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Storm Structure and Mesoscale Dynamics

The global water cycle, climate analysis, precipitation microphysics.

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NASA’s Global Precipitation Measurement mission ( GPM ) develops and deploys advanced space-borne sensors to gain physical insights into precipitation processes and to enable improved monitoring and forecasting of climate, weather and precipitation-related natural hazards. The GPM mission's Core Observatory satellite launched in February 2014 and is currently operational, while its predecessor the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission ( TRMM ) satellite was operational from 1998 to 2015. GPM pursues a unique and innovative approach to measuring precipitation from space through collection of observations by both active and passive sensors, which are then converted into quantitative precipitation estimates. These datasets are used by scientists for analysis and research that leads to new scientific discoveries, and are used by operational agencies for real-time societal applications. The NASA Precipitation Measurement Missions Science Team conducts scientific research on a wide range of areas including precipitation and latent heating algorithm development, ground validation and integrated science applications.

Seeing Through the Clouds

Conventional weather satellites have the ability to measure visible and infrared light and so can detect and monitor clouds over vast regions, including over oceans and other regions where conventional weather data is sparse, both day and night.  They can also be used to quantify their size and coverage as well as estimate cloud heights.  However, they still lack the ability to see deep within clouds where the precipitation is; TRMM and GPM changed that.  With their active radars, TRMM and GPM gave scientists the ability to examine the detailed precipitation structures of clouds and cloud systems over much of the globe.  Foremost among these being tropical cyclones. TRMM and GPM have allowed us to examine the inner structure of a great many storms in relation to their intensity and environment and have strengthened our understanding of hurricane dynamics, in particular the relation between “hot towers” and storm intensification.  

At 1 PM EDT (1700 UTC) on September 5, 2017, the radar onboard the Global Precipitation Measurement mission (GPM) satellite captured this 3D view of the heat engine inside of category-5 Hurricane Irma. Under the central ring of clouds that circles the eye, water that had evaporated from the ocean surface condenses, releases heat, and powers the circling winds of the hurricane. The radar on the GPM satellite is able to estimate how much water is falling as precipitation inside of the hurricane, which serves as a guide to how much energy is being released inside the hurricane's central "heat engine." Learn more.  Credit: NASA / Owen Kelley

Another important class of storms are mesoscale convective systems, or MCS's. An MCS is a grouping of thunderstorms ranging in size from tens to several hundred kilometers in length that can last for a few hours or more and propagate over great distances. Typically they contain two distinct regions: a convective region containing heavier precipitation and active thunderstorms, and a sometimes broad stratiform region of lighter more uniform rain.  Not only can the rainfall from these systems lead to dangerous flooding over short periods with significant social and economic impacts, but it can also provide an important contribution to the annual rainfall for a given region.  Rainfall estimates derived from GPM and TRMM, coupled with the ability to characterize that rainfall have allowed us to quantify the climatological contribution of MCS precipitation to the annual water budget at different scales across the Earth. 

TRMM was revolutionary in its ability to observe storms within the tropics. Not only did it provide important information about the structure and intensity of rain storms in the tropics, it filled a critical gap in our observations, namely a comprehensive estimate of the amount and type of rain falling over the global tropics.  By linking this rainfall data with the corresponding latent heat released, it also furthered our understanding of how energy moving through the tropics and sub-tropics impacts atmospheric circulations throughout the globe.

The Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission expands our observational capabilities beyond the tropics and subtropics to higher latitudes.  GPM gives us the ability to sample a wider variety of storms from not only tropical and subtropical regions but also extratropical and post tropical, including mid and high latitude snow events over both the land and ocean, including those outside the range of conventional radar networks. Just as TRMM gave us a unique perspective for studying tropical cyclones, GPM now brings that same ability to penetrate through the clouds and examine the detailed precipitation structures of higher latitude extratropical storms. GPM maintains the ability to study tropical cyclones and now includes those that transition to post tropical storms beyond the tropics.  As with TRMM, GPM allows us to obtain comprehensive precipitation estimates in addition to providing detailed looks at storm precipitation structures and characteristics. With the enhanced sensitivity of its Dual-frequency Precipitation Radar ( DPR ) allowing us to measure lighter precipitation, GPM allows us to improve these estimates and expand them well beyond the tropics to higher latitudes. This gives us a more complete and accurate description of the Earth’s precipitation budget.

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How Water Moves

The water cycle describes the movement of water over, above and below the Earth’s surface.  Water can easily change between any of its three states: vapor, liquid and ice. Its phase transitions among the gaseous, liquid and solid states dominate the behavior of the weather, climate and environmental systems. The way water moves between all three phases is a powerful vehicle for rearranging Earth’s energy budget. In addition, the bulk movement of water by precipitation, infiltration, transpiration, runoff and subsurface flow redistributes water around the globe.

Diagram of Earth's water cycle. Learn more on the Precipitation Education website.  Credit: NASA GPM

Key to the connection between water and energy cycles is how the solar radiation affects the atmosphere. The direct contribution from the sun explains only about 25% of the energy in global atmospheric dynamics. The other 75% is transferred to the atmosphere through the evaporation of water from the surface, primarily from the oceans. This water vapor then condenses into clouds and in doing so, releases its latent heat into the atmosphere. This latent heat drives atmospheric circulation, playing a major role not only in cloud formation and storm development, but in the large-scale movement of air around the world. TRMM created the first reliable global latent heating estimates ever made by measuring the profile of rain as it falls through the sky, as a function of altitude.

GPM provides for combined radar / radiometer estimates of both precipitation rates and the 3D characteristics and structure or precipitation. This allows us to estimate the three dimensional latent heating structures of precipitation systems and their microphysics as well as their surface water fluxes. The enhanced measurement and sampling capabilities of GPM help us understand how precipitation patterns change over time across local, regional and global scales. These patterns translate into changes in hydrologic fluxes and states (e.g, runoff, evapotranspiration, soil moisture and groundwater recharge) both directly and in combination with land process models.

By providing more accurate estimates of the rate of transfer of water from the atmosphere to the surface, GPM reduces a significant source of uncertainty in the global water/energy budget. Scientists combine GPM observations with land surface data to provide better estimates of soil moisture, leading to better predictions of vegetation cover, weather forecasts and integrated hydrologic models.

• GPM Applicatinos for Water &  Agriculture
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Trends & Patterns

The distribution of the world’s rainfall is shifting as our climate changes. Wet areas may become wetter, dry areas drier, storms more intense, leading to more chaotic weather around the world. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2011), an increase in the average global temperature is very likely to lead to changes in precipitation and atmospheric moisture, including shifts towards more extreme precipitation during storms.

As the lower atmosphere (the troposphere) becomes warmer, evaporation rates increase, which leads to an increase in the amount of moisture circulating. When the troposphere has more moisture, more intense precipitation occurs, thus potentially triggering more flooding over land.  Conversely in other areas, warmer temperatures may lead to increased drying accelerating the onset of drought.

Average annual rainfall (mm/year) for June 2000 - May 2019 computed using the Integrated Multi-satellite Retrievals for GPM (IMERG) "Late Run" data product.

To predict future changes in climate, scientists use very sophisticated computer models that rely on available global data to describe climate as it is today and project how it may behave in the future. The key information offered by both TRMM and GPM helps scientists more accurately estimate the rate of water transfer within the Earth's atmosphere and on the surface. It also reconciles the different parts of the overall water budget. By providing measurements of surface water fluxes, cloud/precipitation microphysics and latent heat release in the atmosphere, GPM advances Earth system modeling and analysis. More accurate global precipitation estimates improve the accuracy and effectiveness of climate models and advance understanding of climate sensitivity and future climatic change.

• GPM IMERG Precipitation Climatology Data & Visualizations
• Texas A&M TRMM Climatology

Raindrop Shapes

TRMM’s Precipitation Radar ( PR ) was the first space-borne radar to observe rain drop characteristics through the atmosphere. These measurements yielded invaluable information on the intensity and distribution of the rain, the type of rain, the height of the storm and the altitude at which falling snow melts into rain. Estimates of the heat released into the atmosphere at different heights based on these measurements are valuable for improving the models used to simulate  Earth’s atmospheric circulation.

Not all raindrops are created equal. The size of falling raindrops depends on several factors, including where the cloud producing the drops is located on the globe and where the drops originate in the cloud. For the first time, scientists have three-dimensional snapshots of raindrops and snowflakes around the world from space, thanks to the joint NASA and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission. With the new global data on raindrop and snowflake sizes this mission provides, scientists can improve rainfall estimates from satellite data and in numerical weather forecast models, helping us better understand and prepare for extreme weather events.

Download this video in high resolution from the NASA Goddard Scientific Visualization Studio

GPM’s Dual-frequency Precipitation Radar ( DPR ) adds a second frequency to its radar instrument which provides more accurate precipitation information and improves our ability to look at raindrop characteristics, including structure, intensity and related microphysical processes throughout the atmospheric column. Information on the distribution and size of precipitation particles, together with microwave radiometer information, improves the accuracy of rain and snowfall estimates. DPR measurements offer insight into the microphysical processes of precipitation, including evaporation, collision / coalescence and aggregation, among others, and helps to distinguish between regions of rain, snow and sleet. They also allow us to obtain bulk precipitation properties such as intensity, water fluxes and columnar water content. GPM’s advanced instruments significantly improve our ability to detect light rain and falling snow and are helping us investigate potential links between rainfall and human impacts on the environment such as pollution and urban environments.

• Remote Sensing Fundamentals and Precipitation Algorithms

GPM Supports the IMPACTS Airborne Campaign to Study Snowfall

Thunderstorms Rumble over the Great Plains

Watching Thunderstorms March Across Lake Victoria

IMERG Sees a Dry September

Observing the ITCZ with IMERG

Measuring Latent Heating in Storm Systems

Finding Strong Storms with TRMM & GPM

TMPA Shows El Niño Conditions in the Pacific

Top 5 GPM Research Highlights

GPM Gets Flake-y

‘Corn Sweat’ and Climate Change Bring Sweltering Weather to the Midwest

A heat wave is sending temperatures soaring in the Midwest , and “corn sweat” is pushing humidity sky-high

Andrea Thompson

Will This Storm Become a Hurricane? Here’s How Meteorologists Tell

New techniques are helping forecasters spot storms that could develop into dangerous hurricanes earlier than ever

Xingchao Chen, The Conversation US

Former Hurricane Debby Stalls, Causing Heavy Rains and Flooding along East Coast

Some parts of the southeastern U.S. have seen more than a foot of rain from Tropical Storm Debby, and rain will keep moving up the coast in the coming days

Mathew Barlow, The Conversation US

The Hidden Ways Extreme Heat Disrupts Infrastructure

Scorching temperatures are further burdening an already-troubled infrastructure system across much of the U.S. in ways people are still learning to recognize

Meghan Bartels

How Much Water Should You Drink to Stay Hydrated?

The amount of water and electrolytes needed for proper hydration vary from person to person

Saima S. Iqbal

Heat Is More Than Just Temperature—Here ’ s How We Measure It

When heat hits, we talk about the heat index, the dew point and heat risk. But what do all these measures mean?

Expect Auroras, Solar Flares and More Space Weather from the Solar Maximum

Space weather is heating up in our current solar cycle peak

Clara Moskowitz, Matthew Twombly

Tornado Scientists Love Twister and Twisters . Here’s Why

Weather experts talk about why the film Twister is often such a favorite among tornado researchers and what they think of its new stand-alone sequel, Twisters

How Student Athletes Can Avoid Heatstroke

An athletic trainer explains why bodies need time to acclimatize to extreme heat and what risks to watch out for to avoid heat illness in student athletes

Samantha Scarneo-Miller, The Conversation US

It’s Going to Hit 90 Degrees in Alaska This Week

Temperatures in Fairbanks, Alaska, are predicted to reach a record-tying 90 degrees Fahrenheit because of a prolonged, unusually late heat wave

Watch Tornado Science at the Movies and the Perseids in the Sky

Windows devices go down, Twisters brings tornadoes to the big screen and COVID’s summer surge in this week’s news roundup.

