term paper in educational research

• Privacy Policy

Home » Term Paper – Format, Examples and Writing Guide

Term Paper – Format, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Definition:

Term paper is a type of academic writing assignment that is typically assigned to students at the end of a semester or term. It is usually a research-based paper that is meant to demonstrate the student’s understanding of a particular topic, as well as their ability to analyze and synthesize information from various sources.

Term papers are usually longer than other types of academic writing assignments and can range anywhere from 5 to 20 pages or more, depending on the level of study and the specific requirements of the assignment. They often require extensive research and the use of a variety of sources, including books, articles, and other academic publications.

Term Paper Format

The format of a term paper may vary depending on the specific requirements of your professor or institution. However, a typical term paper usually consists of the following sections:

• Title page: This should include the title of your paper, your name, the course name and number, your instructor’s name, and the date.
• Abstract : This is a brief summary of your paper, usually no more than 250 words. It should provide an overview of your topic, the research question or hypothesis, your methodology, and your main findings or conclusions.
• Introduction : This section should introduce your topic and provide background information on the subject. You should also state your research question or hypothesis and explain the importance of your research.
• Literature review : This section should review the existing literature on your topic. You should summarize the key findings and arguments made by other scholars and identify any gaps in the literature that your research aims to address.
• Methodology: This section should describe the methods you used to collect and analyze your data. You should explain your research design, sampling strategy, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques.
• Results : This section should present your findings. You can use tables, graphs, and charts to illustrate your data.
• Discussion : This section should interpret your findings and explain what they mean in relation to your research question or hypothesis. You should also discuss any limitations of your study and suggest areas for future research.
• Conclusion : This section should summarize your main findings and conclusions. You should also restate the importance of your research and its implications for the field.
• References : This section should list all the sources you cited in your paper using a specific citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).
• Appendices : This section should include any additional materials that are relevant to your study but not essential to your main argument (e.g., survey questions, interview transcripts).

Structure of Term Paper

Here’s an example structure for a term paper:

I. Introduction

A. Background information on the topic

B. Thesis statement

II. Literature Review

A. Overview of current literature on the topic

B. Discussion of key themes and findings from literature

C. Identification of gaps in current literature

III. Methodology

A. Description of research design

B. Discussion of data collection methods

C. Explanation of data analysis techniques

IV. Results

A. Presentation of findings

B. Analysis and interpretation of results

C. Comparison of results with previous studies

V. Discussion

A. Summary of key findings

B. Explanation of how results address the research questions

C. Implications of results for the field

VI. Conclusion

A. Recap of key points

B. Significance of findings

C. Future directions for research

VII. References

A. List of sources cited in the paper

How to Write Term Paper

Here are some steps to help you write a term paper:

• Choose a topic: Choose a topic that interests you and is relevant to your course. If your professor has assigned a topic, make sure you understand it and clarify any doubts before you start.
• Research : Conduct research on your topic by gathering information from various sources such as books, academic journals, and online resources. Take notes and organize your information systematically.
• Create an outline : Create an outline of your term paper by arranging your ideas and information in a logical sequence. Your outline should include an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
• Write a thesis statement: Write a clear and concise thesis statement that states the main idea of your paper. Your thesis statement should be included in your introduction.
• Write the introduction: The introduction should grab the reader’s attention, provide background information on your topic, and introduce your thesis statement.
• Write the body : The body of your paper should provide supporting evidence for your thesis statement. Use your research to provide details and examples to support your argument. Make sure to organize your ideas logically and use transition words to connect paragraphs.
• Write the conclusion : The conclusion should summarize your main points and restate your thesis statement. Avoid introducing new information in the conclusion.
• Edit and proofread: Edit and proofread your term paper carefully to ensure that it is free of errors and flows smoothly. Check for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors.
• Format and cite your sources: Follow the formatting guidelines provided by your professor and cite your sources properly using the appropriate citation style.
• Submit your paper : Submit your paper on time and according to the instructions provided by your professor.

Term Paper Example

Here’s an example of a term paper:

Title : The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Cybersecurity

As the world becomes more digitally interconnected, cybersecurity threats are increasing in frequency and sophistication. Traditional security measures are no longer enough to protect against these threats. This paper explores the role of artificial intelligence (AI) in cybersecurity, including how AI can be used to detect and respond to threats in real-time, the challenges of implementing AI in cybersecurity, and the potential ethical implications of AI-powered security systems. The paper concludes with recommendations for organizations looking to integrate AI into their cybersecurity strategies.

Introduction :

The increasing number of cybersecurity threats in recent years has led to a growing interest in the potential of artificial intelligence (AI) to improve cybersecurity. AI has the ability to analyze vast amounts of data and identify patterns and anomalies that may indicate a security breach. Additionally, AI can automate responses to threats, allowing for faster and more effective mitigation of security incidents. However, there are also challenges associated with implementing AI in cybersecurity, such as the need for large amounts of high-quality data, the potential for AI systems to make mistakes, and the ethical considerations surrounding the use of AI in security.

Literature Review:

This section of the paper reviews existing research on the use of AI in cybersecurity. It begins by discussing the types of AI techniques used in cybersecurity, including machine learning, natural language processing, and neural networks. The literature review then explores the advantages of using AI in cybersecurity, such as its ability to detect previously unknown threats and its potential to reduce the workload of security analysts. However, the review also highlights some of the challenges associated with implementing AI in cybersecurity, such as the need for high-quality training data and the potential for AI systems to be fooled by sophisticated attacks.

Methodology :

To better understand the challenges and opportunities associated with using AI in cybersecurity, this paper conducted a survey of cybersecurity professionals working in a variety of industries. The survey included questions about the types of AI techniques used in their organizations, the challenges they faced when implementing AI in cybersecurity, and their perceptions of the ethical implications of using AI in security.

The results of the survey showed that while many organizations are interested in using AI in cybersecurity, they face several challenges when implementing these systems. These challenges include the need for high-quality training data, the potential for AI systems to be fooled by sophisticated attacks, and the difficulty of integrating AI with existing security systems. Additionally, many respondents expressed concerns about the ethical implications of using AI in security, such as the potential for AI to be biased or to make decisions that are harmful to individuals or society as a whole.

Discussion :

Based on the results of the survey and the existing literature, this paper discusses the potential benefits and risks of using AI in cybersecurity. It also provides recommendations for organizations looking to integrate AI into their security strategies, such as the need to prioritize data quality and to ensure that AI systems are transparent and accountable.

Conclusion :

While there are challenges associated with implementing AI in cybersecurity, the potential benefits of using these systems are significant. AI can help organizations detect and respond to threats more quickly and effectively, reducing the risk of security breaches. However, it is important for organizations to be aware of the potential ethical implications of using AI in security and to take steps to ensure that these systems are transparent and accountable.

References:

• Alkhaldi, S., Al-Daraiseh, A., & Lutfiyya, H. (2019). A Survey on Artificial Intelligence Techniques in Cyber Security. Journal of Information Security, 10(03), 191-207.
• Gartner. (2019). Gartner Top 10 Strategic Technology Trends for 2020. Retrieved from https://www.gartner.com/smarterwithgartner/gartner-top-10-strategic-technology-trends-for-2020/
• Kshetri, N. (2018). Blockchain’s roles in meeting key supply chain management objectives. International Journal of Information Management, 39, 80-89.
• Lipton, Z. C. (2018). The mythos of model interpretability. arXiv preprint arXiv:1606.03490.
• Schneier, B. (2019). Click Here to Kill Everybody: Security and Survival in a Hyper-Connected World. WW Norton & Company.
• Wahab, M. A., Rahman, M. S., & Islam, M. R. (2020). A Survey on AI Techniques in Cybersecurity. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 11(2), 22-27.

When to Write Term Paper

A term paper is usually a lengthy research paper that is assigned to students at the end of a term or semester. There are several situations when writing a term paper may be required, including:

• As a course requirement: In most cases, a term paper is required as part of the coursework for a particular course. It may be assigned by the instructor as a way of assessing the student’s understanding of the course material.
• To explore a specific topic : A term paper can be an excellent opportunity for students to explore a specific topic of interest in-depth. It allows them to conduct extensive research on the topic and develop their understanding of it.
• To develop critical thinking skills : Writing a term paper requires students to engage in critical thinking and analysis. It helps them to develop their ability to evaluate and interpret information, as well as to present their ideas in a clear and coherent manner.
• To prepare for future academic or professional pursuits: Writing a term paper can be an excellent way for students to prepare for future academic or professional pursuits. It can help them to develop the research and writing skills necessary for success in higher education or in a professional career.

Purpose of Term Paper

The main purposes of a term paper are:

• Demonstrate mastery of a subject: A term paper provides an opportunity for students to showcase their knowledge and understanding of a particular subject. It requires students to research and analyze the topic, and then present their findings in a clear and organized manner.
• Develop critical thinking skills: Writing a term paper requires students to think critically about their subject matter, analyzing various sources and viewpoints, and evaluating evidence to support their arguments.
• Improve writing skills : Writing a term paper helps students improve their writing skills, including organization, clarity, and coherence. It also requires them to follow specific formatting and citation guidelines, which can be valuable skills for future academic and professional endeavors.
• Contribute to academic discourse : A well-written term paper can contribute to academic discourse by presenting new insights, ideas, and arguments that add to the existing body of knowledge on a particular topic.
• Prepare for future research : Writing a term paper can help prepare students for future research, by teaching them how to conduct a literature review, evaluate sources, and formulate research questions and hypotheses. It can also help them develop research skills that they can apply in future academic or professional endeavors.

Advantages of Term Paper

There are several advantages of writing a term paper, including:

• In-depth exploration: Writing a term paper allows you to delve deeper into a specific topic, allowing you to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.
• Improved writing skills: Writing a term paper involves extensive research, critical thinking, and the organization of ideas into a cohesive written document. As a result, writing a term paper can improve your writing skills significantly.
• Demonstration of knowledge: A well-written term paper demonstrates your knowledge and understanding of the subject matter, which can be beneficial for academic or professional purposes.
• Development of research skills : Writing a term paper requires conducting thorough research, analyzing data, and synthesizing information from various sources. This process can help you develop essential research skills that can be applied in many other areas.
• Enhancement of critical thinking : Writing a term paper encourages you to think critically, evaluate information, and develop well-supported arguments. These skills can be useful in many areas of life, including personal and professional decision-making.
• Preparation for further academic work : Writing a term paper is excellent preparation for more extensive academic projects, such as a thesis or dissertation.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

What is Archaeology – Definition and Overview

What is Anthropology – Definition and Overview

What is Sociology – Definition and Overview

Psychologist – Definition, Types and Work Area

Physicist – Definition, Types and Work Area

Historian – Definition, Types, Work Area

• Research guides

Writing an Educational Research Paper

Research paper sections, customary parts of an education research paper.

There is no one right style or manner for writing an education paper. Content aside, the writing style and presentation of papers in different educational fields vary greatly. Nevertheless, certain parts are common to most papers, for example:

Title/Cover Page

Contains the paper's title, the author's name, address, phone number, e-mail, and the day's date.

Not every education paper requires an abstract. However, for longer, more complex papers abstracts are particularly useful. Often only 100 to 300 words, the abstract generally provides a broad overview and is never more than a page. It describes the essence, the main theme of the paper. It includes the research question posed, its significance, the methodology, and the main results or findings. Footnotes or cited works are never listed in an abstract. Remember to take great care in composing the abstract. It's the first part of the paper the instructor reads. It must impress with a strong content, good style, and general aesthetic appeal. Never write it hastily or carelessly.

Introduction and Statement of the Problem

A good introduction states the main research problem and thesis argument. What precisely are you studying and why is it important? How original is it? Will it fill a gap in other studies? Never provide a lengthy justification for your topic before it has been explicitly stated.

Limitations of Study

Indicate as soon as possible what you intend to do, and what you are not going to attempt. You may limit the scope of your paper by any number of factors, for example, time, personnel, gender, age, geographic location, nationality, and so on.

Methodology

Discuss your research methodology. Did you employ qualitative or quantitative research methods? Did you administer a questionnaire or interview people? Any field research conducted? How did you collect data? Did you utilize other libraries or archives? And so on.

Literature Review

The research process uncovers what other writers have written about your topic. Your education paper should include a discussion or review of what is known about the subject and how that knowledge was acquired. Once you provide the general and specific context of the existing knowledge, then you yourself can build on others' research. The guide Writing a Literature Review will be helpful here.

Main Body of Paper/Argument

This is generally the longest part of the paper. It's where the author supports the thesis and builds the argument. It contains most of the citations and analysis. This section should focus on a rational development of the thesis with clear reasoning and solid argumentation at all points. A clear focus, avoiding meaningless digressions, provides the essential unity that characterizes a strong education paper.

After spending a great deal of time and energy introducing and arguing the points in the main body of the paper, the conclusion brings everything together and underscores what it all means. A stimulating and informative conclusion leaves the reader informed and well-satisfied. A conclusion that makes sense, when read independently from the rest of the paper, will win praise.

Works Cited/Bibliography

See the Citation guide .

Education research papers often contain one or more appendices. An appendix contains material that is appropriate for enlarging the reader's understanding, but that does not fit very well into the main body of the paper. Such material might include tables, charts, summaries, questionnaires, interview questions, lengthy statistics, maps, pictures, photographs, lists of terms, glossaries, survey instruments, letters, copies of historical documents, and many other types of supplementary material. A paper may have several appendices. They are usually placed after the main body of the paper but before the bibliography or works cited section. They are usually designated by such headings as Appendix A, Appendix B, and so on.

• << Previous: Choosing a Topic
• Next: Find Books >>
• Last Updated: Aug 12, 2024 2:35 PM
• Subjects: Education
• Tags: education , education_paper , education_research_paper

• PRO Courses Guides New Tech Help Pro Expert Videos About wikiHow Pro Upgrade Sign In
• EDIT Edit this Article
• EXPLORE Tech Help Pro About Us Random Article Quizzes Request a New Article Community Dashboard This Or That Game Happiness Hub Popular Categories Arts and Entertainment Artwork Books Movies Computers and Electronics Computers Phone Skills Technology Hacks Health Men's Health Mental Health Women's Health Relationships Dating Love Relationship Issues Hobbies and Crafts Crafts Drawing Games Education & Communication Communication Skills Personal Development Studying Personal Care and Style Fashion Hair Care Personal Hygiene Youth Personal Care School Stuff Dating All Categories Arts and Entertainment Finance and Business Home and Garden Relationship Quizzes Cars & Other Vehicles Food and Entertaining Personal Care and Style Sports and Fitness Computers and Electronics Health Pets and Animals Travel Education & Communication Hobbies and Crafts Philosophy and Religion Work World Family Life Holidays and Traditions Relationships Youth
• Browse Articles
• Learn Something New
• Quizzes Hot
• Happiness Hub
• This Or That Game
• Train Your Brain
• Explore More
• Support wikiHow
• About wikiHow
• Log in / Sign up
• Education and Communications
• College University and Postgraduate
• Academic Writing
• Research Papers

Everything You Need to Know to Write an A+ Term Paper

Last Updated: March 4, 2024 Fact Checked

Sample Term Papers

Researching & outlining.

• Drafting Your Paper
• Revising Your Paper

Expert Q&A

This article was co-authored by Matthew Snipp, PhD and by wikiHow staff writer, Raven Minyard, BA . C. Matthew Snipp is the Burnet C. and Mildred Finley Wohlford Professor of Humanities and Sciences in the Department of Sociology at Stanford University. He is also the Director for the Institute for Research in the Social Science’s Secure Data Center. He has been a Research Fellow at the U.S. Bureau of the Census and a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. He has published 3 books and over 70 articles and book chapters on demography, economic development, poverty and unemployment. He is also currently serving on the National Institute of Child Health and Development’s Population Science Subcommittee. He holds a Ph.D. in Sociology from the University of Wisconsin—Madison. There are 13 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 2,249,219 times.

A term paper is a written assignment given to students at the end of a course to gauge their understanding of the material. Term papers typically count for a good percentage of your overall grade, so of course, you’ll want to write the best paper possible. Luckily, we’ve got you covered. In this article, we’ll teach you everything you need to know to write an A+ term paper, from researching and outlining to drafting and revising.

Quick Steps to Write a Term Paper

• Hook your readers with an interesting and informative intro paragraph. State your thesis and your main points.
• Support your thesis by providing quotes and evidence that back your claim in your body paragraphs.
• Summarize your main points and leave your readers with a thought-provoking question in your conclusion.

• Think of your term paper as the bridge between what you’ve learned in class and how you apply that knowledge to real-world topics.
• For example, a history term paper may require you to explore the consequences of a significant historical event, like the Civil War. An environmental science class, on the other hand, may have you examine the effects of climate change on a certain region.
• Your guidelines should tell you the paper’s word count and formatting style, like whether to use in-text citations or footnotes and whether to use single- or double-spacing. If these things aren’t specified, be sure to reach out to your instructor.

• Make sure your topic isn’t too broad. For example, if you want to write about Shakespeare’s work, first narrow it down to a specific play, like Macbeth , then choose something even more specific like Lady Macbeth’s role in the plot.
• If the topic is already chosen for you, explore unique angles that can set your content and information apart from the more obvious approaches many others will probably take. [3] X Research source
• Try not to have a specific outcome in mind, as this will close you off to new ideas and avenues of thinking. Rather than trying to mold your research to fit your desired outcome, allow the outcome to reflect a genuine analysis of the discoveries you made. Ask yourself questions throughout the process and be open to having your beliefs challenged.
• Reading other people's comments, opinions, and entries on a topic can often help you to refine your own, especially where they comment that "further research" is required or where they posit challenging questions but leave them unanswered.

• For example, if you’re writing a term paper about Macbeth , your primary source would be the play itself. Then, look for other research papers and analyses written by academics and scholars to understand how they interpret the text.

• For example, if you’re writing a paper about Lady Macbeth, your thesis could be something like “Shakespeare’s characterization of Lady Macbeth reveals how desire for power can control someone’s life.”
• Remember, your research and thesis development doesn’t stop here. As you continue working through both the research and writing, you may want to make changes that align with the ideas forming in your mind and the discoveries you continue to unearth.
• On the other hand, don’t keep looking for new ideas and angles for fear of feeling confined. At some point, you’re going to have to say enough is enough and make your point. You may have other opportunities to explore these questions in future studies, but for now, remember your term paper has a finite word length and an approaching due date!

• Abstract: An abstract is a concise summary of your paper that informs readers of your topic, its significance, and the key points you’ll explore. It must stand on its own and make sense without referencing outside sources or your actual paper.
• Introduction: The introduction establishes the main idea of your paper and directly states the thesis. Begin your introduction with an attention-grabbing sentence to intrigue your readers, and provide any necessary background information to establish your paper’s purpose and direction.
• Body paragraphs: Each body paragraph focuses on a different argument supporting your thesis. List specific evidence from your sources to back up your arguments. Provide detailed information about your topic to enhance your readers’ understanding. In your outline, write down the main ideas for each body paragraph and any outstanding questions or points you’re not yet sure about.
• Results: Depending on the type of term paper you’re writing, your results may be incorporated into your body paragraphs or conclusion. These are the insights that your research led you to. Here you can discuss how your perspective and understanding of your topic shifted throughout your writing process.
• Conclusion: Your conclusion summarizes your argument and findings. You may restate your thesis and major points as you wrap up your paper.

