one interviews with members of the public to gather insights into their perspectives on different policy issues.

Purpose of Qualitative Research

The purpose of qualitative research is to explore and understand the subjective experiences, behaviors, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Unlike quantitative research, which focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis, qualitative research aims to provide in-depth, descriptive information that can help researchers develop insights and theories about complex social phenomena.

Qualitative research can serve multiple purposes, including:

• Exploring new or emerging phenomena : Qualitative research can be useful for exploring new or emerging phenomena, such as new technologies or social trends. This type of research can help researchers develop a deeper understanding of these phenomena and identify potential areas for further study.
• Understanding complex social phenomena : Qualitative research can be useful for exploring complex social phenomena, such as cultural beliefs, social norms, or political processes. This type of research can help researchers develop a more nuanced understanding of these phenomena and identify factors that may influence them.
• Generating new theories or hypotheses: Qualitative research can be useful for generating new theories or hypotheses about social phenomena. By gathering rich, detailed data about individuals’ experiences and perspectives, researchers can develop insights that may challenge existing theories or lead to new lines of inquiry.
• Providing context for quantitative data: Qualitative research can be useful for providing context for quantitative data. By gathering qualitative data alongside quantitative data, researchers can develop a more complete understanding of complex social phenomena and identify potential explanations for quantitative findings.

When to use Qualitative Research

Here are some situations where qualitative research may be appropriate:

• Exploring a new area: If little is known about a particular topic, qualitative research can help to identify key issues, generate hypotheses, and develop new theories.
• Understanding complex phenomena: Qualitative research can be used to investigate complex social, cultural, or organizational phenomena that are difficult to measure quantitatively.
• Investigating subjective experiences: Qualitative research is particularly useful for investigating the subjective experiences of individuals or groups, such as their attitudes, beliefs, values, or emotions.
• Conducting formative research: Qualitative research can be used in the early stages of a research project to develop research questions, identify potential research participants, and refine research methods.
• Evaluating interventions or programs: Qualitative research can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions or programs by collecting data on participants’ experiences, attitudes, and behaviors.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is characterized by several key features, including:

• Focus on subjective experience: Qualitative research is concerned with understanding the subjective experiences, beliefs, and perspectives of individuals or groups in a particular context. Researchers aim to explore the meanings that people attach to their experiences and to understand the social and cultural factors that shape these meanings.
• Use of open-ended questions: Qualitative research relies on open-ended questions that allow participants to provide detailed, in-depth responses. Researchers seek to elicit rich, descriptive data that can provide insights into participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Sampling-based on purpose and diversity: Qualitative research often involves purposive sampling, in which participants are selected based on specific criteria related to the research question. Researchers may also seek to include participants with diverse experiences and perspectives to capture a range of viewpoints.
• Data collection through multiple methods: Qualitative research typically involves the use of multiple data collection methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation. This allows researchers to gather rich, detailed data from multiple sources, which can provide a more complete picture of participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Inductive data analysis: Qualitative research relies on inductive data analysis, in which researchers develop theories and insights based on the data rather than testing pre-existing hypotheses. Researchers use coding and thematic analysis to identify patterns and themes in the data and to develop theories and explanations based on these patterns.
• Emphasis on researcher reflexivity: Qualitative research recognizes the importance of the researcher’s role in shaping the research process and outcomes. Researchers are encouraged to reflect on their own biases and assumptions and to be transparent about their role in the research process.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research offers several advantages over other research methods, including:

• Depth and detail: Qualitative research allows researchers to gather rich, detailed data that provides a deeper understanding of complex social phenomena. Through in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observation, researchers can gather detailed information about participants’ experiences and perspectives that may be missed by other research methods.
• Flexibility : Qualitative research is a flexible approach that allows researchers to adapt their methods to the research question and context. Researchers can adjust their research methods in real-time to gather more information or explore unexpected findings.
• Contextual understanding: Qualitative research is well-suited to exploring the social and cultural context in which individuals or groups are situated. Researchers can gather information about cultural norms, social structures, and historical events that may influence participants’ experiences and perspectives.
• Participant perspective : Qualitative research prioritizes the perspective of participants, allowing researchers to explore subjective experiences and understand the meanings that participants attach to their experiences.
• Theory development: Qualitative research can contribute to the development of new theories and insights about complex social phenomena. By gathering rich, detailed data and using inductive data analysis, researchers can develop new theories and explanations that may challenge existing understandings.
• Validity : Qualitative research can offer high validity by using multiple data collection methods, purposive and diverse sampling, and researcher reflexivity. This can help ensure that findings are credible and trustworthy.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research also has some limitations, including:

• Subjectivity : Qualitative research relies on the subjective interpretation of researchers, which can introduce bias into the research process. The researcher’s perspective, beliefs, and experiences can influence the way data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted.
• Limited generalizability: Qualitative research typically involves small, purposive samples that may not be representative of larger populations. This limits the generalizability of findings to other contexts or populations.
• Time-consuming: Qualitative research can be a time-consuming process, requiring significant resources for data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
• Resource-intensive: Qualitative research may require more resources than other research methods, including specialized training for researchers, specialized software for data analysis, and transcription services.
• Limited reliability: Qualitative research may be less reliable than quantitative research, as it relies on the subjective interpretation of researchers. This can make it difficult to replicate findings or compare results across different studies.
• Ethics and confidentiality: Qualitative research involves collecting sensitive information from participants, which raises ethical concerns about confidentiality and informed consent. Researchers must take care to protect the privacy and confidentiality of participants and obtain informed consent.

Also see Research Methods

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Tips for a qualitative dissertation

Veronika Williams

17 October 2017

Tips for students

This blog is part of a series for Evidence-Based Health Care MSc students undertaking their dissertations.

Undertaking an MSc dissertation in Evidence-Based Health Care (EBHC) may be your first hands-on experience of doing qualitative research. I chatted to Dr. Veronika Williams, an experienced qualitative researcher, and tutor on the EBHC programme, to find out her top tips for producing a high-quality qualitative EBHC thesis.

1) Make the switch from a quantitative to a qualitative mindset

It’s not just about replacing numbers with words. Doing qualitative research requires you to adopt a different way of seeing and interpreting the world around you. Veronika asks her students to reflect on positivist and interpretivist approaches: If you come from a scientific or medical background, positivism is often the unacknowledged status quo. Be open to considering there are alternative ways to generate and understand knowledge.

2) Reflect on your role

Quantitative research strives to produce “clean” data unbiased by the context in which it was generated.  With qualitative methods, this is neither possible nor desirable.  Students should reflect on how their background and personal views shape the way they collect and analyse their data. This will not only add to the transparency of your work but will also help you interpret your findings.

3)  Don’t forget the theory

Qualitative researchers use theories as a lens through which they understand the world around them. Veronika suggests that students consider the theoretical underpinning to their own research at the earliest stages. You can read an article about why theories are useful in qualitative research  here.

4) Think about depth rather than breadth

Qualitative research is all about developing a deep and insightful understanding of the phenomenon/ concept you are studying. Be realistic about what you can achieve given the time constraints of an MSc.  Veronika suggests that collecting and analysing a smaller dataset well is preferable to producing a superficial, rushed analysis of a larger dataset.

5) Blur the boundaries between data collection, analysis and writing up

Veronika strongly recommends keeping a research diary or using memos to jot down your ideas as your research progresses. Not only do these add to your audit trail, these entries will help contribute to your first draft and the process of moving towards theoretical thinking. Qualitative researchers move back and forward between their dataset and manuscript as their ideas develop. This enriches their understanding and allows emerging theories to be explored.

6) Move beyond the descriptive

When analysing interviews, for example, it can be tempting to think that having coded your transcripts you are nearly there. This is not the case!  You need to move beyond the descriptive codes to conceptual themes and theoretical thinking in order to produce a high-quality thesis.  Veronika warns against falling into the pitfall of thinking writing up is, “Two interviews said this whilst three interviewees said that”.

7) It’s not just about the average experience

When analysing your data, consider the outliers or negative cases, for example, those that found the intervention unacceptable.  Although in the minority, these respondents will often provide more meaningful insight into the phenomenon or concept you are trying to study.

8) Bounce ideas

Veronika recommends sharing your emerging ideas and findings with someone else, maybe with a different background or perspective. This isn’t about getting to the “right answer” rather it offers you the chance to refine your thinking.  Be sure, though, to fully acknowledge their contribution in your thesis.

9) Be selective

In can be a challenge to meet the dissertation word limit.  It won’t be possible to present all the themes generated by your dataset so focus! Use quotes from across your dataset that best encapsulate the themes you are presenting.  Display additional data in the appendix.  For example, Veronika suggests illustrating how you moved from your coding framework to your themes.

