science and modern world essay

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Modern (1940’s-present)

47 The Modern World and STS

Juliana-Marie Troyan; Maggie Elpers; Taylor Lorusso; Sevanna Boleman; Willis Watts; Joseph Rivera; David Jonah Lamothe; and Anthony Spearman

Introduction

In the study of science and technology in society, the modern world, spanning from the 1940s to the present day, is an overwhelming, yet enriching period to study. Although the 1940s and the 2020s are both considered modern, the average person today would most likely find himself or herself living a very different life in the 1940s. Those differences would regard heavily debated subjects, such as societal views on medical care and defense, as well as daily subjects of entertainment and communication. With changing societal views, science and technology have progressed to satisfy society’s needs and wants. These changes in society brought about by advances in medical care, defense, cybersecurity, entertainment, and communication define our lives today. The modern era has seen and will continue to see extensive changes in society that are driven by politics, religion, and essential events calling for significant developments in science and technology, which has given society the life it gladly accepts today. By the end of this chapter you will be able to understand magnitude and presence of science and technology in the modern era. These ideas will be expanded upon in the following sections, starting with the question: What has science looked like in the modern world?

In the 21st century alone, scientists have been able to detect  gravitational waves  on the moon, sequence the  genome  of a cancer patient, and create human organs using stem cells (“ 10 Greatest Scientific Discoveries and Inventions of 21st Century | ISB Glasgow, ” n.d.). However, perhaps one of the most influential discoveries in the scientific community was the ability to see particles at the  atomic  and  molecular  level. Thus, the field of nanoscience was born, and ever since, there has been an influx of scientific developments that have been translated into technology directly affecting human life. The discovery of nanoscience has led to advances in the fields of computing and engineering, which has the potential to change the gap of accessible healthcare technology between  socio-economic  classes.

The word “nano” stems from a Greek origin meaning dwarf, which proves to be applicable when measuring particles that are one billionth of a meter. One of the original scientists to use the term nanotechnology described the concept as having a goal to manipulate single atoms and molecules for the production of macroscale products (Bardosova & Wagner, 2013). In the early 1980s, two scientists at IBM Research in Zurich developed the Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM), which allowed materials to be imaged and manipulated at the atomic level (Baird & Shew, 2004). This allowed scientists and researchers to see smaller structures than ever before, and since then, a wide variety of fields have been impacted. In the US specifically, the establishment of the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) federally funded by institutions such as the National Science Foundation, the Department of Defense, and the National Institutes of Health, has created a push for innovation in the areas of physical, chemical, biological, and materials engineering ( Roco , 2003). Nanoscience and nanotechnology is a rapidly growing field in the modern period of engineering, physics, and computing.

Currently, some of the significant applications of nanoscience are being used in the Biomedical and Biological Engineering fields for a wide range of applications, including disease therapies, vaccines, and even personalized medicine. Emerging as a subfield of Biomedical Engineering, the research area of drug delivery has readily adopted the use of nanoscience. Through the use of nanoparticles ranging in the size of 10 to 1000 nanometers in diameter, researchers can deliver therapeutics such as pharmaceuticals, proteins, and even RNA encapsulated in nanoparticles for the treatment of many diseases including cancer and cardiovascular diseases. The term nanoparticle is perhaps quite vague, as nanoparticles can be synthesized using polymers,  peptides , and  lipids , as well as other synthetic and biological materials. Nanoparticles are advantageous as drug delivery vehicles because they can be readily taken up by cells, they provide a steady release of drugs, and targeting  moieties  can be incorporated to help nanoparticles deliver their cargo at a specific site in the body ( Sahoo & Labhasetwar , 2003). Nanoparticles can be  conjugated  with cell-specific ligands that will carry the nanoparticle to where the matching receptor is overexpressed. For example, a nanoparticle could be tagged with a specific motif that would bind to cancer cells overexpressing a particular receptor on the cell membrane, and it would not be targeted to healthy tissue to avoid common side effects of  chemotherapeutic  drugs.

One of the newer advances in nanoscience and healthcare is the field of personalized medicine. Usually, when a patient is diagnosed with a disease, there is one pharmaceutical or treatment for the disease, and each patient diagnosed with the said disease is given the same treatment. However, with the genetic testing that is now available, scientists can predict which drugs will be more beneficial for individual patients and tailor effective patient therapies towards smaller populations with different genetic profiles (Vogenberg et al., 2010). Another avenue of personalized medicine therapies comes from stem cells. Stem cells are characterized by their ability to grow into multiple types of cells, and in the early 2000’s it was discovered that basic cell types could be reprogrammed into induced  pluripotent  stem cells (iPSCs) that are capable of forming functional tissue-specific cells ( Chun et al. , 2011). For example, a patient’s stem cells could be collected, reprogrammed in a laboratory to grow into a different cell type, and implanted back into the human body to treat a disease or injury. This method is advantageous because it limits the adverse side effects that come from introducing foreign materials into the human body.

It seems as if the field of nanoscience and  nanotechnology  is the future of modern medicine, but it begs the question, can this help everyone? The development of personalized medicine could be widening an already significant gap in access to health care between socio-economic classes. Take, for example, a developing country that does not have the infrastructure or essential utilities to support modern laboratories or patients with enough income to pay for personalized therapies that are doubtfully cost-effective. Do these patients have the same access to therapies compared to patients living in first world countries with research institutes that receive billions of dollars in funding each year? Some scientists argue that personalized medicine has benefits in eliminating health  disparities , such as developing targeted therapies for certain ethnic groups that share common disease characteristics (Brothers & Rothstein, 2015). However, it would be naïve to say that patients in developed countries will not benefit more from personalized medicine than developing countries.

Nanoscience is the future of many disciplines with the ability and potential to affect human life on a large scale. Currently, the globe is experiencing a boom in the use of nanoscience that has the potential to cure incurable diseases and provide better healthcare to developing countries. Whether or not these technologies will be accessible to all is an issue that will undoubtedly be impacted by figures outside the scientific community, such as legislation and national regulations, as more and more technologies arise from nanoscience.

In addition to nanotechnology, 3D Printing is another modern world technology that is continually evolving to encompass a wide range of applications, especially in the medical industry, allowing medical professionals, researchers, and educators alike the opportunity to improve and advance procedures and technology like never before. 3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, takes a digital model or blueprint of an object of the user’s creation and prints successive layers of material to create a tangible 3D model of that object ( Nawrat , 2018). Compared to other manufacturing methods that subtract material to form a product, additive manufacturing is the addition of material. The initial goal of 3D printing was to develop faster  prototyping   but it has developed into so much more in today’s world. Medical researchers and specialists are using 3D printing to create artificial organs with bio-printers to validate proper drug dosages and practice complicated surgical operations in a cost-effective manner ( Nawrat , 2018). Universities and some primary education schools are implementing 3D printers as a resource for school projects/coursework, prototyping, and learning. Additionally, 3D printing is being used to manufacture custom products, such as  prostheses , at a relatively low cost. Traditional methods to get the same result, such as injection molding, takes weeks to make and costs thousands of dollars. 3D printing allows companies to build their objects remotely and on a case-by-case basis.

One of the most impressive technological advancements in recent years regarding 3D printing in the medical industry is bioprinting. Rather than printing plastics or metals, bioprinters use a computer-guided  pipette  to layer living cells and create artificial living tissues ( Nawrat , 2018). Some of the most common materials used in this type of 3D printing include cell  aggregates  – such as tissue spheroids, cell pellets, and tissue strands – hydrogels, micro-carriers, and decellularized matrix components ( Peng , 2017). Bioprinting has expanded to encompass a wide range of applications in medicine such as pharmaceutical drug discovery, creation of artificial organs called “organoids” for elaborate surgery preparation or organ replacements, and giving medical students more real-world experience without the added patient risk. One of the biggest challenges during new drug discovery is that there are so many strict regulatory and validation requirements that need to be met in order to ensure their safety and  efficacy  for public use. As can be assumed, this is a very tedious and taxing process and unfortunately, leads to inflated  attrition  rates and significant losses in funding ( Peng , 2017). Traditional cell-based studies use 2D monolayer culture methods; however, this is not realistic for drugs that will be implemented in a 3D environment. The implementation of bioprinting allows for more predictive methods of efficacy and safety analysis, decreasing the attrition rates and enabling a “quick-win, fast-fail” mentality, saving time and money, and increasing the amount of drug discovery.

In addition to advancing medical experiments and procedures, 3D printing can also be used to develop more precise surgical instruments and tools for other medical practices in a cost-effective manner. In environments such as hospitals and medical centers, it is very easy for bacteria and infection to spread. However, tools made using 3D printing can be “one-off” or even made for specific tasks on a case-by-case basis, improving procedures, and eliminating the risk of transferring bacteria or viruses. Now, it can be argued that having to purchase or “print” new tools for each surgery would add up in cost. However, by creating the perfect tools for the job for a lot less than they would cost using other manufacturing methods while still getting the added customization benefits would outweigh the additional 3D printing material expenses ( 3D-printed Surgical Tools  n.d.). As this technology continues to increase in popularity, economists estimate that the 3D printing industry will be worth $3.5 billion by 2025 in the medical field alone ( Nawrat , 2018).