Drafting Your Term Paper

• Writing an introduction can be challenging, but don’t get too caught up on it. As you write the rest of your paper, your arguments might change and develop, so you’ll likely need to rewrite your intro at the end, anyway. Writing your intro is simply a means of getting started and you can always revise it later. [10] X Trustworthy Source PubMed Central Journal archive from the U.S. National Institutes of Health Go to source
• Be sure to define any words your readers might not understand. For example, words like “globalization” have many different meanings depending on context, and it’s important to state which ones you’ll be using as part of your introductory paragraph.

• Try to relate the subject of the essay (say, Plato’s Symposium ) to a tangentially related issue you happen to know something about (say, the growing trend of free-wheeling hookups in frat parties). Slowly bring the paragraph around to your actual subject and make a few generalizations about why this aspect of the book/subject is so fascinating and worthy of study (such as how different the expectations for physical intimacy were then compared to now).

• You can also reflect on your own experience of researching and writing your term paper. Discuss how your understanding of your topic evolved and any unexpected findings you came across.

• While peppering quotes throughout your text is a good way to help make your point, don’t overdo it. If you use too many quotes, you’re basically allowing other authors to make the point and write the paper for you. When you do use a quote, be sure to explain why it is relevant in your own words.
• Try to sort out your bibliography at the beginning of your writing process to avoid having a last-minute scramble. When you have all the information beforehand (like the source’s title, author, publication date, etc.), it’s easier to plug them into the correct format.

Revising & Finalizing Your Term Paper

• Trade in weak “to-be” verbs for stronger “action” verbs. For example: “I was writing my term paper” becomes “I wrote my term paper.”

• It’s extremely important to proofread your term paper. If your writing is full of mistakes, your instructor will assume you didn’t put much effort into your paper. If you have too many errors, your message will be lost in the confusion of trying to understand what you’ve written.

• If you add or change information to make things clearer for your readers, it’s a good idea to look over your paper one more time to catch any new typos that may have come up in the process.

• The best essays are like grass court tennis—the argument should flow in a "rally" style, building persuasively to the conclusion. Thanks Helpful 2 Not Helpful 0
• If you get stuck, consider giving your professor a visit. Whether you're still struggling for a thesis or you want to go over your conclusion, most instructors are delighted to help and they'll remember your initiative when grading time rolls around. Thanks Helpful 1 Not Helpful 1
• At least 2 hours for 3-5 pages.
• At least 4 hours for 8-10 pages.
• At least 6 hours for 12-15 pages.
• Double those hours if you haven't done any homework and you haven't attended class.
• For papers that are primarily research-based, add about two hours to those times (although you'll need to know how to research quickly and effectively, beyond the purview of this brief guide).

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://www.binghamton.edu/counseling/self-help/term-paper.html
• ↑ Matthew Snipp, PhD. Research Fellow, U.S. Bureau of the Census. Expert Interview. 26 March 2020.
• ↑ https://emory.libanswers.com/faq/44525
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/planresearchpaper/
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/the_writing_process/thesis_statement_tips.html
• ↑ https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/outline
• ↑ https://gallaudet.edu/student-success/tutorial-center/english-center/writing/guide-to-writing-introductions-and-conclusions/
• ↑ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26731827
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/writing-an-abstract-for-your-research-paper/
• ↑ https://www.ivcc.edu/stylesite/Essay_Title.pdf
• ↑ https://www.uni-flensburg.de/fileadmin/content/institute/anglistik/dokumente/downloads/how-to-write-a-term-paper-daewes.pdf
• ↑ https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185937
• ↑ https://www.cornerstone.edu/blog-post/six-steps-to-really-edit-your-paper/

About This Article

If you need to write a term paper, choose your topic, then start researching that topic. Use your research to craft a thesis statement which states the main idea of your paper, then organize all of your facts into an outline that supports your thesis. Once you start writing, state your thesis in the first paragraph, then use the body of the paper to present the points that support your argument. End the paper with a strong conclusion that restates your thesis. For tips on improving your term paper through active voice, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

• Send fan mail to authors

Reader Success Stories

Bill McReynolds

Apr 7, 2017

Did this article help you?

Gerard Mortera

Mar 30, 2016

Ayuba Muhammad Bello

Dec 28, 2016

Mar 24, 2016

Jera Andarino

May 11, 2016

Featured Articles

Trending Articles

Watch Articles

• Terms of Use
• Privacy Policy
• Do Not Sell or Share My Info
• Not Selling Info

Get all the best how-tos!

Sign up for wikiHow's weekly email newsletter

How to Write a Term Paper From Start to Finish

The term paper, often regarded as the culmination of a semester's hard work, is a rite of passage for students in pursuit of higher education. Here's an interesting fact to kick things off: Did you know that the term paper's origins can be traced back to ancient Greece, where scholars like Plato and Aristotle utilized written works to explore and document their philosophical musings? Just as these great minds once wrote their thoughts on parchment, you, too, can embark on this intellectual voyage with confidence and skill.

How to Write a Term Paper: Short Description

In this article, we'll delve into the core purpose of this kind of assignment – to showcase your understanding of a subject, your research abilities, and your capacity to communicate complex ideas effectively. But it doesn't stop there. We'll also guide you in the art of creating a well-structured term paper format, a roadmap that will not only keep you on track but also ensure your ideas flow seamlessly and logically. Packed with valuable tips on writing, organization, and time management, this resource promises to equip you with the tools needed to excel in your academic writing.

Understanding What Is a Term Paper

A term paper, a crucial component of your college education, is often assigned towards the conclusion of a semester. It's a vehicle through which educators gauge your comprehension of the course content. Imagine it as a bridge between what you've learned in class and your ability to apply that knowledge to real-world topics.

For instance, in a history course, you might be asked to delve into the causes and consequences of a significant historical event, such as World War II. In a psychology class, your term paper might explore the effects of stress on mental health, or in an environmental science course, you could analyze the impact of climate change on a specific region.

Writing a term paper isn't just about summarizing facts. It requires a blend of organization, deep research, and the art of presenting your findings in a way that's both clear and analytical. This means structuring your arguments logically, citing relevant sources, and critically evaluating the information you've gathered.

For further guidance, we've prepared an insightful guide for you authored by our expert essay writer . It's brimming with practical tips and valuable insights to help you stand out in this academic endeavor and earn the recognition you deserve.

How to Start a Term Paper

Before you start, keep the guidelines for the term paper format firmly in mind. If you have any doubts, don't hesitate to reach out to your instructor for clarification before you begin your research and writing process. And remember, procrastination is your worst enemy in this endeavor. If you're aiming to produce an exceptional piece and secure a top grade, it's essential to plan ahead and allocate dedicated time each day to work on it. Now, let our term paper writing services provide you with some valuable tips to help you on your journey:

• Hone Your Topic : Start by cultivating a learning mindset that empowers you to effectively organize your thoughts. Discover how to research a topic in the section below.
• Hook Your Readers: Initiate a brainstorming session and unleash a barrage of creative ideas to captivate your audience right from the outset. Pose intriguing questions, share compelling anecdotes, offer persuasive statistics, and more.
• Craft a Concise Thesis Statement Example : If you find yourself struggling to encapsulate the main idea of your paper in just a sentence or two, it's time to revisit your initial topic and consider narrowing it down.
• Understand Style Requirements: Your work must adhere to specific formatting guidelines. Delve into details about the APA format and other pertinent regulations in the section provided.
• Delve Deeper with Research : Equipped with a clearer understanding of your objectives, dive into your subject matter with a discerning eye. Ensure that you draw from reputable and reliable sources.
• Begin Writing: Don't obsess over perfection from the get-go. Just start writing, and don't worry about initial imperfections. You can always revise or remove those early sentences later. The key is to initiate the term papers as soon as you've amassed sufficient information.

Ace your term paper with EssayPro 's expert help. Our academic professionals are here to guide you through every step, ensuring your term paper is well-researched, structured, and written to the highest standards.

Term Paper Topics

Selecting the right topic for your term paper is a critical step, one that can significantly impact your overall experience and the quality of your work. While instructors sometimes provide specific topics, there are instances when you have the freedom to choose your own. To guide you on how to write a term paper, consider the following factors when deciding on your dissertation topics :

• Relevance to Assignment Length: Begin by considering the required length of your paper. Whether it's a substantial 10-page paper or a more concise 5-page one, understanding the word count will help you determine the appropriate scope for your subject. This will inform whether your topic should be broad or more narrowly focused.
• Availability of Resources : Investigate the resources at your disposal. Check your school or community library for books and materials that can support your research. Additionally, explore online sources to ensure you have access to a variety of reference materials.
• Complexity and Clarity : Ensure you can effectively explain your chosen topic, regardless of how complex it may seem. If you encounter areas that are challenging to grasp fully, don't hesitate to seek guidance from experts or your professor. Clarity and understanding are key to producing a well-structured term paper.
• Avoiding Overused Concepts : Refrain from choosing overly trendy or overused topics. Mainstream subjects often fail to captivate the interest of your readers or instructors, as they can lead to repetitive content. Instead, opt for a unique angle or approach that adds depth to your paper.
• Manageability and Passion : While passion can drive your choice of topic, it's important to ensure that it is manageable within the given time frame and with the available resources. If necessary, consider scaling down a topic that remains intriguing and motivating to you, ensuring it aligns with your course objectives and personal interests.

Worrying About the Quality of Your Upcoming Essay?

"Being highly trained professionals, our writers can provide term paper help by creating a paper specifically tailored to your needs.

Term Paper Outline

Before embarking on the journey of writing a term paper, it's crucial to establish a well-structured outline. Be mindful of any specific formatting requirements your teacher may have in mind, as these will guide your outline's structure. Here's a basic format to help you get started:

• Cover Page: Begin with a cover page featuring your name, course number, teacher's name, and the deadline date, centered at the top.
• Abstract: Craft a concise summary of your work that informs readers about your paper's topic, its significance, and the key points you'll explore.
• Introduction: Commence your term paper introduction with a clear and compelling statement of your chosen topic. Explain why it's relevant and outline your approach to addressing it.
• Body: This section serves as the meat of academic papers, where you present the primary findings from your research. Provide detailed information about the topic to enhance the reader's understanding. Ensure you incorporate various viewpoints on the issue and conduct a thorough analysis of your research.
• Results: Share the insights and conclusions that your research has led you to. Discuss any shifts in your perspective or understanding that have occurred during the course of your project.
• Discussion: Conclude your term paper with a comprehensive summary of the topic and your findings. You can wrap up with a thought-provoking question or encourage readers to explore the subject further through their own research.

How to Write a Term Paper with 5 Steps

Before you begin your term paper, it's crucial to understand what a term paper proposal entails. This proposal serves as your way to introduce and justify your chosen topic to your instructor, and it must gain approval before you start writing the actual paper.

In your proposal, include recent studies or research related to your topic, along with proper references. Clearly explain the topic's relevance to your course, outline your objectives, and organize your ideas effectively. This helps your instructor grasp your term paper's direction. If needed, you can also seek assistance from our expert writers and buy term paper .

Draft the Abstract

The abstract is a critical element while writing a term paper, and it plays a crucial role in piquing the reader's interest. To create a captivating abstract, consider these key points from our dissertation writing service :

• Conciseness: Keep it short and to the point, around 150-250 words. No need for lengthy explanations.
• Highlight Key Elements: Summarize the problem you're addressing, your research methods, and primary findings or conclusions. For instance, if your paper discusses the impact of social media on mental health, mention your research methods and significant findings.
• Engagement: Make your abstract engaging. Use language that draws readers in. For example, if your paper explores the effects of artificial intelligence on the job market, you might begin with a question like, 'Is AI revolutionizing our work landscape, or should we prepare for the robots to take over?'
• Clarity: Avoid excessive jargon or technical terms to ensure accessibility to a wider audience.

Craft the Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for your entire term paper and should engage readers from the outset. To craft an intriguing introduction, consider these tips:

• Hook Your Audience: Start with a captivating hook, such as a thought-provoking question or a compelling statistic. For example, if your paper explores the impact of smartphone addiction, you could begin with, 'Can you remember the last time you went a whole day without checking your phone?'
• State Your Purpose: Clearly state the purpose of your paper and its relevance. If your term paper is about renewable energy's role in combating climate change, explain why this topic is essential in today's world.
• Provide a Roadmap: Briefly outline how your paper is structured. For instance, if your paper discusses the benefits of mindfulness meditation, mention that you will explore its effects on stress reduction, emotional well-being, and cognitive performance.
• Thesis Statement: Conclude your introduction with a concise thesis statement that encapsulates the central argument or message of your paper. In the case of a term paper on the impact of online education, your thesis might be: 'Online education is revolutionizing learning by providing accessibility, flexibility, and innovative teaching methods.'

Develop the Body Sections: Brainstorming Concepts and Content

Generate ideas and compose text: body sections.

The body of your term paper is where you present your research, arguments, and analysis. To generate ideas and write engaging text in the body sections, consider these strategies from our research paper writer :

• Structure Your Ideas: Organize your paper into sections or paragraphs, each addressing a specific aspect of your topic. For example, if your term paper explores the impact of social media on interpersonal relationships, you might have sections on communication patterns, privacy concerns, and emotional well-being.
• Support with Evidence: Back up your arguments with credible evidence, such as data, research findings, or expert opinions. For instance, when discussing the effects of social media on mental health, you can include statistics on social media usage and its correlation with anxiety or depression.
• Offer Diverse Perspectives: Acknowledge and explore various viewpoints on the topic. When writing about the pros and cons of genetic engineering, present both the potential benefits, like disease prevention, and the ethical concerns associated with altering human genetics.
• Use Engaging Examples: Incorporate real-life examples to illustrate your points. If your paper discusses the consequences of climate change, share specific instances of extreme weather events or environmental degradation to make the topic relatable.
• Ask Thought-Provoking Questions: Integrate questions throughout your text to engage readers and stimulate critical thinking. In a term paper on the future of artificial intelligence, you might ask, 'How will AI impact job markets and the concept of work in the coming years?'

Formulate the Conclusion

The conclusion section should provide a satisfying wrap-up of your arguments and insights. To craft a compelling term paper example conclusion, follow these steps:

• Revisit Your Thesis: Begin by restating your thesis statement. This reinforces the central message of your paper. For example, if your thesis is about the importance of biodiversity conservation, reiterate that biodiversity is crucial for ecological balance and human well-being.
• Summarize Key Points: Briefly recap the main points you've discussed in the body of your paper. For instance, if you've been exploring the impact of globalization on local economies, summarize the effects on industries, job markets, and cultural diversity.
• Emphasize Your Main Argument: Reaffirm the significance of your thesis and the overall message of your paper. Discuss why your findings are important or relevant in a broader context. If your term paper discusses the advantages of renewable energy, underscore its potential to combat climate change and reduce our reliance on fossil fuels.
• Offer a Thoughtful Reflection: Share your own reflections or insights about the topic. How has your understanding evolved during your research? Have you uncovered any unexpected findings or implications? If your paper discusses the future of space exploration, consider what it means for humanity's quest to explore the cosmos.
• End with Impact: Conclude your term paper with a powerful closing statement. You can leave the reader with a thought-provoking question, a call to action, or a reflection on the broader implications of your topic. For instance, if your paper is about the ethics of artificial intelligence, you could finish by asking, 'As AI continues to advance, what ethical considerations will guide our choices and decisions?'

Edit and Enhance the Initial Draft

After completing your initial draft, the revision and polishing phase is essential for improving your paper. Here's how to refine your work efficiently:

• Take a Break: Step back and return to your paper with a fresh perspective.
• Structure Check: Ensure your paper flows logically and transitions smoothly from the introduction to the conclusion.
• Clarity and Conciseness: Trim excess words for clarity and precision.
• Grammar and Style: Proofread for errors and ensure consistent style.
• Citations and References: Double-check your citations and reference list.
• Peer Review: Seek feedback from peers or professors for valuable insights.
• Enhance Intro and Conclusion: Make your introduction and conclusion engaging and impactful.
• Coherence Check: Ensure your arguments support your thesis consistently.
• Read Aloud: Reading your paper aloud helps identify issues.
• Final Proofread: Perform a thorough proofread to catch any remaining errors.

Term Paper Format

When formatting your term paper, consider its length and the required citation style, which depends on your research topic. Proper referencing is crucial to avoid plagiarism in academic writing. Common citation styles include APA and MLA.

If unsure how to cite term paper for social sciences, use the APA format, including the author's name, book title, publication year, publisher, and location when citing a book.

For liberal arts and humanities, MLA is common, requiring the publication name, date, and location for referencing.

Adhering to the appropriate term paper format and citation style ensures an organized and academically sound paper. Follow your instructor's guidelines for a polished and successful paper.

Term Paper Example

To access our term paper example, simply click the button below.

The timeline of events from 1776 to 1861, that, in the end, prompted the American Civil War, describes and relates to a number of subjects modern historians acknowledge as the origins and causes of the Civil War. In fact, pre-Civil War events had both long-term and short-term influences on the War—such as the election of Abraham Lincoln as the American president in 1860 that led to the Fall of Fort Sumter in April of the same year. In that period, contentions that surrounded states’ rights progressively exploded in Congress—since they were the initial events that formed after independence. Congress focused on resolving significant issues that affected the states, which led to further issues. In that order, the US’s history from 1776 to 1861 provides a rich history, as politicians brought forth dissimilarities, dissections, and tensions between the Southern US & the people of slave states, and the Northern states that were loyal to the Union. The events that unfolded from the period of 1776 to 1861 involved a series of issues because they promoted the great sectional crisis that led to political divisions and the build-up to the Civil War that made the North and the South seem like distinctive and timeless regions that predated the crisis itself.

Final Thoughts

In closing, approach the task of writing term papers with determination and a positive outlook. Begin well in advance, maintain organization, and have faith in your capabilities. Don't hesitate to seek assistance if required, and express your individual perspective with confidence. You're more than capable of succeeding in this endeavor!

Need a Winning Hand in Academia?

Arm yourself with our custom-crafted academic papers that are sharper than a well-honed pencil! Order now and conquer your academic challenges with style!

What is the Difference between a Term Paper and a Research Paper?

What is the fastest way to write a term paper.

Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

is an expert in nursing and healthcare, with a strong background in history, law, and literature. Holding advanced degrees in nursing and public health, his analytical approach and comprehensive knowledge help students navigate complex topics. On EssayPro blog, Adam provides insightful articles on everything from historical analysis to the intricacies of healthcare policies. In his downtime, he enjoys historical documentaries and volunteering at local clinics.

WashU Libraries

A guide to education resources.

• Find Articles
• Research Papers
• Citation Management - Zotero
• Citing your Data
• Reference Sources
• Tests & Measurements
• Education Websites
• OER - Education
• Education Collection Development Policy

Writing in Education - a guide

Southwestern University Guide for Writing in Education

Research Papers in Education - current issues, topics, ideas

44 reports per year. Explores a single "hot" issue in the news in depth each week, featuring comments from experts, lawmakers and citizens on all sides of every issue.