10) Don’t panic!

There will be a stage during analysis and write up when it seems undoable.  Unlike quantitative researchers who begin analysis with a clear plan, qualitative research is more of a journey. Everything will fall into place by the end.  Be sure, though, to allow yourself enough time to make sense of the rich data qualitative research generates.

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Qualitative research

In this section on Qualitative Research  you can find out about:

You might also want to consult our other sections on  Planning your research ,  Quantitative research  and  Writing up research , and check out the Additional resources .

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Understanding Qualitative Research: Definition, Methods, Design, and Analysis

Qualitative studies are essential to scientific and academic research.By providing a precise understanding of individual perceptions, motivations and experiences, qualitative research offer a rich and nuanced insight that quantitative research  often fail to capture. 

Students who conduct qualitative research as part of their dissertation or thesis develop essential skills such as critical analysis , creative thinking and the ability to interpret complex data . This enables them to make significant contributions to their field of research.

Contents What is qualitative research? Qualitative research methods How to design and plan a qualitative study? How do you go about collecting qualitative data? How do you analyze qualitative data? How to present the results of a qualitative study

What is qualitative research?

Definition, objectives and benefits of qualitative research.

Qualitative research is a research method focused on gathering precise data to understand facts, behaviors and phenomena . Unlike quantitative studies , it focuses on the quality (rather than the quantity) of data obtained through field observations, text or image analysis, individual interviews or focus groups. This approach provides an in-depth understanding of social, cultural and behavioral phenomena and needs. Qualitative surveys are mainly used in the social sciences and humanities.

“ Qualitative research is a methodology designed to explain the “why” behind research findings. With less of an emphasis on statistics and structured data, it provides an in-depth understanding of human behaviors, motivations, and emotions through text-based information.  ” Survey Monkey, Qualitative vs. quantitative research: What's the difference?

In this way, we can easily highlight the main advantages of qualitative research:

• a human-centered approach, 
• greater depth of response, thanks to the freedom of expression given to respondents 
• greater flexibility in conducting the survey with respondents
• enriching complementarity with quantitative research .

Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative research

Qualitative research methods

Individual interviews.

Individual interviews are a central method in qualitative research. They enable in-depth exploration of participants' perceptions, experiences and opinions. Conducted face-to-face or by telephone with one respondent at a time, these interviews are based on open-ended and often flexible questions, aimed at probing topics of interest. This purely conversational method relies on the interviewer's ability to ask the right questions to elicit rich, nuanced responses. 

There are several types of interview: 

• Structured interviews follow predefined questions in a fixed order, guaranteeing consistency but limiting flexibility. 
• Semi-structured interviews combine predefined questions with supplementary questions based on responses, enabling deeper exploration with some structure. 
• Unstructured interviews have no predefined questions, offering a free and flexible conversation, ideal for in-depth explorations, although the analysis is more complex.

Focus groups

Focus groups are used to gather data from several participants simultaneously. By bringing together a group of respondents, generally ranging in size from 5 to 10 people , we ensure that everyone has enough time to speak, and that everyone is listened to in the best possible way. Confronted with specific questions and issues, participants are free to exchange and share their opinions . Interaction and synergy often bring out ideas and perspectives that would not have emerged in individual interviews. What's more, gathering data from several people at the same time is often quicker and more efficient than conducting numerous individual interviews.

Participatory observation

Participant observation is a method in which the researcher immerses himself in the participants' environment to observe (full observer) and sometimes participate (integrated observer) in their daily activities. This technique offers a unique, in-depth perspective on social dynamics, rituals and habits in a real-life context. The data collected is often rich and detailed, but analysis can be complex and subjective.

Qualitative content analysis

Qualitative content analysis is a systematic method for examining textual or visual data , identifying themes and patterns, and drawing meanings from them. It involves several stages: data collection (transcriptions, notes, documents), coding (segmentation and categorization of data), interpretation (analysis of patterns and relationships between themes), and validation (cross-checking and triangulation). This method transforms complex data into usable results, offering an in-depth understanding of the phenomena studied.

How to design and plan a qualitative study

Choosing a subject and formulating research questions.

In qualitative research, the choice of subject is crucial. It defines the framework and direction of the research. It often stems from the identification of gaps in existing literature, observations in the field, or emerging questions in the field of interest. The formulation of research questions naturally follows, aiming to explore in depth the perceptions, experiences and meanings surrounding the chosen topic. These questions will guide data collection and analysis: in effect, the study plan. 

Participant selection with sampling

Participant selection is a critical step that influences the richness of qualitative data. Representative sampling allows for the inclusion of individuals who can bring a diverse and relevant perspective to the subject, but sampling can also be random.   To find out more about sampling methods, take a look at these articles:

• The different sampling methods and how to choose , Hubspot (French)
• Types of sampling design and which to choose , SurveyMonkey

Sample size is determined by the capacity of the data to reach saturation , i.e. when new samples no longer provide significant new information.

Ethical considerations with informed consent and confidentiality

Qualitative surveys require special attention to ethical considerations to ensure respect for the rights and welfare of participants. Informed consent must be obtained, based on transparent communication of the research objectives, the methods used, and the potential risks and benefits for participants. Data confidentiality is also essential: it must be secured and anonymized if necessary. 

How do you go about collecting qualitative data?

Careful preparation of interviews and observations

To conduct interviews in a serious and serene manner, it's essential to construct a structured or semi-structured interview guide , which allows you to direct the conversation while leaving enough freedom to explore participants' responses in depth. A good practice to apply is to formulate open, non-directive questions, allowing participants to express themselves freely.

Before conducting interviews or observations, it's also essential to establish a relationship of trust with participants. This can be achieved by clearly explaining the objectives of the study, ensuring confidentiality of responses, and providing details of how the data will be processed and disseminated in the future. 

Methodical conduct of interviews and observations

To conduct an interview effectively, the researcher must adopt an active listening posture , reformulating and asking follow-up questions and clarifications to fully grasp the meaning of the participants' words.

When it comes to conducting observations, effectiveness depends on the observer's ability to pay attention to detail and take precise notes . The use of logbooks, observation grids and recording protocols is invaluable for systematizing and organizing observed data.

Scrupulous attention to data recording and transcription

Interviews or observations can be recorded using audio, video or photo devices, to capture the participants' words and behavior in their entirety and thus guarantee the accuracy of the information gathered. 

Transcription is a tedious but essential step. It must be faithful and complete , including not only the participants' words, but also pauses, hesitations and significant non-verbal expressions. The quality of transcription has a direct influence on data analysis. 

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What are the steps involved in analyzing qualitative data?

Analyzing qualitative data helps t o make sense of the information gathered . It involves several methodological phases.

Coding qualitative data

This involves organizing the raw data into meaningful segments. The researcher assigns codes, which are labels or categories, to relevant pieces of text, based on their content and meaning. 

The coding process may involve several passes through the data to refine the codes and ensure their relevance and completeness. Once the initial coding is complete, similar codes are grouped together to form broader categories.

Identifying themes and patterns

This phase involves looking for patterns, trends and relationships within the coded data. Themes are central ideas or concepts that emerge from the data and are essential to answering the research questions . Researchers use techniques such as clustering, contrasting and comparing to identify and refine themes. They also seek to contextualize findings within the research framework.

Interpreting the results

It's now time to analyze the qualitative data and draw meaningful conclusions, asking the following questions: Are the results surprising or expected ? How do they differ from or resemble existing literature? Why should we pay attention to them? ...

💡 Tip 💡 Using qualitative analysis software, such as NVivo and Atlas.ti, greatly facilitates the data analysis process. These tools offer advanced features for coding, pattern finding and data visualization.

How to successfully present the results of your qualitative study?

This is the final stage and deliverable of your qualitative study! The challenge is to present the results attractively, clearly and concisely, so as to communicate your findings. 

Report writing

The qualitative research report must be structured and coherent, offering a fluid narrative of the findings. The report generally begins with an introduction that recalls the objectives of the qualitative investigation, the research questions and the methodology used. Next, the results section presents the main themes and patterns identified in the data analysis. The report should also discuss the implications of these findings, relating them to existing literature and suggesting avenues for future research.

Using quotes and examples to illustrate results

Direct quotes from participants are essential to illustrate and support qualitative findings. They add depth to the themes identified. Verbatims should be carefully chosen to accurately represent participants' views and experiences.

In addition to quotations, the use of concrete examples and detailed narratives can enrich the presentation of results. They add a concrete, contextual dimension to the report, making the results more accessible and understandable to readers.