3D printing is further expanding its reach in the medical industry by solving many issues and restrictions that arise in this field. Prosthetics are one of the most popular yet most expensive medical devices for amputees used globally today. There are many advantages to incorporating 3D printing into prosthetic development. Firstly, it can be difficult and expensive to produce prosthetics that are the perfect fit for a patient. Every patient’s needs are going to be different. With 3D printing, prosthetics can be modeled and printed at a much lower cost to ensure a proper fit for every patient ( Top 5 Applications , 2019). Children who are candidates for prosthetics typically will not be able to get a quality prosthetic until they are fully grown, but 3D printing technology allows for new prosthetics to be printed every couple of months to keep up with them as they continue to grow without the extreme financial burden. Third world countries who may not even have prosthetics as an option can take advantage of the 3D printed ones ( Top 5 Applications , 2019). Another application of 3D printing in the medical industry is bioprinting. Rather than printing plastics or metals, bioprinters use a computer-guided pipette to layer living cells and create artificial living tissues ( Nawrat , 2018). These “organoids”, or artificial organs, can be used for pharmaceutical testing as a cost-effective and ethical means of helping to identify the side effects of drugs and validating safe dosage amounts ( Top 5 Applications , 2018). Surgeons can also use these organoids and create patient-specific organ replicas to practice before performing the actual operation. This method has been proven to speed up procedures and minimize trauma ( Nawrat , 2018).

The events of the 2016 presidential election revealed the power that  social media  technology possesses in society through its influence of public opinion using   algorithms  that can influence what a social media user sees. These algorithms can cause news-feed echo chambers, dark posts, and bots. Social media has only recently become politically relevant due to its beginnings coming in the early 2000s. Social media sites use news-feed algorithms to order posts that appear on a user’s feed ( Barnhart,  2019). Social media has woven itself into many parts of our lives– sometimes in unexpected ways. One crucial part of our society that has been changed forever by social media is politics. A particularly profound demonstration of the relationship between politics and social media took place during the 2016 presidential election.

One potential effect of the use of news feed algorithms by social media sites is the creation of echo chambers. An echo chamber is a term used to describe a situation in which the information and opinions an individual is exposed to predominately align with their own beliefs ( Digital Media Literacy , 2019). This situation can occur in any circumstance where information flows, but social media algorithms have allowed for the creation of a specific type of echo chamber called a filter bubble. As stated previously, social media algorithms are used to determine how posts appear on a user’s feed. These algorithms often take what types of people and pages an individual interacts with into account ( Digital Media Literacy , 2019). For example, if a user tends to click on pages about dogs, then posts about dogs will appear at the top of their news feed more often. Therefore, users are often exposed to content that is synonymous with what they interact in the first place. In terms of politics, this can prevent users from being exposed to different viewpoints than their own, and it can further polarize views. There has been a trend in American politics in which those on opposite poles of political standpoints are feeling increasingly negative toward each other ( Allcott, & Gentzkow , 2017). While there is no conclusive evidence that echo chambers affected the outcome of the 2016 presidential election, studies have outlined that news feed algorithms may  exacerbate  political tensions between those on the opposite ends of political views.

Not only are echo chambers a potential problem lurking in the social media and political crosshairs, but “dark posts” should also be considered. Dark posts are advertisements that are only visible to specific users on social media. These types of advertisements are a part of the ad-algorithms for several social media sites. For example, a dark post aimed towards college students would only be visible to college students. Dark posts go a step beyond just a targeted advertisement. These advertisements can use keywords like your actual job title ( Gollin , 2018). In short, dark posts allow customization of the targeted advertisement strategy. In the 2016 election, it was found that a Russian organization bought thousands of ads on several social media platforms, such as Facebook, focusing on political and social issues that actively targeted certain  demographic  groups ( Young et al. , 2018). Facebook testified before the United States Senate that 126 million Americans were subjected to advertisements and posts, including some dark posts, created by Russians ( Gollin , 2018). Social media platforms are making changes to the dark post regulations in order to foster more  transparency  and prevent an issue like this from recurring.

Another issue surrounding social media use in the 2016 presidential election is the use of bots on social media. Bots are social media automated accounts that use algorithms to interact with other users ( Tarantola , 2019). It can often be challenging to differentiate between a bot and a human. Only about 47% of Americans stated that they could recognize a bot account ( Tarantola , 2019). Bots can be used for political strategies as well. These so-called political bots can  disseminate  news information, post spam, and harass other users. Bots were particularly rampant in the 2016 presidential election, with higher levels of bot use than ever before ( Kollyani et al ., 2016). These bots accounted for a large amount of the political content generated and discussed during this election. Since bots are also often used to spread news, they can be used to spread misinformation as well. Since this problem has risen, social media platforms are taking measures to try and reduce the power and prevalence of bots.

Echo chambers, dark posts, and bots had relevance in the events of the 2016 presidential election. They helped reveal the power that social media technology possesses in society through its influence of public opinion using news-feed algorithms. Social media has been beneficial in allowing increased access to information by which people can form their political identities. Unfortunately, the same characteristics that foster the benefits of social media may also provide an opportunity for disinformation to be spread. In an age where social media algorithms value engagement over credibility, it is essential to be aware of the issues that may manipulate public opinion.

Many factors drive the advancements of science and technology in society today. Currently, resources, knowledge, prosperity, and ambition are influences in the decisions to create, investigate, and look for answers and solutions to the problems in the world. One controversial technology has been used in the field of medicine. The scientific breakthrough of new reproductive technology (NRT) has been used to treat  infertility  around the world and is rapidly spreading. Many religions have various viewpoints on NRT.  Christianity,  which is composed of  Catholics  and  Protestants,  is the most prominent religion in North America. It has affected new reproductive technology in three different ways: supporting the means to overcome infertility, encouraging more research in the field, and discouraging its future use.

Many Christians believe that NRT is a means to overcome fertility by giving couples who cannot conceive naturally the opportunity to conceive with this medical advancement. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, infertility is defined as “not being able to get pregnant (conceive) after one year (or longer) of unprotected sex” ( Becker , 2019). From 2015 to 2017, nineteen percent of women 15-49 struggle with infertility, so many turn to new reproductive therapy, which includes  in vitro fertilization  (IVF) and  intracytoplasmic sperm injection  (ICSI). In IVF, fertilization occurs outside the female’s body. In ICSI, the doctor injects sperm into the female’s mature egg. Also, in some cases, donor eggs and sperm are used. Protestants, in particular, feel that babies should be celebrated as life is celebrated in the Bible, the sacred text of Christians. Others, like Catrece Caron, believe that “God created these doctors to do this kind of work.” Caron, according to the Washington Post, was a forty-one-year-old mother who had a seven-year-old and a two-year-old through IVF in Boston, where over 90,000 babies have been born as a result of their medical advancements. Another mother, named Lesley Brown, said her daughter, “Louise is truly a gift from God” ( Smith , 2018). Boston is just one city in the United States, where babies were celebrated as gifts from God through NRT.

Protestants have encouraged more research in the medical field concerning infertility and NRT. For example, George Church, a Harvard geneticist, is now beginning a project called the Human Genome Project, which maps the  DNA  in humans. He said he believes Protestants are beginning to encourage this new research as they now have support for IVF from Protestants. Church says, “In the Bible, it says we are given dominion over the Earth. Inventing newer and newer advanced technologies is almost a key component of human nature”( Cha,  2018). Scientists feel they are gaining more support from the Protestants and, in turn, are encouraged to research more into the medical field of infertility through science and technology.

As many Protestants support and encourage the science and technology of the Christian faith, Catholicism discourages its future use. The Catholic Church believes NRT is immoral and illegal. They strongly disapprove of the research and use of NRT. A report by the Catholic Church entitled Respect for Human Life and Dignity of Procreation states, “Children are a gift and a blessing from God and that although science makes some things possible, it does not make them right. Research must continue in the causes of infertility, but the morality of these should be carefully considered.” ( Sallam , 2016) The percent of the World’s population, so they are very influential with their beliefs. The Catholic Church discourages future use and research in the medical advancements of infertility.

Science and technology are often affected by religion. In the 2016 article, Religious Aspects of Assisted Reproduction, it says, “Human response to new developments regarding birth…is largely shaped by religious beliefs. When assisted reproduction was introduced into medical practice in the last quarter of the twentieth century, it was fiercely attacked by some religious groups and highly welcomed by others” ( Sallam , 2016). Christianity, which is widely practiced in North America, has impacted the medical advancements in new reproductive technology. While some support the means and encourage more research, others actively discourage its use. Either way, religion has influenced NRT; therefore, affecting today’s society as a whole.

Key Events & Innovations

The modern era saw the rise of technologies such as  reproductive technology , the  television , man-made  satellites ,  personal computers , and many more. However, there is a specific event that triggered significant technological advancements in medicine and society. With the end of the  Second World War  and the rise of  nuclear  weapons, tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States of America rose, which gave rise to the Cold War. This Cold War led to an arms race and growth of nuclear weapons between the Soviets and Americans; these tensions also spread into space. When the Soviets launched the world’s first artificial satellite into space, the United States felt the pressure building, and the Space Race began between the two major powers. During the Space Race, the United States not only landed on the Moon, but they were able to develop groundbreaking technological advancements.

A quick recap: Germany’s instability after the  First World War  led to the rise of Adolf Hilter and his  Nazi  Party. Hitler anointed himself as the supreme leader of Germany in 1934. He and his National Socialist Party broke the Versailles Treaty, which was a peace treaty that ended World War I, by rearming Germany and its military. Later, Hitler and Joseph Stalin, the dictator of the Soviet Union at the time, signed a  pact , and the Soviet Union and Germany invaded Poland from the East and West. Great Britain and France, who have promised military support to Poland if ever invaded, declared war on Germany, which ignited the start of WWII. In 1940, Germany, Italy, and Japan signed the Tripartite Pact, which became the Axis alliance. Later in German-occupied Poland, more than 6 million  Jews  would be murdered during the Holocaust, mass  genocide  of European Jews from 1941-1945. On December 7, 1941, Japanese aircrafts attacked a major United States Naval Base in Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, which led to the United States entering the Second World War against the Axis alliance. On June 6, 1944, also known as “D-Day,” the Allies began the invasion of Europe by landing troops on the beaches of Normandy, France, which signified German defeat. In order to finalize the war with the remaining Axis power, Japan, the United States crafted some nuclear weapons, called  atomic bombs , that would later be dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan. The war promptly ended as the Japanese agreed upon the terms of the Potsdam Declaration, a statement that called upon the surrender of the Japanese armed forces (Gilbert, 2014).