• << Previous: Newspapers
• Next: Citation Management - Zotero >>
• Last Updated: Sep 6, 2024 4:37 PM
• URL: https://libguides.wustl.edu/education

• UDSIS-Students
• UDSIS-Staff
• Find It
• UD Home

Educational Technology Programs

• Performances
• Internships

Course Frameworks

• Introduction
• Grading Scale
• Course Description
• Textbooks and Computers
• Requirements
• Presentations
• 01 Understanding
• 02 Surfing and Searching
• 03 Communicating
• 04 Designing Webs
• 05 HTML Coding
• 06 Interacting with Users
• 07 JavaScript
• 09 Publishing Webs
• 10 Web Accessibility
• 11 Networking
• 12 Internet Architecture
• 13 Cybersecurity
• End-Of-Chapter Labs
• 03 Workings
• 04 Education
• 05 Cheating
• 06 Detecting
• 10 Keeping Up
• 01. Google Email
• 02. Google Calendar
• 03. Google Drive
• 04. Google Docs
• 05. Google Sites
• 06. Google Sheets
• 07. Google Slides
• 08. Google Forms
• 09. Google Meet
• 10. Google Groups
• 01 Platforms
• 02 Writing EPUBs with Pages
• 03 Writing EPUBs with MS Word
• 04 Deconstructing an EPUB
• 05 Distribution Options
• 06 Avoiding the Aggregators
• 07 Getting an ISBN (or not)
• 08 Publishing an EPUB
• 09 Troubleshooting eBook Glitches
• 10 Marketing Your eBook
• 11 Tips and Tricks
• 12 Resources
• 02 Principles
• 03 Practices
• 05 Knowledge Base
• 01 Conceptualizing
• 02 Blogging
• 03 Tweeting
• 04 Concept Mapping
• 05 Flipping the Classroom
• 01. LMS Leaders
• 02. Effectiveness
• 05. Videoconferencing
• 06. Digital Badges
• 07. Interoperability
• 08. Trends & Issues
• 09. Keeping Up
• Discussions
• Projects Gallery
• Frameworks Gallery
• 01 Definitions
• 04 Standards
• 06 Societal Issues
• 07 Learning Theory
• 08 Internet Resources
• 09 Assessment
• 10 Planning
• 11 ePortfolio Design
• 01. What Is Multimedia?
• 02. Screen Design
• 03. Hyperlinks
• 04. Accessibility
• 05. Writing
• 06. Graphics
• 09. Teaching and Learning
• 10. Multimedia Design
• 11.Societal Issues
• 12. Multimedia Frontiers
• 13. Keeping Up
• A-Plus Project Examples
• A-Plus Term Papers
• 01 Join Apple Teacher
• 02 System Overview Badge
• 03 Pages Badge
• 04 Keynote Badge
• 05 Numbers Badge
• 06 iMovie Badge
• 07 GarageBand Badge
• 08 Get Your Certificate
• 01 Concepts
• 02 Measure App
• 03 GeoGebra 3D
• 04 Night Sky
• 05 Apollo's Moon Shot
• 06 Statue of Liberty
• 07 Berlin Wall
• 10 Reality Composer
• 01 Role of Technology
• 02 Teacher Knowledge
• 03 Personalized Learning
• 04 Equity & UDL
• 05 Collaborative Learning
• 06 Flipping or Not
• 07 Gaming & Coding
• 08 Mobile Learning
• 09 Open Learning
• 10 Sample Projects
• 01 Perspectives
• 02 Environments
• 03 Curriculum
• 04 Collaboration
• 05 Gaming and Making
• 06 List of Theories
• ePortfolio Defined
• ePortfolio Examples
• 01 Learning from iBooks
• 02 Taking Photos
• 03 Surfing with Safari
• 04 Wikipanion
• 05 Penultimate
• 06 Making Screenshots
• 07 Rotating Images
• 08 Organizing Ideas
• 09 Digital Storytelling
• 10 Dragon Dictation
• 11 Multitasking
• 12 Finding Good Apps
• 13 iTunes U
• 14 Free Books
• 15 Creating ePubs
• 16 Managing Files
• 18 GoodReader
• 19 Organizing Apps
• 20 Configuring Mail & Calendar
• 21 Securing the iPad
• 22 Searching Your iPad
• 23 Projecting the iPad
• 24 Troubleshooting
• 25 Learning More
• 01-Apple Developer
• 02-Install Xcode
• 03-Hello, World!
• 04-Sample Apps
• 05-Objective-C
• 06-Human Interface
• 07-App Design
• 08-App Store
• 02 Getting Started
• 03 Creating Channels
• 05 Embedding
• 06 Technology
• 07 Interaction
• 08 Monetization
• 09 Copyright
• 11 Censorship
• 12 References

Video Lessons

• Getting Started
• Rich Text Editing
• Pages and Subpages
• Inserting Images
• Web Page Layout
• Navigation Modes
• Making Hyperlinks
• Changing Themes

Examples of Term Papers that Got an A

Listed below are links to some term papers that got an "A" grade last year. When you compare these examples with each other, you will notice that there are three important aspects of an “A” paper. First, they are passionately written and captivating to read. Second, they have good grammar and style (following MLA, APA, or CMS style). Third, they are well documented with in-text references (in parentheses) linking their assertions to scholary articles in the list of references at the end of the paper. You will see what I mean when you follow these links to student papers that earned an “A” last year. All of these papers are copyrighted by their authors. Please respect these copyrights.

• Aisha-McCormick-Digital-Marketing
• Allie-Modica-Effectiveness
• Allison-Winters-Technology-And-Learning-Styles
• Amanda-Yanez-Social-Media-Advertising
• Amanda-Warren-Social-Media-Likes
• Austin-Abbruzzesi-Computer-Science-Classes-in-High-School-Curricula
• Ben-Rohe-MOOCs
• Brianna-Patrizio-Gender-Equality
• Collette-Small-Social-Media
• Danielle-Piha-CyberBullying
• Danielle-Ragno-LinkedIn
• David-Palgon-Facebook-and-Employers
• Donna-Muchio-Self-Esteem
• Ebenezer-Riverson-3D-Printing
• Elizabeth-Hansen-WII-Physical-Therapy
• Faith-Lumpkin-LinkedIn
• Giselle-Malenchek-Digital-Piracy
• Jessica-Morris-Healthy-Lifestyles
• Katy-Snyder-Social-Media-Advertisers
• Jillian-Loeffler-Social-Media-in-Your-Job-Search
• Lauren-Vandaniker-Technology-Impact-On-Nursing-Practice
• Lisa-Plumley-Multimedia-Young-Children
• Madison-Gamble-Technology-As-A-Means-For-Therapeutic-Modalities
• Maria-Medved-Hospitality-Industry
• Lisa-Tossey-POV-Cameras-Education
• Paul-Page-Copyright-IP-Public-Good
• Sarah-Ibarguen-Twitter
• Taylor-Soave-Social-Media-Classroom
• Tim-Ware-Social-Media-News-Outlet

• School of Education  •   Willard Hall Education Building  •   Newark, DE 19716  •   USA Undergraduate phone: 302-831-8695  •  Fax: 302-831-4110 Graduate phone: 302-831-1165  •  Fax: 302-831-4421 Director's Office: 302-831-3178  •  Fax: 302-831-6039
• Legal Notices

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Trends in educational research about e-learning: a systematic literature review (2009–2018).

1. Introduction

1.1. definition of e-learning, 1.2. previous slrs about e-learning research, 2. materials and methods, 3.1. research themes and subthemes about e-learning and education (2009–2018), 3.2. educational theories about e-learning, 3.3. most studied e-learning modality, 3.4. research methodologies in the analysed articles, 4. conclusions.

O1. To identify the research topics about e-learning and education that were published in international high-impact scientific journals in the period of 2009–2018.

O2. To reveal the educational theories about e-learning that were used in international high-impact scientific journals in the period of 2009–2018.

O3. To determine the most used e-learning modality in studies published in international high-impact scientific journals in the period of 2009–2018.

O4. To identify the methodologies of educational research used in studies published in international high-impact scientific journals in the period of 2009–2018.