Rachel Feltman, Anaissa Ruiz Tejada

Between Twister and Twisters, Tornado Science Has Improved a Lot in Three Decades

Three decades of tornado science research is now at play in the new summer flick Twisters

Max Springer

NSSL NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory

Research at NSSL

Severe weather has touched every state in the United States. Hurricanes, tornadoes, blizzards, wildfires, floods and droughts are very real threats to our property and our lives. NSSL researchers work to observe, understand and predict severe weather in ways that will help our partners save lives and reduce property damage.

Thunderstorms

At NSSL we study all types of thunderstorms including supercell thunderstorms, mesoscale convective systems, quasi-linear convective systems and bow-echoes. We also study their environment and their life-cycle.

Read more →

Much about tornadoes remains a mystery. They are rare, unpredictable and deadly. The U.S. has more tornadoes than anywhere else in the world. NSSL scientists study the lifecycles of tornadoes, why some supercells produce tornadoes and others do not, and what exactly causes a tornado to form. We also look for ways to improve tornado warning accuracy and lead-time.

Except for heat related fatalities, more deaths occur from flooding than any other hazard ( NWS Jetstream ). NSSL flood research focuses on improving ways to monitor water levels and precipitation amounts in ways that will improve flood and flash flood forecasts and warnings.

Lightning not only injures and kills people, it also ignites forest and brush fires. NSSL scientists find unique ways to measure and study lightning in the field. We also create computer simulations of lightning, and look for ways to use lightning data in forecasts of severe weather.

Hail can cause billions of dollars of damage to structures, crops and livestock. NSSL hail research focuses on improving detection and warning of hail to give people time to protect their property and seek shelter.

Damaging Winds

Straight-line winds are responsible for most of the damage from thunderstorms. These winds can cause as much destruction as a strong tornado. NSSL works to better understand the thunderstorms that produce damaging winds, so the NWS can make better predictions and warnings for them.

Winter Weather

Forecasting winter weather accurately is difficult because a degree or two of temperature change can mean the difference between snow or freezing rain. NSSL research includes looking for ways to make forecasting winter precipitation easier.

Societal Impacts

NSSL researchers work to understand and provide the weather information society needs. NSSL social science research directly involves emergency managers, broadcast meteorologists, and operational forecasters, in addition to the United States public, to assure innovations in weather research are holistically integrated into the weather communication system.

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A review of the global climate change impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures

Kashif abbass.

1 School of Economics and Management, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210094 People’s Republic of China

Muhammad Zeeshan Qasim

2 Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Xiaolingwei 200, Nanjing, 210094 People’s Republic of China

Huaming Song

Muntasir murshed.

3 School of Business and Economics, North South University, Dhaka, 1229 Bangladesh

4 Department of Journalism, Media and Communications, Daffodil International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Haider Mahmood

5 Department of Finance, College of Business Administration, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, 173, Alkharj, 11942 Saudi Arabia

Ijaz Younis

Associated data.

Data sources and relevant links are provided in the paper to access data.

Climate change is a long-lasting change in the weather arrays across tropics to polls. It is a global threat that has embarked on to put stress on various sectors. This study is aimed to conceptually engineer how climate variability is deteriorating the sustainability of diverse sectors worldwide. Specifically, the agricultural sector’s vulnerability is a globally concerning scenario, as sufficient production and food supplies are threatened due to irreversible weather fluctuations. In turn, it is challenging the global feeding patterns, particularly in countries with agriculture as an integral part of their economy and total productivity. Climate change has also put the integrity and survival of many species at stake due to shifts in optimum temperature ranges, thereby accelerating biodiversity loss by progressively changing the ecosystem structures. Climate variations increase the likelihood of particular food and waterborne and vector-borne diseases, and a recent example is a coronavirus pandemic. Climate change also accelerates the enigma of antimicrobial resistance, another threat to human health due to the increasing incidence of resistant pathogenic infections. Besides, the global tourism industry is devastated as climate change impacts unfavorable tourism spots. The methodology investigates hypothetical scenarios of climate variability and attempts to describe the quality of evidence to facilitate readers’ careful, critical engagement. Secondary data is used to identify sustainability issues such as environmental, social, and economic viability. To better understand the problem, gathered the information in this report from various media outlets, research agencies, policy papers, newspapers, and other sources. This review is a sectorial assessment of climate change mitigation and adaptation approaches worldwide in the aforementioned sectors and the associated economic costs. According to the findings, government involvement is necessary for the country’s long-term development through strict accountability of resources and regulations implemented in the past to generate cutting-edge climate policy. Therefore, mitigating the impacts of climate change must be of the utmost importance, and hence, this global threat requires global commitment to address its dreadful implications to ensure global sustenance.

Introduction

Worldwide observed and anticipated climatic changes for the twenty-first century and global warming are significant global changes that have been encountered during the past 65 years. Climate change (CC) is an inter-governmental complex challenge globally with its influence over various components of the ecological, environmental, socio-political, and socio-economic disciplines (Adger et al.  2005 ; Leal Filho et al.  2021 ; Feliciano et al.  2022 ). Climate change involves heightened temperatures across numerous worlds (Battisti and Naylor  2009 ; Schuurmans  2021 ; Weisheimer and Palmer  2005 ; Yadav et al.  2015 ). With the onset of the industrial revolution, the problem of earth climate was amplified manifold (Leppänen et al.  2014 ). It is reported that the immediate attention and due steps might increase the probability of overcoming its devastating impacts. It is not plausible to interpret the exact consequences of climate change (CC) on a sectoral basis (Izaguirre et al.  2021 ; Jurgilevich et al.  2017 ), which is evident by the emerging level of recognition plus the inclusion of climatic uncertainties at both local and national level of policymaking (Ayers et al.  2014 ).

Climate change is characterized based on the comprehensive long-haul temperature and precipitation trends and other components such as pressure and humidity level in the surrounding environment. Besides, the irregular weather patterns, retreating of global ice sheets, and the corresponding elevated sea level rise are among the most renowned international and domestic effects of climate change (Lipczynska-Kochany  2018 ; Michel et al.  2021 ; Murshed and Dao 2020 ). Before the industrial revolution, natural sources, including volcanoes, forest fires, and seismic activities, were regarded as the distinct sources of greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as CO 2 , CH 4 , N 2 O, and H 2 O into the atmosphere (Murshed et al. 2020 ; Hussain et al.  2020 ; Sovacool et al.  2021 ; Usman and Balsalobre-Lorente 2022 ; Murshed 2022 ). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) struck a major agreement to tackle climate change and accelerate and intensify the actions and investments required for a sustainable low-carbon future at Conference of the Parties (COP-21) in Paris on December 12, 2015. The Paris Agreement expands on the Convention by bringing all nations together for the first time in a single cause to undertake ambitious measures to prevent climate change and adapt to its impacts, with increased funding to assist developing countries in doing so. As so, it marks a turning point in the global climate fight. The core goal of the Paris Agreement is to improve the global response to the threat of climate change by keeping the global temperature rise this century well below 2 °C over pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5° C (Sharma et al. 2020 ; Sharif et al. 2020 ; Chien et al. 2021 .

Furthermore, the agreement aspires to strengthen nations’ ability to deal with the effects of climate change and align financing flows with low GHG emissions and climate-resilient paths (Shahbaz et al. 2019 ; Anwar et al. 2021 ; Usman et al. 2022a ). To achieve these lofty goals, adequate financial resources must be mobilized and provided, as well as a new technology framework and expanded capacity building, allowing developing countries and the most vulnerable countries to act under their respective national objectives. The agreement also establishes a more transparent action and support mechanism. All Parties are required by the Paris Agreement to do their best through “nationally determined contributions” (NDCs) and to strengthen these efforts in the coming years (Balsalobre-Lorente et al. 2020 ). It includes obligations that all Parties regularly report on their emissions and implementation activities. A global stock-take will be conducted every five years to review collective progress toward the agreement’s goal and inform the Parties’ future individual actions. The Paris Agreement became available for signature on April 22, 2016, Earth Day, at the United Nations Headquarters in New York. On November 4, 2016, it went into effect 30 days after the so-called double threshold was met (ratification by 55 nations accounting for at least 55% of world emissions). More countries have ratified and continue to ratify the agreement since then, bringing 125 Parties in early 2017. To fully operationalize the Paris Agreement, a work program was initiated in Paris to define mechanisms, processes, and recommendations on a wide range of concerns (Murshed et al. 2021 ). Since 2016, Parties have collaborated in subsidiary bodies (APA, SBSTA, and SBI) and numerous formed entities. The Conference of the Parties functioning as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA) convened for the first time in November 2016 in Marrakesh in conjunction with COP22 and made its first two resolutions. The work plan is scheduled to be finished by 2018. Some mitigation and adaptation strategies to reduce the emission in the prospective of Paris agreement are following firstly, a long-term goal of keeping the increase in global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels, secondly, to aim to limit the rise to 1.5 °C, since this would significantly reduce risks and the impacts of climate change, thirdly, on the need for global emissions to peak as soon as possible, recognizing that this will take longer for developing countries, lastly, to undertake rapid reductions after that under the best available science, to achieve a balance between emissions and removals in the second half of the century. On the other side, some adaptation strategies are; strengthening societies’ ability to deal with the effects of climate change and to continue & expand international assistance for developing nations’ adaptation.

However, anthropogenic activities are currently regarded as most accountable for CC (Murshed et al. 2022 ). Apart from the industrial revolution, other anthropogenic activities include excessive agricultural operations, which further involve the high use of fuel-based mechanization, burning of agricultural residues, burning fossil fuels, deforestation, national and domestic transportation sectors, etc. (Huang et al.  2016 ). Consequently, these anthropogenic activities lead to climatic catastrophes, damaging local and global infrastructure, human health, and total productivity. Energy consumption has mounted GHGs levels concerning warming temperatures as most of the energy production in developing countries comes from fossil fuels (Balsalobre-Lorente et al. 2022 ; Usman et al. 2022b ; Abbass et al. 2021a ; Ishikawa-Ishiwata and Furuya  2022 ).

This review aims to highlight the effects of climate change in a socio-scientific aspect by analyzing the existing literature on various sectorial pieces of evidence globally that influence the environment. Although this review provides a thorough examination of climate change and its severe affected sectors that pose a grave danger for global agriculture, biodiversity, health, economy, forestry, and tourism, and to purpose some practical prophylactic measures and mitigation strategies to be adapted as sound substitutes to survive from climate change (CC) impacts. The societal implications of irregular weather patterns and other effects of climate changes are discussed in detail. Some numerous sustainable mitigation measures and adaptation practices and techniques at the global level are discussed in this review with an in-depth focus on its economic, social, and environmental aspects. Methods of data collection section are included in the supplementary information.

Review methodology

Related study and its objectives.

Today, we live an ordinary life in the beautiful digital, globalized world where climate change has a decisive role. What happens in one country has a massive influence on geographically far apart countries, which points to the current crisis known as COVID-19 (Sarkar et al.  2021 ). The most dangerous disease like COVID-19 has affected the world’s climate changes and economic conditions (Abbass et al. 2022 ; Pirasteh-Anosheh et al.  2021 ). The purpose of the present study is to review the status of research on the subject, which is based on “Global Climate Change Impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures” by systematically reviewing past published and unpublished research work. Furthermore, the current study seeks to comment on research on the same topic and suggest future research on the same topic. Specifically, the present study aims: The first one is, organize publications to make them easy and quick to find. Secondly, to explore issues in this area, propose an outline of research for future work. The third aim of the study is to synthesize the previous literature on climate change, various sectors, and their mitigation measurement. Lastly , classify the articles according to the different methods and procedures that have been adopted.