Visual presentation of data

The visual presentation of data is essential for communicating qualitative results effectively. It helps to organize and synthesize information, making themes and relationships between data clearer.

• Tables can be used to summarize themes and sub-themes, show the frequency of patterns or compare the responses of different groups of participants. They provide a structured overview of the results.
• Concept maps and mind maps are useful for visualizing relationships between themes and categories. They help illustrate the processes, hierarchies and connections that emerge from the data.
• Diagrams , such as Venn diagrams or code networks, can show overlaps and interdependencies between themes. They are particularly useful for representing complex, multidimensional data.

By combining these visual elements with detailed descriptions and relevant quotations, the research report becomes a rich and comprehensive document, capable of conveying qualitative results in a convincing manner.

In short, qualitative studies are essential in research, as they offer in-depth, nuanced perspectives on human behavior, perceptions and motivations. They make it possible to explore aspects of the human condition that are often ignored by quantitative methods due to their complexity and subjectivity. 

As students, using qualitative methods in your research enables you to acquire advanced analytical skills, learn to interpret complex data and produce richer, more contextualized research. This approach enables you to make unique and profound contributions to your field of specialization.

Discover other practical guides to conducting qualitative research : 

Qualitative Research Methods: Types, Analysis + Examples , QuestionPro The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics , ATLAS.ti Quantitative and Qualitative Research , University of Texas Arlington Libraries

Information: This informative article was written in part with the help of ChatGPT. The content generated by AI has been reworked to check the veracity of the information, the relevance of the instructions and to add clarifications.

What are qualitative studies?

What's the difference between qualitative and quantitative research?

Why conduct a qualitative study?

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What is qualitative research? Approaches, methods, and examples

Updated 23 Jul 2024

Students in social sciences frequently seek to understand how people feel, think, and behave in specific situations or relationships that evolve over time. To achieve this, they employ various techniques and data collection methods in qualitative research allowing for a deeper exploration of human experiences. Participant observation, in-depth interviews, and other qualitative methods are commonly used to gather rich, detailed data to uncover key aspects of social behavior and relationships. What is qualitative research? This article will answer this question and guide you through the essentials of this methodology, including data collection techniques and analytical approaches.

Qualitative research definition and significance 

This inquiry method is helpful for learners interested in how to conduct research . It focuses on understanding human behavior, experiences, and social phenomena from the perspective of those involved. What does qualitative mean? It uses non-numerical data, such as interviews, observations, and textual analysis, to understand people’s feelings, thoughts, and actions.

Where and when is it used?

Qualitative analysis is crucial in education, healthcare, social sciences, marketing, and business. It helps gain detailed insights into behaviors, experiences, and cultural phenomena. This approach is fundamental during exploratory phases, for understanding complex issues, and when context-specific insights are required. By focusing on depth over breadth, this approach is often employed when researchers seek to explore complex issues, understand the context of a phenomenon, or investigate things that are not easily quantifiable. It uncovers rich, nuanced data essential for developing theories and evaluating programs.

Why is qualitative research important in academia?

• It sheds light on complex phenomena and human experiences that quantitative methods may overlook.
• This method offers contextual understanding by studying subjects in their natural environments, which is crucial for grasping real-world complexities.
• It adapts flexibly to evolving study findings and allows for adjusting approaches as new ideas emerge.
• It collects rich, detailed data through interviews, observations, and analysis, offering a comprehensive view of the exploration topic.
• Qualitative research studies focus on new or less explored areas, helping to identify key variables and generate hypotheses for further study.
• This approach focuses on understanding individuals' perspectives, motivations, and emotions, essential in fields like sociology, psychology, and education.
• It supports theory development by providing empirical data that can create new theories and frameworks (you may read about “What is a conceptual framework?” and learn about other frameworks on the EduBirdie website).
• It improves practices in fields such as education and healthcare by offering insights into practitioners' and clients' needs and experiences.

The difference between qualitative and quantitative studies

Now that you know the answer to “Why is qualitative data important?”, let’s consider how this method differs from quantitative. Both studies represent two main types of research methods. The qualitative approach focuses on understanding behaviors, experiences, and perspectives using interviews, observations, and analyzing texts. These studies are based on reflexivity and aim to explore complexities and contexts, often generating new ideas or theories. Researchers analyze data to find patterns and themes, clarifying the details. However, findings demonstrated in the results section of a research paper may not apply broadly because they often use small, specific groups rather than large, random samples.

Quantitative studies, on the other hand, emphasize numerical data and statistical analysis to measure variables and relationships. They use methods such as surveys, experiments, or analyzing existing data to collect structured information. The goal is quantifying phenomena, testing hypotheses, and determining correlations or causes. Statistical methods are used to analyze data, identifying patterns and significance. Quantitative studies produce results that can be applied to larger populations, providing generalizable findings. However, they may lack the detailed context that qualitative methods offer.

The approaches to qualitative research 

To better understand the answer to “What is qualitative research?”, it’s necessary to consider various approaches within this methodology, each with its unique focus, implications, and functions. 

1. Phenomenology.

This theory aims to understand and describe the lived experiences of individuals regarding a particular phenomenon. 

Peculiarities:

• Focuses on personal experiences and perceptions.
• Seeks to uncover the essence of a phenomenon.
• Uses in-depth interviews and first-person accounts.

Example: Studying the experiences of people living with chronic illness to understand how it affects their daily lives.

2. Ethnography.

The approach involves immersive, long-term observation and participation in particular cultural or social contexts. 

• Provides a deep understanding of cultural practices and social interactions.
• Involves participant observation and fieldwork.
• Researchers often live within the community they are studying.

Example: Observing and participating in the daily life of a rural village to understand its social structure and cultural practices.

3. Grounded theory.

This approach seeks to develop a research paper problem statement and theories based on participant data.

• Focuses on creating new theories rather than analyzing existing ones.
• Uses a systematic process of data collection and analysis.
• Involves constant comparison and coding of data.

Example: Developing a theory on how people cope with job loss by interviewing and analyzing the experiences of unemployed individuals.

4. Case study.

Case studies involve an in-depth examination of a single case or a small number of cases.

• Provides detailed, holistic insights.
• Can involve individuals, groups, organizations, or events.
• Uses multiple data sources such as interviews, observations, and documents.

Example: One of the qualitative research examples is analyzing a specific company’s approach to innovation to understand its success factors.

5. Narrative research.

This methodology focuses on the stories and personal interpretations of individuals.

• Emphasizes the chronological sequence and context of events.
• Seeks to understand how people make sense of their experiences.
• Uses interviews, diaries, and autobiographies.

Example: Collecting and analyzing the life stories of veterans to understand their experiences during and after military service.

6. Action research.

This theoretical model involves a collaborative approach in which researchers and participants work together to solve a problem or improve a situation.

• Aims for practical outcomes and improvements.
• Involves cycles of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting.
• Often used in educational, organizational, and community settings.

Example: Teachers collaborating with researchers to develop and test new teaching approaches to improve student engagement.

7. Discourse analysis.

It examines language use in texts, conversations, and other forms of communication.

• Focuses on how language shapes social reality and power dynamics.
• Analyzes speech, written texts, and media content.
• Explores the underlying meanings and implications of language.

Example: Analyzing political speeches to understand how leaders construct and convey their messages to the public.

Each of these examples of qualitative research offers unique tools and perspectives, enabling researchers to delve deeply into complex issues and gain a rich understanding of the issue they study.

Qualitative research methods

Various techniques exist to explore phenomena in depth and understand the complexities of human behavior, experiences, and social interactions. Some key methodologies that are commonly used in different sciences include several approaches.

Unstructured interviews;

These are informal and open-ended, designed to capture detailed narratives without imposing preconceived notions. Researchers typically start with a broad question and encourage interviewees to share their stories freely.

Semi-structured interviews;

They involve a core set of questions that allow researchers to explore topics deeply, adapting their inquiries based on responses received. This method of qualitative research design aims to gather rich, descriptive information, such as understanding what qualities make a good teacher.

Open questionnaire surveys;

They differ from closed-ended surveys in that they seek opinions and descriptions through open-ended questions. They allow for gathering diverse viewpoints from a larger group than one-on-one interviews would permit.

Observation;

It relies on researchers' skills to observe and interpret unbiased behaviors or activities. For instance, in education research, observation might track how students stay focused and manage distractions, recorded through field notes taken during or shortly after the observation.

Keeping logs and diaries;

This involves participants or researchers documenting daily activities or study contexts. Participants might record their social interactions or exercise routines, giving detailed data for later analysis. Researchers may also maintain diaries to document study contexts, helping to explain findings and other information sources.