Author Contributions

Acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

• The World Bank World Bank Education and COVID-19. Available online: https://www.worldbank.org/en/data/interactive/2020/03/24/world-bank-education-and-covid-19 (accessed on 15 June 2020).
• UNESCO COVID-19 Educational Disruption and Response. Available online: https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse (accessed on 8 May 2020).
• World Bank Individuals Using the Internet (% of population) | Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IT.NET.USER.ZS?name_desc=false (accessed on 8 May 2020).
• Bates, T. Crashing into online learning: A report from five continents—And some conclusions | Tony Bates. Available online: https://www.tonybates.ca/2020/04/26/crashing-into-online-learning-a-report-from-five-continents-and-some-conclusions/ (accessed on 8 May 2020).
• Vázquez-Cano, E.; León Urrutia, M.; Parra-González, M.E.; López Meneses, E. Analysis of Interpersonal Competences in the Use of ICT in the Spanish University Context. Sustainability 2020 , 12 , 476. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Statista E-learning and digital education. Available online: https://www.statista.com/topics/3115/e-learning-and-digital-education/ (accessed on 8 May 2020).
• World Commission on Environment and Development. Our Common Future ; Oxford paperbacks; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 1987; ISBN 978-0-19-282080-8. [ Google Scholar ]
• Stepanyan, K.; Littlejohn, A.; Margaryan, A. Sustainable e-Learning: Toward a Coherent Body of Knowledge. J. Educ. Technol. Soc. 2013 , 16 , 91–102. [ Google Scholar ]
• Stansfield, M.; Connolly, T.; Cartelli, A.; Jimoyiannis, A.; Magalhaes, H.; Maillet, K. The Identification of Key Issues in the Development of Sustainable e-Learning and Virtual Campus Initiatives. Electron. J. e-Learn. 2009 , 7 , 155–164. [ Google Scholar ]
• Rovai, A.P.; Downey, J.R. Why Some Distance Education Programs Fail while Others Succeed in a Global Environment. Internet High. Educ. 2010 , 13 , 141–147. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chipere, N. A framework for developing sustainable e-learning programmes. Open Learn. J. Open Distance e-Learn. 2017 , 32 , 36–55. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Aparicio, M.; Bacao, F.; Oliveira, T. An e-Learning Theoretical Framework. J. Educ. Technol. Soc. 2016 , 19 , 292–307. [ Google Scholar ]
• Garrison, D.R. Blended Learning a Transformative Design Approach. In Encyclopedia of Distance Learning ; Rogers, P.L., Ed.; Information Science Reference: Hershey, PA, USA, 2009; pp. 200–204. ISBN 978-1-60566-198-8. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sangrà, A.; Vlachopoulos, D.; Cabrera, N. Building an inclusive definition of e-learning: An approach to the conceptual framework. Int. Rev. Res. Open Distrib. Learn. 2012 , 13 , 145–159. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Rodrigues, H.; Almeida, F.; Figueiredo, V.; Lopes, S.L. Tracking e-learning through published papers: A systematic review. Comput. Educ. 2019 , 136 , 87–98. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Garrison, D.R. E-learning in the 21st Century: A Community of Inquiry Framework for Research and Practice , 3rd ed.; Routledge: New York, NY, USA, 2017; ISBN 978-1-138-95355-0. [ Google Scholar ]
• Dron, J.; Anderson, T. The future of e-learning. In The Sage Handbook of E-Learning Research ; Haythornthwaite, C.A., Ed.; SAGE Reference: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 2016; pp. 537–556. ISBN 978-1-4739-0232-9. [ Google Scholar ]
• Njenga, J.K.; Fourie, L.C.H. The myths about e-learning in higher education. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2010 , 41 , 199–212. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zare, M.; Pahl, C.; Rahnama, H.; Nilashi, M.; Mardani, A.; Ibrahim, O.; Ahmadi, H. Multi-criteria decision making approach in E-learning: A systematic review and classification. Appl. Soft Comput. 2016 , 45 , 108–128. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Conole, G.; Oliver, M. Contemporary Perspectives in e-Learning Research: Themes, Methods, and Impact on Practice ; The open and flexible learning series; Routledge: London, UK; New York, NY, USA, 2007; ISBN 978-0-415-39393-5. [ Google Scholar ]
• Shih, M.; Feng, J.; Tsai, C.-C. Research and trends in the field of e-learning from 2001 to 2005: A content analysis of cognitive studies in selected journals. Comput. Educ. 2008 , 51 , 955–967. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Maurer, H.; Salman Khan, M. Research trends in the field of e-learning from 2003 to 2008: A scientometric and content analysis for selected journals and conferences using visualization. Interact. Tech. Smart Ed. 2010 , 7 , 5–18. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Oncu, S.; Cakir, H. Research in online learning environments: Priorities and methodologies. Comput. Educ. 2011 , 57 , 1098–1108. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Moher, D.; Shamseer, L.; Clarke, M.; Ghersi, D.; Liberati, A.; Petticrew, M.; Shekelle, P.; Stewart, L.A. PRISMA-P Group Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015 statement. Syst. Rev. 2015 , 4 , 1. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Shamseer, L.; Moher, D.; Clarke, M.; Ghersi, D.; Liberati, A.; Petticrew, M.; Shekelle, P.; Stewart, L.A. Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015: Elaboration and explanation. BMJ 2015 , 349 . [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Kohl, C.; McIntosh, E.J.; Unger, S.; Haddaway, N.R.; Kecke, S.; Schiemann, J.; Wilhelm, R. Online tools supporting the conduct and reporting of systematic reviews and systematic maps: A case study on CADIMA and review of existing tools. Environ. Evid. 2018 , 7 , 8. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cohen, J. A Coefficient of Agreement for Nominal Scales. Educ. Psychol. Meas. 1960 , 20 , 37–46. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Landis, J.R.; Koch, G.G. The Measurement of Observer Agreement for Categorical Data. Biometrics 1977 , 33 , 159. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• van Eck, N.J.; Waltman, L. Software survey: VOSviewer, a computer program for bibliometric mapping. Scientometrics 2010 , 84 , 523–538. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Lin, J.-W.; Huang, H.-H.; Chuang, Y.-S. The impacts of network centrality and self-regulation on an e-learning environment with the support of social network awareness. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2015 , 46 , 32–44. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Liaw, S.-S.; Huang, H.-M. Perceived satisfaction, perceived usefulness and interactive learning environments as predictors to self-regulation in e-learning environments. Comput. Educ. 2013 , 60 , 14–24. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sun, J.C.-Y.; Rueda, R. Situational interest, computer self-efficacy and self-regulation: Their impact on student engagement in distance education. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2012 , 43 , 191–204. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Cho, M.-H.; Kim, B.J. Students’ self-regulation for interaction with others in online learning environments. Internet High. Educ. 2013 , 17 , 69–75. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hone, K.S.; El Said, G.R. Exploring the factors affecting MOOC retention: A survey study. Comput. Educ. 2016 , 98 , 157–168. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Paton, R.M.; Fluck, A.E.; Scanlan, J.D. Engagement and retention in VET MOOCs and online courses: A systematic review of literature from 2013 to 2017. Comput. Educ. 2018 , 125 , 191–201. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lee, Y.; Choi, J.; Kim, T. Discriminating factors between completers of and dropouts from online learning courses. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2013 , 44 , 328–337. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sun, J. Multi-dimensional alignment between online instruction and course technology: A learner-centered perspective. Comput. Educ. 2016 , 101 , 102–114. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lee, J.-W. Online support service quality, online learning acceptance, and student satisfaction. Internet High. Educ. 2010 , 13 , 277–283. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bradford, G.; Wyatt, S. Online learning and student satisfaction: Academic standing, ethnicity and their influence on facilitated learning, engagement, and information fluency. Internet High. Educ. 2010 , 13 , 108–114. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bradford, G.R. A relationship study of student satisfaction with learning online and cognitive load: Initial results. Internet High. Educ. 2011 , 14 , 217–226. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kim, C.; Park, S.W.; Cozart, J. Affective and motivational factors of learning in online mathematics courses. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2014 , 45 , 171–185. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Fryer, L.K.; Bovee, H.N. Staying motivated to e-learn: Person- and variable-centred perspectives on the longitudinal risks and support. Comput. Educ. 2018 , 120 , 227–240. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Prior, D.D.; Mazanov, J.; Meacheam, D.; Heaslip, G.; Hanson, J. Attitude, digital literacy and self efficacy: Flow-on effects for online learning behavior. Internet High. Educ. 2016 , 29 , 91–97. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Knutsson, O.; Blåsjö, M.; Hållsten, S.; Karlström, P. Identifying different registers of digital literacy in virtual learning environments. Internet High. Educ. 2012 , 15 , 237–246. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bhuasiri, W.; Xaymoungkhoun, O.; Zo, H.; Rho, J.J.; Ciganek, A.P. Critical success factors for e-learning in developing countries: A comparative analysis between ICT experts and faculty. Comput. Educ. 2012 , 58 , 843–855. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Moreno, V.; Cavazotte, F.; Alves, I. Explaining university students’ effective use of e-learning platforms. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2017 , 48 , 995–1009. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gökçearslan, Ş.; Alper, A. The effect of locus of control on learners’ sense of community and academic success in the context of online learning communities. Internet High. Educ. 2015 , 27 , 64–73. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Boling, E.C.; Hough, M.; Krinsky, H.; Saleem, H.; Stevens, M. Cutting the distance in distance education: Perspectives on what promotes positive, online learning experiences. Internet High. Educ. 2012 , 15 , 118–126. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Stein, S.J.; Shephard, K.; Harris, I. Conceptions of e-learning and professional development for e-learning held by tertiary educators in New Zealand. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2011 , 42 , 145–165. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wilson, A. Effective professional development for e-learning: What do the managers think? Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2012 , 43 , 892–900. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Smith, J.A.; Sivo, S.A. Predicting continued use of online teacher professional development and the influence of social presence and sociability. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2012 , 43 , 871–882. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• González-Gómez, F.; Guardiola, J.; Martín Rodríguez, Ó.; Montero Alonso, M.Á. Gender differences in e-learning satisfaction. Comput. Educ. 2012 , 58 , 283–290. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Seale, J.; Cooper, M. E-learning and accessibility: An exploration of the potential role of generic pedagogical tools. Comput. Educ. 2010 , 54 , 1107–1116. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hung, M.-L.; Chou, C. Students’ perceptions of instructors’ roles in blended and online learning environments: A comparative study. Comput. Educ. 2015 , 81 , 315–325. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Aparicio, M.; Bacao, F.; Oliveira, T. Cultural impacts on e-learning systems’ success. Internet High. Educ. 2016 , 31 , 58–70. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Cidral, W.A.; Oliveira, T.; Di Felice, M.; Aparicio, M. E-learning success determinants: Brazilian empirical study. Comput. Educ. 2018 , 122 , 273–290. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Kruger-Ross, M.J.; Waters, R.D. Predicting online learning success: Applying the situational theory of publics to the virtual classroom. Comput. Educ. 2013 , 61 , 176–184. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hachey, A.C.; Wladis, C.; Conway, K. Prior online course experience and G.P.A. as predictors of subsequent online STEM course outcomes. Internet High. Educ. 2015 , 25 , 11–17. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Arbaugh, J.B. Does academic discipline moderate CoI-course outcomes relationships in online MBA courses? Internet High. Educ. 2013 , 17 , 16–28. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Margaryan, A.; Bianco, M.; Littlejohn, A. Instructional quality of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs). Comput. Educ. 2015 , 80 , 77–83. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Chou, H.-L.; Chen, C.-H. Beyond identifying privacy issues in e-learning settings—Implications for instructional designers. Comput. Educ. 2016 , 103 , 124–133. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sung, Y.-T.; Chang, K.-E.; Yu, W.-C. Evaluating the reliability and impact of a quality assurance system for E-learning courseware. Comput. Educ. 2011 , 57 , 1615–1627. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Arbaugh, J.B.; Godfrey, M.R.; Johnson, M.; Pollack, B.L.; Niendorf, B.; Wresch, W. Research in online and blended learning in the business disciplines: Key findings and possible future directions. Internet High. Educ. 2009 , 12 , 71–87. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yoo, S.J.; Huang, W.D. Can e-learning system enhance learning culture in the workplace? A comparison among companies in South Korea. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2016 , 47 , 575–591. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Broadbent, J. Comparing online and blended learner’s self-regulated learning strategies and academic performance. Internet High. Educ. 2017 , 33 , 24–32. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Michinov, N.; Brunot, S.; Le Bohec, O.; Juhel, J.; Delaval, M. Procrastination, participation, and performance in online learning environments. Comput. Educ. 2011 , 56 , 243–252. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gikandi, J.W.; Morrow, D.; Davis, N.E. Online formative assessment in higher education: A review of the literature. Comput. Educ. 2011 , 57 , 2333–2351. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Guerrero-Roldán, A.-E.; Noguera, I. A model for aligning assessment with competences and learning activities in online courses. Internet High. Educ. 2018 , 38 , 36–46. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wang, T.-H. Developing an assessment-centered e-Learning system for improving student learning effectiveness. Comput. Educ. 2014 , 73 , 189–203. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hew, K.F. Promoting engagement in online courses: What strategies can we learn from three highly rated MOOCS. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2016 , 47 , 320–341. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Garcia, R.; Falkner, K.; Vivian, R. Systematic literature review: Self-Regulated Learning strategies using e-learning tools for Computer Science. Comput. Educ. 2018 , 123 , 150–163. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Garrison, D.R.; Anderson, T.; Archer, W. The first decade of the community of inquiry framework: A retrospective. Internet High. Educ. 2010 , 13 , 5–9. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Garrison, D.R.; Anderson, T. E-learning in the 21st Century a Framework for Research and Practice ; RoutledgeFalmer: London, UK; New York, NY, USA, 2003; ISBN 0-203-16609-4. [ Google Scholar ]
• Thomas, R.A.; West, R.E.; Borup, J. An analysis of instructor social presence in online text and asynchronous video feedback comments. Internet and Higher Education 2017 , 33 , 61–73. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Shea, P.; Bidjerano, T. Community of inquiry as a theoretical framework to foster “epistemic engagement” and “cognitive presence” in online education. Comput. Educ. 2009 , 52 , 543–553. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Joo, Y.J.; Lim, K.Y.; Kim, E.K. Online university students’ satisfaction and persistence: Examining perceived level of presence, usefulness and ease of use as predictors in a structural model. Comput. Educ. 2011 , 57 , 1654–1664. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Joksimovic, S.; Gasevic, D.; Kovanovic, V.; Adesope, O.; Hatala, M. Psychological characteristics in cognitive presence of communities of inquiry: A linguistic analysis of online discussions. Internet High. Educ. 2014 , 22 , 1–10. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Shea, P.; Bidjerano, T. Learning presence as a moderator in the community of inquiry model. Comput. Educ. 2012 , 59 , 316–326. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kozan, K.; Caskurlu, S. On the Nth presence for the Community of Inquiry framework. Comput. Educ. 2018 , 122 , 104–118. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rubin, B.; Fernandes, R.; Avgerinou, M.D. The effects of technology on the Community of Inquiry and satisfaction with online courses. Internet High. Educ. 2013 , 17 , 48–57. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kim, J.; Kwon, Y.; Cho, D. Investigating factors that influence social presence and learning outcomes in distance higher education. Comput. Educ. 2011 , 57 , 1512–1520. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhan, Z.; Mei, H. Academic self-concept and social presence in face-to-face and online learning: Perceptions and effects on students’ learning achievement and satisfaction across environments. Comput. Educ. 2013 , 69 , 131–138. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Borup, J.; West, R.E.; Graham, C.R. Improving online social presence through asynchronous video. Internet High. Educ. 2012 , 15 , 195–203. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ke, F. Examining online teaching, cognitive, and social presence for adult students. Comput. Educ. 2010 , 55 , 808–820. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Stenbom, S. A systematic review of the Community of Inquiry survey. Internet High. Educ. 2018 , 39 , 22–32. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kovanović, V.; Joksimović, S.; Poquet, O.; Hennis, T.; Čukić, I.; de Vries, P.; Hatala, M.; Dawson, S.; Siemens, G.; Gašević, D. Exploring communities of inquiry in Massive Open Online Courses. Comput. Educ. 2018 , 119 , 44–58. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Swan, K.; Matthews, D.; Bogle, L.; Boles, E.; Day, S. Linking online course design and implementation to learning outcomes: A design experiment. Internet High. Educ. 2012 , 15 , 81–88. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yu, T.; Richardson, J.C. Examining reliability and validity of a Korean version of the Community of Inquiry instrument using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Internet High. Educ. 2015 , 25 , 45–52. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bagozzi, R.P.; Davis, F.D.; Warshaw, P.R. Development and Test of a Theory of Technological Learning and Usage. Hum. Relat. 1992 , 45 , 659–686. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cheung, R.; Vogel, D. Predicting user acceptance of collaborative technologies: An extension of the technology acceptance model for e-learning. Comput. Educ. 2013 , 63 , 160–175. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chang, C.-T.; Hajiyev, J.; Su, C.-R. Examining the students’ behavioral intention to use e-learning in Azerbaijan? The General Extended Technology Acceptance Model for E-learning approach. Comput. Educ. 2017 , 111 , 128–143. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Liu, I.-F.; Chen, M.C.; Sun, Y.S.; Wible, D.; Kuo, C.-H. Extending the TAM model to explore the factors that affect Intention to Use an Online Learning Community. Comput. Educ. 2010 , 54 , 600–610. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ros, S.; Hernández, R.; Caminero, A.; Robles, A.; Barbero, I.; Maciá, A.; Holgado, F.P. On the use of extended TAM to assess students’ acceptance and intent to use third-generation learning management systems. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2015 , 46 , 1250–1271. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Spector, J.M. A Critical Look at MOOCs. In Open Education: From OERs to MOOCs ; Jemni, M., Kinshuk, Khribi, M.K., Eds.; Lecture Notes in Educational Technology; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2017; pp. 135–148. ISBN 978-3-662-52923-2. [ Google Scholar ]
• Zhu, M.; Sari, A.; Lee, M.M. A systematic review of research methods and topics of the empirical MOOC literature (2014–2016). Internet High. Educ. 2018 , 37 , 31–39. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• van de Oudeweetering, K.; Agirdag, O. Demographic data of MOOC learners: Can alternative survey deliveries improve current understandings? Comput. Educ. 2018 , 122 , 169–178. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Terras, M.M.; Ramsay, J. Massive open online courses (MOOCs): Insights and challenges from a psychological perspective. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2015 , 46 , 472–487. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Salmon, G.; Pechenkina, E.; Chase, A.-M.; Ross, B. Designing Massive Open Online Courses to take account of participant motivations and expectations. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2017 , 48 , 1284–1294. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rieber, L.P. Participation patterns in a massive open online course (MOOC) about statistics. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2017 , 48 , 1295–1304. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Watted, A.; Barak, M. Motivating factors of MOOC completers: Comparing between university-affiliated students and general participants. Internet High. Educ. 2018 , 37 , 11–20. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Barak, M.; Watted, A.; Haick, H. Motivation to learn in massive open online courses: Examining aspects of language and social engagement. Comput. Educ. 2016 , 94 , 49–60. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Jung, Y.; Lee, J. Learning Engagement and Persistence in Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCS). Comput. Educ. 2018 , 122 , 9–22. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wise, A.F.; Cui, Y. Learning communities in the crowd: Characteristics of content related interactions and social relationships in MOOC discussion forums. Comput. Educ. 2018 , 122 , 221–242. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gillani, N.; Eynon, R. Communication patterns in massively open online courses. Internet High. Educ. 2014 , 23 , 18–26. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Tømte, C.; Enochsson, A.-B.; Buskqvist, U.; Kårstein, A. Educating online student teachers to master professional digital competence: The TPACK-framework goes online. Comput. Educ. 2015 , 84 , 26–35. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Tirado Morueta, R.; Maraver López, P.; Hernando Gómez, Á.; Harris, V.W. Exploring social and cognitive presences in communities of inquiry to perform higher cognitive tasks. Internet High. Educ. 2016 , 31 , 122–131. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lambropoulos, N.; Faulkner, X.; Culwin, F. Supporting social awareness in collaborative e-learning. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2012 , 43 , 295–306. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Boling, E.C.; Holan, E.; Horbatt, B.; Hough, M.; Jean-Louis, J.; Khurana, C.; Krinsky, H.; Spiezio, C. Using online tools for communication and collaboration: Understanding educators’ experiences in an online course. Internet High. Educ. 2014 , 23 , 48–55. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Raffaghelli, J.E.; Cucchiara, S.; Persico, D. Methodological approaches in MOOC research: Retracing the myth of Proteus. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2015 , 46 , 488–509. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Byrne, B.M. Structural Equation Modeling with Amos: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming , 3rd ed.; Multivariate applications series; Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group: New York, NY, USA, 2016; ISBN 978-1-138-79702-4. [ Google Scholar ]
• Joo, Y.J.; Lim, K.Y.; Park, S.Y. Investigating the structural relationships among organisational support, learning flow, learners’ satisfaction and learning transfer in corporate e-learning. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2011 , 42 , 973–984. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lee, Y.; Choi, J. A structural equation model of predictors of online learning retention. Internet High. Educ. 2013 , 16 , 36–42. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Teo, T. A structural equation modelling of factors influencing student teachers’ satisfaction with e-learning. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2010 , 41 , E150–E152. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ulrich, J.; Karvonen, M. Faculty instructional attitudes, interest, and intention: Predictors of Web 2.0 use in online courses. Internet High. Educ. 2011 , 14 , 207–216. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lu, H.-P.; Chiou, M.-J. The impact of individual differences on e-learning system satisfaction: A contingency approach. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2010 , 41 , 307–323. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cho, V.; Cheng, T.C.E.; Lai, W.M.J. The role of perceived user-interface design in continued usage intention of self-paced e-learning tools. Comput. Educ. 2009 , 53 , 216–227. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Niu, L. A review of the application of logistic regression in educational research: Common issues, implications, and suggestions. Educ. Rev. 2020 , 72 , 41–67. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ortagus, J.C. From the periphery to prominence: An examination of the changing profile of online students in American higher education. Internet High. Educ. 2017 , 32 , 47–57. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Artino, A.R. Online or face-to-face learning? Exploring the personal factors that predict students’ choice of instructional format. Internet High. Educ. 2010 , 13 , 272–276. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Artino, A.R.; Stephens, J.M. Academic motivation and self-regulation: A comparative analysis of undergraduate and graduate students learning online. Internet High. Educ. 2009 , 12 , 146–151. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Artino, A.R.; Jones, K.D. Exploring the complex relations between achievement emotions and self-regulated learning behaviors in online learning. Internet High. Educ. 2012 , 15 , 170–175. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kim, D.; Yoon, M.; Jo, I.-H.; Branch, R.M. Learning analytics to support self-regulated learning in asynchronous online courses: A case study at a women’s university in South Korea. Comput. Educ. 2018 , 127 , 233–251. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• The Design-Based Research Collective Design-Based Research: An Emerging Paradigm for Educational Inquiry. Educ. Res. 2003 , 32 , 5–8. [ CrossRef ]
• Hathaway, D.; Norton, P. Understanding Problems of Practice. A Case Study in Design Research ; SpringerBriefs in Educational Communications and Technology; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2018; ISBN 978-3-319-77558-6. [ Google Scholar ]
• Huang, R.; Spector, J.M.; Yang, J. Design-Based Research. In Educational Technology ; Springer: Singapore, 2019; pp. 179–188. ISBN 9789811366420. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hrastinski, S.; Keller, C.; Carlsson, S.A. Design exemplars for synchronous e-learning: A design theory approach. Comput. Educ. 2010 , 55 , 652–662. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rasi, P.; Vuojärvi, H. Toward personal and emotional connectivity in mobile higher education through asynchronous formative audio feedback. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2018 , 49 , 292–304. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ Green Version ]
• Swan, K.; Day, S.L.; Bogle, L.R.; Matthews, D.B. A collaborative, design-based approach to improving an online program. Internet High. Educ. 2014 , 21 , 74–81. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chang, C. Usability testing for e-learning material for new employee training: A design-based research approach. Br. J. Educ. Technol. 2011 , 42 , E125–E130. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• de Freitas, A.S.; Bandeira-de-Mello, R. Managerial action and sensemaking in e-learning implementation in Brazilian business schools. Comput. Educ. 2012 , 59 , 1286–1299. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Biasutti, M. The student experience of a collaborative e-learning university module. Comput. Educ. 2011 , 57 , 1865–1875. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Swaggerty, E.A.; Broemmel, A.D. Authenticity, relevance, and connectedness: Graduate students’ learning preferences and experiences in an online reading education course. Internet High. Educ. 2017 , 32 , 80–86. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]

Click here to enlarge figure

Share and Cite

Valverde-Berrocoso, J.; Garrido-Arroyo, M.d.C.; Burgos-Videla, C.; Morales-Cevallos, M.B. Trends in Educational Research about e-Learning: A Systematic Literature Review (2009–2018). Sustainability 2020 , 12 , 5153. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12125153

Valverde-Berrocoso J, Garrido-Arroyo MdC, Burgos-Videla C, Morales-Cevallos MB. Trends in Educational Research about e-Learning: A Systematic Literature Review (2009–2018). Sustainability . 2020; 12(12):5153. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12125153

Valverde-Berrocoso, Jesús, María del Carmen Garrido-Arroyo, Carmen Burgos-Videla, and María Belén Morales-Cevallos. 2020. "Trends in Educational Research about e-Learning: A Systematic Literature Review (2009–2018)" Sustainability 12, no. 12: 5153. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12125153

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

Research Topics & Ideas: Education

170+ Research Ideas To Fast-Track Your Dissertation, Thesis Or Research Project

I f you’re just starting out exploring education-related topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll help kickstart your research topic ideation process by providing a hearty list of research topics and ideas , including examples from actual dissertations and theses..

PS – This is just the start…

We know it’s exciting to run through a list of research topics, but please keep in mind that this list is just a starting point . To develop a suitable education-related research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan of action to fill that gap.

If this sounds foreign to you, check out our free research topic webinar that explores how to find and refine a high-quality research topic, from scratch. Alternatively, if you’d like hands-on help, consider our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Overview: Education Research Topics

• How to find a research topic (video)
• List of 50+ education-related research topics/ideas
• List of 120+ level-specific research topics 
• Examples of actual dissertation topics in education
• Tips to fast-track your topic ideation (video)
• Where to get extra help

Education-Related Research Topics & Ideas

Below you’ll find a list of education-related research topics and idea kickstarters. These are fairly broad and flexible to various contexts, so keep in mind that you will need to refine them a little. Nevertheless, they should inspire some ideas for your project.

• The impact of school funding on student achievement
• The effects of social and emotional learning on student well-being
• The effects of parental involvement on student behaviour
• The impact of teacher training on student learning
• The impact of classroom design on student learning
• The impact of poverty on education
• The use of student data to inform instruction
• The role of parental involvement in education
• The effects of mindfulness practices in the classroom
• The use of technology in the classroom
• The role of critical thinking in education
• The use of formative and summative assessments in the classroom
• The use of differentiated instruction in the classroom
• The use of gamification in education
• The effects of teacher burnout on student learning
• The impact of school leadership on student achievement
• The effects of teacher diversity on student outcomes
• The role of teacher collaboration in improving student outcomes
• The implementation of blended and online learning
• The effects of teacher accountability on student achievement
• The effects of standardized testing on student learning
• The effects of classroom management on student behaviour
• The effects of school culture on student achievement
• The use of student-centred learning in the classroom
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on student outcomes
• The achievement gap in minority and low-income students
• The use of culturally responsive teaching in the classroom
• The impact of teacher professional development on student learning
• The use of project-based learning in the classroom
• The effects of teacher expectations on student achievement
• The use of adaptive learning technology in the classroom
• The impact of teacher turnover on student learning
• The effects of teacher recruitment and retention on student learning
• The impact of early childhood education on later academic success
• The impact of parental involvement on student engagement
• The use of positive reinforcement in education
• The impact of school climate on student engagement
• The role of STEM education in preparing students for the workforce
• The effects of school choice on student achievement
• The use of technology in the form of online tutoring

Level-Specific Research Topics

Looking for research topics for a specific level of education? We’ve got you covered. Below you can find research topic ideas for primary, secondary and tertiary-level education contexts. Click the relevant level to view the respective list.

Research Topics: Pick An Education Level

Primary education.

• Investigating the effects of peer tutoring on academic achievement in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of mindfulness practices in primary school classrooms
• Examining the effects of different teaching strategies on primary school students’ problem-solving skills
• The use of storytelling as a teaching strategy in primary school literacy instruction
• The role of cultural diversity in promoting tolerance and understanding in primary schools
• The impact of character education programs on moral development in primary school students
• Investigating the use of technology in enhancing primary school mathematics education
• The impact of inclusive curriculum on promoting equity and diversity in primary schools
• The impact of outdoor education programs on environmental awareness in primary school students
• The influence of school climate on student motivation and engagement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of early literacy interventions on reading comprehension in primary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student achievement in primary schools
• Exploring the benefits of inclusive education for students with special needs in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of teacher-student feedback on academic motivation in primary schools
• The role of technology in developing digital literacy skills in primary school students
• Effective strategies for fostering a growth mindset in primary school students
• Investigating the role of parental support in reducing academic stress in primary school children
• The role of arts education in fostering creativity and self-expression in primary school students
• Examining the effects of early childhood education programs on primary school readiness
• Examining the effects of homework on primary school students’ academic performance
• The role of formative assessment in improving learning outcomes in primary school classrooms
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on academic outcomes in primary school
• Investigating the effects of classroom environment on student behavior and learning outcomes in primary schools
• Investigating the role of creativity and imagination in primary school curriculum
• The impact of nutrition and healthy eating programs on academic performance in primary schools
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on primary school students’ well-being and academic performance
• The role of parental involvement in academic achievement of primary school children
• Examining the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior in primary school
• The role of school leadership in creating a positive school climate Exploring the benefits of bilingual education in primary schools
• The effectiveness of project-based learning in developing critical thinking skills in primary school students
• The role of inquiry-based learning in fostering curiosity and critical thinking in primary school students
• The effects of class size on student engagement and achievement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of recess and physical activity breaks on attention and learning in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of outdoor play in developing gross motor skills in primary school children
• The effects of educational field trips on knowledge retention in primary school students
• Examining the effects of inclusive classroom practices on students’ attitudes towards diversity in primary schools
• The impact of parental involvement in homework on primary school students’ academic achievement
• Investigating the effectiveness of different assessment methods in primary school classrooms
• The influence of physical activity and exercise on cognitive development in primary school children
• Exploring the benefits of cooperative learning in promoting social skills in primary school students