Review methodology for reviewers

This review-based article followed systematic literature review techniques that have proved the literature review as a rigorous framework (Benita  2021 ; Tranfield et al.  2003 ). Moreover, we illustrate in Fig.  1 the search method that we have started for this research. First, finalized the research theme to search literature (Cooper et al.  2018 ). Second, used numerous research databases to search related articles and download from the database (Web of Science, Google Scholar, Scopus Index Journals, Emerald, Elsevier Science Direct, Springer, and Sciverse). We focused on various articles, with research articles, feedback pieces, short notes, debates, and review articles published in scholarly journals. Reports used to search for multiple keywords such as “Climate Change,” “Mitigation and Adaptation,” “Department of Agriculture and Human Health,” “Department of Biodiversity and Forestry,” etc.; in summary, keyword list and full text have been made. Initially, the search for keywords yielded a large amount of literature.

Methodology search for finalized articles for investigations.

Source : constructed by authors

Since 2020, it has been impossible to review all the articles found; some restrictions have been set for the literature exhibition. The study searched 95 articles on a different database mentioned above based on the nature of the study. It excluded 40 irrelevant papers due to copied from a previous search after readings tiles, abstract and full pieces. The criteria for inclusion were: (i) articles focused on “Global Climate Change Impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures,” and (ii) the search key terms related to study requirements. The complete procedure yielded 55 articles for our study. We repeat our search on the “Web of Science and Google Scholars” database to enhance the search results and check the referenced articles.

In this study, 55 articles are reviewed systematically and analyzed for research topics and other aspects, such as the methods, contexts, and theories used in these studies. Furthermore, this study analyzes closely related areas to provide unique research opportunities in the future. The study also discussed future direction opportunities and research questions by understanding the research findings climate changes and other affected sectors. The reviewed paper framework analysis process is outlined in Fig.  2 .

Framework of the analysis Process.

Natural disasters and climate change’s socio-economic consequences

Natural and environmental disasters can be highly variable from year to year; some years pass with very few deaths before a significant disaster event claims many lives (Symanski et al.  2021 ). Approximately 60,000 people globally died from natural disasters each year on average over the past decade (Ritchie and Roser  2014 ; Wiranata and Simbolon  2021 ). So, according to the report, around 0.1% of global deaths. Annual variability in the number and share of deaths from natural disasters in recent decades are shown in Fig.  3 . The number of fatalities can be meager—sometimes less than 10,000, and as few as 0.01% of all deaths. But shock events have a devastating impact: the 1983–1985 famine and drought in Ethiopia; the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami; Cyclone Nargis, which struck Myanmar in 2008; and the 2010 Port-au-Prince earthquake in Haiti and now recent example is COVID-19 pandemic (Erman et al.  2021 ). These events pushed global disaster deaths to over 200,000—more than 0.4% of deaths in these years. Low-frequency, high-impact events such as earthquakes and tsunamis are not preventable, but such high losses of human life are. Historical evidence shows that earlier disaster detection, more robust infrastructure, emergency preparedness, and response programmers have substantially reduced disaster deaths worldwide. Low-income is also the most vulnerable to disasters; improving living conditions, facilities, and response services in these areas would be critical in reducing natural disaster deaths in the coming decades.

Global deaths from natural disasters, 1978 to 2020.

Source EMDAT ( 2020 )

The interior regions of the continent are likely to be impacted by rising temperatures (Dimri et al.  2018 ; Goes et al.  2020 ; Mannig et al.  2018 ; Schuurmans  2021 ). Weather patterns change due to the shortage of natural resources (water), increase in glacier melting, and rising mercury are likely to cause extinction to many planted species (Gampe et al.  2016 ; Mihiretu et al.  2021 ; Shaffril et al.  2018 ).On the other hand, the coastal ecosystem is on the verge of devastation (Perera et al.  2018 ; Phillips  2018 ). The temperature rises, insect disease outbreaks, health-related problems, and seasonal and lifestyle changes are persistent, with a strong probability of these patterns continuing in the future (Abbass et al. 2021c ; Hussain et al.  2018 ). At the global level, a shortage of good infrastructure and insufficient adaptive capacity are hammering the most (IPCC  2013 ). In addition to the above concerns, a lack of environmental education and knowledge, outdated consumer behavior, a scarcity of incentives, a lack of legislation, and the government’s lack of commitment to climate change contribute to the general public’s concerns. By 2050, a 2 to 3% rise in mercury and a drastic shift in rainfall patterns may have serious consequences (Huang et al. 2022 ; Gorst et al.  2018 ). Natural and environmental calamities caused huge losses globally, such as decreased agriculture outputs, rehabilitation of the system, and rebuilding necessary technologies (Ali and Erenstein  2017 ; Ramankutty et al.  2018 ; Yu et al.  2021 ) (Table ​ (Table1). 1 ). Furthermore, in the last 3 or 4 years, the world has been plagued by smog-related eye and skin diseases, as well as a rise in road accidents due to poor visibility.

Main natural danger statistics for 1985–2020 at the global level

Source: EM-DAT ( 2020 )

Climate change and agriculture

Global agriculture is the ultimate sector responsible for 30–40% of all greenhouse emissions, which makes it a leading industry predominantly contributing to climate warming and significantly impacted by it (Grieg; Mishra et al.  2021 ; Ortiz et al.  2021 ; Thornton and Lipper  2014 ). Numerous agro-environmental and climatic factors that have a dominant influence on agriculture productivity (Pautasso et al.  2012 ) are significantly impacted in response to precipitation extremes including floods, forest fires, and droughts (Huang  2004 ). Besides, the immense dependency on exhaustible resources also fuels the fire and leads global agriculture to become prone to devastation. Godfray et al. ( 2010 ) mentioned that decline in agriculture challenges the farmer’s quality of life and thus a significant factor to poverty as the food and water supplies are critically impacted by CC (Ortiz et al.  2021 ; Rosenzweig et al.  2014 ). As an essential part of the economic systems, especially in developing countries, agricultural systems affect the overall economy and potentially the well-being of households (Schlenker and Roberts  2009 ). According to the report published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, i.e., CH 4, CO 2 , and N 2 O, are increased in the air to extraordinary levels over the last few centuries (Usman and Makhdum 2021 ; Stocker et al.  2013 ). Climate change is the composite outcome of two different factors. The first is the natural causes, and the second is the anthropogenic actions (Karami 2012 ). It is also forecasted that the world may experience a typical rise in temperature stretching from 1 to 3.7 °C at the end of this century (Pachauri et al. 2014 ). The world’s crop production is also highly vulnerable to these global temperature-changing trends as raised temperatures will pose severe negative impacts on crop growth (Reidsma et al. 2009 ). Some of the recent modeling about the fate of global agriculture is briefly described below.

Decline in cereal productivity

Crop productivity will also be affected dramatically in the next few decades due to variations in integral abiotic factors such as temperature, solar radiation, precipitation, and CO 2 . These all factors are included in various regulatory instruments like progress and growth, weather-tempted changes, pest invasions (Cammell and Knight 1992 ), accompanying disease snags (Fand et al. 2012 ), water supplies (Panda et al. 2003 ), high prices of agro-products in world’s agriculture industry, and preeminent quantity of fertilizer consumption. Lobell and field ( 2007 ) claimed that from 1962 to 2002, wheat crop output had condensed significantly due to rising temperatures. Therefore, during 1980–2011, the common wheat productivity trends endorsed extreme temperature events confirmed by Gourdji et al. ( 2013 ) around South Asia, South America, and Central Asia. Various other studies (Asseng, Cao, Zhang, and Ludwig 2009 ; Asseng et al. 2013 ; García et al. 2015 ; Ortiz et al. 2021 ) also proved that wheat output is negatively affected by the rising temperatures and also caused adverse effects on biomass productivity (Calderini et al. 1999 ; Sadras and Slafer 2012 ). Hereafter, the rice crop is also influenced by the high temperatures at night. These difficulties will worsen because the temperature will be rising further in the future owing to CC (Tebaldi et al. 2006 ). Another research conducted in China revealed that a 4.6% of rice production per 1 °C has happened connected with the advancement in night temperatures (Tao et al. 2006 ). Moreover, the average night temperature growth also affected rice indicia cultivar’s output pragmatically during 25 years in the Philippines (Peng et al. 2004 ). It is anticipated that the increase in world average temperature will also cause a substantial reduction in yield (Hatfield et al. 2011 ; Lobell and Gourdji 2012 ). In the southern hemisphere, Parry et al. ( 2007 ) noted a rise of 1–4 °C in average daily temperatures at the end of spring season unti the middle of summers, and this raised temperature reduced crop output by cutting down the time length for phenophases eventually reduce the yield (Hatfield and Prueger 2015 ; R. Ortiz 2008 ). Also, world climate models have recommended that humid and subtropical regions expect to be plentiful prey to the upcoming heat strokes (Battisti and Naylor 2009 ). Grain production is the amalgamation of two constituents: the average weight and the grain output/m 2 , however, in crop production. Crop output is mainly accredited to the grain quantity (Araus et al. 2008 ; Gambín and Borrás 2010 ). In the times of grain set, yield resources are mainly strewn between hitherto defined components, i.e., grain usual weight and grain output, which presents a trade-off between them (Gambín and Borrás 2010 ) beside disparities in per grain integration (B. L. Gambín et al. 2006 ). In addition to this, the maize crop is also susceptible to raised temperatures, principally in the flowering stage (Edreira and Otegui 2013 ). In reality, the lower grain number is associated with insufficient acclimatization due to intense photosynthesis and higher respiration and the high-temperature effect on the reproduction phenomena (Edreira and Otegui 2013 ). During the flowering phase, maize visible to heat (30–36 °C) seemed less anthesis-silking intermissions (Edreira et al. 2011 ). Another research by Dupuis and Dumas ( 1990 ) proved that a drop in spikelet when directly visible to high temperatures above 35 °C in vitro pollination. Abnormalities in kernel number claimed by Vega et al. ( 2001 ) is related to conceded plant development during a flowering phase that is linked with the active ear growth phase and categorized as a critical phase for approximation of kernel number during silking (Otegui and Bonhomme 1998 ).

The retort of rice output to high temperature presents disparities in flowering patterns, and seed set lessens and lessens grain weight (Qasim et al. 2020 ; Qasim, Hammad, Maqsood, Tariq, & Chawla). During the daytime, heat directly impacts flowers which lessens the thesis period and quickens the earlier peak flowering (Tao et al. 2006 ). Antagonistic effect of higher daytime temperature d on pollen sprouting proposed seed set decay, whereas, seed set was lengthily reduced than could be explicated by pollen growing at high temperatures 40◦C (Matsui et al. 2001 ).

The decline in wheat output is linked with higher temperatures, confirmed in numerous studies (Semenov 2009 ; Stone and Nicolas 1994 ). High temperatures fast-track the arrangements of plant expansion (Blum et al. 2001 ), diminution photosynthetic process (Salvucci and Crafts‐Brandner 2004 ), and also considerably affect the reproductive operations (Farooq et al. 2011 ).

The destructive impacts of CC induced weather extremes to deteriorate the integrity of crops (Chaudhary et al. 2011 ), e.g., Spartan cold and extreme fog cause falling and discoloration of betel leaves (Rosenzweig et al. 2001 ), giving them a somehow reddish appearance, squeezing of lemon leaves (Pautasso et al. 2012 ), as well as root rot of pineapple, have reported (Vedwan and Rhoades 2001 ). Henceforth, in tackling the disruptive effects of CC, several short-term and long-term management approaches are the crucial need of time (Fig.  4 ). Moreover, various studies (Chaudhary et al. 2011 ; Patz et al. 2005 ; Pautasso et al. 2012 ) have demonstrated adapting trends such as ameliorating crop diversity can yield better adaptability towards CC.

Schematic description of potential impacts of climate change on the agriculture sector and the appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures to overcome its impact.