Taking a step back before the Second World War was over, the Allied powers held a conference to decide on how to carry on after the war. During this conference, tensions grew between President Harry S. Truman and dictator Joseph Stalin because they were both suspicious of each other’s intentions, especially since Truman made Stalin aware that the United States had created nuclear weapons through their discreet program called the Manhattan Project. These rising tensions helped give birth to a tension-driven period called the Cold War. Over the next few years, after World War II ended, the Soviet Union began experimenting with nuclear weapons. By the 1950s, the two superpowers, the Soviet Union and the United States of America, grew their nuclear arsenal to the point where they could destroy each other (Oreskes & Krige, 2014; McDougall, 2008). With the stress of nuclear weapons and the spread of  communism  breathing down America’s shoulders, the United States started to feel the pressure. The competition between the Americans and the Soviets did not stop on the land, air, and sea; the competition extended to the final frontier: space. The two superpowers explored beyond our world to see how it could benefit their cause, and on October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched the first man-made satellite, Sputnik I, into Earth’s orbit. The United States felt this achievement was an immediate threat as the  ballistic missile , Soviet R-7, that launched Sputnik could potentially drop a nuclear missile onto American soil. In 1958, the United States created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, better known as NASA, and the Space Race began. In 1959, the Soviets launched a  space probe  that crashed into the Moon. In 1961, the Soviets sent the first man to space, Yuri Gagarin, and he orbited around the Earth. In response to all of the Soviet’s achievements, President John F. Kennedy pledged to have America land on the Moon before the Russians. After a few Apollo missions to space, the Apollo 11 mission began on July 16, 1969; this mission was the first lunar landing attempt. On July 20, 1969, Neil Armstrong, a U.S. astronaut, is the first man to step on the Moon. The Space Race ended as the Americans were the first to land on the Moon ( Getchell , n.d.). Landing on the Moon gave Americans hope for a prosperous future as The New York Times reporter states in January 1960, “I can picture a flourishing civilization on the moon twenty or thirty years (after landing on the moon)” (Levitt, 1960).

The Space Race led to significant technological achievements; some inventions are still used today, while some were modified over several years to create the technology we encounter every day in our lives. NASA created scratch-resistant astronaut helmets; in 1983, NASA licensed the scratch-resistant technology to the Foster-Grant Corporation. Foster-Grant combined their ten years of research and NASA’s technology to create a scratch-resistant plastic material that would surpass glass under normal wear. Most spectacle lenses that we use today are made of plastic instead of glass ( Bryan , 2016). Also, modern firefighting equipment is derived from spacesuit material and equipment. The materials used in spacesuits make for good flame-retardance and heat-resistance. Also, firefighters breathing systems are modeled after astronaut life support systems. This technology not only helps save the lives of fire accident victims but also helps the hero firefighters stay alive also. A technology also used to aid in reducing or suppressing accidental fires are adjustable smoke detectors that were created by modifying original smoke detectors. NASA and the Honeywell Corporation worked together to develop a smoke detector that could have its sensitivity adjusted in order to prevent false smoke alarms. Also, although commonly thought that duct tape was created by NASA for its space operations during the Cold War, duct tape was actually invented in the 1940s during World War II, and it functioned as medical tape.

Additionally, CAT scans and MRI’s , which are minimally invasive medical scans used to investigate a person’s tissues, bones, and organs, use technology like NASA’s digital signal technology. During the Apollo missions, NASA used this technology to recreate images of the Moon (“ 20 Inventions We Wouldn’t Have Without Space Travel “, n.d.). Also, NASA used SPOC, a navigation monitoring computer. This computer was a modification of a commercial computer called GRiD Compass, and it was chosen for Space missions because of its compact size, large storage capacity, and high processing speed. A significant modification to allow for portability was the addition of a fan to cool the computer. This modification propelled the portable computer market ( Haggerty,  1985). As we have seen, the Space Race has led NASA to collaborate with others in creating technology that we can appreciate in our daily lives. As The New York Times reporter states in April 1985, “the development of military hardware has often enriched science and technology, and the trend is certain to continue” (Browne, 1985).

The technology was developed due to the urgency of the Space Race and the tensions from the Cold War. After Sputnik I orbited Earth for the first time, the United States decided to create the space program, NASA, to participate in the space race, which led the United States to land on the moon and achieve other goals and innovations. One main technological innovation that has had a significant impact on society is the sending of satellites into space. These satellites enable our modern world to be connected almost instantly through the use of broadband internet. The introduction of satellites and broadband internet has created a platform that allows people to collaborate and learn in a faster and more convenient way than ever before. Today, we use portable computers to surf the internet, but this would not be possible without the modifications of the SPOC navigation monitoring computer used in NASA space missions. This innovation in portable computers and other innovations have driven society through the modern era.

The word “computer” has been in use since the early 1600s when it described a person, rather than a machine, who performed computations. This definition stayed the same until the 19th century when the  industrial revolution  saw the invention of machines with the primary purpose of performing calculations. Since then, computers have come a long way, allowing us to access vast amounts of information, stay in contact with people across the globe, and they have even helped send people to the moon. The computer is one of the most significant technological inventions of modern times. Its creation has changed the way society operates in professional and even personal settings. They have also expanded the overall knowledge of the human race through their computational power and the ease with which they can share information.

Charles Babbage conceptualized the first computer in 1822. It was called the Difference Engine, and it was designed to compute several sets of numbers and print out the results. However, because of funding, a full-scale version was never completed. The first fully functional, programmable modern computer did not come until 1938. The Z1, created by German Konrad Zuse, was created in its inventor’s parents’ living room and is considered the first  electromechanical binary  programmable computer. It took eight years after that for the completion of what we consider to be the first “modern” computer. The ENIAC was invented by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly at the University of Pennsylvania. It weighed almost 50 tons and is the first example of a fully functional digital computer. Since then, computers have come a long way. Modern versions are exponentially smaller and more powerful. Most people have a computer light enough to fit in their backpack, but with over one thousand times the processing power of the ENIAC. Computers today continue to get smaller and lighter while increasing processing power at a breakneck speed. Where the ENIAC was not even able to store its programming commands, computers today often have dozens of  gigabytes  of memory; some even have  terabytes  of space. Initially, many people were uncomfortable around computers. The term “computerphobia” was used frequently in the ’80s to describe people who held this anxiety towards them, with many publications even offering tips for how to treat it. The term “computerphobia” retained its popularity until the ’90s when people’s technological fears turned from computers to the internet itself.

The development of the internet is arguably the most significant advancement in the history of computers. Computing power and storage used to be limited to the single computer it was found on, which limited their usefulness. During the 1970s and 1980s, small networks started to pop up, limited to a single university computer science department or a business. It was not until 1990 when the first recognizable form of the internet as we know it was invented by computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee. The falling cost of disk space meant that system administrators could set aside vast amounts of storage to host data that could be shared globally in conjunction with the internet. This allowed vast amounts of knowledge to be spread throughout the world, along with software being developed at a much faster pace since collaboration became significantly more comfortable. Nowadays, the internet is a part of all of our lives. We use it to keep in touch with friends across the globe, along with its usage for standard day to day entertainment.

Computers have entirely changed the way our society works. One significant result of their creation and popularity has been some economies shifting from manufacturing to service jobs. Completely new job categories have had to be created to service and implement computer technologies. The networking ability of computers has also allowed businesses to relocate to more remote locations than before. Information processing tasks like payroll and record management can now be easily automated by a computer when they used to require hours of work by a person or group of people. In the field of weather forecasting, our current understanding of weather is almost entirely dependent upon computational models. Biological research now starts with a predictive model that helps determine what to explore in the real world. The computational power of computers has completely changed the way we approach tasks in society.

Due to computers, humans have been able to make accomplishments that our  predecessors  would never have even dreamed of. Their power and versatility have allowed us to map out some of the deepest parts of the ocean while also helping take us to the moon itself. Then, the invention of the internet unlocked almost infinite possibilities for their use. Distance has become almost meaningless when we can communicate nearly instantly, and vast amounts of knowledge that used to be confined to one location can be accessed by people all over the globe simultaneously. Without them, we would not be anywhere near as advanced of society as we are today

Human beings have always been naturally curious about the world that surrounds them. As homo sapiens began to evolve and their intelligence increased, they broke out of their original habitats to explore the surrounding world. After years of evolution and exploration, homo sapiens covered the world, establishing societies on every corner of the planet. As time continued, these societies advanced, and homo sapiens continued to explore the untouched peaks and valleys of the earth. These amazingly intelligent explorers had explored the world, but soon they turned their eyes to exploring the hidden heavens of the sky. In the early 1600s, the first telescope was invented to look at the heavens, and human society has been entranced with the idea of space ever since. A Soviet scientist finally achieved the ability to travel into space and the idea of space exploration by the name of Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in 1903. Tsiolkovsky solved his famous rocket equation that was able to calculate the accurate fuel to weight ratio that was needed to successfully propel a rocket outside of the earth’s atmosphere into the depths of space. As time went on, humans were able to integrate this equation into more advanced and different technologies. These advancements fueled the creation of many different modern technologies that are used in everyday life of society now. Along with the advances in modern society’s technology, space exploration has advanced in many ways as well. Space exploration has evolved from being a government-owned entity that could send small satellites into orbit to being able to build an International Space Station that humans can live in for an extended period. Even public companies like SpaceX and Boeing are joining the coalition of space exploration. This ability of society to explore the depths of space has led to an unbelievable breakthrough in the advancements of modern technology and scientific studies, that many people do not realize, has allowed for the lives that society is living today.