Secondary Education

• Investigating the effects of school discipline policies on student behavior and academic success in secondary education
• The role of social media in enhancing communication and collaboration among secondary school students
• The impact of school leadership on teacher effectiveness and student outcomes in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of technology integration on teaching and learning in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of interdisciplinary instruction in promoting critical thinking skills in secondary schools
• The impact of arts education on creativity and self-expression in secondary school students
• The effectiveness of flipped classrooms in promoting student learning in secondary education
• The role of career guidance programs in preparing secondary school students for future employment
• Investigating the effects of student-centered learning approaches on student autonomy and academic success in secondary schools
• The impact of socio-economic factors on educational attainment in secondary education
• Investigating the impact of project-based learning on student engagement and academic achievement in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of multicultural education on cultural understanding and tolerance in secondary schools
• The influence of standardized testing on teaching practices and student learning in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior and academic engagement in secondary education
• The influence of teacher professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of extracurricular activities in promoting holistic development and well-roundedness in secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models on student engagement and achievement in secondary education
• The role of physical education in promoting physical health and well-being among secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of gender on academic achievement and career aspirations in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of multicultural literature in promoting cultural awareness and empathy among secondary school students
• The impact of school counseling services on student mental health and well-being in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of vocational education and training in preparing secondary school students for the workforce
• The role of digital literacy in preparing secondary school students for the digital age
• The influence of parental involvement on academic success and well-being of secondary school students
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on secondary school students’ well-being and academic success
• The role of character education in fostering ethical and responsible behavior in secondary school students
• Examining the effects of digital citizenship education on responsible and ethical technology use among secondary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of educational technology in promoting personalized learning experiences in secondary schools
• The impact of inclusive education on the social and academic outcomes of students with disabilities in secondary schools
• The influence of parental support on academic motivation and achievement in secondary education
• The role of school climate in promoting positive behavior and well-being among secondary school students
• Examining the effects of peer mentoring programs on academic achievement and social-emotional development in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of teacher-student relationships on student motivation and achievement in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning programs in promoting civic engagement among secondary school students
• The impact of educational policies on educational equity and access in secondary education
• Examining the effects of homework on academic achievement and student well-being in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of different assessment methods on student performance in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of single-sex education on academic performance and gender stereotypes in secondary schools
• The role of mentoring programs in supporting the transition from secondary to post-secondary education

Tertiary Education

• The role of student support services in promoting academic success and well-being in higher education
• The impact of internationalization initiatives on students’ intercultural competence and global perspectives in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of active learning classrooms and learning spaces on student engagement and learning outcomes in tertiary education
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning experiences in fostering civic engagement and social responsibility in higher education
• The influence of learning communities and collaborative learning environments on student academic and social integration in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of undergraduate research experiences in fostering critical thinking and scientific inquiry skills
• Investigating the effects of academic advising and mentoring on student retention and degree completion in higher education
• The role of student engagement and involvement in co-curricular activities on holistic student development in higher education
• The impact of multicultural education on fostering cultural competence and diversity appreciation in higher education
• The role of internships and work-integrated learning experiences in enhancing students’ employability and career outcomes
• Examining the effects of assessment and feedback practices on student learning and academic achievement in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty-student relationships on student success and well-being in tertiary education
• The impact of college transition programs on students’ academic and social adjustment to higher education
• The impact of online learning platforms on student learning outcomes in higher education
• The impact of financial aid and scholarships on access and persistence in higher education
• The influence of student leadership and involvement in extracurricular activities on personal development and campus engagement
• Exploring the benefits of competency-based education in developing job-specific skills in tertiary students
• Examining the effects of flipped classroom models on student learning and retention in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of online collaboration and virtual team projects in developing teamwork skills in tertiary students
• Investigating the effects of diversity and inclusion initiatives on campus climate and student experiences in tertiary education
• The influence of study abroad programs on intercultural competence and global perspectives of college students
• Investigating the effects of peer mentoring and tutoring programs on student retention and academic performance in tertiary education
• Investigating the effectiveness of active learning strategies in promoting student engagement and achievement in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models and hybrid courses on student learning and satisfaction in higher education
• The role of digital literacy and information literacy skills in supporting student success in the digital age
• Investigating the effects of experiential learning opportunities on career readiness and employability of college students
• The impact of e-portfolios on student reflection, self-assessment, and showcasing of learning in higher education
• The role of technology in enhancing collaborative learning experiences in tertiary classrooms
• The impact of research opportunities on undergraduate student engagement and pursuit of advanced degrees
• Examining the effects of competency-based assessment on measuring student learning and achievement in tertiary education
• Examining the effects of interdisciplinary programs and courses on critical thinking and problem-solving skills in college students
• The role of inclusive education and accessibility in promoting equitable learning experiences for diverse student populations
• The role of career counseling and guidance in supporting students’ career decision-making in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty diversity and representation on student success and inclusive learning environments in higher education

Education-Related Dissertations & Theses

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic in education, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses in the education space to see how this all comes together in practice.

Below, we’ve included a selection of education-related research projects to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

• From Rural to Urban: Education Conditions of Migrant Children in China (Wang, 2019)
• Energy Renovation While Learning English: A Guidebook for Elementary ESL Teachers (Yang, 2019)
• A Reanalyses of Intercorrelational Matrices of Visual and Verbal Learners’ Abilities, Cognitive Styles, and Learning Preferences (Fox, 2020)
• A study of the elementary math program utilized by a mid-Missouri school district (Barabas, 2020)
• Instructor formative assessment practices in virtual learning environments : a posthumanist sociomaterial perspective (Burcks, 2019)
• Higher education students services: a qualitative study of two mid-size universities’ direct exchange programs (Kinde, 2020)
• Exploring editorial leadership : a qualitative study of scholastic journalism advisers teaching leadership in Missouri secondary schools (Lewis, 2020)
• Selling the virtual university: a multimodal discourse analysis of marketing for online learning (Ludwig, 2020)
• Advocacy and accountability in school counselling: assessing the use of data as related to professional self-efficacy (Matthews, 2020)
• The use of an application screening assessment as a predictor of teaching retention at a midwestern, K-12, public school district (Scarbrough, 2020)
• Core values driving sustained elite performance cultures (Beiner, 2020)
• Educative features of upper elementary Eureka math curriculum (Dwiggins, 2020)
• How female principals nurture adult learning opportunities in successful high schools with challenging student demographics (Woodward, 2020)
• The disproportionality of Black Males in Special Education: A Case Study Analysis of Educator Perceptions in a Southeastern Urban High School (McCrae, 2021)

As you can see, these research topics are a lot more focused than the generic topic ideas we presented earlier. So, in order for you to develop a high-quality research topic, you’ll need to get specific and laser-focused on a specific context with specific variables of interest.  In the video below, we explore some other important things you’ll need to consider when crafting your research topic.

Get 1-On-1 Help

If you’re still unsure about how to find a quality research topic within education, check out our Research Topic Kickstarter service, which is the perfect starting point for developing a unique, well-justified research topic.

Find The Perfect Research Topic

How To Choose A Research Topic: 5 Key Criteria

How To Choose A Research Topic Step-By-Step Tutorial With Examples + Free Topic...

Research Topics & Ideas: Automation & Robotics

A comprehensive list of automation and robotics-related research topics. Includes free access to a webinar and research topic evaluator.

Research Topics & Ideas: Sociology

Research Topics & Ideas: Sociology 50 Topic Ideas To Kickstart Your Research...

Research Topics & Ideas: Public Health & Epidemiology

A comprehensive list of public health-related research topics. Includes free access to a webinar and research topic evaluator.

Research Topics & Ideas: Neuroscience

Research Topics & Ideas: Neuroscience 50 Topic Ideas To Kickstart Your Research...

📄 FREE TEMPLATES

Research Topic Ideation

Proposal Writing

Literature Review

Methodology & Analysis

Academic Writing

Referencing & Citing

Apps, Tools & Tricks

The Grad Coach Podcast

71 Comments

This is an helpful tool 🙏

Special education

Really appreciated by this . It is the best platform for research related items

Research title related to school of students

How are you

I think this platform is actually good enough.

Research title related to students

My field is research measurement and evaluation. Need dissertation topics in the field

Assalam o Alaikum I’m a student Bs educational Resarch and evaluation I’m confused to choose My thesis title please help me in choose the thesis title

Good idea I’m going to teach my colleagues

You can find our list of nursing-related research topic ideas here: https://gradcoach.com/research-topics-nursing/

Write on action research topic, using guidance and counseling to address unwanted teenage pregnancy in school

Thanks a lot

I learned a lot from this site, thank you so much!

Thank you for the information.. I would like to request a topic based on school major in social studies

parental involvement and students academic performance

Science education topics?

plz tell me if you got some good topics, im here for finding research topic for masters degree

How about School management and supervision pls.?

Hi i am an Deputy Principal in a primary school. My wish is to srudy foe Master’s degree in Education.Please advice me on which topic can be relevant for me. Thanks.

Thank you so much for the information provided. I would like to get an advice on the topic to research for my masters program. My area of concern is on teacher morale versus students achievement.

Every topic proposed above on primary education is a starting point for me. I appreciate immensely the team that has sat down to make a detail of these selected topics just for beginners like us. Be blessed.

Kindly help me with the research questions on the topic” Effects of workplace conflict on the employees’ job performance”. The effects can be applicable in every institution,enterprise or organisation.

Greetings, I am a student majoring in Sociology and minoring in Public Administration. I’m considering any recommended research topic in the field of Sociology.

I’m a student pursuing Mphil in Basic education and I’m considering any recommended research proposal topic in my field of study

Research Defense for students in senior high

Kindly help me with a research topic in educational psychology. Ph.D level. Thank you.

Project-based learning is a teaching/learning type,if well applied in a classroom setting will yield serious positive impact. What can a teacher do to implement this in a disadvantaged zone like “North West Region of Cameroon ( hinterland) where war has brought about prolonged and untold sufferings on the indegins?

I wish to get help on topics of research on educational administration

I wish to get help on topics of research on educational administration PhD level

I am also looking for such type of title

I am a student of undergraduate, doing research on how to use guidance and counseling to address unwanted teenage pregnancy in school

the topics are very good regarding research & education .

Am an undergraduate student carrying out a research on the impact of nutritional healthy eating programs on academic performance in primary schools

Can i request your suggestion topic for my Thesis about Teachers as an OFW. thanx you

Would like to request for suggestions on a topic in Economics of education,PhD level

Would like to request for suggestions on a topic in Economics of education

Hi 👋 I request that you help me with a written research proposal about education the format

Am offering degree in education senior high School Accounting. I want a topic for my project work

l would like to request suggestions on a topic in managing teaching and learning, PhD level (educational leadership and management)

request suggestions on a topic in managing teaching and learning, PhD level (educational leadership and management)

I would to inquire on research topics on Educational psychology, Masters degree

I am PhD student, I am searching my Research topic, It should be innovative,my area of interest is online education,use of technology in education

request suggestion on topic in masters in medical education .

Look at British Library as they keep a copy of all PhDs in the UK Core.ac.uk to access Open University and 6 other university e-archives, pdf downloads mostly available, all free.

May I also ask for a topic based on mathematics education for college teaching, please?

Please I am a masters student of the department of Teacher Education, Faculty of Education Please I am in need of proposed project topics to help with my final year thesis

Am a PhD student in Educational Foundations would like a sociological topic. Thank

please i need a proposed thesis project regardging computer science

Greetings and Regards I am a doctoral student in the field of philosophy of education. I am looking for a new topic for my thesis. Because of my work in the elementary school, I am looking for a topic that is from the field of elementary education and is related to the philosophy of education.

Masters student in the field of curriculum, any ideas of a research topic on low achiever students

In the field of curriculum any ideas of a research topic on deconalization in contextualization of digital teaching and learning through in higher education

Amazing guidelines

I am a graduate with two masters. 1) Master of arts in religious studies and 2) Master in education in foundations of education. I intend to do a Ph.D. on my second master’s, however, I need to bring both masters together through my Ph.D. research. can I do something like, ” The contribution of Philosophy of education for a quality religion education in Kenya”? kindly, assist and be free to suggest a similar topic that will bring together the two masters. thanks in advance

Hi, I am an Early childhood trainer as well as a researcher, I need more support on this topic: The impact of early childhood education on later academic success.

I’m a student in upper level secondary school and I need your support in this research topics: “Impact of incorporating project -based learning in teaching English language skills in secondary schools”.

Although research activities and topics should stem from reflection on one’s practice, I found this site valuable as it effectively addressed many issues we have been experiencing as practitioners.

Your style is unique in comparison to other folks I’ve read stuff from. Thanks for posting when you have the opportunity, Guess I will just book mark this site.

that is good idea you are sharing for a lot of researchers. I am one of such an information sucker. I am a chemistry teacher in Ethiopia secondary school. I am MSc degree holder in Analytical chemistry. I need to continue my education by this field. How I can get a full scholar ship?

Submit a Comment Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Submit Comment

• Print Friendly

Glossary of Key Terms in Educational Research

Noori, A. (2021). Glossary of Key Terms in Educational Research. (ED611000). ERIC. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED611000.pdf

57 Pages Posted: 16 Mar 2022

Abdullah Noori

Kabul University

Date Written: February 3, 2021

The purpose of this Glossary of Terms is to help novice researchers in understanding basic research terminologies in educational research. It provides definitions of many of the terms used in the guidebooks to conducting qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods of research. The terms are arranged in alphabetical order.

Keywords: Educational Research, Glossaries, Definitions, Research Methodology

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Abdullah Noori (Contact Author)

Kabul university ( email ).

Jamal Mena Kabul, KY Kabul 1003 Afghanistan

HOME PAGE: http://ku.edu.af

Do you have a job opening that you would like to promote on SSRN?

Paper statistics.

• Research & Education
• For Scholars
• Jefferson Library
• Library Reference

Researching Thomas Jefferson

This guide is designed to provide an overview of the basic sources on Thomas Jefferson.

Primary Sources

Manuscript Collections Published Editions of Jefferson's Papers Other Jefferson Documents (Account Books, Declaration of Independence, etc.) Jefferson's Libraries

Secondary Sources

Manuscript collections.

The original manuscripts of Thomas Jefferson's papers are scattered among more than 900 different repositories. The largest collections reside at the Library of Congress, the University of Virginia, and Massachusetts Historical Society.

Published Editions of Jefferson's Papers

There are several major published editions of Jefferson's papers:

• Washington, H. A. (ed.).  The Writings of Thomas Jefferson .  Washington, D.C.: Taylor & Maury, 1853-54.  9 vols.  
• Ford, Paul Leicester (ed.). The Writings of Thomas Jefferson . New York, London: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1892-99. 10 vols.
• Lipscomb, Andrew A. (ed.). The Writings of Thomas Jefferson. Washington, D.C.: Issued under the auspices of the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association of the United States, 1905.
• Boyd, Julian (ed.). The Papers of Thomas Jefferson. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950-, and Looney, J. Jefferson (ed.). The Papers of Thomas Jefferson: Retirement Series. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004-.

For a more thorough overview of the published editions of Jefferson's papers, see our page on editions of Jefferson's writings .  The Washington, Ford, and Lipscomb-Bergh editions, as well as most volumes of the Princeton edition are collectively searchable in the Jefferson Library's Thomas Jefferson: Papers collection in the Hathi Trust Digital Library.  The Papers of Thomas Jefferson and Papers of Thomas Jefferson: Retirement Series are considered the definitive editions of Jefferson's papers, and are by far the most comprehensive.  Both are now available online (for a fee) through the University of Virginia Press's Rotunda imprint; a free version (formatted slightly differently) is available through the National Archives' Founders Online project.  Indexes for volumes 27-37 and Retirement Series volumes 1-7 are also freely available online.

Other Jefferson Documents

The following Jefferson documents have also been published, many of them multiple times; the editions considered most definitive are listed here.

Account Books:   Bear, James A., Jr. and Lucia C. Stanton, eds. Jefferson's Memorandum Books : Accounts, With Legal Records and Miscellany, 1767-1826 . Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997.  2 vols.  The Memorandum Books also contain other information such as wine lists and some weather records.  The original manuscripts of Jefferson's account books are in the Jefferson Papers collections at the University of Virginia, Massachusetts Historical Society, Library of Congress, Huntington Library, and New York Public Library.  The transcriptions have now been made available in Founders Online (free), and in the Papers of Thomas Jefferson Digital Edition (fee-based).

Anas: The Anas are a collective name for a series of memoranda that Jefferson recorded during the 1790s. Although Jefferson himself neither referred to these memoranda as the "Anas" nor kept them together, they have historically been treated as a cohesive group of documents and published together, most notably in Franklin B. Sawvel, (ed.), The Complete Anas of Thomas Jefferson (New York: Round Table Press, 1903).  The Anas were also published in the Washington, Ford and Lipscomb-Bergh editions of Jefferson's writings (see above).  The Princeton Papers of Thomas Jefferson are publishing the Anas documents individually, in chronological order with Jefferson's correspondence.  The first of these documents appears in volume 22, along with an editorial note explaining Princeton's treatment of the Anas. The Anas, along with more than 700 other documents from his tenure as Secretary of State (1790-1793) are available at http://www.jefferson3volumes.org.

Architectural Drawings : Fiske Kimball's Thomas Jefferson, Architect (Boston: Riverside Press, 1916; rep. Da Capo, 1968) contains facsimile images of the drawings at Massachusetts Historical Society, which comprise approximately half of the extant drawings. Frederick Doveton Nichols's Thomas Jefferson's Architectural Drawings (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1961) provides a listing of all known drawings (approximately 500).

Autobiography: Jefferson's Autobiography has been published in the Washington , Ford and Lipscomb-Bergh editions; the Ford transcription has also been published as a stand-alone volume by the University of Pennsylvania Press, with a new introduction by Michael Zuckerman.  The Papers of Thomas Jefferson: Retirement Series will also be publishing Jefferson's Autobiography in a future volume.  Click here to search for other editions of Jefferson's Autobiography in the Thomas Jefferson Portal.

The "Jefferson Bible": The definitive scholarly edition of Jefferson's two Bible compilations is Adams, Dickinson W., ed. Jefferson's Extracts From the Gospels: "The Philosophy of Jesus" and "The Life and Morals of Jesus." Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983.  Find a copy in a library near you ; or, search for other editions of the "Jefferson Bible" and books and articles about it in the Thomas Jefferson Portal.  See also our Thomas Jefferson Encyclopedia articles on the two compilations: " The Philosophy of Jesus of Nazareth " and " The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth ."

Declaration of Independence: Boyd, Julian (ed.). The Papers of Thomas Jefferson. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1950-.  Volume 1, pp. 413-433 treats the Declaration comprehensively, including an editorial note and multiple drafts and amended versions of the text.  These editorial notes and document transcriptions may also be viewed in Founders Online .  There are many other excellent published treatments of the Declaration as well, including John Hazelton's Declaration of Independence: Its History (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1906), and Julian Boyd's The Declaration of Independence: The Evolution of the Text as Shown in Facsimiles of Various Drafts by its Author, Thomas Jefferson (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1945); click here to search for other sources on the Declaration in the Thomas Jefferson Portal.

Farm Book: Betts, Edwin Morris, ed. Thomas Jefferson's Farm Book: With Commentary and Relevant Extracts From Other Writings. Charlottesville: Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation, 1999. View the manuscript online on the Massachusetts Historical Society website ; or, find a copy in a library near you .

Garden Book: Betts, Edwin Morris, ed. Thomas Jefferson's Garden Book, 1766-1824, With Relevant Extracts From His Other Writings. Charlottesville: Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation, 1999. View the manuscript online on the Massachusetts Historical Society website ; or, find a copy in a library near you .

Legal Commonplace Book: Jefferson, Thomas. Jefferson's Legal Commonplace Book . Edited by David Thomas Konig, Michael P. Zuckert, Les Harris, and W. Bland Whitley. The Papers of Thomas Jefferson. Second Series. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2019.  Find in a library near you .

Literary Commonplace Book: Wilson, Douglas L., ed. Jefferson's Literary Commonplace Book . Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, c1989.  Find in a library near you .

Notes on the State of Virginia:  William Peden, ed., Notes on the State of Virginia.  Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1954. Find in a library near you ; or click here to search the Thomas Jefferson Portal for other editions of Jefferson's Notes on the State of Virginia .