Climate change impacts on biodiversity

Global biodiversity is among the severe victims of CC because it is the fastest emerging cause of species loss. Studies demonstrated that the massive scale species dynamics are considerably associated with diverse climatic events (Abraham and Chain 1988 ; Manes et al. 2021 ; A. M. D. Ortiz et al. 2021 ). Both the pace and magnitude of CC are altering the compatible habitat ranges for living entities of marine, freshwater, and terrestrial regions. Alterations in general climate regimes influence the integrity of ecosystems in numerous ways, such as variation in the relative abundance of species, range shifts, changes in activity timing, and microhabitat use (Bates et al. 2014 ). The geographic distribution of any species often depends upon its ability to tolerate environmental stresses, biological interactions, and dispersal constraints. Hence, instead of the CC, the local species must only accept, adapt, move, or face extinction (Berg et al. 2010 ). So, the best performer species have a better survival capacity for adjusting to new ecosystems or a decreased perseverance to survive where they are already situated (Bates et al. 2014 ). An important aspect here is the inadequate habitat connectivity and access to microclimates, also crucial in raising the exposure to climate warming and extreme heatwave episodes. For example, the carbon sequestration rates are undergoing fluctuations due to climate-driven expansion in the range of global mangroves (Cavanaugh et al. 2014 ).

Similarly, the loss of kelp-forest ecosystems in various regions and its occupancy by the seaweed turfs has set the track for elevated herbivory by the high influx of tropical fish populations. Not only this, the increased water temperatures have exacerbated the conditions far away from the physiological tolerance level of the kelp communities (Vergés et al. 2016 ; Wernberg et al. 2016 ). Another pertinent danger is the devastation of keystone species, which even has more pervasive effects on the entire communities in that habitat (Zarnetske et al. 2012 ). It is particularly important as CC does not specify specific populations or communities. Eventually, this CC-induced redistribution of species may deteriorate carbon storage and the net ecosystem productivity (Weed et al. 2013 ). Among the typical disruptions, the prominent ones include impacts on marine and terrestrial productivity, marine community assembly, and the extended invasion of toxic cyanobacteria bloom (Fossheim et al. 2015 ).

The CC-impacted species extinction is widely reported in the literature (Beesley et al. 2019 ; Urban 2015 ), and the predictions of demise until the twenty-first century are dreadful (Abbass et al. 2019 ; Pereira et al. 2013 ). In a few cases, northward shifting of species may not be formidable as it allows mountain-dwelling species to find optimum climates. However, the migrant species may be trapped in isolated and incompatible habitats due to losing topography and range (Dullinger et al. 2012 ). For example, a study indicated that the American pika has been extirpated or intensely diminished in some regions, primarily attributed to the CC-impacted extinction or at least local extirpation (Stewart et al. 2015 ). Besides, the anticipation of persistent responses to the impacts of CC often requires data records of several decades to rigorously analyze the critical pre and post CC patterns at species and ecosystem levels (Manes et al. 2021 ; Testa et al. 2018 ).

Nonetheless, the availability of such long-term data records is rare; hence, attempts are needed to focus on these profound aspects. Biodiversity is also vulnerable to the other associated impacts of CC, such as rising temperatures, droughts, and certain invasive pest species. For instance, a study revealed the changes in the composition of plankton communities attributed to rising temperatures. Henceforth, alterations in such aquatic producer communities, i.e., diatoms and calcareous plants, can ultimately lead to variation in the recycling of biological carbon. Moreover, such changes are characterized as a potential contributor to CO 2 differences between the Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods (Kohfeld et al. 2005 ).

Climate change implications on human health

It is an understood corporality that human health is a significant victim of CC (Costello et al. 2009 ). According to the WHO, CC might be responsible for 250,000 additional deaths per year during 2030–2050 (Watts et al. 2015 ). These deaths are attributed to extreme weather-induced mortality and morbidity and the global expansion of vector-borne diseases (Lemery et al. 2021; Yang and Usman 2021 ; Meierrieks 2021 ; UNEP 2017 ). Here, some of the emerging health issues pertinent to this global problem are briefly described.

Climate change and antimicrobial resistance with corresponding economic costs

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is an up-surging complex global health challenge (Garner et al. 2019 ; Lemery et al. 2021 ). Health professionals across the globe are extremely worried due to this phenomenon that has critical potential to reverse almost all the progress that has been achieved so far in the health discipline (Gosling and Arnell 2016 ). A massive amount of antibiotics is produced by many pharmaceutical industries worldwide, and the pathogenic microorganisms are gradually developing resistance to them, which can be comprehended how strongly this aspect can shake the foundations of national and global economies (UNEP 2017 ). This statement is supported by the fact that AMR is not developing in a particular region or country. Instead, it is flourishing in every continent of the world (WHO 2018 ). This plague is heavily pushing humanity to the post-antibiotic era, in which currently antibiotic-susceptible pathogens will once again lead to certain endemics and pandemics after being resistant(WHO 2018 ). Undesirably, if this statement would become a factuality, there might emerge certain risks in undertaking sophisticated interventions such as chemotherapy, joint replacement cases, and organ transplantation (Su et al. 2018 ). Presently, the amplification of drug resistance cases has made common illnesses like pneumonia, post-surgical infections, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, etc., too difficult and costly to be treated or cure well (WHO 2018 ). From a simple example, it can be assumed how easily antibiotic-resistant strains can be transmitted from one person to another and ultimately travel across the boundaries (Berendonk et al. 2015 ). Talking about the second- and third-generation classes of antibiotics, e.g., most renowned generations of cephalosporin antibiotics that are more expensive, broad-spectrum, more toxic, and usually require more extended periods whenever prescribed to patients (Lemery et al. 2021 ; Pärnänen et al. 2019 ). This scenario has also revealed that the abundance of resistant strains of pathogens was also higher in the Southern part (WHO 2018 ). As southern parts are generally warmer than their counterparts, it is evident from this example how CC-induced global warming can augment the spread of antibiotic-resistant strains within the biosphere, eventually putting additional economic burden in the face of developing new and costlier antibiotics. The ARG exchange to susceptible bacteria through one of the potential mechanisms, transformation, transduction, and conjugation; Selection pressure can be caused by certain antibiotics, metals or pesticides, etc., as shown in Fig.  5 .

A typical interaction between the susceptible and resistant strains.

Source: Elsayed et al. ( 2021 ); Karkman et al. ( 2018 )

Certain studies highlighted that conventional urban wastewater treatment plants are typical hotspots where most bacterial strains exchange genetic material through horizontal gene transfer (Fig.  5 ). Although at present, the extent of risks associated with the antibiotic resistance found in wastewater is complicated; environmental scientists and engineers have particular concerns about the potential impacts of these antibiotic resistance genes on human health (Ashbolt 2015 ). At most undesirable and worst case, these antibiotic-resistant genes containing bacteria can make their way to enter into the environment (Pruden et al. 2013 ), irrigation water used for crops and public water supplies and ultimately become a part of food chains and food webs (Ma et al. 2019 ; D. Wu et al. 2019 ). This problem has been reported manifold in several countries (Hendriksen et al. 2019 ), where wastewater as a means of irrigated water is quite common.

Climate change and vector borne-diseases

Temperature is a fundamental factor for the sustenance of living entities regardless of an ecosystem. So, a specific living being, especially a pathogen, requires a sophisticated temperature range to exist on earth. The second essential component of CC is precipitation, which also impacts numerous infectious agents’ transport and dissemination patterns. Global rising temperature is a significant cause of many species extinction. On the one hand, this changing environmental temperature may be causing species extinction, and on the other, this warming temperature might favor the thriving of some new organisms. Here, it was evident that some pathogens may also upraise once non-evident or reported (Patz et al. 2000 ). This concept can be exemplified through certain pathogenic strains of microorganisms that how the likelihood of various diseases increases in response to climate warming-induced environmental changes (Table ​ (Table2 2 ).

Examples of how various environmental changes affect various infectious diseases in humans

Source: Aron and Patz ( 2001 )

A recent example is an outburst of coronavirus (COVID-19) in the Republic of China, causing pneumonia and severe acute respiratory complications (Cui et al. 2021 ; Song et al. 2021 ). The large family of viruses is harbored in numerous animals, bats, and snakes in particular (livescience.com) with the subsequent transfer into human beings. Hence, it is worth noting that the thriving of numerous vectors involved in spreading various diseases is influenced by Climate change (Ogden 2018 ; Santos et al. 2021 ).

Psychological impacts of climate change

Climate change (CC) is responsible for the rapid dissemination and exaggeration of certain epidemics and pandemics. In addition to the vast apparent impacts of climate change on health, forestry, agriculture, etc., it may also have psychological implications on vulnerable societies. It can be exemplified through the recent outburst of (COVID-19) in various countries around the world (Pal 2021 ). Besides, the victims of this viral infection have made healthy beings scarier and terrified. In the wake of such epidemics, people with common colds or fever are also frightened and must pass specific regulatory protocols. Living in such situations continuously terrifies the public and makes the stress familiar, which eventually makes them psychologically weak (npr.org).

CC boosts the extent of anxiety, distress, and other issues in public, pushing them to develop various mental-related problems. Besides, frequent exposure to extreme climatic catastrophes such as geological disasters also imprints post-traumatic disorder, and their ubiquitous occurrence paves the way to developing chronic psychological dysfunction. Moreover, repetitive listening from media also causes an increase in the person’s stress level (Association 2020 ). Similarly, communities living in flood-prone areas constantly live in extreme fear of drowning and die by floods. In addition to human lives, the flood-induced destruction of physical infrastructure is a specific reason for putting pressure on these communities (Ogden 2018 ). For instance, Ogden ( 2018 ) comprehensively denoted that Katrina’s Hurricane augmented the mental health issues in the victim communities.

Climate change impacts on the forestry sector

Forests are the global regulators of the world’s climate (FAO 2018 ) and have an indispensable role in regulating global carbon and nitrogen cycles (Rehman et al. 2021 ; Reichstein and Carvalhais 2019 ). Hence, disturbances in forest ecology affect the micro and macro-climates (Ellison et al. 2017 ). Climate warming, in return, has profound impacts on the growth and productivity of transboundary forests by influencing the temperature and precipitation patterns, etc. As CC induces specific changes in the typical structure and functions of ecosystems (Zhang et al. 2017 ) as well impacts forest health, climate change also has several devastating consequences such as forest fires, droughts, pest outbreaks (EPA 2018 ), and last but not the least is the livelihoods of forest-dependent communities. The rising frequency and intensity of another CC product, i.e., droughts, pose plenty of challenges to the well-being of global forests (Diffenbaugh et al. 2017 ), which is further projected to increase soon (Hartmann et al. 2018 ; Lehner et al. 2017 ; Rehman et al. 2021 ). Hence, CC induces storms, with more significant impacts also put extra pressure on the survival of the global forests (Martínez-Alvarado et al. 2018 ), significantly since their influences are augmented during higher winter precipitations with corresponding wetter soils causing weak root anchorage of trees (Brázdil et al. 2018 ). Surging temperature regimes causes alterations in usual precipitation patterns, which is a significant hurdle for the survival of temperate forests (Allen et al. 2010 ; Flannigan et al. 2013 ), letting them encounter severe stress and disturbances which adversely affects the local tree species (Hubbart et al. 2016 ; Millar and Stephenson 2015 ; Rehman et al. 2021 ).

Climate change impacts on forest-dependent communities

Forests are the fundamental livelihood resource for about 1.6 billion people worldwide; out of them, 350 million are distinguished with relatively higher reliance (Bank 2008 ). Agro-forestry-dependent communities comprise 1.2 billion, and 60 million indigenous people solely rely on forests and their products to sustain their lives (Sunderlin et al. 2005 ). For example, in the entire African continent, more than 2/3rd of inhabitants depend on forest resources and woodlands for their alimonies, e.g., food, fuelwood and grazing (Wasiq and Ahmad 2004 ). The livings of these people are more intensely affected by the climatic disruptions making their lives harder (Brown et al. 2014 ). On the one hand, forest communities are incredibly vulnerable to CC due to their livelihoods, cultural and spiritual ties as well as socio-ecological connections, and on the other, they are not familiar with the term “climate change.” (Rahman and Alam 2016 ). Among the destructive impacts of temperature and rainfall, disruption of the agroforestry crops with resultant downscale growth and yield (Macchi et al. 2008 ). Cruz ( 2015 ) ascribed that forest-dependent smallholder farmers in the Philippines face the enigma of delayed fruiting, more severe damages by insect and pest incidences due to unfavorable temperature regimes, and changed rainfall patterns.