All types of qualitative research have their strengths for gathering detailed information and exploring the social, cultural, and psychological aspects of exploration topics. Learners often use several methods (triangulation) to confirm their findings and deepen their understanding of complex subjects. If you need assistance choosing the most appropriate method to explore, feel free to contact our website, as we offer essays for sale and support with academic papers. 

Advantages and disadvantages of the qualitative research methodology

This approach has unique strengths, making it valuable in many sciences. One of the primary advantages of qualitative research is its ability to capture participants' voices and perspectives accurately. It is highly adaptable, allowing researchers to modify the technique as new questions and ideas arise. This flexibility allows researchers to investigate new ideas and trends without being limited to set methods from the start. While this approach has many strengths, it also has significant drawbacks. A research paper writer faces practical and theoretical limitations when analyzing and interpreting data. Let’s consider all the pros and cons of this methodology in detail.

Strengths of qualitative research:

• Adaptability: Data gathering and analysis can be adjusted as new patterns or ideas develop, ensuring the study remains relevant and responsive.
• Real-world contexts: Research often occurs in natural conditions, providing a more authentic understanding of phenomena and describing the particularities of human behavior and interactions.
• Rich insights: Detailed analysis of people’s feelings, perceptions, and experiences can be useful for designing, testing, or developing systems, products, and services.
• Innovation: Open-ended responses allow experts to discover new problems or opportunities, leading to innovative ideas and approaches.

Limitations of qualitative research:

• Unpredictability: Real-world conditions often introduce uncontrolled factors, making this approach less reliable and difficult to replicate.
• Bias: The qualitative method relies heavily on the researcher’s viewpoint, leading to subjective interpretations. This makes it challenging to replicate studies and achieve consistent results.
• Limited applicability: Small, specific samples give detailed information but limit the ability to generalize findings to a broader population. Conclusions about the qualitative research topics may be biased and not representative of the wider population.
• Time and effort: Analyzing qualitative data is time-consuming and labor-intensive. While software can help, much of the analysis must be done manually, requiring significant effort and expertise.

So, qualitative methodology offers significant benefits, such as adaptability, real-world context, rich insights, and fostering innovation. However, it also presents challenges like unpredictability, bias, limited applicability, or time- and labor-intensive. Understanding these pros and cons helps researchers make informed decisions about when and how to effectively utilize various types of qualitative research designs in their studies.

Final thoughts

Qualitative research provides a valuable understanding of complicated human experiences and social situations, making it a strong tool in various areas of study. Despite its challenges, such as unreliability, subjectivity, and limited generalizability, its strengths in flexibility, natural settings, and generating meaningful insights make it an essential approach. If you are one of the students looking to incorporate qualitative methodology into their academic papers, EduBirdie is here to help. Our experts can guide you through the process, ensuring your work is thorough, credible, and impactful.

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SYSTEMATIC REVIEW article

A rapid review of the barriers and facilitators of mental health service access among veterans and their families.

• 1 MacDonald Franklin OSI Research and Innovation Centre, Lawson Health Research Institute, London, ON, Canada
• 2 Department of Psychiatry, Western University, London, ON, Canada
• 3 Department of Psychology, Toronto Metropolitan University, Toronto, ON, Canada
• 4 Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
• 5 Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
• 6 St. Joseph’s OSI Clinic, St. Joseph’s Health Care London, London, ON, Canada

Introduction: Transitioning to civilian life after military service can be challenging for both Veterans and their families. Accessible mental health services are crucial during this period to provide support. The objective of this review was to conduct a rapid review to capture the barriers and identify facilitators that influence access to mental health services for Veterans and their families during the post-service transition period.

Methods: This review was conducted using the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions as a methodological framework and followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses - Rapid Review (PRISMA-RR).

Results: A total of 60 articles and 67 independent samples were included in the final data analyses. Across the included articles, this review identified 23 barriers and 14 facilitator themes. Issues navigating the mental health care system was identified as the main challenge among Veterans and their families, and those who received support navigating the system identified this as a significant facilitator. Applying the Theoretical Domains Framework, most of the identified barriers and facilitators were categorized into environmental context and resources domain.

Discussion: The heterogeneity in Veterans' and Veteran families' experiences with mental health care-seeking may suggest that access to mental health care for Veterans and Veteran families cannot be solved by addressing one type of barrier alone. Instead, coordinated efforts to address prioritized systemic, logistical, social, and inter-/intrapersonal obstacles are essential for improving access and optimizing mental health care outcomes. These insights underscore the complexity of considerations for Veterans and families accessing mental health care.

Introduction

For some Veterans, the post-service period is characterized by complex challenges ( 1 , 2 ). Indeed, over one-third of Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) Veterans report a moderate or very difficult transition to civilian life ( 3 ). The reintegration experience involves significant changes to one's physical environment (e.g., work, housing) and identity (e.g., role within the family, relationships), which impose new duties, expectations, and stressors. A difficult transition to civilian life has been associated with poor mental health outcomes ( 2 ), including an increased risk of mental disorders and suicide ( 4 , 5 ). Importantly, these changes are embedded within larger socio-ecological contexts and are amplified by existing health disparities and inequities.

While the perceived need for mental health care increases following the transition from the military to civilian life, St. Cyr et al. ( 6 ) found that a similar percentage of active members of the CAF and Canadian Veterans report accessing mental health care in the previous year. However, Veterans may experience different barriers to mental health care than actively serving military personnel, including geographical barriers to care (vs. having health care services readily available on base) and a lack of resources or knowledge of available support for Veterans [e.g., ( 7 – 9 )]. Further, certain aspects of military culture, such as a strong emphasis on self-reliance, may be integrated into Veterans' core beliefs ( 10 , 11 ) and deter help seeking. Additionally, the interpersonal, psychological, and behavioural difficulties that may be experienced during the post-service transition may also serve as barriers to treatment-seeking in this population ( 9 , 12 ). Finally, it is important to note that following the transition to civilian life, access to certain services and supports (e.g., unit support, military-specific mental health care) may become more limited or stop ( 13 , 14 ). Importantly, research has found a positive relation between mental health care access and health status among Veteran population [see ( 15 )], which may also extend to the families of transitioning Veterans given the experiential link between Veterans and their family members [e.g., ( 9 )]. Indeed, Schwartz et al. ( 9 ) note that many of the aforementioned barriers also impact Veteran family members, although the severity of their impact may vary with respect to various individual and environmental factors ( 9 ). Further, Maguire et al. ( 16 ) found that many health and wellbeing needs of Veteran families are amplified during the transition from military service to civilian life, and these families often face challenges navigating civilian systems of care. Indeed, Veterans and their families may encounter additional difficulties relative to active duty military personnel, especially related to continuity of care following release from the military when sources of health care and benefits change as a result of Veteran status [e.g., from the Department of Defense to Veterans Affairs; ( 17 )]. It is therefore critical to elucidate existing barriers and facilitators to mental health care among Veterans and Veteran families to understand gaps in service access or experiences [including across demographic characteristics, such as gender; see Cornish et al., ( 12 )].

To inform health care planning and policies within Canada, it is necessary to explore contemporary literature which describes experiences among similar populations of Veterans and families. As such, examining literature from across the Five Eyes nations (i.e., Australia, Canada, New Zealand, United Kingdom, United States), which are all Westernized countries sharing important similarities such as governmental structure and historical and military alliances [as noted in ( 18 )], broadens the scope of available information when considering experiences of miliary personnel and families. Further, a representative sample across these countries allows for examinations of certain between-country nuances (e.g., health care delivery systems) in a review context [e.g., ( 19 )]. For example, one report [see ( 20 )] noted high discrepancies in budgets for expenditures, and the number of case managers and staff available to Veterans across various allied nations, among other findings.

Given the complexity of barriers and facilitators affecting mental health service access for Veterans and their families, there is a need for a structured, theory-based approach to identify and address these critical factors effectively. The Theoretical Domains Framework [TDF; ( 21 , 22 )] offers a particularly effective method for this purpose. The TDF an integrative framework used to support implementation objectives by providing a sound theoretical basis for assessing behavioural influences and promoting behavioural change to improve outcomes in various clinical contexts. The TDF outlines 14 domains (e.g., knowledge, skills, optimism, beliefs about consequences, goals, etc.) which include 84 component constructs that further specify aspects of each domain [e.g., within the domain of knowledge: procedural knowledge, knowledge of task environment, and other relevant knowledge; ( 22 )]. These domains, in turn, influence physical, psychological, social, automatic, and reflective sources of behaviours that contribute to one's capability, opportunity, and motivation, which interact to produce behaviour ( 21 ). Notably, the TDF can be applied both deductively (e.g., as a preliminary framework for content analysis) and inductively [e.g., to generate themes relative to domains; ( 21 )]. In the present review, the inductive utility of TDF was applied to identify barriers and facilitators which might influence treatment-seeking behaviours among Veterans and their families. The TDF has been successfully used to assess barriers and facilitators across different areas of health care [e.g., ( 23 , 24 )]; this review extends its use to specifically address the empirical literature concerning mental health service access by Veterans and families, providing a novel insight into this context.