Parliamentary Manual: Howell, Wilbur Samuel, ed. Jefferson's Parliamentary Writings: "Parliamentary Pocket-Book" and A Manual of Parliamentary Practice. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, c1988.  Click here to search for other editions of Jefferson's Parliamentary Manual in the Thomas Jefferson Portal.

Jefferson's Libraries

Jefferson owned thousands of books throughout his lifetime, and the various incarnations of his library are documented in a number of different lists. For information on Jefferson's libraries, visit the website of our Thomas Jefferson's Libraries Project .

Our online catalog, the Thomas Jefferson Portal , is the most comprehensive source available for bibliographic records representing published and unpublished material on Thomas Jefferson and his world.  For specific reading suggestions by topic, please see our Suggested Reading List .

There is also a wealth of material on hundreds of topics, written by Monticello staff, in our online Thomas Jefferson Encyclopedia .

« Back to Reference

« Back to Library Home Page

ADDRESS: 931 Thomas Jefferson Parkway Charlottesville, VA 22902 GENERAL INFORMATION: (434) 984-9800

• Communication and Media
• Digital Divide

Addressing the Digital Divide in Education: Strategies and Solutions

• August 2024

• Kampala International University (KIU)

Discover the world's research

• 25+ million members
• 160+ million publication pages
• 2.3+ billion citations

• J Inform Comm Ethics Soc

• Hama Abu-Kishk

• Kinza Shafique

• TECHNOL FORECAST SOC

• Abir Haddaji
• M D Vasilescu
• M I Aceleanu
• X Picatoste
• D V Francis
• J MED INTERNET RES
• L Veiga E Silva
• M D De Andrade Abi Harb
• Teixeira Barbosa
• C A De Mattos Teixeira
• Macedo Gomes
• Silva Cardoso
• E H Da Silva
• M Vijaykumar
• Venâncio Carvalho
• Leon Ferreira De Carvalho
• Recruit researchers
• Join for free
• Login Email Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google Welcome back! Please log in. Email · Hint Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google No account? Sign up

Higher Education, Student Affairs, & International Education Policy–Student Affairs Concentration, M.Ed.

December 3, 2024

June 30, 2025

• In-State - $12,540
• Out-of-State - $26,490

The Higher Education, Student Affairs, & International Education Policy–Student Affairs Concentration, Master of Education program explores the landscape of student development, counseling, and administration within higher education institutions, where student affairs professionals play a pivotal role in shaping the college experience and promoting student success. The program’s foundation rests on two mutually enhancing dimensions; knowledge and skills concerning both counseling and the college student population, and the student affairs profession. Ideal candidates possess strong interpersonal skills, empathy and a genuine desire to support student success, embodying a commitment to social justice and equity in higher education. Whether you're a recent college graduate exploring career options or a seasoned professional seeking to advance your skills and knowledge, our program can help you transform education for good.

Key Features

• Unique Practicum Opportunities : Engage in intensive practicum experiences with options including the Counseling Center or facilitating an Intergroup Dialogue, providing hands-on learning opportunities.
• Faculty Mentorship : Benefit from mentorship by affiliate faculty who work full-time in the Division of Student Affairs, guiding you through your academic and professional development.
• Assistantship Opportunities : Admitted students participate in the Preview Program, connecting with employers and exploring assistantship opportunities. 
• Defining the role and functions of student affairs work in higher education
• Interpreting research significant to the profession and conducting related research
• Identifying factors affecting human and organizational behavior
• Translating theoretical knowledge about the development of organizations and individuals into meaningful practices of the profession; counseling, instruction, supervision, program design, administration and research
• Developing multicultural competence and social justice perspective to engage with diverse students with effectiveness and confidence 
• Developing and incorporating skills in the areas of program assessment, design, implementation, and evaluation as appropriate for individuals, student services offices and organizations.

Information on admissions and application to this program can be found on the University Graduate Admissions website and the program handbook.

Admission Requirements           Guide to Applying Student Affairs Concentration Handbook

How do I apply? What is required?  You can access the application from the UMD webpage. http://www.gradschool.umd.edu/application . We require a resume, personal statement, transcript(s), and three letters of recommendation. GRE scores are optional. Typically statements of goals/experiences are about 3.5-5 pages.

GRE Scores, GPA, and Provisional Admission GRE scores are OPTIONAL. A minimum undergraduate GPA of 3.0 is required. Students who do not meet one of these requirements, but show other evidence of outstanding potential, may be considered for provisional admission. Provisional status is removed when students maintain a graduate grade point average of 3.5 or better after 12 credits of course completion.

What can I do to strengthen my application? Use your personal statement to show us more than just your resume. We appreciate reflection on meaningful personal or professional/academic experiences (something that has made you who you are today), as well as reflection on social identities such as race, class, gender, or sexual orientation, etc.

When will I find out whether or not I have been accepted? Applicants are usually notified in February.

Please feel free to email [email protected] if you have additional questions.

Timothy F. Bryson, student, Student Affairs

With a large number of required courses and a mix of research, practicum, and elective courses, this program is designed to meet a number of professional competencies and our own high standards.

For graduation requirements, the M.Ed. Student Affairs Concentration offers non-thesis options. 

• Seminar paper, which is similar to the thesis, but does not involve data collection and analysis. 
• Seminar project, which is an applied project that is grounded in relevant theory and research.

M.A. students must complete a master’s thesis. You can switch options once enrolled.

For full details on curriculum and program requirements, view the handbook.

Student Affairs Concentration Handbook

What is the difference between the Student Affairs and Higher Education concentrations in the HESI program? The Higher Ed concentration generally has a strong orientation towards policy and some of the macro-level dynamics that shape higher education. For SAC masters students, the SAC curriculum has a counseling-based sequence and some required classes that focus on the development and experience of the college student. Students commonly take classes across the concentrations, and 1st year Higher Ed and SAC students take a first-year seminar together. We encourage you to review the curriculum and faculty in both concentrations.

What are some unique features of your program? Overall our faculty address issues related to race, social identities, diversity, and inequality, and we often attract students who are interested in these issues. For the masters program, unique features include the opportunity to take an intensive practicum with either the Counseling Center or to facilitate an Intergroup Dialogue. Students note that our seminar project/seminar paper/thesis option provides a particularly rigorous culminating experience. We also have affiliate faculty who work full-time in the Division of Student Affairs who serve as mentors for our students.

What about assistantships, stipends, and tuition? Admitted students are invited to the Preview Program. Employers review resumes, students review job descriptions, and both send in preference lists. Interviews are scheduled during Preview. Over 60 assistantships were posted this year. You do not need to apply for assistantships prior to notification of admission. Both 9 and 12 month assistantships are available. Generally all attending students hold assistantships unless they are working full-time.

Can I take classes without being admitted to the program? Yes, you can take several classes without being admitted to the program. If you contact Graduate Admissions ( [email protected] ), they can advise you as to how to be admitted as an "advanced special student" so that you can take any course that is open enrollment or with instructor permission. You can view open courses at testudo.umd.edu. Some, but not all courses, may not be open to you. 

Sep 17 Graduate Fair Expo Sep 17, 2024 4:00 – 6:00 pm

Sep 25 COE Open House Sep 25, 2024 11:00 am – 2:00 pm Benjamin Building Courtyard

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Open access
• Published: 12 September 2024

Credential inflation and employment of university faculty in China

• Songyue Lin 1 ,
• Kaixuan Zhang 2 ,
• Jin Liu 2 &
• Wenjing Lyu 3  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  1191 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Universities have become increasingly strict with the academic requirements of newly enrolled faculties. It manifests as the credential inflation of new applicants for university academic positions. There is little research that has provided empirical evidence for this phenomenon. This research takes China as a case, aiming to test whether there is credential inflation in universities and the inflation rate. To conduct research, we collect faculty resume information from 802 Chinese universities, including 159,752 resumes. Results confirm credential inflation in Chinese universities’ newly enrolled faculties with domestic education. The credential inflation in elite universities, especially for 211 project universities, is the most obvious. On the contrary, those faculties with overseas education can be employed by higher-ranking institutions than local graduates, and the benefits of studying abroad in terms of the employment of university faculty have continuously improved overall. In the professional field of Chinese university faculties, the devaluation of domestic academic qualifications and the appreciation of overseas academic qualifications are relatively apparent.

Similar content being viewed by others

Socioeconomic roots of academic faculty

Dynamics of returns to vocational education in China: 2010–2017

Grade inflation effects of capacity expansion in higher education: a longitudinal study in undergraduate teacher education programs from 2003 to 2022

Introduction.

Since the 1950s, higher education worldwide has gradually entered the popular stage from elite education, and the number of highly educated talents has increased (McLean and Rollwagen, 2010 ). As educational credentials become more commonplace, and the number of academic jobs has not grown in proportion to the number of graduates (Hancock and Walsh, 2016 ), the credentials have lost their original value. Employers begin to require higher credentials than hitherto necessary to enter an occupation (Lehmann, 2012 ), which has led to the intensification of academic competition (Umbach, 2007 ). Against this background, universities place increasingly heavy demands on employees (Leišytė, 2016 ), with fiercer competition for academic positions (Whitchurch, 2019 ; Reymert et al. 2023 ). In the academic labour market, latecomers often need a better academic background to obtain the same academic positions as early academic professionals, which is considered academic inflation. For example, since the 1990s, at least in American research universities, obtaining tenure positions with a doctoral degree has become increasingly difficult. In contrast, most of the positions are hired from those with postdoctoral experience (Powell, 2015 ). It led an increasing number of doctoral graduates to pursue postdoctoral studies. Many of them have several years to publish academic papers during postdoctoral periods. However, this further intensifies institutions’ expectations for new applicants’ academic performance. Recently, academic inflation has been represented not only as “paper devaluation” but also as “diploma devaluation” or credential inflation in the actual recruitment of university faculty, as the significant pool of graduate recruits may encounter credentialism (Karmel, 2015 ). In the buyer’s market, universities and research institutions often propose more stringent recruitment conditions when facing numerous candidates.

At the end of the 20th century, China launched a movement to expand the enrolment of college students from elite higher education to massification. With the increasing number of college students and postgraduates, the supply and demand structure of China’s academic labour market has changed (Zheng et al. 2018 ), one of the typical manifestations of which is the difficulty of employment for college graduates. Positions within high-level universities become scarce resources, further making the replacement competition fiercer (Yan et al. 2015 ). More importantly, with the construction of Project 211 in 1992 and Project 985 in 1998 proposed by the Chinese government, as well as the construction of Double First-Class universities in 2015, China’s higher education has gradually improved (Lin and Wang, 2022 ). Universities have begun to increase requirements for the qualifications and publications of candidates, and credential inflation has gradually emerged. Although there are other important factors influencing faculty recruiting at Chinese universities, such as the level of candidates’ first degree (focusing on the level of their undergraduate colleges), academic relationships (such as academic inbreeding), interpersonal relationships, etc. (Wang and Jones, 2021 ; Yang et al. 2024 ), its core and base are the reputation and ranking of candidates’ academic institutions during their studies. Scholars suggest that the prestige of academic origin was one of the primary factors influencing academic recruitment, even though the qualifications of faculty positions were mainly merit-based (Bedeian et al. 2010 ). For example, researchers found that 60 to 70% of faculty in top-ranked programmes earned their doctorates from universities similar to those where they currently work (DiRamio et al. 2009 ). The research found that after controlling factors like rank, productivity, citations, and recognition, the reputation of higher education institutions (HEIs) where faculty work now is highly linked to the HEIs where they obtain their degrees, particularly among junior faculty (Bedeian et al. 2010 ). The reputation of the faculty’s academic origin is an organising force shaping the faculty hiring process, which is essential to securing faculty positions (Mai et al. 2015 ; Clauset et al. 2015 ; Nevin, 2019 ).

In addition, the number of students studying abroad has also expanded rapidly to ensure they have new advantages in the growing career competition (Lin and Liu, 2023 ). In recent years, China’s economic development has continuously improved. Talent introduction projects such as the Outstanding Young Talents Programme (Overseas) have put forward a large number of returnees from Europe. The United States returned to China (Chen, 2022 ), which further aggravates employment competition among existing research focusing on Chinese talent strategies (Marini and Yang, 2021 ; Tharenou and Seet, 2014 ), a significantly higher value of a foreign PhD versus a domestic PhD exists (Hao and Welch, 2012 ). Compared with domestic applicants, overseas returnees will generally be preferred. It has been proven that returnees had a better chance of getting an academic position in the top universities in China, even if the academic achievements of local doctors are quite rich (Chen, 2022 ). Therefore, whether the depreciation of academic credentials in university recruitment also applies to overseas academic qualifications needs to be explored.

Some sporadic studies have noticed the increasingly fierce academic-professional competition in China, called “involution”, but there is still no relevant empirical research to explore the current situation and trend of credential inflation. In the recruitment of Chinese university faculty, does credential inflation exist? What is the inflation rate? Whether overseas and local education qualifications are experiencing the same degree of depreciation? Those questions are worth exploring and answering. This paper takes China as a case and focuses on the degree and university level to discuss the questions above. Credential indicates the education level of social members from two dimensions: one is the vertical dimension, which refers to different levels of education, such as bachelor’s degree, master’s degree, or doctoral degree. The other is the horizontal dimension, which refers to the education of the same level but different institutions, such as ordinary universities and elite universities. Based on the above two dimensions, we found that as time goes by, having a doctoral degree has become the basic threshold for many colleges and universities (especially elite universities) to recruit faculties. Therefore, this paper will further focus on PhD holders, and discuss by category of two groups who study domestic and overseas. Our main claim is that the devaluation of domestic academic qualifications and the appreciation of overseas academic qualifications exist. We also show that credential inflation differs among different types of universities and varies among different genders and disciplines.

Literature review

The competition for academic positions in chinese universities.

Since the 20th century, the academic expansion brought about by the expansion of university enrolment in many countries has affected the internal structure of universities. The value of degrees in the academic career market has declined, which in turn has expanded the demand for higher education, resulting in an excess of people who have received higher education but have lower degrees, making the competition for hunting jobs more intense (Yi and McMurtrey, 2013 ; Van de Werfhorst and Andersen, 2005 ). Education is a part of class status. Once higher education becomes the objective standard of the talented class, and secondary education becomes the identity symbol of the middle class. The increased number of educated people will lead to the original advantage becoming the average level. Many studies have pointed out that more and more people worldwide have been awarded doctorates (Van de Werfhorst and Andersen, 2005 ), while a lower such as a bachelor’s degree is not enough to distinguish them from other graduates anymore (Kahn, 2010 ).

Just as in China, the scale of higher education expanded year by year, which is not only reflected in the number of undergraduate students but also the record-breaking number of postgraduate candidates yearly. According to the latest data released by the Ministry of Education of China, in 2022, the number of applicants for master’s degrees will reach 4.57 million, a new record with an increased rate of 21.3% (National Bureau of Statistics, 2022 ). The continuous expansion of postgraduate enrolment has led to academic involution and reduced academic value. China seems to have entered a credential society.

More importantly, with the proposal of various ambitious educational goals (Lin and Wang, 2022 ), Chinese universities are increasingly demanding high-qualify faculties (Song, 2018 ). In addition, the labour force in the university personnel system is paid by the government, recruitment restrictions are stricter, and competition becomes more intense (Tian and Lu, 2017 ). Meanwhile, many universities have cancelled faculty staffing and have implemented the “up or out” system by borrowing from the tenure-track system in Western countries (Lianmei and Lin, 2021 ). The original intention and operation process of this system in Chinese universities is to improve output rather than provide occupational security, which differs from those in the United States(Wang and Jones, 2021 ). After China adopted this system, universities entered a game of performance metrics that heightened insecurity among young scholars who constantly fear unemployment (Song and Yang, 2023 ; Yang et al. 2024 ), which has led to more intense competition for academic publications (Gao and Li, 2020 ; Yang, Cai and Li, 2024 ). This further intensifies the fierce competition in the professional field of Chinese university faculties.

In addition, international mobility is increasingly perceived as a crucial element of an academic career (Herschberg et al. 2018 ; Li et al. 2015 ). China, in particular, has long been in the semi-periphery of global higher education based on the centre-periphery model (Altbach, 2009 ). Although its higher education has progressed rapidly recently, seemingly proving that “transfer from the periphery to semi-periphery, or even to the core” is possible, there remains a reverence for overseas academic qualifications (Marginson and Xu, 2023 ; Zhao, Liang and Li, 2024 ; Liu and Ding, 2023 ). Thus, Chinese university employers think highly of overseas-trained talents and show unsurprising preferences for overseas returnees (Li and Pu, 2017 ; Marini and Yang, 2021 ; Wang, 2022 ). It seems evident that local Chinese doctors are despised during job-hunting compared with overseas returnees, which is also criticised widely by the public (Chen, 2022 ; Liu, 2022a ). Therefore, whether credential inflation still applies to returnees when recruiting in Chinese universities also needs to be further explored.

Background of faculty recruitment in Chinese university

Academic background is an important factor affecting the recruitment of academic talents in universities, involving aspects such as the level, location, and ranking of universities they attend, the subjects they studied, etc. (Yao and Yang, 2022 ; Huang et al. 2021 ; Chen, 2022 ). Some of these factors need to be elaborated in detail in the context of China.

The types of institutions in China that faculties at their academic stage mainly include five categories: 985 university, 211 university, ordinary university, scientific research institutes (all of the above four types are domestic institutions), and overseas university. Among them, Project 211 aimed to strengthen the top 100 higher education institutions and several key disciplinary areas for the 21st century, which includes 116 universities. Project 985 is a national project for founding world-class universities in the 21st century, including 39 universities (all included in 211 project universities). Both are no longer selected, and the number of them has been fixed. Generally, 985 university is the best group of universities, while 211 university is the second echelon. They are considered elite universities in China, better than other universities (ordinary universities), whose number is the largest. Hereinafter referred to as 985 university, 211 university, and ordinary university (985 U, 211 U, and O U in tables and figures). Besides, scientific research institutes are independent of the Ministry of Education and the university system, with scientific research as the core business, which plays a pivotal role in advancing scientific knowledge, technological innovation, and national development. The two most renowned institutions are the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) and the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) (Liu, 2022b ).

As the first degree, the undergraduate institution represents the basic level of academic talents to a large extent (Wang and Dong, 2014 ). The master’s and doctoral degrees are the follow-up learning experience. Many talents from low-level undergraduate institutions continuously cover up or whitewash their educational backgrounds by studying in higher-ranked institutions in their postgraduate phase to enhance competitiveness in job hunting. Although all three degrees are important, universities in China generally emphasise candidates’ initial and highest academic qualifications more (Yao and Yang, 2022 ). For instance, the first stage in faculty recruitment typically involves candidates providing information about their undergraduate and doctoral institutions. In particular, 985 universities have an unwritten rule in the recruitment process; most require, in principle, that new faculties graduate from 985 universities (or overseas) with BA, MA, and PhD degrees. Otherwise, they should submit special instructions. Although the Chinese government has long issued clear documents prohibiting employers from selecting employees based on universities, the importance of educational background has always been self-evident in the recruitment process (Yang, 2024 ).