Among these series of challenges to forest communities, their well-being is also distinctly vulnerable to CC. Though the detailed climate change impacts on human health have been comprehensively mentioned in the previous section, some studies have listed a few more devastating effects on the prosperity of forest-dependent communities. For instance, the Himalayan people have been experiencing frequent skin-borne diseases such as malaria and other skin diseases due to increasing mosquitoes, wild boar as well, and new wasps species, particularly in higher altitudes that were almost non-existent before last 5–10 years (Xu et al. 2008 ). Similarly, people living at high altitudes in Bangladesh have experienced frequent mosquito-borne calamities (Fardous; Sharma 2012 ). In addition, the pace of other waterborne diseases such as infectious diarrhea, cholera, pathogenic induced abdominal complications and dengue has also been boosted in other distinguished regions of Bangladesh (Cell 2009 ; Gunter et al. 2008 ).

Pest outbreak

Upscaling hotter climate may positively affect the mobile organisms with shorter generation times because they can scurry from harsh conditions than the immobile species (Fettig et al. 2013 ; Schoene and Bernier 2012 ) and are also relatively more capable of adapting to new environments (Jactel et al. 2019 ). It reveals that insects adapt quickly to global warming due to their mobility advantages. Due to past outbreaks, the trees (forests) are relatively more susceptible victims (Kurz et al. 2008 ). Before CC, the influence of factors mentioned earlier, i.e., droughts and storms, was existent and made the forests susceptible to insect pest interventions; however, the global forests remain steadfast, assiduous, and green (Jactel et al. 2019 ). The typical reasons could be the insect herbivores were regulated by several tree defenses and pressures of predation (Wilkinson and Sherratt 2016 ). As climate greatly influences these phenomena, the global forests cannot be so sedulous against such challenges (Jactel et al. 2019 ). Table ​ Table3 3 demonstrates some of the particular considerations with practical examples that are essential while mitigating the impacts of CC in the forestry sector.

Essential considerations while mitigating the climate change impacts on the forestry sector

Source : Fischer ( 2019 )

Climate change impacts on tourism

Tourism is a commercial activity that has roots in multi-dimensions and an efficient tool with adequate job generation potential, revenue creation, earning of spectacular foreign exchange, enhancement in cross-cultural promulgation and cooperation, a business tool for entrepreneurs and eventually for the country’s national development (Arshad et al. 2018 ; Scott 2021 ). Among a plethora of other disciplines, the tourism industry is also a distinct victim of climate warming (Gössling et al. 2012 ; Hall et al. 2015 ) as the climate is among the essential resources that enable tourism in particular regions as most preferred locations. Different places at different times of the year attract tourists both within and across the countries depending upon the feasibility and compatibility of particular weather patterns. Hence, the massive variations in these weather patterns resulting from CC will eventually lead to monumental challenges to the local economy in that specific area’s particular and national economy (Bujosa et al. 2015 ). For instance, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report demonstrated that the global tourism industry had faced a considerable decline in the duration of ski season, including the loss of some ski areas and the dramatic shifts in tourist destinations’ climate warming.

Furthermore, different studies (Neuvonen et al. 2015 ; Scott et al. 2004 ) indicated that various currently perfect tourist spots, e.g., coastal areas, splendid islands, and ski resorts, will suffer consequences of CC. It is also worth noting that the quality and potential of administrative management potential to cope with the influence of CC on the tourism industry is of crucial significance, which renders specific strengths of resiliency to numerous destinations to withstand against it (Füssel and Hildén 2014 ). Similarly, in the partial or complete absence of adequate socio-economic and socio-political capital, the high-demanding tourist sites scurry towards the verge of vulnerability. The susceptibility of tourism is based on different components such as the extent of exposure, sensitivity, life-supporting sectors, and capacity assessment factors (Füssel and Hildén 2014 ). It is obvious corporality that sectors such as health, food, ecosystems, human habitat, infrastructure, water availability, and the accessibility of a particular region are prone to CC. Henceforth, the sensitivity of these critical sectors to CC and, in return, the adaptive measures are a hallmark in determining the composite vulnerability of climate warming (Ionescu et al. 2009 ).

Moreover, the dependence on imported food items, poor hygienic conditions, and inadequate health professionals are dominant aspects affecting the local terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity. Meanwhile, the greater dependency on ecosystem services and its products also makes a destination more fragile to become a prey of CC (Rizvi et al. 2015 ). Some significant non-climatic factors are important indicators of a particular ecosystem’s typical health and functioning, e.g., resource richness and abundance portray the picture of ecosystem stability. Similarly, the species abundance is also a productive tool that ensures that the ecosystem has a higher buffering capacity, which is terrific in terms of resiliency (Roscher et al. 2013 ).

Climate change impacts on the economic sector

Climate plays a significant role in overall productivity and economic growth. Due to its increasingly global existence and its effect on economic growth, CC has become one of the major concerns of both local and international environmental policymakers (Ferreira et al. 2020 ; Gleditsch 2021 ; Abbass et al. 2021b ; Lamperti et al. 2021 ). The adverse effects of CC on the overall productivity factor of the agricultural sector are therefore significant for understanding the creation of local adaptation policies and the composition of productive climate policy contracts. Previous studies on CC in the world have already forecasted its effects on the agricultural sector. Researchers have found that global CC will impact the agricultural sector in different world regions. The study of the impacts of CC on various agrarian activities in other demographic areas and the development of relative strategies to respond to effects has become a focal point for researchers (Chandioet al. 2020 ; Gleditsch 2021 ; Mosavi et al. 2020 ).

With the rapid growth of global warming since the 1980s, the temperature has started increasing globally, which resulted in the incredible transformation of rain and evaporation in the countries. The agricultural development of many countries has been reliant, delicate, and susceptible to CC for a long time, and it is on the development of agriculture total factor productivity (ATFP) influence different crops and yields of farmers (Alhassan 2021 ; Wu  2020 ).

Food security and natural disasters are increasing rapidly in the world. Several major climatic/natural disasters have impacted local crop production in the countries concerned. The effects of these natural disasters have been poorly controlled by the development of the economies and populations and may affect human life as well. One example is China, which is among the world’s most affected countries, vulnerable to natural disasters due to its large population, harsh environmental conditions, rapid CC, low environmental stability, and disaster power. According to the January 2016 statistical survey, China experienced an economic loss of 298.3 billion Yuan, and about 137 million Chinese people were severely affected by various natural disasters (Xie et al. 2018 ).

Mitigation and adaptation strategies of climate changes

Adaptation and mitigation are the crucial factors to address the response to CC (Jahanzad et al. 2020 ). Researchers define mitigation on climate changes, and on the other hand, adaptation directly impacts climate changes like floods. To some extent, mitigation reduces or moderates greenhouse gas emission, and it becomes a critical issue both economically and environmentally (Botzen et al. 2021 ; Jahanzad et al. 2020 ; Kongsager 2018 ; Smit et al. 2000 ; Vale et al. 2021 ; Usman et al. 2021 ; Verheyen 2005 ).

Researchers have deep concern about the adaptation and mitigation methodologies in sectoral and geographical contexts. Agriculture, industry, forestry, transport, and land use are the main sectors to adapt and mitigate policies(Kärkkäinen et al. 2020 ; Waheed et al. 2021 ). Adaptation and mitigation require particular concern both at the national and international levels. The world has faced a significant problem of climate change in the last decades, and adaptation to these effects is compulsory for economic and social development. To adapt and mitigate against CC, one should develop policies and strategies at the international level (Hussain et al. 2020 ). Figure  6 depicts the list of current studies on sectoral impacts of CC with adaptation and mitigation measures globally.

Sectoral impacts of climate change with adaptation and mitigation measures.

Conclusion and future perspectives

Specific socio-agricultural, socio-economic, and physical systems are the cornerstone of psychological well-being, and the alteration in these systems by CC will have disastrous impacts. Climate variability, alongside other anthropogenic and natural stressors, influences human and environmental health sustainability. Food security is another concerning scenario that may lead to compromised food quality, higher food prices, and inadequate food distribution systems. Global forests are challenged by different climatic factors such as storms, droughts, flash floods, and intense precipitation. On the other hand, their anthropogenic wiping is aggrandizing their existence. Undoubtedly, the vulnerability scale of the world’s regions differs; however, appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures can aid the decision-making bodies in developing effective policies to tackle its impacts. Presently, modern life on earth has tailored to consistent climatic patterns, and accordingly, adapting to such considerable variations is of paramount importance. Because the faster changes in climate will make it harder to survive and adjust, this globally-raising enigma calls for immediate attention at every scale ranging from elementary community level to international level. Still, much effort, research, and dedication are required, which is the most critical time. Some policy implications can help us to mitigate the consequences of climate change, especially the most affected sectors like the agriculture sector;

Warming might lengthen the season in frost-prone growing regions (temperate and arctic zones), allowing for longer-maturing seasonal cultivars with better yields (Pfadenhauer 2020 ; Bonacci 2019 ). Extending the planting season may allow additional crops each year; when warming leads to frequent warmer months highs over critical thresholds, a split season with a brief summer fallow may be conceivable for short-period crops such as wheat barley, cereals, and many other vegetable crops. The capacity to prolong the planting season in tropical and subtropical places where the harvest season is constrained by precipitation or agriculture farming occurs after the year may be more limited and dependent on how precipitation patterns vary (Wu et al. 2017 ).

The genetic component is comprehensive for many yields, but it is restricted like kiwi fruit for a few. Ali et al. ( 2017 ) investigated how new crops will react to climatic changes (also stated in Mall et al. 2017 ). Hot temperature, drought, insect resistance; salt tolerance; and overall crop production and product quality increases would all be advantageous (Akkari 2016 ). Genetic mapping and engineering can introduce a greater spectrum of features. The adoption of genetically altered cultivars has been slowed, particularly in the early forecasts owing to the complexity in ensuring features are expediently expressed throughout the entire plant, customer concerns, economic profitability, and regulatory impediments (Wirehn 2018 ; Davidson et al. 2016 ).

To get the full benefit of the CO 2 would certainly require additional nitrogen and other fertilizers. Nitrogen not consumed by the plants may be excreted into groundwater, discharged into water surface, or emitted from the land, soil nitrous oxide when large doses of fertilizer are sprayed. Increased nitrogen levels in groundwater sources have been related to human chronic illnesses and impact marine ecosystems. Cultivation, grain drying, and other field activities have all been examined in depth in the studies (Barua et al. 2018 ).

• The technological and socio-economic adaptation

The policy consequence of the causative conclusion is that as a source of alternative energy, biofuel production is one of the routes that explain oil price volatility separate from international macroeconomic factors. Even though biofuel production has just begun in a few sample nations, there is still a tremendous worldwide need for feedstock to satisfy industrial expansion in China and the USA, which explains the food price relationship to the global oil price. Essentially, oil-exporting countries may create incentives in their economies to increase food production. It may accomplish by giving farmers financing, seedlings, fertilizers, and farming equipment. Because of the declining global oil price and, as a result, their earnings from oil export, oil-producing nations may be unable to subsidize food imports even in the near term. As a result, these countries can boost the agricultural value chain for export. It may be accomplished through R&D and adding value to their food products to increase income by correcting exchange rate misalignment and adverse trade terms. These nations may also diversify their economies away from oil, as dependence on oil exports alone is no longer economically viable given the extreme volatility of global oil prices. Finally, resource-rich and oil-exporting countries can convert to non-food renewable energy sources such as solar, hydro, coal, wind, wave, and tidal energy. By doing so, both world food and oil supplies would be maintained rather than harmed.