Existing systematic reviews examining health-related behaviours among Veterans either focus exclusively on quantitative research ( 25 ) or were specific to help-seeking behaviours ( 26 ) which are distinct from actual access to care. Further, existing reviews do not contextualize findings within a validated framework. Taken together, the aim of this review is to identify barriers and facilitators to mental health care by examining the lived experiences (via qualitative and quantitative data) of Veterans and their families accessing mental health care during the post-service period, through the lens of the TDF. Findings from this review can be used to highlight considerations or inform actionable recommendations related to health policy for Canadian Veterans. Specifically, this review aimed to address the following research questions: (1) How do Veterans and family members articulate barriers and facilitators to access to and reception of mental health services during the post-service period?; (2) What factors may optimize access to and reception of mental health services for Veterans and families during the post-service period?; (3) What considerations may need to be in place at the policy level to facilitate changes to better promote mental health access and care for Veterans and their families during the post-service period?; and (4) How does mental health interact with other domains of wellbeing (as represented in the TDF)?

This review was conducted using the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions as a methodological framework ( 27 ). Cochrane guidelines were chosen as they are internationally regarded for their transparency, standardized and replicable methodologies, and methodological rigour across a variety of health and health related disciplines synthesizing both quantitative and qualitative data [e.g., ( 28 – 30 )]. Indeed, one survey of Moseley et al. ( 31 ) found that reviews implementing Cochrane Collaboration procedures demonstrated higher rigour and overall quality. The review process included deploying a search strategy across multiple databases, two levels of screening (title and abstract and full text) against inclusion and exclusion criteria, resolving conflicts at each level, as well as data extraction, data analyses, and data synthesis. This review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis - Rapid Review (PRISMA-RR) guidelines for standards of reporting findings ( 32 ).

Search strategy

We conducted a preliminary search for ten relevant articles that should be included in a systematic literature search. These articles served as “benchmark articles” to ensure our search strategy was accurate and comprehensive across a number of indexing databases ( 33 ). Our team then consulted with an academic librarian at Western University to confirm the following search strategy. In light of optimizing databases across the benchmarking articles and meeting the minimum number of searched databases required for systematic reviews [e.g., ( 34 , 35 )], we selected three databases to perform our search: Scopus, Medline (OVID), and PsycINFO (ProQuest). The following keywords were identified: military, “armed forces”, soldier, RCMP, Veteran*, transiti*, retir*, resources, “mental health care”, programs, “mental health service use”, “mental health services use”, “mental health care”, “mental health support”, “mental health treatment”, “mental health use”, “psychiatr* service use”, “utili*ation”, “help-seeking”, and “mental health” (see Supplementary Material for string terms). We imposed a date restriction of 10 years from the search date (i.e., 2013–2023), which was conducted on December 18, 2023, in order to focus on contemporary barriers and facilitators of mental health care. In addition, the Veterans Affairs Canada (VAC) Research Directorate webpage was scanned to identify any potentially relevant grey literature.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Articles were included if they:

(1) focused on military Veterans who have been released from service for any reason,

(2) focused on families of Veterans,

(3) reported on post-service experiences and mental health service use, and

(4) described barriers and/or facilitators to accessing and/or using mental health services.

Articles were excluded if they:

(1) did not differentiate between active duty and Veteran populations,

(2) reported the occurrence of a barrier or facilitator without any context of any specific barrier or facilitator,

(3) exclusively focused on medical services, including chronic pain,

(4) were non-study papers (e.g., books, news articles),

(5) not available in English or French,

(6) were not from the Five Eyes Countries [Canada, United States, United Kingdom (UK), Australia, New Zealand], and

(7) were published before 2013.

With respect to exclusion criterion ( 7 ), the goal of this review was to be able to provide actionable policy recommendations related to mental health service use by Veterans and their families. As such, this review will focus on capturing relatively contemporary barriers and facilitators to mental health care. Further, given that rapid reviews are often conducted to support policy-focused work [e.g., ( 36 )], a 10-year search restriction allowed for the requisite timely execution of this style of review in consideration of the scope of available literature.

Study selection

Following the deduplication of database outputs, two screeners independently reviewed each article against the inclusion and exclusion criteria for title and abstract review and full-text review. Across the entire body of citations, seven screeners participated in the screening process. Interrater reliability was good for title and abstract review [using percent agreement (97.2%), and Kappa (Fleiss and Conger; 0.742)] and full-text review [using percent agreement (90.4%), and Kappa (Fleiss and Conger; 0.705)]. At the data extraction stage, two raters extracted relevant information from included articles. Conflicts were resolved at each level of screening by study authors until a consensus was reached (see Figure 1 ). SWIFT-Active Screener, a web-based, collaborative review software that accelerates the screening processes, was used for the title and abstract and full-text review stages. SWIFT enlists a proprietary machine-learning algorithm to prioritize relevant articles for screening with a high degree of accuracy ( 37 ). Using this approach, our review and screening times were reduced without risk or loss of accuracy.

Figure 1 Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analysis.

Data extraction

The following information was extracted from each article (1): article and demographic information, and (2) barriers and facilitators to mental health service use reported by Veterans or their family members. For article and demographic information, the following data were extracted: type of article (i.e., empirical article or dissertation/theses, further broken down by qualitative, quantitative or mixed data), country of study (i.e., Canada, United Kingdom, United States, New Zealand, Australia), age, gender/sex (i.e., mixed, women/female, men/male, transgender, not specified), race (i.e., White/European, Black/African/Caribbean, East Asian, Southeast Asian, Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, Indigenous Peoples, Latin American/Hispanic, Multiracial/Multiethnic, other, mixed, not specified), income (i.e., less than $40,000, $40,000–$59,999, $60,000–$79,999, $80,000–$99,999, $100,000–$119,999, $120,000 or more, mixed, not specified), education (i.e., less than high school, high school, college, undergraduate, graduate/professional degree, mixed, not specified), length of service, type of release (i.e., honourably discharged, dishonourably discharged, not specified), number of years since release, and Veteran vs. family perspective (i.e., Veteran, family, both).

Barrier and facilitator information associated with mental health service use (as reported by Veteran or their family members) was extracted from each article. To be considered a barrier, the results of the study must have explicitly stated an obstacle, difficulty, or challenge Veterans and/or their family members experienced during access to mental health service use. To be considered a facilitator, the results of the study must have explicitly stated a factor that eased the access to mental health service use for Veterans and/or their family members. As such, two independent reviewers extracted the data in the following stages:

○ Step 1. Extracted direct quotes or empirical outcome data from the article and categorized as being experienced by a Veteran or family member.

○ Step 2. Examined the raw data and identified common, repeated themes from a policy informed lens and categorized into barriers or facilitators within the dataset.

○ Step 3. Systematically grouped the emerging themes and subsequently organized them into relevant categories (e.g., Barriers–Veterans; Barriers–family members; Facilitators–Veterans; Facilitators–family members; see Table 1 for descriptive information about the emerging themes). For the primary analysis, a thematically-driven approach was used to classify barriers and facilitators to mental health care, rather than a pre-existing theoretical framework, to ensure a good fit of the data. For the secondary analysis, we mapped barriers and facilitators onto the domains of the TDF.

Table 1 Definition of emerging themes across barriers and facilitators.

Risk of bias assessment

The Mixed Method Appraisal Tool [MMAT; ( 58 )] was used to evaluate the risk of bias among articles. The MMAT is a valid and efficient quality assessment tool that allows for simultaneous appraisal of qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods studies. Each article was categorized by study type (i.e., qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods). Studies were then rated based on the MMAT criteria corresponding to the respective study type. Criteria included five specific appraisal questions assessing methodological characteristics (e.g., appropriate and effectively executed methodological approach) relative to the type of study conducted. Criteria were evaluated with “yes”, “no”, and “can’t tell” answer options.