The study and exploration of space have had a drastic effect on modern life down on earth. Many technologies that are used in everyday western life would not even be possible without the idea of space travel. This is because space exploration needed advancements in technology to allow humans to travel further and stay in space longer. These advancements made through space exploration include areas of modern life such as health and medicine, transportation, public safety, consumer goods, and environmental resources. In the field of health and medicine, space exploration has helped humans understand the effect of  zero gravity  on the human body. In turn, this understanding has helped develop better health practices back under the weight of gravity, allowing humans to be healthier than the times before space exploration.

Along with helping understand the human body better, NASA funded many studies on creating artificial limbs and muscles that, in the past few years, have begun to translate over to basic medicine. This has allowed humans that have had a limb amputated to be replaced with advanced robotic limbs. Another impactful technology created by NASA to help study deep space was the MRI machine that was later released to the public and is now used every day, saving people’s lives. In the field of transportation, NASA funded a study done by Goodyear to develop a rubber that would be strong enough to help land a rover on Mars. This rubber created to land on Mars was then released later to the public to produce more durable tires on cars, reducing the amount of tire blowout and making daily travel safer.

Along with helping create safer tires, space exploration has also helped drive improvements in the field of public safety. One of the main improvements in public safety that space exploration has helped drive is in the field of video enhancements and analysis programs. NASA developed computer programs to help produce better quality videos and to be able to analyze videos frame by frame to help study deep space better. The public now uses this technology to help assist law enforcement in producing quality video footage of any crimes allowing for a safer public. For the modern consumer, NASA helped fund many different products that are used in human’s everyday lives. One of these products, patented in 2000 and released to the public in 2005, is the Bowflex workout machine. This project was funded by NASA to help reduce atrophy of muscle mass and loss of bone density of astronauts that spend long periods in space by allowing them to do resistant style workouts in zero gravity. Five years after its creation, NASA released the designs to the public, and the item became a huge hit. Finally, space exploration helped develop some of the most important technology that is being rapidly adopted by many humans around the world, environmental resources technologies. These technologies include many things, such as solar panel cells, water purification systems, and pollution control technologies. Even without knowing it, many humans use technology that was created for space exploration, and, as time continues, the exploration of space will continue to drive our civilization into a more technologically advanced society.

As space exploration is becoming more widespread and shared, the idea that some government entities must do it is no more. Public companies like SpaceX and Boeing are breaking into the market of building rockets and allowing space travel to the public. The CEO of SpaceX, Elon Musk, has the dream of public space travel along with the colonization of Mars and hopefully, in the distant future other planets or solar systems. With these dreams to travel further and colonize other planets, science and technology are bound to see huge advancements in the future. Some of these advancements may include technologies that allow for a faster form of travel or the ability to terraform a planet to allow it to sustain life. With the more in-depth travel and study of space, science is also bound to advance. These advancements could come by way of understanding the vast quantity of material that humans have been able to measure yet have not had the ability to understand or even the possibility of finding life somewhere else in the universe. Only the future holds these advancements, and space exploration is the driving force.

STS in the MODERN world

The study of science and technology in society underscores the idea that society and its needs drive the progression of technology (Feenberg, 2012). Furthermore, society chooses the technologies it will accept, allowing them to succeed, and the technologies it will reject, causing their failure and often their obsolescence. Innovations in space exploration, detailed above, developed because of the societal need for advanced defense, communication, and research. The technology that developed from those needs was determined by society to solve their problems while offering little to no disadvantages, so society accepted space exploration and technology. Societal needs, however, change with time. A highly anticipated technology designed to satisfy the needs of modern society was  Google  Glass, depicted in the figure below. Although the technology was successful and useful, it was discontinued only one year after it was released due to society’s apprehension towards its possible applications ( Donnell , 2018). The following detailed dive into the failure of Google Glass is useful in emphasizing society’s influence on innovation as it pertains to the modern era of technology. Specifically, in the modern era, privacy concerns dictate the new technologies society will accept, which is evident in the failure of Google Glass.

As mentioned in the paragraph above, although it eventually failed, Google Glass Edition 1 was created to solve societal issues of the modern era. The goal of these glasses was to act as a hands-free smartphone. It would allow the user to access the internet, camera, maps, calendar, apps, and other smartphone features solely through voice and motion commands ( Pogue , 2013). These functions would not only allow convenience, but they would promote modern concerns, such as hands-free driving. This product would also keep pedestrians safe by preventing phone use and walking near busy streets or on crowded sidewalks. Although society and its needs drove the invention of Google Glass Edition 1, as it does most other technologies, this product did not take into consideration other societal needs that would eventually lead to its failure: privacy concerns.

Modern ideals and morals of society, specifically about privacy concerns, lead to the downfall of Google Glass. Invasion of privacy in the modern world is defined as “the unauthorized collection, disclosure, or other use of personal information as a direct result of electronic commerce transactions” (Wang et al., 1998). Market concerns with Google Glass regarded not only personal information, however, but also the information of bystanders. Since the technology utilized a camera mounted to a person’s head, it recorded not only the wearer’s voice but also their surroundings. This capability meant that anyone could be subject to recording or streaming at any time.

Although these glasses intended to solve societal issues, society soon realized that the wearer indeed determined the purpose of the glasses. A user of Google Glass could use the technology to record movies in theaters illegally or cheat in casinos ( Davis , 2014;  Doyle , 2016). They could also discreetly take or stream photos and videos of individuals who never consented to be objectified in such away. Furthermore, even if the wearer was not using the glasses maliciously, no one knew what Google was doing with the data, photos, and videos it collected ( Essers , 2013). Because of these privacy concerns, Glass wearers were barred from many restaurants and bars to ensure the guests of such establishments felt safe and protected ( Davis , 2014;  Weidner , 2020). As mentioned above, society dictates which technologies fail and succeed, and society’s concerns about Google Glass, and its actions in defense of those concerns, eventually caused the product’s failure.

In the wake of Google Glass’s failure, Google learned from society and compromised with it in order to use the same technology in an accepted manner. Google quickly reacted to the failure of Glass by discontinuing the product in 2015, which was only one year after its release ( Donnell , 2018). They realized, however, that although society did not accept Google Glass, the technology was sound, innovative, and useful. Google announced in 2019 that they are now developing Google Glass Enterprise Edition 2, which is geared toward business professionals and industry (“ Glass – Glass, ” n.d.). This new use is an attempt to make the technology successful by compensating for societal concern. Bystanders will no longer be subjected to unwanted filming from Google as the new product will be in private offices and factories rather than on public streets. This reintroduction of Google Glass to society in a different way with a different user might allow for its success, which underscores the idea that society dictates accepted technologies.

This case study of Google Glass is useful in discussing the idea that society chooses whether new technologies are accepted or rejected. Google has recognized this dependence on society for success, and they are working to compromise with societal privacy concerns to develop a successful technology. Although society rejected Google Glass Edition 1 based on privacy concerns, societal concerns of health and safety called for the innovation’s development. If the reintroduction is successful, Google Glass Edition 2 will be used to benefit the health, safety, and ergonomic efficiency of employees in offices and factories.

As discussed above, society has chosen which scientific and technological developments will define the modern world. Modern politics, religion, events, and society’s values of safety, privacy, exploration, health, and communication have driven technological progress in those respective fields. Although these sections have only been an overview of modern world STS, they serve as an introduction to the following in-depth studies of modern technology. While reading each subsequent section, think about these fundamental ideas: society’s effect on science technology, science and technology’s effect on society, aspects of society that drive technological and scientific advancement, and what causes society to accept or reject a particular advancement.

Chapter Questions

• True or False: Medical devices produced from 3D printers cannot be used on patients, only for educational purposes.
• True or False:  The first major cause of the Cold War was the increased tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union at the end of World War II.
• A) Computing and applied mathematics
• B) Materials science
• C) Healthcare and medicine
• D) All of the above
• B) Aesthetics
• C) Privacy Concerns
• D) Lack of Celebrity Endorsement
• Short Answer: Based on the information provided in this chapter, do you believe that 3-D printing things such as artificial organs is ethical? Why or why not? Support your answer with information in the chapter above.
• Short Answer: Briefly discuss how a filter bubble works.

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The Beginning of Modern World Based on Science and Technology Essay

Using science and technology as the measure, when did the modern world begin, introduction, why use science and technology as a measure, state of the world in the pre-1500 ce, historical events leading to the creation of the modern world.

• 18th Century: The “Golden” Age of Science and Technology?

This paper examines how the world evolved to become modern. The paper concludes that the scientific and technological developments witnessed over the centuries have played a significant role in the shaping the modern world. The essay begins by a synopsis of what existed prior to modern (pre-1500 CE) and the series of events that paved way for the conception of the modern world.

Modern is a terminology that is understood to denote present or contemporary. There is no specific year as to when the modern world can be cited to have started. However, history scholars, especially those studying European history, hold that the modern world must have begun around 1500 CE. In addition, there is agreement that the scientific and technological developments witnessed from 1500 onwards (especially the18th centuries technological and scientific developments) shaped the face of the modern world.

According to Hepp (2012, p.105-109), the relationship that exists between science, technology, and culture can be regarded as shaping what is considered as “modern” regarding the modern world. The outstanding sole difference between the post-1500 (modern) world and the period before does not hinge on the broad array of technology available in the modern world; the developments during that period shaped the whole attitude towards scientific and technological change.

The scientific and technological changes witnessed in the late 17th, and the 18th century, in particular, helped to created not just the physical world, but also shaped the mental physical world view via which individuals construct their physical world.

Science and technology have largely contributed to the shaping of the modern world. Going by John Hepp’s simple definition, science is largely about ideas and technology is about stuff created out of those ideas (Hepp 2012, p. 105-109). If science and technology are to be used in measuring when the modern world began, it would mean that the present day world is as a result of many ideas that have led to inventions of the gadgets that people use today and which make the world modern (Fernandez-Armesto, 2009).