IRENA’s modeling work shows that, if a comprehensive policy framework is in place, efforts toward decarbonizing the energy future will benefit economic activity, jobs (outweighing losses in the fossil fuel industry), and welfare. Countries with weak domestic supply chains and a large reliance on fossil fuel income, in particular, must undertake structural reforms to capitalize on the opportunities inherent in the energy transition. Governments continue to give major policy assistance to extract fossil fuels, including tax incentives, financing, direct infrastructure expenditures, exemptions from environmental regulations, and other measures. The majority of major oil and gas producing countries intend to increase output. Some countries intend to cut coal output, while others plan to maintain or expand it. While some nations are beginning to explore and execute policies aimed at a just and equitable transition away from fossil fuel production, these efforts have yet to impact major producing countries’ plans and goals. Verifiable and comparable data on fossil fuel output and assistance from governments and industries are critical to closing the production gap. Governments could increase openness by declaring their production intentions in their climate obligations under the Paris Agreement.

It is firmly believed that achieving the Paris Agreement commitments is doubtlful without undergoing renewable energy transition across the globe (Murshed 2020 ; Zhao et al. 2022 ). Policy instruments play the most important role in determining the degree of investment in renewable energy technology. This study examines the efficacy of various policy strategies in the renewable energy industry of multiple nations. Although its impact is more visible in established renewable energy markets, a renewable portfolio standard is also a useful policy instrument. The cost of producing renewable energy is still greater than other traditional energy sources. Furthermore, government incentives in the R&D sector can foster innovation in this field, resulting in cost reductions in the renewable energy industry. These nations may export their technologies and share their policy experiences by forming networks among their renewable energy-focused organizations. All policy measures aim to reduce production costs while increasing the proportion of renewables to a country’s energy system. Meanwhile, long-term contracts with renewable energy providers, government commitment and control, and the establishment of long-term goals can assist developing nations in deploying renewable energy technology in their energy sector.

Author contribution

KA: Writing the original manuscript, data collection, data analysis, Study design, Formal analysis, Visualization, Revised draft, Writing-review, and editing. MZQ: Writing the original manuscript, data collection, data analysis, Writing-review, and editing. HS: Contribution to the contextualization of the theme, Conceptualization, Validation, Supervision, literature review, Revised drapt, and writing review and editing. MM: Writing review and editing, compiling the literature review, language editing. HM: Writing review and editing, compiling the literature review, language editing. IY: Contribution to the contextualization of the theme, literature review, and writing review and editing.

Availability of data and material

Declarations.

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• Climate/Wx Topics

Various tools are available for plotting the different datasets we store often including the ability to do custom plots

Experimental climate and weather forecasts related to research at PSL are provided as a service

Maps and plots of the current climate and weather along with some datasets are available.

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Knowledge map and global trends in extreme weather research from 1980 to 2019: a bibliometric analysis

• Research Article
• Published: 03 May 2021
• Volume 28 , pages 49755–49773, ( 2021 )

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• Zhihong Li   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2086-9769 1 , 2 , 3 ,
• Liping Guo 1 , 3 ,
• Yongzhong Sha 2 , 3 &
• Kehu Yang 1 , 3  

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8 Citations

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There is an increasing number of studies focusing on extreme weather all over the world, but global trends and research topics related to extreme weather are still unclear. This study aimed to explore the current situation, research themes, and future trends in the field of extreme weather. Publications published from 1980 to 2019 were identified and retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection databases by using keywords on May 5, 2020. Excel 2019, VOSviewer, R, and CiteSpace were used for scientific analysis. The results showed that (1) the number of publications on extreme weather research has rapidly increased and expanded continually, shifting from core disciplines to interdisciplinary fields; (2) the International Journal of Climatology was the most productive journal, and climate and environment were the most popular subject categories. Most studies were carried out in the USA, China, Germany, and other nations, and the Chinese Academy of Sciences was the most productive institution; (3) the main research topics were summarized as (a) climate change; (b) variability; (c) trends; (d) rainfall; (e) temperature; and (f) maximum. At the same time, (4) keyword bursts analysis showed that the domain focused on changes to atmospheric rivers, the impacts of global nitrogen content on extreme weather, and the relationship between water quality, soil moisture content, and extreme weather. Based on the in-depth analysis of extreme weather research, this paper developed a further understanding of the developments in this field over the past 39 years and also provided a reference for future research.

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Acknowledgements

Thanks to Yongzhong Sha for his guidance on the methodology of this paper, which has not been published in journals before.

This work was supported by the Major projects of NSFC: Theoretical System, International Experience and Chinese Path of Evidence-based Social Sciences (grant no. 19ZDA142).

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Li, Z., Guo, L., Sha, Y. et al. Knowledge map and global trends in extreme weather research from 1980 to 2019: a bibliometric analysis. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28 , 49755–49773 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13825-6

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Research articles

Global warming decreases connectivity among coral populations

The authors develop a high-resolution model of coral larval dispersal for the southern Great Barrier Reef. They show that 2 °C of warming decreases larval dispersal distance and connectivity of reefs, hampering post-disturbance recovery and the potential spread of warm-adapted genes.

• Joana Figueiredo
• Christopher J. Thomas
• Emmanuel Hanert

Phenological mismatches between above- and belowground plant responses to climate warming

The authors conduct a meta-analysis to reveal mismatches in above- and belowground plant phenological responses to warming that differ by plant type (herbaceous versus woody). The work highlights a need for further research and consideration of under-represented belowground phenological changes.

• Huiying Liu
• Madhav P. Thakur

Near-term transition and longer-term physical climate risks of greenhouse gas emissions pathways

There is a balance in mitigation pathway design between economic transition cost and physical climate threats. This study provides a comprehensive framework to assess the near- and long-term risks under various warming scenarios globally and in particular regions.

• Ajay Gambhir
• Seth Monteith

Hysteresis of the intertropical convergence zone to CO 2 forcing

In idealized model experiments where CO 2 increases four-fold before returning to its original level, temperature and precipitation show almost linear responses to CO 2 forcing. In contrast, the response of the Intertropical Convergence Zone lags behind CO 2 changes, associated with delayed energy exchanges.

• Jong-Seong Kug
• Jongsoo Shin

Contextualizing cross-national patterns in household climate change adaptation

The context and motivation around adaptation are influenced by local culture and institutions. In the United States, China, Indonesia and the Netherlands, some factors (such as perceived costs) have similar influences on household adaptation to flooding, but others (such as flood experience) differ between countries.

• Brayton Noll
• Tatiana Filatova
• Alessandro Taberna

Ocean warming and accelerating Southern Ocean zonal flow

The remoteness and paucity of historic observations of the Southern Ocean limit understanding of the effects of climate change on circulation. Using observations, CMIP6 and eddy-resolving models, this Article shows that acceleration of its zonal flow emerged in recent decades as a result of uneven ocean warming.

• Jia-Rui Shi
• Lynne D. Talley

Cost and attainability of meeting stringent climate targets without overshoot

Current emissions scenarios include pathways that overshoot the temperature goals set out in the Paris Agreement and rely on future net negative emissions. Limiting overshoot would require near-term investment but would result in longer-term economic benefit.

• Keywan Riahi
• Christoph Bertram
• Behnam Zakeri

Net zero-emission pathways reduce the physical and economic risks of climate change

Mitigation pathways allowing for temperature overshoot often ignore the related climate and macroeconomic impacts. Net-zero pathways with limited overshoot could reduce low-probability high-consequence risks and economic loss.

• Laurent Drouet
• Valentina Bosetti
• Massimo Tavoni

Health co-benefits of climate change mitigation depend on strategic power plant retirements and pollution controls

Climate mitigation policies often provide health co-benefits. Analysis of individual power plants under future climate–energy policy scenarios shows reducing air pollution-related deaths does not automatically align with emission reduction policies and that policy design needs to consider public health.

• Guannan Geng
• Steven J. Davis

Climate action with revenue recycling has benefits for poverty, inequality and well-being

Climate policy analyses often ignore the possibility of progressive redistribution of carbon tax revenues and assume that mitigation cost will burden the poor in the short term. Integrated Assessment Model (IAM) estimation suggests such redistribution could reduce inequality, alleviate poverty and increase well-being globally.

• Mark Budolfson
• Francis Dennig
• Stéphane Zuber

Observed increases in extreme fire weather driven by atmospheric humidity and temperature

Climate change has led to increased fire activity in parts of the globe due to observed increases in fire weather extremes. These trends are driven predominantly by decreasing relative humidity and increasing temperature.

• Piyush Jain
• Dante Castellanos-Acuna
• Mike D. Flannigan

Climate and land-use changes reduce the benefits of terrestrial protected areas

The authors project future rates of temporal and spatial displacement of climate and land-use in protected areas (PAs), and show that more than one-quarter of the world’s PAs are highly threatened, with particular risk to PAs across tropical moist and grassland biomes.

• Ernest F. Asamoah
• Linda J. Beaumont
• Joseph M. Maina

Demand-side solutions to climate change mitigation consistent with high levels of well-being

Evaluation of mitigation actions often focuses on cost and overlooks the direct effects on well-being. This work shows demand-side measures have large mitigation potential and beneficial effects on well-being outcomes.

• Felix Creutzig
• Leila Niamir
• Diana Ürge-Vorsatz

A multi-model analysis of long-term emissions and warming implications of current mitigation efforts

Mitigation pathways tend to focus on an end temperature target and calculate how to keep within these bounds. This work uses seven integrated assessment models to consider current mitigation efforts and project likely temperature trajectories.

• Ida Sognnaes
• Glen P. Peters

Risk transfer policies and climate-induced immobility among smallholder farmers

Smallholder farmers will be impacted substantially by climate change and need to adapt. Agent-based modelling shows that interventions, particularly cash transfer paired with risk transfer mechanisms, lead to increased migration and uptake of cash crops, with higher income and lower inequality.

• Nicolas Choquette-Levy
• Matthias Wildemeersch
• Simon A. Levin

Climatic limit for agriculture in Brazil

Soybean and maize yields in the Amazon-Cerrado region of Brazil are dependent on water from rain. Warming and drying will make the climate less suitable for agricultural production; changes have already moved 28% of croplands out of their optimum climate space.

• Ludmila Rattis
• Paulo M. Brando
• Michael T. Coe

Anthropogenic emissions and urbanization increase risk of compound hot extremes in cities

Heat extremes threaten the health of urban residents with particularly strong impacts from day–night sustained heat. Observation and simulation data across eastern China show increasing risks of compound events attributed to anthropogenic emissions and urbanization.

A systematic global stocktake of evidence on human adaptation to climate change

Determining progress in adaptation to climate change is challenging, yet critical as climate change impacts increase. A stocktake of the scientific literature on implemented adaptation now shows that adaptation is mostly fragmented and incremental, with evidence lacking for its impact on reducing risk.

• Lea Berrang-Ford
• A. R. Siders
• Thelma Zulfawu Abu

Threatened salmon rely on a rare life history strategy in a warming landscape

Highlighting the importance of rare phenotypes in population persistence, the authors show that spring-run Chinook salmon late-migrant juveniles were critical for cohort success in drought and ocean heatwave years. Combined further warming and impassable dams threaten these late migrants’ survival.

• F. Cordoleani
• C. C. Phillis
• R. C. Johnson

Impact of high-speed rail on road traffic and greenhouse gas emissions

Intercity high-speed rail (HSR) can have large climate benefits with its high energy efficiency. This study explores the substitution effects of HSR on road traffic in China, which can be translated to an annual reduction of 14.76 million tons of CO 2 -equivalent emissions.

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Americans’ Extreme Weather Policy Views and Personal Experiences

Majorities who have experienced extreme weather see a link to climate change, table of contents.

• Views on extreme weather policies for places at high risk
• Policy views by party
• Personal experiences with extreme weather
• Climate change’s contribution to extreme weather
• Negative personal impacts of extreme weather
• Extreme weather’s impact, in their own words
• Acknowledgments
• Methodology

Pew Research Center conducted this study to understand Americans’ experiences with extreme weather and views on policies related to extreme weather. For this analysis, we surveyed 8,638 U.S. adults from May 13 to 19, 2024. Everyone who took part in the survey is a member of the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP), an online survey panel that is recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses. This way, nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other categories. Read more about the ATP’s methodology .

Here are the questions used for this report , along with responses, and its methodology .