Data analysis

Smartsheet and Microsoft Excel were used for data analyses. Demographic information was examined using descriptive statistics (i.e., frequencies; means and standard deviations). The themes emerged through deductive analysis based on our own binning process. Initially, themes were identified and categorized as either barriers or facilitators. These themes were then thematically organized into socio-ecological domains. This organization was based on the structural, environmental, or individual level at which these barriers and facilitators were described as relevant: (1) Systemic which refers to the obstacles or benefits that are embedded within the structure, policies, or practices of a system that impacts one's access to mental health services, (2) Inter-/Intrapersonal which refers to obstacles or benefits arising from interactions between individuals or within an individual's own thoughts, beliefs, or behaviors which influence help-seeking for mental health care, (3) Logistical which refers to obstacles or benefits that arise from practical considerations such as transportation, scheduling, or infrastructure limitations related to accessing mental health services, and (4) Social Environment which refers to obstacles or benefits originating from an individual's physical surroundings, social interactions, or external influences, which influence help-seeking for mental health care. While an emerging theme may recur throughout an article, our results are focused on the identification of unique themes within each article, rather than the frequency with which themes are repeated within an article.

Barriers and facilitators were then thematically organized across the 14 domains of the TDF: (1) Knowledge w hich refers to being aware of the existence of something, (2) Skills which refer to abilities or proficiencies acquired through practice, (3) S ocial/Professional Role and Identity which refers to the behaviours and qualities that individuals display in social or work settings, (4) Beliefs about Capabilities which refers to the level of acceptance of an ability that a person can put to use, (5) Optimism which refers to the level of belief that a goal can be attained or that something will happen for the best, (6) Beliefs about Consequences which refers to the level of acceptance for the outcomes of a behaviour in a particular setting, (7) Reinforcement which refers to the arrangement of a dependent relationship or contingency between a stimulus and response which increases the odds of that given response, (8) Intentions which refers to the decision that one makes to perform a behaviour in a certain manner, (9) Goals which refers to a mental representation of an end-state that an individual seeks to achieve, (10) Memory, Attention, and Decision Processes which refers to the ability to focus selectively, retain information, or make a choice between alternatives, (11) Environmental Context and Resource which refers to circumstances of an individual's environment or situation that either promote or discourage the development of abilities, independence, or adaptive behaviours, (12) Social Influences which refers to interpersonal processes that can lead individuals to change their behaviours, thoughts, or feelings, (13) Emotion which refers to reactionary patterns involving experiential, behavioural, and physiological elements to deal with a significant matter or event, and (14) Behavioural Regulation which refers to anything that is aimed at changing or managing measured or observed actions.

MMAT scoring to assess the risk of bias was calculated based on the percentage of MMAT criteria met (i.e., number of “yes” responses). Hong et al. ( 58 ) noted that calculating an overall score is not advisable. As such, studies were rated based on the percentage of criteria met [i.e., 20, 40, 60, 80, 100; per ( 58 )].

Study characteristics

The final sample consisted of 60 articles (denoted with N ) with 67 independent samples (denoted with k ; Figure 1 ; see Supplementary Material for raw data and reference list of included articles). The samples mostly included Veteran ( k  = 58) perspectives, with a few from family perspectives ( k  = 9). Across all included articles, this review identified 23 barriers and 14 facilitator themes. It is important to note that the demographic characteristics reported in Table 2 do not fully represent the participants across samples due to inconsistencies in the information reported across the included samples (see Table 2 for characteristic information). Notably, across all samples, 11 articles discussed topics related to military sexual trauma.

Table 2 Study characteristics ( N  = 60).

Examination of barrier and facilitator themes across socio-ecological domains

Veteran perspective.

Across all samples that captured the Veteran's perspective ( k  = 58), the most common type of barrier experienced was systemic in nature ( n  = 146; in this section, n denotes the total number of barriers or facilitators reported across all included articles within a respective domain as per Table 3 ). Within this domain, the most commonly identified theme was difficulty navigating the system (e.g., difficulty completing forms; k  = 38; 66%), followed by health care provider (i.e., physician, clinical psychologist, or psychotherapist) unfamiliar with military culture and patient condition (e.g., provider lacks knowledge about military life; k  = 25; 43%), and lack of service preference (e.g., lacking patient choice of care; k  = 24; 41%). The second most common domain was inter-/intrapersonal ( n  = 112). The most common theme identified within this domain was negative preexisting attitudes and beliefs towards mental health (e.g., stigma; k  = 35; 60%), followed by gaps in mental health knowledge (e.g., not understanding the early signs of mental health issues; k  = 32; 55%), and lack of trust in the system (e.g., belief that the mental health care system cannot ease mental health conditions; k  = 21; 36%). The third most common domain was logistical ( n  = 47). In this domain, the identified themes exhibited relatively equal prevalence: transportation challenges (e.g., location of mental health service is too far away; k  = 16; 28%), lifestyle disruptions (e.g., not able to take time off from work; k  = 16; 28%) and costly services and travel (e.g., cost of service is too expensive; k  = 15; 26%). Social environment was the least identified domain ( n  = 46). Within this domain, the most common theme was a military culture of stoicism (e.g., a culture creating a “tough it out” attitude; k  = 22; 38%), followed by fear of repercussions (e.g., fear of negative consequences such as losing out of job opportunities; k  = 12; 21%), and gender stereotypes ( k  = 12; 21%).

Table 3 Characteristics of barriers and facilitators across Veterans and their families ( k  = 67).

As for facilitators reported by Veterans, similarly, the most common domain was systemic ( n  = 58). Specifically, support navigating the system was the most prominent theme ( k  = 16; 28%), followed by service availability ( k  = 14; 24%), and health care provider familiarity with military culture and patient condition ( k  = 12; 21%). The second common domain was inter-/intrapersonal ( n  = 21). In particular, the most common themes were mental health knowledge ( k  = 12; 21%), followed by trust in the system ( k  = 5; 9%), and trust in provider (e.g., feeling the provider has their best interest in mind; k  = 4; 7%). The third most common domain was social environment, with social support being the only emerging theme ( k  = 17; 29%). Lastly, logistical was the least prevalent domain ( n  = 6). Within this domain, the reported themes included convenience (e.g., mental health service is close; k  = 3; 5%), childcare/transportation availability ( k  = 2; 4%), and affordable cost ( k  = 1; 2%; see Table 3 for reported themes within each domain across barriers and facilitators, as experienced by Veterans).

Family perspective

Similarly, across all samples that captured the Veteran family's perspective ( k  = 9), the most common barrier was systemic ( n  = 12). Specifically, difficulty navigating the system was reported as the most prominent theme ( k  = 5; 56%), followed by lack of service preference ( k  = 3; 33%) and provider unfamiliar with military culture and patient condition ( k  = 2; 22%). The inter-/intrapersonal domain was reported with almost equal frequency ( n  = 11). Within this domain, gaps in mental health knowledge was the most prominent barrier ( k  = 4; 44%), while negative preexisting attitudes and beliefs ( k  = 3; 33%), trust in provider ( k  = 2; 22%), and trust in the system ( k  = 2; 22%) were equally common. The third most common domain was logistical ( n  = 8). In particular, lifestyle disruptions were most common ( k  = 4; 44%), followed by transportation challenges ( k  = 2; 22%) and costly service and travel ( k  = 2; 22%) reported as equally common. The final domain, social environment, was not a prominent domain within the family literature ( n  = 1).

With regards to facilitators, the most prominent domain was inter-/intrapersonal ( n  = 6). Within this domain, the only repeated theme was mental health knowledge ( k  = 4; 44%). The next most common domain was systemic ( n  = 5), with service availability ( k  = 2; 22%) being the only repeatedly reported theme. Importantly, the social environment domain found social support was the only theme reported ( k  = 4; 44%). Lastly, the logistical domain was not prominent ( n  = 2; see Table 3 for reported themes within each domain across barriers and facilitators, as experienced by families).

Examination of the barriers and facilitators within the Theoretical Domains Framework

When examining the themes within the TDF framework, six of the domains were captured by the data in this review: knowledge, social/professional role and identity, beliefs about capabilities, beliefs about consequences, environmental context and resources, and social influences. Most of the 23 identified barriers were categorized into environmental context and resources ( n  = 10; 43%; in this section, n denotes the number of barrier or facilitator themes across TDF domains per Table 4 ), followed by social influences ( n  = 4; 17%), knowledge ( n  = 3; 13%) and beliefs about consequences ( n  = 3; 13%), social/professional role and identity ( n  = 2; 9%), and beliefs about capabilities ( n  = 1; 4%). As for facilitators, most of the 14 identified facilitators were embedded into the environmental context and resources ( n  = 7; 50%), followed by knowledge ( n  = 3; 21%), beliefs about consequences ( n  = 2; 14%), social/professional role and identity ( n  = 1; 7%) and social influences ( n  = 1; 7%).