The location of a university is also an important factor in considering its level, mainly manifested in the regional division of the eastern, central, and western regions. The division of those regions classified by the Chinese government is neither an administrative nor a geographical concept division but the concept of economic geography. Among them, the eastern region was the first to implement the open policy and had a high level of economic development. Central region refers to the economically underdeveloped one mainly located in the central area. Western region refers to the underdeveloped western area. There is a significant gap in the resources and quality of higher education between coastal and inland regions, as well as eastern and western provinces (Wang and Mai, 2019 ; Borsi et al. 2022 ; Li et al. 2022 ). Some studies have shown significant differences in education return rates across regions, with a decreasing trend from east to west (Guo et al. 2019 ). Meanwhile, research suggests that regions can affect students’ aspirations for employment and future mobility (Haussen and Uebelmesser, 2018 ; Ciriaci, 2014 ). According to the actual situation of university teacher recruitment in China, applicants who graduated from universities in the Western region are inferior to those who graduated from universities of the same grade in the eastern region.

Besides, Gender needs to be considered in the recruitment of university faculties. In traditional Chinese thought, women need to bear more family burdens and fertility pressure, and their participation and thriving in academic careers may not be recognized (Tang and Horta, 2021 ). Some universities make the rule of male applicants first (Zhao et al. 2013 ). Some universities even directly rejected women because of the bias that women had household chores and fear of family burdens in the future (Tang and Horta, 2021 ). It remains difficult for women to start their academic careers, especially in universities with better resources and working conditions (Xu and Zhou, 2015 ). In the patriarchal dominance and culture of universities in China, women are facing a lack of access to research resources and decision-making positions.

Data of the study

This study uses 159,752 resumes of full-time university academic faculties in Mainland China as research samples. This data does not involve administrative staff and other groups. Among them, there are 56,488 resumes from 985 Project universities, accounting for 35.36%; 45,433 resumes from 211 Project Universities (excluding 985 universities, the same below), accounting for 28.44%; and 57,831 resumes from ordinary universities, accounting for 36.20%.

Data collection

We adopted the method of combining crawler technology with manual collection to capture the open resume information of academic faculties from the official websites of universities in Mainland China. The data collection has lasted for about eight years. Since 2015, the first round of large-scale collection has been carried out. Resumes have been continuously updated during those years. The second round of large-scale resume collection was carried out in 2022. So far, we have collected about 200,000 faculty resumes from 802 universities, including all 985 universities and 211 universities (116 universities in total), and many ordinary universities. Due to the imperfect construction of university faculties’ resumes, the 200,000 pieces of information are not all university academic faculties’ information in Mainland China. Based on eliminating the data with missing core information, the resume database was further screened, and 159,752 resumes were finally formed as the sample of this study.

The sample mainly includes personal basic information, academic information, and employment information. Based on research needs, the above information is coded at the second level to match the following information of faculties’ institutions during their academic and tenure stages. (1) Judge whether each university is a domestic or an overseas institution Footnote 1 (since the sample of this study comes from Chinese universities, the institutions of faculty tenure are all domestic universities). (2) The province of each university is located, and then the regional location of each university (eastern/central/western area) is matched. (3) Match the level and ranking of each university. The university level mainly includes 985, 211, and ordinary university. The Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) in China matches the rankings of universities, one of the world’s most typical and authoritative university ranking systems. We chose the Best Chinese Universities Ranking and its ranking in 2023 to match the rankings of all universities where faculties have studied and worked.

According to statistics, since the proportion of overseas universities and scientific research institutes of faculties’ institutions during their bachelor’s phase is very low, these two categories are not considered in the variables of their bachelor’s institutes. When assessing whether faculties are studying abroad, considering the number of them studying abroad at the bachelor’s phase in the sample is quite tiny, faculties are classified based on whether they are studying abroad at the master’s and doctoral stages. Thus, there are two criteria. One is that either an MA or PhD degree is obtained in overseas universities (treat 1). An MA degree is far less critical in recruiting Chinese university faculties than a PhD degree in China. Therefore, another criterion is that the PhD degree is obtained overseas (treat 2). In addition, this study focuses on the first university where faculties work after graduation. Therefore, for those who have experienced career mobility, this study selects the university that they first work after graduation. Those who have not experienced job-hopping shall be subject to currently employed universities.

Data analysis

On the one hand, descriptive statistics results are presented: (1) The differences in types of the highest degrees of faculties in 985, 211, and ordinary university over time. Because there are many vacancies in faculties’ initial tenure, we selected the graduation year of the corresponding highest degree as the basis for time division. (2) Based on the absolute advantage proportion of faculties with PhD degrees, further analyse the change trend and difference of the level and ranking of this group’s bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral institutions over time. (3) the overall changing trend (including groups studying domestically and abroad) is presented by visualising the ranking of faculties’ employed universities in the sample. Considering the uneven distribution of the sample over time, we further classify the universities of faculties in 985 university, 211 university, and ordinary university from 1990 to 2022 respectively.

On the other hand, the results of the model analysis are presented. First, we discuss the relationship between the highest degree and the ranking of faculties’ employed universities, and focus on the relationship between time and the ranking of their employed institutions. Based on this, we focus on PhD holders. Second, for domestic students, through introducing various variables, explore the changes in the relationship between the bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral levels and the ranking of their employed universities over time, and focus on the time variables. Meanwhile, through threshold regression, exploring the changes in the relationship between faculties’ educational background and the ranking of their employed universities over time. Third, we use the Propensity Score Matching for overseas talents to analyse the difference in the ranking of employed universities due to studying abroad and explore its changes.

Propensity Matching Method

Since it is impossible to observe the situation of the same object while studying in China and abroad simultaneously, the approximate alternative method is to find an effective intervention group and control group. In addition to the place of study, other vital statistical characteristics of the control group are consistent with those of the intervention group (such as undergraduate university level). In this section, this paper focuses on returnees who “study for undergraduate courses at home and graduate studies abroad”. That is, whether to study abroad at the master or doctor phase (we use “SAD” in this paper, including treat 1 and treat 2) is the treatment variable. The outcome variable is the ranking of faculties’ employed universities. We select the Best Chinese Universities Ranking and its latest ranking in 2022 to match the rankings of the universities that faculties first worked after their doctoral graduation. We also consider other factors that affect the level of employed universities. The control variables include gender, study field, university level, ranking and location during their study phases, and graduation year.

The change of faculties’ highest degrees

Among all the samples, 10,702, 23,735, and 95,113 faculties are only BA holders, MA holders, and PhD holders, respectively, accounting for 8.26%, 18.32%, and 73.42% separately. Around 71.04% of BA holders graduated before 2000, with a tiny proportion after 2010. About 83.78% of MA holders graduated before 2010. The two categories of faculties without Ph.D. degrees are more commonly employed in ordinary universities than elite universities (985 and 211 universities). See Table 1 for the statistics. It is worth noting that before 2000, the proportion of these two types of faculties distributed in 985 and 211 universities was relatively high because many ordinary universities were not established earlier. In earlier times, universities had relatively low requirements for faculties. The proportion of faculties without PhD degrees is relatively high (more evident in ordinary universities), which has decreased significantly over time, and faculties with PhD degrees occupy an absolute advantage. All universities have increasingly strict requirements for newly enroled faculty members, and holding a PhD degree has become a basic standard.

The change in faculties’ academic backgrounds

Focusing on the group holding PhD degrees, this part explores the changing trend in the academic structure of faculties. In the bachelor’s phase, elite universities account for a small proportion, while ordinary universities make up a large part. In contrast, in the master’s and doctorate phases, overseas and elite universities take up the majority (See Fig. 1 ). This reflects an improvement in academic institutions’ quality and a growing trend toward studying abroad. Notably, the proportion of faculties working in elite universities, especially 985 universities, who studied overseas and at key universities during their academic stages has a significant advantage (particularly in the doctorate phase). Concerning faculties’ institutions during their study phases, from 2000 to 2010, the proportion of overseas and elite universities increased, while the proportion of ordinary universities decreased. Among them, the growth rate of overseas universities during the doctorate phase is the most pronounced. It is evident that, regardless of the university level, the educational structure of faculties has continuously improved.

Faculties’ academic backgrounds.

Figure 2 shows that from 1990 to 2022, the rankings of universities where faculties from three categories studied during their study phases have risen. This trend is particularly noticeable among those who work in 985 universities. The recent pattern indicates that faculties employed at 985 universities graduated from higher-ranked universities in each phase of their academic journey. From the last century to now, the ranking of the institutions where faculties pursue their education at all stages has consistently improved.

Note: the ranking of institutions where they earned their BA, MA, and PhD degrees. “branking”, “mranking”, and “dranking” represent the ranking of undergraduate, master’s, and doctoral institutions attended by faculties.

The overall trend of the ranking of employed universities

This part shows the changing trend of employed universities’ ranking of PhD holders (grouped according to the year of their doctoral graduation; see the box chart in Fig. 3 ). It shows that from 1990 to 2022, the ranking number of employed universities of all faculties is rising; that is, the ranking is declining. Besides, we classify faculties into two groups, respectively, that is, studying at home and abroad (adopting the definition of “treat 2” to partition), and present the average and median of the ranking of their employed universities from 1990 to 2022. Overall, the ranking of employed universities, whether studying at home or abroad, has shown a downward trend.

Note: divided into three groups based on being employed by different types of universities (985 university, 211 university, and ordinary university).

Considering the importance of the first degree, this part analyses the ranking of employed universities by categorifying faculties with different undergraduate types to explore the changing trend of faculties’ employed universities of those with the same academic background work overtime (see Fig. 4 ). Overall, the employed universities’ ranking of those with undergraduate degrees from 985 universities ranks the highest, followed by those from 211 universities, and those from ordinary universities rank the lowest. From the density distribution map from 1990 to 2022, the number of lower-ranked universities has been increasing, and the employed universities’ rankings of all faculties have shown a downward trend of varying degrees.

Note: classified three groups based on faculties’ different undergraduate types (985 university, 211 university, and ordinary university).

The highest degree and the ranking of employed university

By introducing the corresponding independent variables, this part discusses the relationship between faculties’ highest degree and the ranking of their employed universities. The independent variables include bachelor’s degrees, master’s degrees, and doctoral degrees. However, some samples did not obtain MA and PhD degrees, so only the level, ranking, and location of faculties’ undergraduate institutions were introduced as independent variables, and the year of graduation was adopted. Regression results in Table 2 show that compared with the faculties with PhD degrees, the ranking of employed universities of those with BA and MA degrees are 108 and 103 places lower, respectively. It also shows that the level of undergraduate university faculties influences their employed universities’ ranking. The employed universities’ ranking of faculties in 985 and 211 universities during the bachelor phase is 46 and 26 places higher than those in ordinary universities. There is also a significant positive correlation between the ranking of faculties’ undergraduate universities and the ranking of employed universities. The employed universities of males rank about 16 places higher than females. In addition, there is also a significant positive correlation between the graduation year and the ranking of faculties’ employed universities. That is, the ranking of faculties’ employed universities shows a decline (the number becomes larger) over time.

Hierarchical regression of doctoral degree holders

Based on the above conclusions, this part further focuses on the largest proportion of faculties with doctoral degrees. The samples are conducted using hierarchical regression by introducing the corresponding independent variables. In the first layer, “ gender, subject, blevel, blogging, dranking, mlevel, mlocation, mranking, dlevel, bilocation, branking ” and other variables are put into the model. The second level includes “ dyear ” in the model to focus on whether time plays a significant role in ranking faculties’ employed universities. Meanwhile, several interaction terms, such as g, were included as new variables. The results indicated that except for the interaction variable “gender and subject”, which is significant in Model 3, most of these variables were not significant, or there were multicollinearity issues, leading to exclusion. Based on the above, each model underwent a multicollinearity test, and the results indicate that none exhibit significant multicollinearity issues (VIF < 10).

The results in Table 3 show that the employed universities’ ranking of males ranks higher than females; its ranking of faculties studying in elite universities at the undergraduate, master, and doctorate phases ranks higher than those in ordinary universities; its ranking of faculties studied in eastern area ranks higher than those in the western area; the rankings of undergraduate, master’s and doctoral institutions are positively correlated with the ranking of faculties’ employed universities, and the correlation between the ranking of undergraduate institutions and the ranking of their employed universities is stronger. After adding the variable “ dyear ”, the above results are still similar, but the relationship between each variable and the ranking of their employed universities is weakened overall. This shows that the role of variable “ dyear ” on the dependent variable is very significant. The year of doctoral graduation has a significant positive correlation with the ranking of employed universities, with a coefficient of 3.13 (Model 2), which can be roughly explained as the ranking of their employed universities will decrease by about 3 places for each additional year.

Furthermore, this part analyses the classification of faculties based on the types of universities where they are employed. Specifically, most faculties employed by 985 universities have also studied in elite universities (mainly 985 university). Considering the sample size of this part is relatively limited, which may impact the results, certain variables “ blevel ”, “ mlevel ”, “ dlevel ” are excluded, while others are retained in the regression. The results indicate that the rankings of universities during undergraduate, master, and doctorate phases substantially positively influence the ranking of their employed universities. The lower the ranking of universities in faculties’ study phases (the larger the number), the lower the ranking of their employed universities. Results of the second model of each type of university reveal that the graduation year is significantly positively correlated with the ranking of employed universities. This suggests that the ranking of employed universities for faculties in 985, 211, and ordinary universities decreased by 0.16, 0.55, and 1.77, respectively, for each additional year. Because 985 universities rank in 1–84 (range of difference is 83), 211 universities rank in 33–216 (range of difference is 183), and ordinary universities rank in 54–1087 (range of difference is 1033), it can be inferred that the ranking of employed universities for those three types of faculties decreases by 0.19%, 0.30%, and 0.17% with each additional year.

Threshold regression of doctoral degree holders

By establishing a threshold model, this part aims to verify whether the academic background and time have threshold characteristics on faculties’ employed universities. The model is estimated under no threshold, one threshold, and two in turn. The result shows that the year of doctoral graduation has a double threshold effect on the ranking of faculties’ employed universities, and the estimated values of threshold parameters are 2008 and 2014, respectively.

The results in Table 4 indicate that when the year of doctoral graduation is before 2008, the impact coefficients of undergraduate, master, and doctoral institutions on the ranking of employed universities are 0.0710, 0.0420, and 0.0684, respectively. As the year is between 2008 and 2014, these coefficients increase to 0.171, 0.186, and 0.131, respectively. Upon reaching 2014, the coefficients experience another rise to 0.207, 0.324, and 0.194, respectively. This indicates that the ranking of employed universities is influenced by the threshold characteristics associated with different years. In earlier periods, the impact of the ranking of institutions during faculties’ study phases on the ranking of their employed universities was relatively low. For instance, for every 1-place drop in the undergraduate ranking, there was a 0.0710-place drop in the ranking of employed universities. However, this impact has increased since 2008 and continued to rise in 2014. In 2014, for every 1-place drop in the undergraduate ranking, the ranking of employed universities would drop by 0.207. This suggests that the effect of credential inflation among university faculties continues to accelerate as time goes on.

The benefits of studying abroad

This part conducts PSM using the k−nearest neighbour matching method. “treat 1” and “treat 2” are selected as treatments. The results show that all variables’ standardised deviation (% bias) after matching is less than 5%, meaning the matching results are reliable. The results show that ATT = −10.585 and −15.327, and corresponding T values (|−8.74 | = 8.74, |−8.40 | = 8.40) are more significant than the critical value of 1.96, so they are significant (See Table 5 ). That is to say, for faculty i , overseas study (treat 1 and treat 2) can increase by 10.585 and 15.327 places, respectively, in their employed university ranking compared to studying domestically (the ranking number is reduced). The results of other matching methods are used as robustness tests, similar to the above results (See Table 6 ).

Based on the above, this part further conducts a comparative analysis of different types of universities and different periods. First, all samples were divided according to different periods to carry out the above matching, mainly based on the above double threshold values (2008 and 2014). Additionally, with the implementation of the expanding enrolment policy in 1999, the growth rate of studying abroad increased sharply after 2000. Therefore, the samples are categorised into the following groups: before 2000, 2001–2007, 2008–2014, and 2015–2022. The results are reliable through balance tests and other matching methods. Before 2000, studying abroad had no significant impact on ranking faculties’ employed universities. From 2001 to 2007, the ranking of employed universities increased by about 3.709 or 2.933 places. From 2008 to 2014, this increase escalated to about 18.737 or 27.975 places; after 2014, the rise was about 19.286 or 44.283 places.

After 2010, the sample size from ordinary universities increased, potentially contributing to the above result to some extent. Besides, because the ranking ranges of 985, 211, and ordinary university differ significantly, the ATT effects of the three types of universities cannot be compared on the same scale. To eliminate those problems, this part further classifies the samples in detail according to the two classification standards of time and the level of their employed universities. We select treat 2 for the subsequent analysis to refine the results further. Table 7 shows that before 2000, the results were not significant. From 2001 to 2007, for faculties employed by 985, 211, and ordinary universities, studying abroad can improve their employed universities’ ranking by 1.689, 3.621, and 31.663 places, respectively (the calculated increase ranges are about 2.035%, 1.979%, and 3.065%). From 2008 to 2014, for the three categories of faculties, studying abroad can improve the ranking of their employed universities by 2.858, 5.201, and 45.352 places, respectively (the increase ranges are about 3.443%, 2.842%, and 4.390). After 2014, the result of faculties employed by 211 university is not significant, while for those employed by 985 and ordinary universities, studying abroad can improve the ranking of their employed universities by 4.618 and 31.949 places (the increase ranges are about 5.564% and 3.093%).

In conclusion, the effect of studying abroad on the improvement of faculties’ employed universities’ level (SAD) became significant. There is no evidence of devaluation or credential inflation of overseas degrees; instead, there is a sustained and increasing positive impact on faculties’ employment over time.

This study finds that in the recruitment of university faculty, credential inflation is particularly pronounced for those educated in China, with elite universities, especially 211 universities, displaying more significant characteristics in this regard. It also shows a continuous acceleration of credential inflation over time. That is to say, elite universities have especially tightened the requirements for full-time faculty members’ academic backgrounds. 985 university is in the first echelon of Chinese universities, it has always had strict requirements for faculties, so their employees’ credential inflation is not as apparent as 211 university. A gender-based comparison reveals that credential inflation is more pronounced among females than males. On the contrary, overseas doctoral degrees are found to enhance faculties’ prospects in the job market significantly, and the value of studying abroad has not diminished; instead, it has expanded over time, but variations exist among different types of universities.

In China, higher education exists in a ladder-like system. Tsinghua University and Peking University are at the top of the academic pyramid of Chinese universities. Other 985 and 211 universities are at the top and middle of the pyramid, while other ordinary universities are at the bottom. In earlier years, due to the urgent need for teachers to be supplemented by the expansion of university enrolment, universities did not strictly define the selection of new faculties. It is common for faculties who graduated from universities at the lower level of the pyramid to work in universities at the higher level (Liu et al. 2021 ). Since the enrolment expansion of Chinese universities at the end of the last century, the scale of higher education has continued to expand (Wu, 2019 ), inevitably leading to a devaluation of academic qualifications (Noui, 2020 ). In addition, with the international development of China’s higher education and the construction of Double First-Class universities (Lin and Wang, 2022 ), universities, especially elite ones, have raised the threshold for faculties recruitment. After a doctoral degree became the primary threshold, the credential devaluation began to spread to the level and reputation of universities where faculties graduated.