For instance, the present means and modes of transport and communication, despite being remarkably different from what existed in the pre 1500 CE, are shaped by the technological and scientific developments witnessed over the centuries. People can now enjoy discoveries such as electricity, thanks to the ideas of people like William Gilbert and others such as Thomas Edison (Fernandez-Armesto, 2009).

Similarly, the printing machines that people utilize today have come a long way; they date back to 1450 when Johann Gutenberg invented the printing press and the movable type system.

The utilities enjoyed in the modern world such as cell phones, computers and the internet can be credited to the work of scholars such as Charles Babbage, who was the first to conceive the idea in the 1830s. Other brilliant ideas and scientific experiments by people like Tim Berners-Lee have continued to shape and inform the modern world (Fernandez-Armesto, 2009).

There was no serious science in the pre 1500 CE, but many scientific ideas emerged in the post 1500 when people started appreciating and using science in solving most of the world problems. This confirms that the modern world, which is largely built on science and technology, began around 1500 (Hepp 2012, p.105-109).

The 14th and 17th centuries, commonly referred by historians as the renaissance, witnessed the emergence of humanists, who believed that the right way to think was to involve appreciation of God’s creation. The discoveries of those periods such as the printing press enabled philosophers and even religious leaders to print and publish their works. By 1700, most people had started appreciating the co-existence of science and religion and, since then, the two have been used to back up each other (Hepp 2012, p. 105-109).

Scholars believe that significant scientific revolutions occurred between 1500 and 1700, starting with the work of Nicholas Copernicus (1473 -1543) who argued that the sun and the Earth were at the center of the universe. John Hepp holds that the scientific revolution period ended with the works of Isaac Newton (1642-1727) who formulated the universal laws (Hepp 2012, p. 105-109).

The works of Nicholas Copernicus and Isaac Newton among others were evidence of science in action. There was a shift from reliance on religion for everything to use of science in explaining the world and trying to solving worldly problems.

Since the 17th century, scientific methods have continued to characterize descriptions on the modern world and what the world can become in the future. As much as they maintained respect for religion and religious views, intellectuals began to focus exceedingly more on science than religion in their quest to understand the world (Fernandez-Armesto, 2009).

It would not be erroneous to conclude that the modern world began somewhere around 1500. This is because before this time, religion was extreme and the scientific ways of thinking and doing things were still in the realization stages. Historians believe that significant scientific revolutions occurred between 1500 and 1700, and it laid the foundation for the creation of the contemporary world. Scientific methods began to form the basis of explanations about the world (Fernandez-Armesto, 2009).

18 th Century: The “Golden” Age of Science and Technology?

Britain’s experience.

Britain emerged as a formidable trading nation within the world, propelling both social and economic revolution during the 18th century. Since late 18th century, the industrialization process came before the expansion, as well the massive growth that was to be later witnessed in the 19 th Century. Critical to these developments was the successful establishment and application of steam technology in mining, manufacturing, rail, and shipping industries.

Before 1800, entrepreneurs as well as engineers such as Matthew Boulton James Watt had attempted to make steam power a reality. As a result, this technology significantly improved Britain’s core industries such as mining of coal, production of iron, and manufacturing industry. Fuelled by the advancement of industrial technologies, Britain was able to make significant and rapid expansion within the international market (Atterbury, 2011).

The advancement in the electric telegraph was essential; it helped in development of the railway. The discovery of communication that resulted from electricity took place during the 18th century. Advancements in electromagnetism, which began in 1820s, contributed to the realization of the idea.

The spread and growth of telegraph at both national and global scales made it possible for the growth of mass communication that is enjoyed today (Atterbury, 2011). The telegraph, as well as the telegram, brought personal communication on a scale that was inconceivable before.

The growth of the global network spread speedily across the nations and boosted colonial, military, and commercial endeavors as internationalization began to gain relevance (Atterbury, 2011). Hence, globalization, a concept that has predominantly shaped the modern world, can be perceived to have had its roots in the scientific and technological developments made in the late 18th century.

The telephone that was developed in 1876 also had a significant bearing on the rise of the modern world as it broadened possibilities and had more practicality at a personal level of communication (Atterbury, 2011). The development of practical radio transmissions in Victorian Britain during the end of the 19th century provided the basis for worldwide systems of communication during the 21st century (Atterbury, 2011).

These legacies can be regarded as the most substantial in the arena of communication. The Victorians managed to build a British railway network that was more than double as large as contemporary network, but frequently operated with enhanced efficiency. The urban transport systems such as buses and underground railways were also constructed by the Victorians and laid the ground for the contemporary legacies such as commuting (Atterbury, 2011).

In conclusion, the achievements as well as the attitudes that existed in times of the Victorians still exist. They determine many aspects of life in the modern world. Indeed, the electric telegraphy can be regarded as the frontrunner of the modern internet and phone. The fact that scientific and technological developments post-1500 have been a front runner in the modern technological development is a clear manifestation that science and technology can be a measure of the modern world.

Atterbury, P. (2011). Victorian Technology. Retrieved From: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/victorian_technology_01.shtml#four

Fernandez-Armesto, F. (2009). The World: A Brief History, Combined Volume. New Jersey, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Hepp, J (2012). Historical Foundations of the Modern World. Philadelphia: Wilkes University. pp. 105-109.

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• How Historians Study History by Use of Religion
• “Progress” and the Victorians
• Lives of Victorians and Modern Americans
• Hearth and Home Perception in 19th-Century Victorians Due to Immigration
• Communication Technologies: From Telegraph to the Internet
• History of the Telephone and Telegraph in the Europe
• History of Colonies in North America in 1500-1700
• Telegraph and Its Impacts in Mass Communication
• Major Role Played by Religion From 1500-1700
• History of Spanish Empire 1500-1700
• Global Developments that Affect State Sovereignty and Territoriality
• Origins of the Cold War
• The Causes of the First World War
• Chapter Review: The Epic First Voyage
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Advances in science often drive technological innovations, which may, in turn, contribute to new scientific discoveries.

Science and technology on fast forward

Science  and  technology  feed off of one another, propelling both forward. Scientific knowledge allows us to build new technologies, which often allow us to make new  observations about the world, which, in turn, allow us to build even more scientific knowledge, which then inspires another technology … and so on. As an example, we’ll start with a single scientific idea and trace its applications and impact through several different fields of science and technology, from the discovery of electrons in the 1800s to modern forensics and DNA fingerprinting…

Science and the Modern World

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Whitehead’s book Science and the Modern World ( SMW ), 1 which he published originally in 1925 shortly after he came to Harvard, examines in some detail the development of materialism as a scientific and philosophic doctrine from Greek times to the present day. Whitehead studies the cluster of concepts which make up the materialist doctrine not merely from an epistemo-logical point of view as was the case in PNK and CN , but he also tries to see them in their historical perspective. He proceeds to show how modern developments in physics and biology — particularly the theory of evolution — have made the materialist doctrine increasingly untenable. And against this background Whitehead sketches an alternative philosophy of organism which he hopes may come to replace materialism.

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Science and the Modern World , Penguin Edition, 1938, ( SMW ).

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Ibid. , p.14.

Ibid. , p. 19.

Ibid. , p. 21.

Ibid. , p.23.

Ibid. , p. 23.

Ibid. , p. 24.

Ibid. , p. 28.

Ibid. , p. 58.

Ibid. , p. 64.

Ibid. , p. 65.

Ibid. , p. 68.

Ibid. , p. 68–69.

Ibid. , p. 70.

Ibid. , pp. 71–72.

Ibid. , pp. 74–75.

Ibid. , p. 94.

Ibid. , pp. 98–101.

Ibid. , pp. 102–103.

Ibid. , p . 115.

Ibid. , p . 119.

Ibid. , p . 130.

Ibid. , p. 125.

Ibid. , p. 137.

Ibid. , pp. 138–142.

Ibid. , cf. Chap. VIII, “The Quantum Theory,” pp. 153–162.

Ibid. , p. 160.

Ibid. , pp. 50–51.

Ibid. , p. 52.

Ibid. , p. 85.

Ibid. , p. 86.

Ibid. , p. 87.

Ibid. , pp. 173–4.

Ibid. , p. 177.

Ibid. , p. 224.

Ibid. , Chap. X “Abstraction”, pp. 184–201.

Ibid. , p . 185.

Ibid. , p. 186.

Ibid. , pp. 186–7.

Ibid. , p. 190.

Ibid. , p.185.

For example, in perception. “We endeavour to lift into consciousness meaningful units, such as the whole picture, the whole building, the living animal, the stone, the mountain, the tree.” ( Modes of Thought , pp. 169–70).

SMW , pp. 195–6.

Ibid. , p. 196.

Ibid. , p. 200.

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Mays, W. (1977). Science and the Modern World. In: Whitehead’s Philosophy of Science and Metaphysics. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-1085-6_6

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Science and Technology in Shaping of the Modern World

Introduction, scientific revolution, information technology, works cited.

The impact of science and technology in the modern world can be viewed from two perspectives. Firstly, the world has largely benefited in various ways through advancements that have added value to life.

On the other hand, advancements in science and technology have negative the y affected the world by promoting terrorism, which has become a global security scourge. This essay focuses on how science and technology have shaped the modern world. In this regard, the paper will explore some of the historical events, which prove the impact of these advancements.

In general, science refers to the systematic study of how the physical and natural world operates through experiments and observations. Through science, an array of discoveries have been made, most of which have shaped the modern world.

On the other hand, technology seeks to apply scientific knowledge, for the purpose of establishing practical results (Hepp 106). It, therefore, follows that the ability of human beings to conceptualize and apply ideas is what has led to massive developments in the world today. Nonetheless, the negative impact of this ability cannot be overlooked.