The year 2023 brought record-breaking billion-dollar weather disasters , which took a tremendous financial and personal toll on Americans nationwide . As extreme weather continues to make headlines, a new Pew Research Center survey asks Americans what policies they support to address weather-related damage. We also ask people who recently lived through extreme weather events if they think climate change contributed to them, and how their lives were affected.

Key takeaways

Support for regulating construction, but not for bans or mandates. Most Americans (73%) want stricter building standards in areas vulnerable to extreme weather. But more aggressive steps, like requiring people to move out of these areas, are unpopular (just 13% approve).

Reports of extreme weather are common, though they vary by party. About seven-in-ten Americans say that in the past year, they’ve experienced at least one of five types of extreme weather we asked about: severe weather, like floods or intense storms; unusually hot weather; droughts; wildfires; or rising sea levels. Democrats are more likely to report these experiences than Republicans, across each type of extreme weather, though the size of these differences vary by type.

Climate change seen as a factor. Among those who say they’ve experienced any of these extreme weather events, a large majority say climate change contributed at least a little. Most Republicans – and nearly all Democrats – say climate change played a role.

Hardships caused by extreme weather are wide-ranging. Those who say they suffered negative impacts of extreme weather events describe a host of challenges, in their own words. These include property damage, elevated utility and insurance bills, disruptions to daily life, and anxiety.

Jump to read more about: Views on extreme weather policies for places at high risk | Personal experiences with extreme weather | Climate change’s contribution to extreme weather | Negative personal impacts of extreme weather

In response to extreme weather, home insurers are hiking premiums and governments are weighing construction restrictions in high-risk zones , among other proposals. Our survey finds some areas of consensus around policies that respondents like – and do not like – to deal with extreme weather.

Building regulations

Respondents like more oversight of construction in areas vulnerable to weather disasters but are much less supportive of outright building bans. When asked about government setting stricter building standards in these high-risk communities, 73% say this is a good idea. In contrast, just 37% say the same of measures to ban new construction.

Financial assistance

Americans have mixed views about government financial assistance, depending on the kind of support. More than half (57%) support aid for communities to rebuild after extreme weather events, with a far smaller share (20%) saying this is a bad idea. Views on providing support to pay rising home insurance costs are more divided, with 40% saying this is a good idea and 34% saying this is a bad idea. But when asked about government buying people’s homes in high-risk areas so they can purchase ones in lower-risk areas, more say this is a bad (38%) than good (25%) idea.

Required relocation

One policy idea that is unpopular among Americans is requiring people in high-risk areas to move out of their communities: Far larger shares say this is a bad rather than good idea (51% vs. 13%).

There’s general bipartisan support for policies to set higher building standards, and to help pay rebuilding costs. Majorities of both Democrats (79%) and Republicans (68%) share the view that stricter standards for new construction in high-risk areas are a good idea. Just 15% of Republicans and Republican-leaning independents and 6% of Democrats and Democratic leaners say this is a bad idea.

Similarly, across parties, when it comes to financial assistance to rebuild, larger shares say this is a good idea than bad. Half of Republicans say this is a good idea, compared with 26% who say it’s a bad idea. But the spread is much wider among Democrats, with 63% saying it’s a good idea and 16% saying it’s a bad idea.

Republicans and Democrats also are fairly united in their disapproval of requiring people to move out of high-risk areas. Very small shares of Republicans (10%) and Democrats (17%) say this is a good idea, while 61% of Republicans and 43% of Democrats say this is a bad idea.

Views differ somewhat by party when it comes to banning new construction. Larger shares of Democrats feel this is a good idea (44%) than a bad idea (20%). But among Republicans, these views are flipped, with 39% saying these bans are a bad idea and 31% saying they are a good idea.

There’s also a partisan split when it comes to helping people cover the rising cost of home insurance. Larger shares of Republicans say this is a bad idea (46%) than a good idea (30%). But for Democrats, 50% feel this is a good idea, versus 25% who say it’s a bad idea.

Related: Read our 2024 report How Americans View National, Local and Personal Energy Choices

About seven-in-ten Americans (72%) report that their local community experienced at least one of the five types of extreme weather events we asked about in the past 12 months: severe weather, like floods or intense storms; long stretches of unusually hot weather; droughts or water shortages; rising sea levels; or major wildfires.

Regional differences

We found pronounced regional differences in reported extreme weather. Half of Westerners and 54% of Southerners say they experienced stretches of unusually hot weather in the past year, compared with roughly a third each in the Northeast or Midwest. And major wildfires are reported by 38% of respondents in the West, but only by 8% in the Northeast and Midwest.

Partisan reporting

Democrats are much more likely than Republicans to say they’ve experienced extreme weather events. For example, 57% of Democrats say they’ve lived through long periods of unusually hot weather, compared with 34% of Republicans. These partisan gaps hold even among Democrats and Republicans who live in the same region.

According to the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, climate change is driving increased extreme weather . Among respondents who say they’ve lived through any of the extreme weather events we asked about, there is broad agreement that climate change is a contributor.

For instance, an overwhelming majority (91%) make this link for rising sea levels, with 57% saying climate change contributed a lot and 34% saying it contributed a little.

The same goes for long periods of unusually hot weather, with 61% saying climate change contributed a lot and 28% saying it contributed a little.

Views by party on role of climate change

Among those who report experiencing extreme weather in the past year, large shares in both parties say that climate change contributes to these events at least a little. But while nearly all Democrats make this connection for each of the five types of extreme weather we asked about, smaller shares of Republicans share this view.

For example, 97% of Democrats see climate change as a contributor to long periods of unusually hot weather, compared with 74% of Republicans.

Democrats also hold stronger convictions than Republicans about the relationship between climate change and extreme weather. For instance, 65% of Democrats say climate change contributed a lot to the severe weather, like floods or intense storms, that they experienced, and 30% say it contributed a little. In contrast, among Republicans, 23% say that climate change contributed a lot, while 39% say it contributed a little.

Extreme weather events can be devastating, straining household finances , damaging mental health and threatening lives . Among those who say they’ve experienced at least one of the extreme weather events asked about in our survey during the past 12 months, 70% say it had a negative impact on their own life. This includes 57% who say it had a minor negative impact and 13% who say it had a major negative impact.

We asked the respondents who said they’ve experienced negative impacts from extreme weather to answer an open-ended question about how these events negatively impacted their lives.

Here’s what they said:

Respondents whose jobs depend on reliable transportation or crop production mentioned how extreme weather events affected their livelihoods and income. One Midwestern woman in her 80s mentioned that “crops were not good so, of course, since we farm, our income was very low.”

“I’ve been earning income as a food delivery driver and, without AC, delivering during the day on a normally hot day was miserable. When it got over 90 degrees, I had to cut back to only delivering after the sun went down, which reduced the hours I was able to work by a lot.” –Woman, 40s, West

Personal property damage or construction costs were mentioned in 15% of responses, spanning damage to houses, cars and yards. An additional 19% spoke of community impacts, like road closures and power outages. One woman in her 70s from the South said, “In the summer of 2023, we had to water the foundation of our home to try to avoid foundation problems like many in our community have had.”

“Our house burned down in 2020 due to major wildfire and it is traumatic seeing it happen again and again to other people in the community and not knowing if it will happen again to us.” –Woman, 40s, West

In addition to the costs to repair personal property, 10% of respondents mentioned being hit with additional expenses like escalating utility bills or elevated home insurance premiums. One respondent noted that “the cost of home insurance, even with no claims, has tripled” (woman, 60s, South).

“Prices have skyrocketed on home insurance, water and electricity. The cost of living and working in our area has lowered our quality of life. Many locals are leaving.” –Woman, 60s, South

Lifestyle impacts were reported by 16%, with affected respondents mentioning being stuck inside due to heat or storms. One Southern woman in her 30s noted, “Major storms made it very dangerous for me [to] travel where I need to go, like to work and to medical appointments.” Relatedly, 5% said their work or schools were limited or even closed entirely.

“Every summer, we dread wildfire season. The smoke in recent years has been so bad that kids can’t go outside to play. We can’t do regular outdoor activities without using a mask.” –Man, 50s, West

Physical and mental health consequences of extreme weather were reported by 11% of affected respondents. They mentioned how hard it was to be stuck indoors and shared their anxiety about future weather disasters. One said, “It reduced my desire to get outside and exercise, which affected my (and my family’s) mood and physical health” (man, 40s, South).

“I live a block away from the ocean and have many concerns. Insurance prices are extremely high, and I worry all the time about flooding.” –Woman, 50s, Northeast

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40°C in August? A climate expert explains why Australia is ridiculously hot right now

Andrew King , The University of Melbourne

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Yaw Agyeman Boafo , University of Ghana

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Kelvin wave research may lead to more accurate forecasting of active hurricane periods

by Audrey Merket, National Center for Atmospheric Research

More accurately predicting periods of increased hurricane activity weeks in advance may become possible due to new research published this month published in the journal Monthly Weather Review .

The study, led by the U.S. National Science Foundation National Center for Atmospheric Research (NSF NCAR), shows that twice as many hurricanes form two days after the passing of large-scale atmospheric waves called Kelvin waves than in the days before. This finding may enable forecasters and emergency managers to anticipate clusters of hurricanes days to weeks in advance.

The research team used an innovative computer modeling approach to tease out the influence of Kelvin waves, which are large-scale atmospheric waves that can extend more than 1,000 miles in the atmosphere and shape global weather patterns.

"If weather forecasters can detect a Kelvin wave over the Pacific Ocean, for example, then they can anticipate that a few days after the wave there will be an uptick in hurricanes forming over the Atlantic," said NSF NCAR scientist Rosimar Rios-Berrios, the lead author of the paper. "This would help them communicate with emergency managers and local governments who could prepare for the likelihood of an active hurricane period and alert the public. This research has the potential to save many lives."

For decades, scientists have noticed that hurricanes form in clusters followed by several weeks of little to no hurricane activity. Several studies have suggested that Kelvin waves could be responsible for the surge in hurricanes, but scientists were unable to separate out other potential factors and prove Kelvin waves were responsible. To overcome this, Rios-Berrios and her colleagues used a novel combination of computer modeling tools to confirm that Kelvin waves do indeed boost hurricane formation.

The research team used a simulation called Aquaplanet that was run on NSF NCAR's Model for Prediction Across Scales (MPAS), which is a next-generation computer model that can capture fine-scale weather phenomena and global-scale atmospheric patterns simultaneously. Aquaplanet is a configuration that simulates a hypothetical world that behaves like Earth, but doesn't have land or seasons. The simplified world acts like a lab and makes it easier to isolate the effects of Kelvin waves on hurricane formation.

The scientists ran the simulations on the Cheyenne supercomputer at the NCAR-Wyoming Supercomputing Center.

To investigate the connection between Kelvin waves and hurricanes, the research team measured the number of days between hurricane formation and Kelvin wave crests. The measurements showed a significant peak after two days, with hurricane development being twice as likely. Because the aquaplanet simulations capture the physical process of hurricane formation, the results go beyond correlation and suggest that Kelvin waves are actually impacting hurricane formation.

The new study also emphasizes the importance of recent research that Rios-Berrios co-authored with NSF NCAR postdoc Quinton Lawton about the need to improve the ability of weather forecast models to simulate Kelvin waves.

"I started this research on Kelvin waves in 2017. It was a big project that took years to go from an idea to scientific results and really highlights why this type of research is so valuable," said Rios-Berrios. "There are still a lot of gaps in scientific knowledge about how hurricanes form and research like this helps us narrow where scientists should focus to better understand these powerful storms."

Journal information: Monthly Weather Review

Provided by National Center for Atmospheric Research

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• Tools & Guides

Solution Spotlight: Extreme Heat Affects Early Childhood Development and Health

Full text of the graphic, extreme heat affects early childhood development and health.

Personal experience, common sense, and scientific research all confirm that temperatures are rising across the U.S. and around the world. Record-setting heat waves are occurring more often and lasting longer than ever before. The dangers of excessive heat to older people and those with heart and lung conditions are becoming well known, but the effects of heat during pregnancy, infancy, and early childhood get less attention. These effects are significant, including low birth weight and prematurity, learning loss during the school years, heat-related illness, and even death. Excessive heat can impact young children’s development and health both in the moment and across the lifespan, which means that implementing strategies to reduce exposure to extreme heat benefits children, caregivers, and communities both now and into the future.