Table 4 Barrier and facilitators themes embedded into Theoretical Domains Framework.

Risk of bias (Mixed Method Appraisal Tool)

Overall, the methodological quality of the included articles ( N  = 60) varied: 52% of the articles met ≤60% of MMAT criteria (31/60; 20% [ n  = 3], 40% [ n  = 12], 60% [ n  = 16]), while 48% of the articles met >60% of MMAT criteria (29/60; 80% [ n  = 28], 100% [ n  = 1]). Notably, the most common criterion was a quality threshold of 80% (see Supplementary Material for MMAT scores of all included articles).

Emerging barrier and facilitator themes within the socio-ecological domains

Veterans and Veteran family members identified a number of common barriers and facilitators across systemic, interpersonal/intrapersonal, logistical, and social environmental domains.

Systemic barriers were the most cited barriers to accessing mental health care with issues navigating the system reported by over half of the Veteran samples. Upon retirement, Veterans move from a military-specific health care system to the provincial or territorial health care system in their province or territory of residence, with additional VAC health care benefits being available for Veterans who have service-related injuries ( 59 ). This change can pose new difficulties such as not completing the necessary paperwork to access the benefits available to them [see ( 10 , 60 )], which may prohibit Veterans from initiating or continuing mental health care in the post-service period. Additionally, Veteran samples noted a lack of military cultural competence and/or unfamiliarity with treating mental health conditions among providers. Veterans represent a distinct cultural group which may have different health care needs relative to non-Veterans. Tam-Seto et al. ( 61 ) notes that a lack of cultural awareness, sensitivity, knowledge, and skills required to meet the unique mental health needs of Veterans can diminish the quality of the therapeutic relationship and impact wellbeing. This finding highlights the importance of the therapeutic alliance in this group [see ( 62 )]. A lack of service preferences (e.g., requests for a female mental health service provider or individual therapy vs. group therapy) was also identified as a prominent barrier by Veterans. Distinct from barriers which impede access to services, service preferences may be equally as important in determining Veteran engagement ( 63 ).

Findings also revealed that when these barriers are rectified, these themes can function as significant facilitators. For example, while difficulties navigating the system were the most common barriers, support navigating the system was the most common facilitator. In this sample, Veterans noted the importance of receiving assistance from fellow Veterans, health care providers, and staff members. Similarly, service availability and having health care providers with military cultural competence were other prominent facilitators of receiving mental health care. Indeed, having a variety of mental health services and treatment modalities available is important in addressing individual differences in needs [especially among minority groups such as women Veterans; ( 49 )]. Further, access to providers educated in the unique occupational stressors that are associated with a military career can help to facilitate the transition to the civilian health care system and ensures access to relevant resources ( 61 , 64 ).

Families of Veterans identified having difficulty navigating the system as the most common systemic barrier to care. Schwartz et al. ( 9 ) found that family members of Veterans are often unaware of the formal mental health resources available to them and are unclear on the administrative processes required to access these supports. Service availability was the most reported systemic facilitator; however, the representation of samples is too small to reliably interpret.

Interpersonal/intrapersonal

Negative pre-existing attitudes and beliefs were reported among many of the Veteran samples in the review. One review exploring the association between mental health beliefs and service use in military populations found that personal beliefs (about mental health, including stigma) are an important predictor of mental health service use [see ( 65 )]. Veterans also frequently reported gaps in mental health knowledge related to mental health symptoms and the potential treatments available to address them [see ( 66 )]. Increasing mental health knowledge may increase help-seeking and service use by minimizing the impact of other barriers. For example, a study of female Veterans in the U.S. found that increasing mental health knowledge reduced stigma and, thus, indirectly increased mental health treatment-seeking behaviours ( 67 ). Veterans also reported a lack of trust in the system, including but not limited to federally operated Veterans Affairs health organizations. One qualitative study found that lack of trust in the U.S. Veterans Affairs (VA) health care system acted as a significant barrier to mental health care-seeking, because of concerns it would be “nonresponsive, ineffective, and uncaring” [see ( 11 )]. Concerns over confidentiality or the ability to provide high-quality services in a timely manner also contribute to a lack of trust in Veteran health organizations ( 22 ). Relatedly, a lack of trust in their mental health care provider was also reported as a barrier among some samples. Consistent with the previous themes, mental health knowledge was identified as the most common facilitator among the Veteran samples. This aligns with previous research suggesting that increased mental health knowledge is inversely associated with negative attitudes towards mental health and mental health treatment ( 68 ). As in the Veteran samples, gaps in mental health knowledge were the most commonly reported intra-/interpersonal barrier among Veteran family samples while having mental health knowledge was the most frequently reported facilitator. Family members who are more aware of the impact that living with a Veteran experiencing mental health issues can have on their own mental health may be more inclined to seek mental health treatment themselves.

Transportation challenges were identified as the most prominent logistical barrier in Veteran samples. This encompasses the distance to the closest mental health care provider (i.e., too far to travel) or a lack of a reliable mode of transportation to reach these services. This may be a particular concern for Veterans residing in rural areas, where there are fewer mental health care providers and resources available ( 11 ). Lifestyle disruptions, such as needing to request time off work or finding a childcare provider to attend treatment ( 69 ), were also reported as barriers to mental health care in this review. It is important to note that these barriers may carry additional costs that render mental health care unaffordable, particularly for Veterans who may not have additional benefits or health care coverage. Convenience was the most reported logistical facilitator in this sample. Convenience may encompass living near mental health services, accessing services remotely, or being able to receive mental health services in the same location as physical health services. Previous research indicates that logistical barriers are frequently reported barriers to health care among military spouses ( 70 ). Among the samples of Veteran families included in this review, lifestyle disruptions–such as needing to take time off work or finding childcare–was the most reported barrier. Indeed, Maguire et al. ( 16 ), notes that care coordination can be particularly challenging among Veteran families with complex mental health needs (i.e., those impacting more than one domain of functioning), as may be the case during the post-service period. Logistical facilitators to mental health care were not widely commented on by the Veteran families included in the review.

Social environmental

The stereotypical military characteristics of stoicism and self-reliance were the most commonly reported social environmental barriers to seeking mental health care among the Veteran samples included in this review. One study exploring barriers to mental health care among U.S. Veterans found that self-reliance and stoicism were the most common attitudinal barriers to mental health care, with many Veterans reported enduring their mental health systems without complaint until the need for mental health treatment became undeniable ( 11 ). Indeed, another study found that Veterans delayed seeking mental health care for almost twelve years following their release from the military [see ( 71 )]. Concerns about the potential consequences mental health care-seeking might have on their military careers were also identified as a common barrier. Some of these concerns may include being treated differently by military leadership ( 72 ) or adverse military career implications ( 73 ). Additionally, gender stereotypes were identified as a barrier to mental health care in some studies. Previous research shows that men and women Veterans experience different barriers to mental health care, with women being more likely to indicate that their gender itself, as well as gender-based discrimination experienced during their military service, act as barriers to seeking mental health services ( 74 ). Female Veterans may also feel uncomfortable in male- dominated health service environments, such as VA mental health clinics ( 75 ).

Social support was the only social environmental facilitator cited in the Veteran samples included in this review. Positive social support (from partners, civilian communities, peers, etc.) has been identified as a motivator for seeking mental health care in a number of studies involving military Veterans [e.g., ( 11 , 25 , 55 )]. Further, research suggests that mentor/mentee-like relationships with other Veterans who have experienced and successfully sought help for a mental health concern may be a particularly valuable source of social support for Veterans contemplating mental health treatment initiation ( 11 ).

Few Veteran family members identified any social environmental barriers to mental health care: only lack of social support was identified in one of the Veteran family samples as a barrier to mental health care. Previous research has identified lack of social support as a generalized barrier to mental health care ( 16 ); however, it may be possible that this is significantly less of a concern for Veteran family members than it appears to be for Veterans themselves.

Positive social support was the only social environmental facilitator of mental health care identified in the Veteran family samples. Recent research suggests that family involvement in treatment for military-related posttraumatic stress disorder is, for some, motivated by social relationships [e.g., improving family life; protecting familial relationships; ( 52 )]. This may be a unique form of social support that motivates Veteran family members to engage in mental health care.

Mapping barrier and facilitator themes onto the Theoretical Domains Framework

The barriers and facilitators to mental health care identified in this review mapped on to 6 out of 14 TDF constructs: knowledge, social/professional role and identity, beliefs about capabilities, beliefs about consequences, environmental context and resources, and social influences (see Table 4 ).