Discoveries that were made by ancient scientists between 1550 and 1700 marked a major stage in human history and the application of scientific ideas in the real world (Temin 63). This period, which is commonly referred to as the scientific revolution, saw the world attain another level of advancement. For instance, Nicholas Copernicus explored the cosmos position and lived between 1473 and 1543.

Another important person who immensely contributed to the scientific world was Isaac Newton, who did elaborate and conclusive discoveries about the laws of gravity, focusing on universal laws and the mechanical universe (Hepp 107). These early discoveries laid a solid foundation for other inventions that revolutionized the world.

Importantly, the introduction of mandatory education and the contributions of Charles Darwin in discovering the origin of a man affected the world. Such contributions made the world to appreciate the role of science and technology and the need of having an educated workforce in the world (Felipe 530).

Science and technology also led to the industrial revolution, which was mainly based on the practical application of scientific knowledge into the world of manufacturing.

These applications allowed the use of machines in the early 1700s to promote massive production of industrial products. It is worth noting that this revolution took place in Britain because of the wealth that was being generated from her colonies and the desire for technological exploration (Temin 64). This led to transportation revolution that took place after 1750.

Before this time, the transport was largely by water since land transportation was considered to be slow and expensive. It was during this time that human and animal transportation was at its peak even though it was not effective. These difficulties created the need to develop transportation. The introduction of the steam railway in 1825 put Britain ahead in terms of improving transportation in the world (Hepp 116)

The discovery of electricity in early 1900s was also a milestone in advancing science and technology. Electricity became a major element in manufacturing as most of the firms heavily relied on it. Additionally, other sectors like transportation and communication were equally developed using electricity. Unlike steam, electricity has remained efficient, with numerous advantages (Felipe 778).

Today, electricity is an economic pillar in the world. It can be transmitted to various destinations, using simple power cables. As a result, electricity has contributed to the realization of a centralized society. In essence, people can be served with electricity regardless of their location.

Furthermore, the development of an industrialized society has promoted high food production to meet the needs of the world population (Temin 65). Unlike when food was a luxury, reserved for the rich in society, these scientific and technological advancements have provided solutions to food shortage and starvation.

While industrialization has positively shaped the world, it is paramount to note that there are several negative effects of the industrial revolution, which continue to haunt the modern world. For instance, the world is threatened by environmental pollution, which has become a major menace to people and governments (Temin 70).

Through industrial processes, gases and other waste products are emitted into the environment, leading to air, water, and soil pollution. Importantly, greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide have led to global warming, emanating from the destruction of the ozone layer, which shields the world from being hit by dangerous rays.

Science and technology have also shaped how the world solves conflicts. From World War I to cyber crimes, technology has transformed warfare in the world. This is based on the type of weapons used by different countries to protect citizens from external aggression. Unlike ancient wars that employed crude weapons such as spears, modern technology allows the use of atomic bombs and drones.

These have significantly shaped the world in terms of warfare. Nevertheless, most of these technologies have been developed for a long period. During the Second World War, most nations exploited advanced warfare tactics.

On the other hand, the advancements made warfare to be fatal than before. Today, there is a high risk of civilians losing lives whenever a country makes an attack. In 2006, Israel’s attack on Lebanon became unpopular as a result of a higher number of civilians who died as compared to the combatants.

Atomic bombs have also been used as a result of scientific and technological advancements. In 1945, the United States hit Japan with two atomic bombs, causing massive deaths of civilians and destruction of property. Some of the effects of the two atomic bombs are still felt today (Creveld 312).

For years, several countries have ventured in the development of weapons of mass destruction. The development of nuclear weapons by countries like Iran has created conflicts among world leaders, who argue that such developments may lead to massive loss of lives (Hepp 125).

In discussing the impact of technology in the modern world, it is equally important to focus on how the internet, promotes terrorism. In recent years, the world has registered a surge in the number of terrorism websites being developed. By the year 2006, there were more than five thousand sites that were linked to advancing terror activities (Jacobson 353).

Of great concern is the fact most terrorists use the internet to spread propaganda and recruit members. Due to the easy connectivity enhanced by the use of the internet, the recruits can be drawn from any part of the world (Dienel 140). Through terror websites, one can spread speeches, training, and manuals on how to carry out terror activities.

It is also easy to misinform the world and spread rumors through the internet. In fact, the internet has become the simplest channel of disseminating information from one person to others worldwide. It also helps terror groups to gather relevant data, which aids them to carry out attacks. A good example is the Al-Qaeda, which has intensively used the internet to advance its mission.

Science and technology have also promoted advancement in information and communication. It is easier to share and access information as compared to decades ago. Modern methods of communication have been developed through the use of the internet and mobile phones (Dienel 140).

It is obvious that growth in the communication industry has helped the world economy to grow tremendously. In most sectors, like education and business, the internet is being used to improve organizational efficiency.

The internet is also used in marketing, where organizations advertise their products and services online to reach a range of customers worldwide. Unlike other forms of advertising, online advertising is considered to be cheap and more convenient, since most people around the world have access to the internet.

Mobile phones have also enhanced communication throughout the world (Gray and Head 396). Unlike in ancient days when the transfer of information was a challenge, mobile phones connect people in a more simplified manner. The computer age has also shaped the world in a range of ways. Coupled with the internet and other advancements, computers promote efficiency in office management and data automation (Mantel 1).

Scientific and technological advancements have significantly transformed the world. Throughout history, the world has witnessed an array of scientific and technological developments. From the industrial revolution to the internet, there are countless ways in which the world has changed. Nevertheless, some of the advancements have affected the world negatively in terms of weaponry and terrorism.

Creveld, Martin. Technology and War: From 2000 B.C. to the Present . New York: Simon and Schuster, 2010. Print.

Dienel, Hans-Liudger. Terrorism and the internet . Amsterdam: IOS Press, 2010. Print.

Felipe, Fernandez-Armesto. The World: A Brief History Combined Volume . New York: Apprentice Hall, 2010. Print.

Gray, David, and Albon Head. “The Importance Of The Internet To The Post-Modern Terrorist And Its Role As A Form Of Safe Haven.” European Journal Of Scientific Research 25.3 (2009): 396-404. Print.

Hepp, John. “Historical Foundations of the Modern World.” Wilkes University, 2012. Web. 

Jacobson, Michael. “Terrorist Financing and the Internet.” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 33.4 (2010): 353-363. Print.

Mantel, Barbara. “Terrorism and the Internet Should Web Sites That Promote Terrorism Be Shut Down.” The Clean IT Project , 2009. Web.

Temin, Peter. “Two Views of the British Industrial Revolution.” The Journal of Economic History 57.1 (1997): 63-82. Print.

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Kate Billingsley

introduction

Technology is the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, especially in industry. Technology is a tool that can be used to solve real-world problems. The field of Science, Technology, and Society (STS) “seeks to promote cross-disciplinary integration, civic engagement, and critical thinking” of concepts in the worlds of science and technology ( Harvard University, n.d.). As an aspect of everyday life, technology is continuously evolving to ensure that humanity can be productive, efficient, and follow the path of globalization . STS is a concept that encompasses countless fields of study. “Scientists, engineers, and medical professionals swim (as they must) in the details of their technical work: experiments, inventions, treatments and cures. “promotes cross-disciplinary integration, civic engagement, and critical thinking” It’s an intense and necessary focus” ( Stanford University , n.d.). On the opposite side of the spectrum is STS, which “draws attention to the water: the social, political, legal, economic, and cultural environment that shapes research and invention, supports or inhibits it — and is in turn shaped by evolving science and technology” ( Stanford University , n.d.). Technology is a crucial part of life that is constantly developing to fit the changing needs of society and aiding humanity in simplifying the demands of everyday life.

According to Oberdan (2010), science and technology share identical goals. “At first glance, they seem to provide a deep and thorough going division between the two but, as the discussion progresses, it will become clear that there are, indeed, areas of overlap, too” (Oberdan, 25). Philosophers believe that for a claim to be considered knowledge, it must first be justified, like a hypothesis, and true.  Italian astronomer, physicist, and engineer, Galileo Galilei , was incredibly familiar with the obstacles involved with proving something to be a fact or a theory within the scientific world. Galileo was condemned by the Roman Catholic church for his beliefs that contradicted existing church doctrine (Coyne, 2013). Galileo’s discoveries, although denounced by the church were incredibly innovative and progressive for their time, and are still seen as the basis for modern astronomy today. Nearly 300 years later, Galileo was eventually forgiven by the church, and to this day he is seen as one of the most well known and influential astronomers of all time. Many new innovations and ideas often receive push back before becoming revolutionary and universal practices.

INNOVATION IN TECHNOLOGY

Flash forward to modern time where we can see that innovation is happening even more around us. Look no further than what could be considered the culmination of modern technological innovation: the mobile phone. Cell phone technology has developed exponentially since the invention of the first mobile phone in 1973 ( Seward , 2013). Although there was a period for roughly 20 years in which cell phones were seen as unnecessary and somewhat impractical, as society’s needs changed and developed in the late 1990s, there was a large spike in consumer purchases of mobile phones. Now, cell phones are an entity that can be seen virtually anywhere, which is in large part due to their practicality. Cell phones, specifically smartphones such as Apple’s iPhone , have changed the way society uses technology. Smartphone technology has eliminated the need for people to have a separate cell phone, MP3 player, GPS, mobile video gaming systems, and more. Consumers may fail to realize how many aspects of modern technological advancement are involved in the use of their mobile phones. Cell phones use wifi to browse the internet, use google, access social media, and more. Although these technologies are beneficial, they also allow consumers locations to be traced and phone conversations to be recorded. Modern cell phone technologies collect data on consumers, and many people are unsure how this information is being used. Additionally, mobile phones come equipped with virus protection which brings the field of cybersecurity into smartphone usage. The technological advances that have been made in the market for mobile phones have been targeted towards the changing needs of consumers and society. As proven by the rise in cell phones, with advancements in the field of STS comes new unforeseen obstacles and ethical dilemmas.