Compared with local talents, returnees can be employed by higher-level and higher-ranked universities, and this benefit has continued to expand. Although the employment competition of overseas returnees in the labour market has become increasingly fierce in recent years, they still have obvious advantages in the domestic labour market. Although the university faculty profession has undergone structural adjustment and quality enhancement in the past decades (Han et al. 2020 ), it faces persistent challenges, such as a low internationalisation rate and high inbreeding. Besides, due to its belated initiation of higher education development, China has long occupied a marginal position in international higher education (Yang, 2013 ; Wu and Zha, 2018 ), and there remains a notable disparity between China and other educational powerhouses like the United Kingdom and the United States. A substantial gap exists between Chinese universities and their world-class counterparts regarding talent quality. Thus, overseas returnees from global higher education centres continue to be highly sought after in the Chinese academic labour market.

As a common form of human capital, academic qualifications not only bring economic benefits but also confer social status, foster social network relationships, facilitate career development, etc. and possess versatility (Carnevale and Rose, 2015 ; Beck et al. 2020 ; Römgens et al. 2020 ). It is often used as a crucial basis for recruitment and promotion. However, the discussion on verifying the role of education in employment outcomes has mostly emphasised economic returns (Kim and Tamborini, 2019 ; Coady and Dizioli, 2018 ; Eika et al. 2019 ). This study focuses on the non-monetary benefits of academic qualifications in the recruitment of Chinese university faculty and explores the issue of credential inflation, filling the research gap in verifying the versatility of education to some extent. On the other hand, while some studies suggest that Chinese employers are increasing their requirements for employees and showing a preference for returnees (Wang, 2017 ; Ye and Liang, 2019 ), there is a lack of data evidence. This study provides empirical evidence to demonstrate it.

This study reveals the increasingly fierce competition among academic talents in China vying for university academic positions and identifies the devaluation of academic qualifications in the academic labour market. This implies that newcomers in the labour market will face increasingly challenging hurdles and need more competitive backgrounds to stand out, such as by continuously enhancing their research capabilities and academic influence. This offers some insights for corresponding academic professionals seeking career development. Simultaneously, Chinese universities should enhance the construction of their faculty team-building systems, providing more inclusive and supportive institutional frameworks for young scholars. Refining mechanisms that do not solely rely on promotion or exit strategies will further safeguard the rights and interests of young scholars. Additionally, research indicates that young female scholars encounter more significant challenges in seeking academic positions than their male counterparts. Thus, universities need to reduce biases against females and prioritise the development of supportive institutional systems tailored to them, ensuring fairness and equity.

Some limitations exist in this study. One of the university ranking systems primarily referenced by Chinese universities was adopted to represent the level of universities. However, the inherent complexity of university rankings and the differences among various ranking systems may result in certain limitations to the study. Additionally, this study divided the academic backgrounds of talents into different stages (undergraduate, master’s, and doctoral levels), but not further categorised within each stage, such as Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science. This is because if different classifications were applied to each of the three stages, it would generate a wide variety of complex sample types, leading to sample dispersion and reduction, which would not be sufficient to support the study. Meanwhile, disciplines are incorporated into the relevant models, which can somewhat reduce this limitation. Future research needs to enrich the sample further to facilitate more diversified exploration, thus enhancing the precision of the study.

Data availability

The data supporting this study’s findings are available on the official websites of universities in China. Given the difficulty of collecting the data and the availability of publicly accessible data, the authors are not providing the personally collected database to external parties at this time. If scholars are interested in the research, they can collect relevant information from the official websites of Chinese universities or contact the corresponding author to seek sample data.

Overseas universities defined in this study refer to universities, including those in Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan, China, as well as those in foreign countries, while domestic universities refer to those in Mainland China.

Altbach PG (2009) Peripheries and centers: research universities in developing countries. Asia Pac. Educ. Rev. 10:15–27

Article   Google Scholar  

Bedeian AG, Cavazos DE, Hunt JG, Jauch LR (2010) Doctoral degree prestige and the academic marketplace: A study of career mobility within the management discipline. Acad. Manag. Learn. Educ. 9(1):11–25

Google Scholar  

Beck AJ, Leider JP, Krasna H, Resnick BA (2020) Monetary and nonmonetary costs and benefits of a public health master’s degree in the 21st century. Am. J. public health 110(7):978–985

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Borsi MT, Valerio Mendoza OMV, Comim F (2022) Measuring the provincial supply of higher education institutions in China. China Economic Rev. 71:101724

Carnevale, AP, & Rose, SJ (2015) The Economy Goes to College: The Hidden Promise of Higher Education in the Post-Industrial Service Economy. Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce

Chen N (2022) “Why should a ‘foreigner’be better than me?”: preferential practices in junior academic faculty recruitment among mainland Chinese universities. Tert. Educ. Manag. 28(1):17–41

Ciriaci D (2014) Does university quality influence the interregional mobility of students and graduates? The case of Italy. Regional Stud. 48(10):1592–1608

Clauset A, Arbesman S, Larremore DB (2015) Systematic inequality and hierarchy in faculty hiring networks. Sci. adv 1(1):e1400005

Article   ADS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Coady D, Dizioli A (2018) Income inequality and education revisited: persistence, endogeneity and heterogeneity. Appl. Econ. 50(25):2747–2761

DiRamio D, Theroux R, Guarino AJ (2009) Faculty hiring at top-ranked higher education administration programs: An examination using social network analysis. Innov. High. Educ. 34:149–159

Eika L, Mogstad M, Zafar B (2019) Educational assortative mating and household income inequality. J. Political Econ. 127(6):2795–2835

Guo L, Huang J, Zhang Y (2019) Education development in China: education return, quality, and equity. Sustainability 11(13):3750

Gao, J., & Li, C. (2020). Version 2.0 of building world-class universities in China: Initial outcomes and problems of the double world-class project. High. Educ. Policy 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41307-020-00211-z

Han J, Yin H, Wang J, Zhang J (2020) Job demands and resources as antecedents of university teachers’ exhaustion, engagement and job satisfaction. Educ. Psychol. 40(3):318–335

Hancock S, Walsh E (2016) Beyond knowledge and skills: rethinking the development of professional identity during the STEM doctorate. Stud. High. Educ. 41(1):37–50

Hao J, Welch A (2012) A tale of sea turtles: job-seeking experiences of hai gui (high-skilled returnees) in China. High. Educ. Policy 25(2):243–260

Haussen T, Uebelmesser S (2018) Job changes and interregional migration of graduates. Regional Stud. 52(10):1346–1359

Herschberg C, Benschop Y, Van den Brink M (2018) Selecting early-career researchers: the influence of discourses of internationalisation and excellence on formal and applied selection criteria in academia. High. Educ. 76:807–825

Huang Z, Huang J, Zhang Z, Zhu MA, Wei Y (2021) Talent recruitment analysis based on Chinese mainland public colleges and universities in perspective of occupation requirement. J. Public Aff. 21(2):e2219

Kahn LB (2010) The long-term labor market consequences of graduating from college in a bad economy. Labour Econ. 17(2):303–316

Karmel T (2015) Skills deepening or credentialism? education qualifications and occupational outcomes, 1996-2011. Aust. J. Labour Econ. 18(1):29–51

Kim C, Tamborini CR (2019) Are they still worth it? the long-run earnings benefits of an associate degree, vocational diploma or certificate, and some college. RSF: Russell Sage-Found. J. Soc. Sci. 5(3):64–85

Lehmann W (2012) Extra-credential experiences and social closure: Working-class students at university. Br. Educ. Res. J. 38(2):203–218

Leišytė L (2016) New public management and research productivity–a precarious state of affairs of academic work in the Netherlands. Stud. High. Educ. 41(5):828–846

Li F, Miao Y, Yang C (2015) How do alumni faculty behave in research collaboration? an analysis of Chang Jiang scholars in China. Res. Policy 44(2):438–450

Li M, Pu H (2017) Recruiting returnees: a study of Chinese university presidents’ perceptions of foreign-educated returnees at Chinese universities. J. Media Crit. 3(11):21–32

Li P, Zhong H, Zhang JZ (2022) Spatial patterns and development characteristics of China’s postgraduate education: a geographic information system approach. Int. J. Semantic Web Inf. Syst. (IJSWIS) 18(1):1–21

Lianmei, LI, & Lin, JIANG (2021) The Origin, Dilemma and Trend of “Tenure-Track”— “Tenured” System in Colleges and Universities in China. Modern Education Management , (7), 105

Lin L, Wang S (2022) China’s higher education policy change from 211 project and 985 project to the double-first-class plan: applying Kingdon’s multiple streams framework. High. Educ. Policy 35(4):808–832

Article   MathSciNet   Google Scholar  

Lin SY, Liu J (2023) Has excess epidemic prevention changed Chinese students’ willingness to study abroad: three rounds of the same volume survey based on the new “push–pull” theory. Humanities Soc. Sci. Commun. 10(1):1–14

Liu, J (2022a, January 12). Preference for globetrotters leaves Chinese scholars ‘helpless’. Times Higher Education . Retrieved March 8, 2024, from https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/preference-globetrotters-leaves-chinese-scholars-helpless

Liu, J, Lin, SY, Wang, YM, & Kong, FS (2021) Can Research-Oriented University Faculties be Admitted to the University Where They Teach: Discussions on Academic Inbreeding in Colleges and Universities. China Higher Education Research , (08), 56-62. ([in Chinese])

Liu S, Ding W (2023) Chinese universities’ special programs supporting talents to seek a United Nations career: a center-periphery-model analysis. High. Educ. 86(2):387–406

Liu X (2022b) Integration of natural and social sciences: only way to develop new think tanks of high quality—on construction of think tank science. Bull. Chin. Acad. Sci. (Chin. Version) 37(2):168–176

Mai B, Liu J, González-Bailón S (2015) Network effects in the academic market: Mechanisms for hiring and placing PhDs in communication (2007-2014). J. Commun. 65(3):558–583

Marginson S, Xu X (2023) Hegemony and inequality in global science: Problems of the center-periphery model. Comp. Educ. Rev. 67(1):31–52

Marini G, Yang L (2021) Globally bred Chinese talents returning home: an analysis of a reverse brain-drain flagship policy. Sci. Public Policy 48(4):541–552

McLean S, Rollwagen H (2010) Educational expansion or credential inflation? the evolution of part‐time study by adults at McGill University, Canada. Int. J. Lifelong Educ. 29(6):739–755

National Bureau of Statistics. (2022). Graduate and international student data. Retrieved March 29, 2024, from https://data.stats.gov.cn/easyquery.htm?cn=C01&zb=A0M0D&sj=2021

Nevin AD (2019) Academic hiring networks and institutional prestige: A case study of Canadian sociology. Can. Rev. Sociol. 56(3):389–420

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Noui R (2020) Higher education between massification and quality. High. Educ. Evaluation Dev. 14(2):93–103

Powell K (2015) The future of the postdoc. Nature 520(7546):144–148

Article   ADS   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Reymert I, Vabø A, Borlaug SB, Jungblut J (2023) Barriers to attracting the best researchers: perceptions of academics in economics and physics in three European countries. High. Educ. 86(5):1173–1193

Römgens I, Scoupe R, Beausaert S (2020) Unraveling the concept of employability, bringing together research on employability in higher education and the workplace. Stud. High. Educ. 45(12):2588–2603

Song J (2018) Creating world-class universities in China: strategies and impacts at a renowned research university. High. Educ. 75:729–742

Song J, Yang Z (2023) Striving transition for university academics: the academic role identity of young postdocs at universities in China. SAGE Open 13(1):21582440231153054

Tang L, Horta H (2021) Women academics in Chinese universities: a historical perspective. High. Educ. 82(5):865–895

Tharenou P, Seet PS (2014) China’s reverse brain drain: regaining and retaining talent. Int. Stud. Manag. Organ. 44(2):55–74

Tian M, Lu G (2017) What price the building of world-class universities? academic pressure faced by young lecturers at a research-centered University in China. Teach. High. Educ. 22(8):957–974

Umbach PD (2007) Gender equity in the academic labor market: an analysis of academic disciplines. Res. High. Educ. 48(2):169–192

Van de Werfhorst HG, Andersen R (2005) Social background, credential inflation and educational strategies. Acta sociologica 48(4):321–340

Wang AQ (2017) Formalism institution in teacher education growth and correcting. Theory Pract. Educ. 22:38–41. ([in Chinese])

Wang, D, & Dong, YJ (2014). Research on the issue of “first-degree discrimination” in the employment market for doctoral students. China Youth Study , (05), 82-85+90.([in Chinese])

Wang, JY, & Mai, YH (2019). Development of Higher Education in Western Regions: Opportunities, Challenges and Countermeasures, China higher education research , (12), 49-53.([in Chinese])

Wang L (2022) Newbie or experienced: an empirical study on faculty recruitment preferences at top national HEIs in China. Stud. High. Educ. 47(4):783–798

Wang S, Jones GA (2021) Competing institutional logics of academic personnel system reforms in leading Chinese Universities. J. High. Educ. Policy Manag. 43(1):49–66

Whitchurch C (2019) From a diversifying workforce to the rise of the itinerant academic. High. Educ. 77(4):679–694

Wu H (2019) Three dimensions of China’s “outward-oriented” higher education internationalization. High. Educ. 77(1):81–96

Wu H, Zha Q (2018) A new typology for analyzing the direction of movement in higher education internationalization. J. Stud. Int. Educ. 22(3):259–277

Xu, P, & Zhou, C (2015) Gender, Academic Profession and Young University Teachers’ Income Inequality. Youth Studies (1), 20-29.([in Chinese])

Yan G, Yue Y, Niu M (2015) An empirical study of faculty mobility in China. High. Educ. 69:527–546

Yang J (2024) The dilemma of Chinese postgraduate employment: first-degree discrimination. J. Educ., Humanities Soc. Sci. 27:159–165

Yang R (2013) Indigenizing the Western concept of university: the Chinese experience. Asia Pac. Educ. Rev. 14(1):85–92

Yang X, Cai XL, Li TS (2024) Does the tenure track influence academic research? An empirical study of faculty members in China. Stud. High. Educ. 49(3):476–492

Yang, X, Cai, X, & Cai, J (2024) The effect of the tenure track on faculty member’s job insecurity and innovative work behavior. Higher Education , 1-20

Yao G, Yang J (2022) Types, scope, and differences of employment discrimination faced by PhD graduates: an empirical study based on data from the 2017 national graduation survey. Chin. Educ. Soc. 55(1-2):101–115

Ye, XM, & Liang, WY (2019) Are Returnees Better Than Local Teachers? -Evidence from Education Department of Research University. Education & Economy, (01),75-86. ([in Chinese])

Yi G, McMurtrey ME (2013) The impact of academic inflation on the labour market: If everyone has a PhD, who will be the custodian. Int. J. Electron. Financ. 7(3-4):250–262

Zhao, K, Liang, H, & Li, J (2024) Understanding the growing contributions of China to leading international higher education journals. Higher Education , 1-19

Zhao, X, Liu, Y, & He, J (2013) A Study on the Current Situation of Female Teachers in Universities: Taking Beijing Information Science and Technology University as an Example. Human Resource Management , (1), 137-139.([in Chinese])

Zheng G, Shen W, Cai Y (2018) Institutional logic of Chinese doctoral education system. High. Educ. 76(5):753–770

Download references

Acknowledgements

The National Natural Science Foundation of China. Grant/Award Number: 71974012 and 71774015.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Faculty of Education, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China

Songyue Lin

School of Education, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, China

Kaixuan Zhang & Jin Liu

School of Management, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China

Wenjing Lyu

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

The author, Songyue Lin (first author), was acknowledged for data collection, data analysis, first draft writing and revision work. The author, Kaixuan Zhang (second author), was acknowledged for data collection and revision work. Jin Liu (corresponding author) was acknowledged for research design and revision work. He agreed to be accountable for aspects of the work. The author, Wenjing Lyu (fourth author), was acknowledged for revision work.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jin Liu .

Ethics declarations

Ethical approval.

Ethics approval was not required for this research as we used objective data from the official public websites of universities.

Informed consent

Competing interests.

The authors declared that they have no conflicts of interest in this work. We declare that we do not have any commercial or associative interest that represents a conflict of interest in connection with the work submitted.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Lin, S., Zhang, K., Liu, J. et al. Credential inflation and employment of university faculty in China. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 1191 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03653-7

Download citation

Received : 29 March 2024

Accepted : 20 August 2024

Published : 12 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03653-7

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

It looks like you're using an unsupported browser

For the best experience please switch to a supported browser

• Doctor of Veterinary Medicine
• Comparative Biomedical Sciences MS/PhD Program
• Veterinary Public Health
• Graduate Certificate Global One Health
• Internships
• Residencies
• Continuing Education
• Student Resources Directory
• Veterinary Biosciences
• Veterinary Clinical Sciences
• Veterinary Preventive Medicine
• Center for Retrovirus Research
• Signature Programs
• Veterinary Student Research Opportunities
• College Research Day
• Environmental Health and Safety
• Grant Support
• Alumni Society
• Alumni Awards
• Get Involved
• Golf Outing
• Homecoming Weekend
• White Coat Ceremony

Ohio State extends Dean Rustin Moore’s term through 2027

Article by: Allison Burk

Originally Published

• Share article via Facebook
• Share article via Twitter
• Share via Email

Since assuming the role of the 11th dean of the College of Veterinary Medicine on Sept. 1, 2015, Moore has led the college through two five-year terms, marked by a series of notable accomplishments and far-reaching impacts.

Under his leadership, the program, which had been a top-five program in the U.S. News & World Report rankings for well over a decade, increased from fifth to fourth to third, marking the highest ranking the college has ever achieved . The program’s reputation of excellence has allowed the college to recruit and retain outstanding faculty leaders and increase research faculty and funding. Moore emphasized that these accomplishments and impact are thanks to the contributions from many people both within and outside the college and are truly a testament to an incredible team effort. of an incredible team effort from many people both within and outside the college.

“I am grateful to Dean Moore for his visionary leadership and deep commitment to the college’s aspirations for excellence in education, research, outreach, and service,” said Karla Zadnik , interim executive vice president and provost at Ohio State and Glenn A. Fry professor in optometry and physiological optics. 

The college launched the first-of-its-kind competency-based curriculum under Moore’s leadership with the class of 2026 at the beginning of the fall semester in 2022. The goal of this curriculum, which includes a focus on the concept of Spectrum of Care, is to enhance the competence and confidence of our graduates to provide care to animals and serve the owners across a broad array of socioeconomic, demographic, and other attributes and characteristics. 

A champion for the veterinary profession and animal health-related industries in Ohio and beyond, Moore helped to secure a $5M per year new line item from the state to advance and sustain Ohio’s only college of veterinary medicine, which serves the animals and people of Ohio. From safeguarding Ohio’s $120 billion agricultural sector—the state’s top industry—to enhancing the lives of companion animals that enrich our daily experiences, Moore remains a strong advocate for the critical role Ohio State veterinarians and College of Veterinary Medicine graduates play in every facet of our lives.

With the assistance of the university, state, and other partners, Ohio’s only college of veterinary medicine will be poised to have an even more significant impact on agricultural and companion animal health and wellbeing, wildlife and the environment, and public health through a One Health approach.

The College of Veterinary Medicine continues to advance its ambition to Be The Model® comprehensive college of veterinary medicine in the world. Guided by an ambitious strategic plan developed and implemented during Dean Moore’s deanship, the college continues to benefit society and enhance the health and well-being of animals, people, and the ecosystem through innovation in research, education, patient care, outreach and service. 

Moore outlined that the focus in the coming years will be on collaborating with faculty, staff, students, alumni, and supporters to build a sustainable financial foundation for the college. This will ensure a more accessible and affordable education, attract and retain top faculty and staff, advance animal and public health, and better serve the people and animals of Ohio.