Most of the barriers identified in this review reflected the environmental context and resources, and social influences related to mental health care experiences. According to the TDF Behaviour Change Wheel [see ( 21 )], environmental context and resources and social influences jointly contribute to opportunity. Barriers within these domains limit opportunity and influence both physical and social sources of behaviour. In the context of this review, Veterans and Veteran families reported how their engagement in mental health care services are limited by numerous barriers affecting access and availability (e.g., cost, service preferences), and the social contexts they are embedded within (e.g., military culture of stoicism, gender stereotypes). Per the TDF these barriers are inhibiting both physical and social components of treatment-seeking behaviours. These findings highlight specific areas (i.e., enhancing opportunity via environmental and social strategies) for policy recommendations or interventions aimed at engendering behavioural change related to help-seeking in these populations.

Notably, the environmental context and resources domain also emerged as an important facilitator of mental health care experiences. As previously noted, these facilitators often reflect the inverse of barriers (e.g., service availability vs. lack of service availability), highlighting the importance of rectifying prominent barriers to optimize experience and outcomes. Further, this finding serves to help refine our examination of gaps in services and supports with respect to the TDF. While environmental factors detract from opportunity, most facilitators also fell into this category, while facilitators with respect to social influences were very limited (i.e., social support only). Taken together, it may be that social influences are disproportionately detracting from opportunity relative to environmental factors; however, the representation of facilitators was relatively limited, and this review did not determine the magnitude of the effect of these barriers and facilitators beyond reported frequency. The knowledge domain also emerged as an important factor in facilitating experiences of Veterans and Veteran families' experiences with mental health care services. With respect to the TDF Behaviour Change Wheel, knowledge (e.g., mental health knowledge, and support navigating the system) bolsters capability and positively influences psychological sources of help-seeking behaviours.

Implications for research and policy

The findings of this review of qualitative and quantitative research align well with a rapid review conducted by Randles & Finnegan ( 26 ), as well as Hitch et al.'s ( 25 ) systematic review of quantitative research exploring barriers and facilitators to health care-seeking. Despite differences in the types of studies included across all three reviews, the consistency of findings increases confidence in the reliability and accuracy of our findings.

The heterogeneity in reported experiences observed across barriers and facilitators included in this review suggests that perhaps access to the system is not standardized or is based on other factors, such as reason for release from the military or familiarity with the system. Additionally, variability in structure, availability, and cost of mental health services between and within countries (e.g., state to state) may account for some of the variability with respect to thematic valence. However, these variations (i.e., experiencing a systemic factor as a barrier or facilitator) can be used to identify opportunities to create equitable policies that increase access to mental health services. The use of objective measures of barriers to mental health care (e.g., wait time from referral to support) may help to disentangle some of the heterogeneity observed in this review.

Findings of this review may also be used to inform relevant policy recommendations at the federal and provincial/community level. Concerted efforts to address the systemic, logistical, social environmental, and intra-/interpersonal barriers to mental health care should occur conjointly in order to maximize their benefit. For example, this might include building upon recent efforts by the CAF to increase mental health awareness and reduce stigma. Reducing stigma around service-related mental health concerns may promote help-seeking behaviours in military (and subsequently Veteran) populations. Federal agencies should aim to ensure the availability of culturally competent providers within their networks while also exploring avenues to decrease logistical and demand barriers to mental health care, such as providing childcare support and offering women-only hours in their mental health clinics. Nevertheless, access to mental health care for Veterans and Veteran families cannot be solved through addressing one type of barrier alone. For example, efforts to decrease stigma will not get more Veterans into treatment if supply issues are not addressed or the system remains difficult to navigate.

Similar steps could be taken at the provincial health care level. The civilian health care system is not always well equipped to treat the mental health needs of Veterans, particularly in areas without a large military or Veteran population. Efforts to identify the root cause(s) of insufficient military cultural competency, such as lack of training, could help address the paucity of community-based mental health providers with military cultural competence, while targeted recruitment efforts could be used to increase the number of mental health care providers in rural regions.

Limitations and strengths

The findings of this review should be interpreted in consideration of a few limitations. First, we were unable to conduct subgroup analyses. As such, the overall findings of this review disproportionately reflect experiences of mental health care for an American Veteran population via qualitative experiential accounts relative to mixed methods designs and do not adequately reflect the experiences of Veterans from other Five Eyes nations, and Veterans with intersectional identities. While these countries share important similarities, the inclusion of samples from Australia and New Zealand in addition to a more robust representation of Canadian and UK samples in this review may have allowed us to capture meaningful trends in access across various types of health care delivery systems (e.g., public vs. private), which would have provided important contextual nuance with respect to these experiential findings especially as they related to barriers associated with cost. Further efforts to disentangle whether the systemic barriers and facilitators to mental health care vary across nations and health care systems would help solidify our understanding of the specific barriers and facilitators faced by Canadian Veterans and families. Second, most studies did not provide information about the amount of time between data collection and end of participants' military service. The military to civilian transition period, which can be a period of increased need for mental health services, may have different barriers or facilitators to mental health care than in the years following this transitional period. Finally, our review contained only a few samples of Veteran families. This review adds to a growing body of literature attempting to elucidate and contextualize experiences of mental health care for Veteran families and calling for additional research within this population.

This review also had several strengths. First, this review provides a much-needed synthesis of literature in this area and summarizes available information on barriers and facilitators to mental health care for both Veterans and Veteran families. Importantly, this review highlighted that when Veteran health organizations address barriers to mental health care, these barriers became facilitators, enabling access to mental health services. Second, the quality of the studies included in the review were adequate, as measured by the MMAT, indicating that information included in this review was collected and analyzed with rigour. Finally, the findings of this review, in conjunction with the context provided by the TDF, highlight opportunities for future research, intervention approaches, and policy changes.

Considerations for future directions

Future studies in this field should aim to pinpoint specific behavioural determinants of health-seeking via primary data collection with Veterans and Veteran families. Using a structured framework such as the TDF would provide a more comprehensive context-specific understanding, and capture data that is reflective of current policies and community attitudes. Second, studies should implement conjoint analyses to empirically examine the relative importance of specific barriers and facilitators to treatment-seeking. Similarly, given that these results are based on mostly qualitative studies, future studies should seek to understand how themes related to help-seeking and service use among these populations are represented in both qualitative and quantitative data. For example, if themes related to stigma are more commonly captured in qualitative research, then it becomes important to identify the best way to capture these themes in a quantitative capacity as well. Third, studies should aim to capture the unique barriers and facilitators to mental health care for Veterans' and their families in a Canadian context. Relatedly, future studies should attempt to better understand help-seeking behaviours with respect to individual differences and across social identities (e.g., gender, age, sexual orientation, etc.). Finally, families represent a broad group, and future research should consider the barriers and facilitators for different kinds of family members and dynamics (e.g., spouses, children).

This review identified several barriers and facilitators to mental health care for Veterans and Veteran families. While systemic barriers, such as difficulty navigating systems were commonly reported by Veterans and Veteran families, these factors were also identified as facilitators to mental health care when addressed. These findings highlight the heterogeneity in Veterans' and Veteran families' experiences with mental health care-seeking, and the need to understand the effects of barriers on help-seeking behaviours and experiences to implement the appropriate modifications to remove them. In doing so, Veteran health and well-being organizations can provide relevant and accessible mental health care and, subsequently, improve mental health outcomes for Veterans and Veteran families.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/ Supplementary Material , further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

NE: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. JG: Formal Analysis, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. KS: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. JL: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Resources, Visualization, Writing – review & editing. CB: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. AN: Writing – review & editing. JR: Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

This work was supported by the Atlas Institute for Veterans and Families.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the following individuals who contributed to the screening and data extraction stages of this rapid review: Michelle Birch, Vanessa Soares, Ilyana Kocha, Akshitha Ereddy, Rishika Bhogadi, William Younger, and Jieun Jung. We would also like to thank Dominic Gargala for data analytic support.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frhs.2024.1426202/full#supplementary-material

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Keywords: mental health services, Veterans, Veteran families, wellbeing, mental health

Citation: Ein N, Gervasio J, St. Cyr K, Liu JJW, Baker C, Nazarov A and Richardson JD (2024) A rapid review of the barriers and facilitators of mental health service access among Veterans and their families. Front. Health Serv. 4 : 1426202. doi: 10.3389/frhs.2024.1426202

Received: 30 April 2024; Accepted: 25 June 2024; Published: 22 July 2024.

Reviewed by:

© 2024 Ein, Gervasio, St. Cyr, Liu, Baker, Nazarov and Richardson. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Natalie Ein, [email protected]

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