​Technology is changing the way we live in this world. Innovations in the scientific world are becoming increasingly more advanced to help conserve earth’s resources and aid in the reduction of pollutants . Transportation is a field that has changed greatly in recent years due to modernization in science and technology, as well as an increased awareness of environmental concerns. The transportation industry continues to be a large producer of pollution

due to emissions from cars, trains, and other modes of transportation. As a result, cars have changed a great deal in recent years. A frontrunner in creating environmentally friendly luxury cars is Tesla, lead by CEO Elon Musk. Although nearly every brand of car has an electric option that either runs completely gas free, or uses significantly less fuel than standard cars, Tesla has taken this one step further and created a zero emissions vehicle. However, some believe that Tesla has taken their innovations in the transportation market a bit too far, specifically with their release of driverless cars.

“The recent reset of expectations on driverless cars is a leading indicator for other types of AI-enabled systems as well,” says David A. Mindell,  professor of aeronautics and astronautics, and the Dibner Professor of the History of Engineering and Manufacturing at MIT. “These technologies hold great promise, but it takes time to understand the optimal combination of people and machines. And the timing of adoption is crucial for understanding the impact on workers” ( Dizikes , 2019).

As the earth becomes more and more polluted, consumers are seeking to find new ways to cut down on their negative impacts on the earth. Eco-friendly cars are a simple yet effective way in which consumers can cut back on their pollution within their everyday lives.

THE INTERSECTION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The way in which energy is generated has changed greatly to benefit consumers and the environment. Energy production has followed a rather linear path over time, and is a prime example of how new innovations stem from old technologies. In the early 1800s, the steam engine acted as the main form of creating energy. It wasn’t until the mid-late 1800s that the combustion engine was invented. This invention was beneficial because it was more efficient than its predecessor, and became a form of energy that was streamlined to be used in countless applications. As time has progressed, this linear path of innovation has continued. As new energy creating technologies have emerged, machinery that was once seen as efficient and effective have been phased out. Today, largely due to the increased demand for clean energy sources, the linear path has split and consumers are faced with numerous options for clean, environmentally friendly energy sources. Over time, scientists and engineers have come to realize that these forms of energy pollute and damage the earth. Solar power, a modern form of clean energy, was once seen as an expensive and impractical way of turning the sun’s energy into usable energy. Now, it is common to see newly built homes with solar panels already built in. Since technology develops to fit the needs of society, scientists have worked to improve solar panels to make them cheaper and easier to access. A total of 173,000 terawatts (trillions of watts) of solar energy strikes the Earth continuously, which is more than 10,000 times of the world’s total energy use ( Chandler , 2011). This information may seem staggering, but is crucial in understanding the importance, as well as the large influence that modern forms of energy can have on society.

Technology has become a crucial part of our society. Without technological advancements, so much of our everyday lives would be drastically different. As technology develops, it strives to fulfill the changing needs of society. Technology progresses as society evolves. That being said, progress comes at a price. This price is different for each person, and varies based on how much people value technological and scientific advancements in their own lives. Thomas Parke Hughes’s Networks of Power “compared how electric power systems developed in America, England, and Germany, showing that they required not only electrical but social ‘engineering’ to create the necessary legal frameworks, financing, standards, political support, and organizational designs” ( Stanford University ). In other words, the scientific invention and production of a new technology does not ensure its success. Technology’s success is highly dependent on society’s acceptance or rejection of a product, as well as whether or not any path dependence is involved. Changing technologies benefit consumers in countless aspects of their lives including in the workforce, in communications, in the use of natural resources, and so much more. These innovations across numerous different markets aid society by making it easier to complete certain tasks. Innovation will never end; rather, it will continue to develop at increasing rates as science and technological fields becomes more and more cutting edge.

Chapter Questions

• True or False: Improvements in science and technology always benefit society
• Multiple Choice : Technology is: A.   The application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, especially in industry B.  Tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems C.   Something that does not change D.   Both A and B
• Short Answer: Discuss ways in which technological progression over time is related and how this relationship has led to the creation of new innovation.

Chandler, D. (2011). Shining brightly: Vast amounts of solar energy radiate to the Earth constantly, but tapping that energy cost-effectively remains a challenge.  MIT News. http://news.mit.edu/2011/energy-scale-part3-1026 

Coyne, SJ, G. V. (2013). Science meets biblical exegesis in the Galileo affair.  Zygon® ,  48 (1), 221-229. https://doi-org.libproxy.clemson.edu/10.1111/j.1467-9744.2012.01324.x 

Dizikes, P., & MIT News Office. (2019). MIT report examines how to make technology work for society. http://news.mit.edu/2019/work-future-report-technology-jobs-society-0904

Florez, D., García-Duque, C. E., & Osorio, J. C. (2019). Is technology (still) applied science? Technology in Society.  Technology in Society, 59.   doi: 10.1016/j.techsoc.2019.101193

Groce, J. E., Farrelly, M. A., Jorgensen, B. S., & Cook, C. N. (2019). Using social‐network research to improve outcomes in natural resource management. Conservation biology , 33 (1), 53-65. https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/cobi.13127

Harvard University. (n.d.) What is STS? .  http://sts.hks.harvard.edu/about/whatissts.html .

Union of Concerned Scientists. (2018). How Do Battery Electric Cars Work?   https://www.ucsusa.org/clean-vehicles/electric-vehicles/how-do-battery-electric-cars-work .

Oberdan, T. (2010). Science, Technology, and the Texture of Our Lives. Tavenner Publishing Company.

Seward, Z. M. (2013). The First Mobile Phone Call Was Made 40 Years Ago Today . The Atlantic.   https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/04/the-first- mobile-phone-call-was-made-40-years-ago-today/274611/ .

Stanford University. (n.d.). What is the Study of STS? . https://sts.stanford.edu/about/what-study-sts .

Wei, R., & Lo, V.-H. (2006). Staying connected while on the move: Cell phone use and social connectedness. New Media & Society, 8 (1), 53–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444806059870

Winston, B. (2006). Media Technology and Society: A History From the Telegraph to the Internet . London: Routledge.

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Building bridges between science and society for a better future. | Nadine Bongaerts | TEDxSaclay

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To the extent possible under law, Kate Billingsley has waived all copyright and related or neighboring rights to Science, Technology, & Society: A Student-Led Exploration , except where otherwise noted.

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• Science and Technology Essay

Essay on Science and Technology

Science and technology is the ultimate need of an hour that changes the overall perspective of the human towards life. Over the centuries, there have been new inventions in the field of science and technology that help in modernizing. Right from connecting with people to using digital products, everything involves science and technology. In other words, it has made life easy and simple. Moreover, humans now have to live a simple life. There is modern equipment explored by tech experts to find something new for the future.

Science and technology have now expanded their wings to medical, education, manufacturing and other areas. Moreover, they are not limited to cities, but also rural areas for educational purposes. Every day new technologies keep coming, making life easier and more comfortable.

Brief about Science

Throughout history, science has come a long way. The evolution of the person is the contribution to science. Science helped humans to find vaccines, potions, medicines and scientific aids. Over the centuries, humans have faced many diseases and illnesses taking many lives. With the help of science, medicines are invented to bring down the effect or element of these illnesses.

Brief of Technology

The mobile, desktop or laptop which you are using for reading this essay, mobile you use for connectivity or communication or the smart technology which we use in our daily life, are a part of technology. From the machinery used in the factory to the robots created all fall under tech invention. In simpler words, technology has made life more comfortable.

Advancement in science and technology has changed the modern culture and the way we live our daily life.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Science and Technology

Science and technology have changed this world. From TV to planes, cars to mobile, the list keeps on going how these two inventions have changed the world we see through. For instance, the virtual talks we do use our mobile, which was not possible earlier. Similarly, there are electrical devices that have made life easier.

Furthermore, the transportation process we use has also seen the contribution of science and technology. We can reach our destination quickly to any part of the world.

Science and technology are not limited to this earth. It has now reached mars. NASA and ISRO have used science and technology to reach mars. Both organizations have witnessed success in sending astronauts and technologies to explore life in the mars.

Other Benefits

Life is much simpler with science and technology

Interaction is more comfortable and faster

Human is more sophisticated

Disadvantages

With the progress in science and technology, we humans have become lazier. This is affecting the human mind and health. Moreover, several semi-automatic rifles are created using the latest technology, which takes maximum life. There is no doubt that the third world war will be fought with missiles created using technology.

Man has misused the tech and used it for destructive purposes.

 Man uses them to do illegal stuff.

Technology such as a smartphone, etc. hurts children.

Terrorists use modern technology for damaging work.

Science and Technology in India

India is not behind when it comes to science and technology. Over the centuries, the country has witnessed reliable technology updates giving its people a better life. The Indian economy is widely boosted with science and technology in the field of astronomy, astrophysics, space exploration, nuclear power and more. India is becoming more innovative and progressive to improve the economic condition of the nation.

The implementation of technology in the research work promotes a better life ahead. Similarly, medical science in India is progressing rapidly, making life healthy and careful. Indian scientists are using the latest technology to introduce new medical products for people and offer them at the lowest price.

The Bottom Line

The main aim of writing this essay on science and technology is to showcase how humans have evolved over the years. Since we are advancing, the science and technology industry is also advancing at a faster pace. Although there are challenges, the road ahead is exciting. From interaction to transportation and healthcare in every sector, we will witness profitable growth in science and technology.

FAQs on Science and Technology Essay

1. How technology changed humans?

Technology has certainly changed the way we live our lives. Not a single piece of technology has failed and is continuously progressing. Be it the small industry or large, technology is a boom to your society. Technology can encompass ancient technologies like calculators, calendars, batteries and others. In future, the technology worlds include Blockchain technologies, smart cities, more advanced intelligent devices, quantum computers, quantum encryption, and others. Humans are updated with technology. This is a good sign for the coming generation.

2. What are the top technologies?

In the last few years, there has been a massive update in technology. From individuals to companies, everywhere, the use of technology is required. Some of the top technologies we are witnessing are

 Data Science

 Internet of Things

 Blockchain

 Robotic Process Automation (RPA)

 Virtual Reality

 Edge Computing

Intelligent apps

Artificial Intelligence

Each of these technologies is in the use of daily life and even in making products. However, to use this technology, there is a requirement of skilled professionals and they need proper training to use them.

3. Is the topic Science and Technology an appropriate topic for students?

Yes, Science and Technology are one of the most important topics every student should know in their schooling. The world is growing rapidly at an increasing rate where one should be equipped with minimum knowledge about these concepts. Science and technology have become a part of everyone’s life today. Therefore understanding them is definitely important.

4. Does writing essays improve English?

Yes, of course it does. Writing is absolutely fundamental to language learning. As with anything, however, it is important to learn when and what you write. If you do it all the time, your writing might sound forced. If you only do it when you don't have anything better to do, you might find yourself procrastinating, and not do it at all. It's also a lot more effective to compose essays when you are in that mindset of an essay. So, to answer your question, yes.

Essay on Science for Students and Children

500+ words essay on science.

Essay on science:  As we look back in our ancient times we see so much development in the world. The world is full of gadgets and machinery . Machinery does everything in our surroundings. How did it get possible? How did we become so modern? It was all possible with the help of science. Science has played a major role in the development of our society. Furthermore, Science has made our lives easier and carefree.

Science in our Daily Lives

As I have mentioned earlier Science has got many changes in our lives. First of all, transportation is easier now. With the help of Science it now easier to travel long distances . Moreover, the time of traveling is also reduced. Various high-speed vehicles are available these days. These vehicles have totally changed. The phase of our society. Science upgraded steam engines to electric engines. In earlier times people were traveling with cycles. But now everybody travels on motorcycles and cars. This saves time and effort. And this is all possible with the help of Science.

Secondly, Science made us reach to the moon. But we never stopped there. It also gave us a glance at Mars. This is one of the greatest achievements. This was only possible with Science. These days Scientists make many satellites . Because of which we are using high-speed Internet. These satellites revolve around the earth every day and night. Even without making us aware of it. Science is the backbone of our society. Science gave us so much in our present time. Due to this, the teacher in our schools teaches Science from an early age.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Science as a Subject

In class 1 only a student has Science as a subject. This only tells us about the importance of Science. Science taught us about Our Solar System. The Solar System consists of 9 planets and the Sun. Most Noteworthy was that it also tells us about the origin of our planet. Above all, we cannot deny that Science helps us in shaping our future. But not only it tells us about our future, but it also tells us about our past.

When the student reaches class 6, Science gets divided into three more subcategories. These subcategories were Physics, Chemistry, and Biology. First of all, Physics taught us about the machines. Physics is an interesting subject. It is a logical subject.

Furthermore, the second subject was Chemistry . Chemistry is a subject that deals with an element found inside the earth. Even more, it helps in making various products. Products like medicine and cosmetics etc. result in human benefits.

Last but not least, the subject of Biology . Biology is a subject that teaches us about our Human body. It tells us about its various parts. Furthermore, it even teaches the students about cells. Cells are present in human blood. Science is so advanced that it did let us know even that.

Leading Scientists in the field of Science

Finally, many scientists like Thomas Edison , Sir Isaac Newton were born in this world. They have done great Inventions. Thomas Edison invented the light bulb. If he did not invent that we would stay in dark. Because of this Thomas Edison’s name marks in history.

Another famous Scientist was Sir Isaac Newton . Sir Isaac Newton told us about Gravity. With the help of this, we were able to discover many other theories.

In India Scientists A..P.J Abdul was there. He contributed much towards our space research and defense forces. He made many advanced missiles. These Scientists did great work and we will always remember them.

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The concept of science and technology is understood based on the period and the mental view of society. Technology has turned the world into a small global village by simplifying processes like transport and communication. Science and technology are responsible for economic development and environmental degradation in the world today (McClellan, 45). It is essential to note that science and technology are being used to develop the necessary measures to counteract environmental degradation. What is the importance of Science and Technology in the modern world? This paper provides proof and examples to show the contribution and importance of science and technology in the world today. Science is defined as the systematic study of the physical and the natural world through practical experiments and observation. Technology means the application of scientific knowledge for the purpose of practice. Therefore, science and technology involves the study of the natural and physical world to obtain knowledge, which is applied for practical reasons. According to history, the modern world designates the time around 1500 BC when many nations in Europe began developing and expanding their powers. The major characteristics of the modern world is that change is easy to accept. Furthermore, the people in the modern world believe that economic development and technology will affect their development. First, science and technology has led to increase in food production, which started during the period of agrarian revolution. The plow was among the first technologies used to improve food production. The technological advancement in food production is characterized by the use of tractors in farming; use of fertilizers and the application of scientific procedures to ensure food safety is not compromised. Science and technology made it possible for humankind to store food for a long time without spoiling. The increase in food production explains the increase in the world population, which started around the time that humankind abandoned hunting and gathering as a means of finding food. Science and technology have expanded the globe since it has made transport and communication. It is responsible for the invention of telephones, which has made it possible for people in different places to communicate easily. The coming of the steam engine revolutionized the transport sector because people could travel long distance in a relatively shorter time. This has been made better by the invention of the diesel engine, which is more efficient and cheaper than the steam engine. The ability of human beings to travel to far places made it possible for different cultures to interact. The interaction of different cultures led to new inventions in terms of social life and practices. Science and Technology led to the growth of trade worldwide. This is because it is possible for different people very far away to do business with no problems at all. Science and technology have also turned the world into a global village because it is easy for people to interact. This has greatly minimized the differences among the different cultures in the world. The growth in science and technology has led to increase in environmental degradation. Issues of global warming have been the focal point of global discussions as the world tries to save the environment. This has led to increase in natural disasters like earthquakes and floods, which has claimed many lives. Global warming has been caused by increased in carbon (IV) oxide emissions, in the atmospheres. Furthermore, science and technology has led to the creation of industries, which emit harmful gases that contain chlorofluorocarbons, which deplete the ozone layer. Increase in chronic diseases like cancer is attributed to the harmful emissions that interfere with natural make up of cells in humans. However, science and technology has been applied to help avoid further environmental damage. The introduction of alternative power sources like wind turbines, solar technology and hydropower. Science and technology are responsible for great strides in the medical industry. This contributed to economic growth in the modern world because life expectancy improved. In addition, the number of people dying from preventable disease greatly reduced. Improvement in the health sector coupled with an increase in agricultural production is responsible for the increase in the world population. Technology and development have influenced the view of thing like the marriage and the relationship between a man and a woman. It has led to a society that is grappling with issues of equality and the real meaning of marriage. Science and technology have led to increase in literacy levels. Increase in literacy levels has led to women fighting for equality. The view of marriage has changed as a result of increase in science and technology. There are increases in the rate of divorce, which implies that divine concept of marriage has changed. Science and technology have also influenced the view of religion in the society (Bridgstock, 89). In the old times, a cultural group had one common religion that all the people believed. However, globalization has led to changes religion. In the old tradition, religion formed the center of the society and provided guidance. However, in the modern world the number of people who believe in science only have increased. Religion lost part of its influence because science could explain some things that were considered supernatural in the old tradition world. The effect of science and technology extends to the mental view of society. For example, the people who lived during the start of the industrial revolution believed that they had the most recent technology. On the contrary, the people in the recent world view the technology of the industrial revolution as simple. The developments in science and technology has influenced the society in terms of social habits. The growth in the computer industry has seen the invention of computer games, which are popular among kids. This has influenced the social habits of children living in the modern world. Children spent most of their time in computers and video games. They have no time to relate with other human beings, which results to poor social habits. The level of interaction between individuals has been significantly reduced. Instead, the level of interaction between human beings and machines is still increasing (Wallerstein, 78). In conclusion, science and technology has influenced the modern world both positively and negatively. The positive influence includes an increase in levels of literacy, technological advancement and greater understanding of the nature. The negative influences include degradation of social behavior, damage of the environment and the loss of humanity. Science and technology have led to a world of selfish beings who have no care for other people. These people live secluded from the rest of the world and form close connections with machines. Without a doubt, science and technology is pivotal in the modern world.

Works Cited

Bridgstock, Martin. Science, Technology and Society: An Introduction. Cambridge, En: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Print. McClellan, James E, and Harold Dorn. Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006. Internet resource. Wallerstein, Immanuel. The Modern World-System Iii: The Second Era of Great Expansion of the Capitalist World-Economy, 1730s-1840s, with a New Prologue. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011. Internet resource.

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Science and the Life-World: Essays on Husserl's Crisis of European Sciences

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This book is a collection of chapters on Husserl's Crisis of European Sciences by philosophers of science and scholars of Husserl. Published and ignored under the Nazi dictatorship, Husserl's last work has never received the attention its author's prominence demands. In the Crisis , Husserl considers the gap that has grown between the “life-world” of everyday human experience and the world of mathematical science. He argues that the two have become disconnected because we misunderstand our own scientific past—we confuse mathematical idealities with concrete reality and thereby undermine the validity of our immediate experience. The philosopher's foundational work in the theory of intentionality is relevant to contemporary discussions of qualia , naïve science, and the fact–value distinction. The chapters included in this volume consider Husserl's diagnosis of this “crisis” and his proposed solution. Topics addressed include Husserl's late philosophy, the relation between scientific and everyday objects and “worlds,” the history of Greek and Galilean science, the philosophy of history, and Husserl's influence on Foucault.

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