Practical, actionable solutions exist to prevent or minimize the effects of heat on children. Many communities, organizations, and nations have already begun to implement these solutions to good effect. All children should have the opportunity to thrive, and the examples that follow provide insight on how policymakers and community leaders can navigate rising temperatures to promote healthy development and lifelong health for all children.

Reducing the Impacts of Heat in the Places Where Children Learn

The Los Angeles Living Schoolyards Coalition, a group of non-profit organizations and academic researchers, helps create and advocate for green schoolyards across the Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD). The coalition recognizes that an unequal distribution of green space has been created across LAUSD as the result of historic policies. This includes the practice of redlining, a federally backed program that for nearly 40 years denied mortgage loans and other financial services for residents of areas that were marked on maps as “hazardous” for investment based on residents’ race or ethnicity.

Today, the coalition works to reverse historic environmental injustices in low-income communities of color by changing asphalt-heavy schoolyards into park-like green spaces complete with trees and nature-based play areas. The impacts of this strategy can be significant: on a hot sunny day, shaded surfaces remain close to air temperature, while paved surfaces can be 50–90°F hotter. Adding green space helps to ensure that children have cool, shady places to learn and play, and it reduces ambient air temperatures overal

The importance of reducing temperatures at school

• High temperatures are linked to slower cognitive function and reduced ability to concentrate. In New York City, for example, learning losses increased by up to 50% when school-day temperatures went above 100°F compared to days with temperatures above 90°F.
• Learning in a hot classroom can lead to both students and teachers feeling unmotivated, distracted, or irritable. And, if schools are uncomfortably hot, students or teachers may intentionally miss or avoid school.
• By reducing temperatures in school environments, including through adding cool, shady green spaces, we can help minimize the negative impacts of heat on learning.

Strategies for greening schoolyards

• Integrate the addition of green space into planned school projects. LAUSD has implemented a policy that whenever it repaves a schoolyard or removes a portable classroom, the amount of schoolyard asphalt must be reduced. Through strategies such as this, LAUSD aims for 30% of each schoolyard in the district to be green by 2035.
• Prioritize equity. Greening should start at schools recording the highest temperatures, which in Los Angeles, due to historic inequities, are predominately low-income schools and schools with a high percentage of students of color.
• Allocate state and district funding. Lawmakers in California and Los Angeles have allocated funding for building and/or maintaining green schoolyards.
• ncourage student involvement. The LA Living Schoolyards Coalition encourages student involvement in the creation of green spaces to foster a sense of belonging and uplift solutions that matter to students and their community.

Combatting Heat Islands

On a hot day, black asphalt roofs in New York City can reach 190°F, significantly hotter than the air. This fuels the heat island effect, where neighborhoods with a high concentration of asphalt and a lack of shade can experience significantly higher temperatures than surrounding areas. NYC CoolRoofs is a government–non-profit partnership working to combat this issue by painting roofs across the city with an energy-saving reflective coating. This initiative also comes with economic benefits. Job seekers are paid to install these roofs, earning experience and construction credentials as they do so, thanks to The HOPE Program, a non-profit that provides job training and career services. The effort significantly decreases the temperature of the roofs, reduces the internal temperatures of buildings by up to 30°F, and lowers the surrounding ambient air temperature. By reducing heat inside and outside, this program helps protect children from adverse exposure to heat and, by providing employment, it has the added benefit of boosting economic security across a community.

Community-Based Approaches to Navigating Heat in Rural Areas

Rural communities often have less access to cooling centers and medical care than urban areas, and many caregivers and children in rural settings have limited access to cooling systems in times of extreme heat. In the Sandhills region of North Carolina, The North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services (NCDHHS) Climate and Health Program partners with local health departments, community organizations, and others to reach populations most susceptible to the health effects of extreme heat, including children. For example, NCDHHS administers a heat health alert system in the Sandhills, alerting their partners when the heat index reaches dangerous levels. Community partners then share alerts through social media, e-mail distribution lists, and other known ways to reach their communities. NCDHHS also provides water bottles, fans, and cooling towels to partners in the Sandhills, which they distribute to communities where they are most needed. These materials include information about signs, symptoms, and prevention of heat-related illness. With a flexible, community-driven approach, this group is finding ways to mitigate the effects of heat on young children in rural North Carolina.

Prescribing Solar Energy Credits

During pregnancy and early childhood, high temperatures at home can impact development and lifelong health. But, for many families, paying utility bills to keep a home cool in hotter weather can be a challenge. In Massachusetts, medical professionals can write to a patient’s utility company stating that utilities must remain on due to a medical condition. Utility companies also cannot turn off electricity, gas, or water if a child under one year of age lives in the home. Now, leveraging both federal and state incentives for using solar energy, Boston Medical Center (BMC), a hospital that predominately serves underserved communities – including low-income families – is piloting a program that re-distributes solar energy credits from BMC’s power grid to patients, with patients receiving up to $50 off their energy bills per month ($600 per year). Eventually, the goal is to get other businesses in Boston to donate their energy credits to low-income communities as well. This program can provide short-term support to caregivers and children in Boston, while community leaders, researchers, and government officials examine long-term strategies for mitigating heat.

Related Topics: lifelong health , child development , extreme heat

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Reports & Working Papers : A World of Differences: The Science of Human Variation Can Drive Early Childhood Policies and Programs to Bigger Impacts

Reports & Working Papers : Extreme Heat Affects Early Childhood Development and Health

Podcasts : The Brain Architects Podcast: Extreme Heat & Early Childhood Development: A Discussion on Rising Temperatures and Strategies for Supporting Development and Lifelong Health

Extreme weight loss: Latest research shows best method

By health utah | posted - aug. 25, 2024 at 11:30 a.m., (health utah).

Estimated read time: 6-7 minutes

"To be honest, when Debbie came to the clinic, I was worried," explained Health Utah's Dr. Whit Roberts, DC. "At barely 5' 2" she weighed 360 lbs. The weight wasn't my concern, I had helped many, even heavier people, lose weight and regain their lives back. But Debbie was different.

"The problem of obesity in her family went back generations," he says. "As far back as she was aware, everyone struggled with weight - so much so that no one in her family had lived past the age of 57. They had all suffered heart attacks."

Roberts says his primary worry was not the genetic cause for her obesity, a family trait so strong that she believed no dieting could help. Instead he said that his main concern was the years of self deprecation and self doubt she experienced. He was concerned that she didn't really believe she could lose the weight after years of trying and failing.

Although there are 97 genetic markers that have been linked to obesity, recent research by the Genetic Investigation of ANthropometric Traits or GIANT consortium found that if a person had all 97, they would only have an average increase in BMI of 2.7%. In most cases that wouldn't even raise a patient's BMI 1 point.

In fact, the FTO gene, the gene most closely associated with obesity, is responsible for only a 0.34% difference in people's weight, according to a review of research cited in the National Library of Medicine.

"It's true that someone with these genes might have to work harder to maintain optimal weight. But the bigger issue is breaking the habits associated with failure and self-doubt," he says. "People like Debbie have beat themselves up for so many years that they often don't feel they are capable, worthy or important enough to make the effort."

Roberts says the sad reality is that oftentimes weight gain is not the fault of the individual even though that's where doctors most often lay the blame. The two main causes of obesity are actually the food industry and poor physical and mental health, he says.

Roberts references an article by Dr. Deborah Cohen, a physician and a senior natural scientist at the RAND Corporation, a nonprofit research organization. She writes that the food industry is primarily focused on profits rather than nutrition and that it deliberately takes advantage of traits that make people easily manipulated into making decisions that are not in their own best interests. She calls on the government to "Bring more regulation to the food environment, making sure that what is available is healthy, and that the contents of foods are transparent and easily understandable."

Roberts' opinion is also supported by studies reported in the National Library of Medicine in 2022.

As a result, Roberts says the weight loss specialists at Health Utah focus on the two causes mentioned above.

With Debbie, weight wasn't the only problem, Roberts explains. She was in extreme pain with fibromyalgia and neuropathy and she had very severe insomnia. She was exhausted all the time and she rated her energy a 1 on a scale of 1 to 10. She also struggled with knee and low back pain, depression, diarrhea and was prediabetic. She had a weakened immune system and she had pneumonia three times the year before she sought help from Health Utah.

The first step at Health Utah is to evaluate possible pathophysiological causes. Some of the more common are insulin resistance, hypoglycemia, leptin resistance, autoimmune disease, thyroid disorder, food sensitivities and adrenal fatigue.

Roberts and his team of doctors and other health professionals evaluate each case with a variety of tools such as their proprietary health survey, an extensive review of your health history, blood tests and a body scan.

Debbie tried for years to lose weight without addressing her underlying health issues. During a 12-week intensive program, Roberts and his team worked with Debbie to resolve the health issues preventing her effective weight loss.

The program included some dietary changes but no calorie counting. It included some supplementation to help restore homeostasis to her systems and to balance her hormones.

She also benefited from weekly coaching sessions that addressed life skills, nutritional counseling and accountability. A variety of therapies were prescribed to speed up weight loss, engage her subconscious mind and flush toxins.

Of course Debbie didn't lose 200 pounds in 12 weeks. Following the intensive program, she followed up with the team at Health Utah on a regular basis during the two years it took to lose the weight. She particularly liked a form of hypnotherapy performed at Health Utah which helped her focus on her journey back to optimal health and weight.

Health Utah's approach is unique. It is designed to provide the health, balance, knowledge, skills and habits you need to lose the weight and sustain the weight loss indefinitely. There is nothing like it anywhere.

The first step is to take the proprietary health survey, get the body scan and have a consultation with Roberts. It is just $59 and they encourage you to bring a friend or partner with you at no additional cost. The appointment will take around 90 minutes but the time is worth it. The insights you will gain in regard to your health are very valuable.

Call 801-609-3478 and tell them you read this article or click here to schedule your appointment.

The opinions and conclusions expressed in this article are the sponsor's own and do not reflect the views or opinions of KSL.com. This Site Does Not Provide Medical Advice. Any content on this Site, such as text, graphics, images, information obtained from, or contained on this Site are for informational purposes only. The content is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition. Never disregard professional medical advice or delay in seeking it because of something you have read on this site! The owner and operator of this site do not recommend or endorse any specific tests, physicians, products, procedures, opinions, or other information that may be mentioned on the site. Reliance on any information provided by the Operator, including their employees, contractors or others appearing on the Site at the invitation of the Operator, or other visitors to the Site is solely at your own risk. If you think you may have a medical emergency, call your doctor or 911 immediately.

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Deadly Typhoon Gaemi was intensified by climate change, World Weather Attribution study shows

Topic: Climate Change

Residents wade down a flooded road following heavy rains brought on by Typhoon Gaemi last month. ( Reuters: Lisa Marie David )

A devastating typhoon that tore through the Philippines, Taiwan and China last month , destroying infrastructure and leaving more than 100 people dead, was made significantly worse by human-induced climate change, according to a report by a group of climate scientists.

Releasing their report on Thursday just as another typhoon made landfall in Japan , the researchers said warmer seas were providing extra "fuel" for tropical storms in Asia, making them more dangerous.

Typhoon Gaemi swept across East Asia beginning on July 22, with more than 300 millimetres of rainfall falling on the Philippine capital, Manila, in just one day.

Wind speeds as high as 232 kilometres per hour drove storm waves that sank an oil tanker off the Philippine coast, as well as a cargo ship near Taiwan. Rain from Gaemi also caused fatal mudslides in the Chinese province of Hunan .

Typhoon Gaemi's wind speeds were about 14kph more intense and its rainfall was up to 14 per cent higher as a result of warmer sea temperatures, according to the report from World Weather Attribution, an alliance of researchers that analyse the relationship between climate change and extreme weather.

The organisation is a global leader in rapid attribution studies, a relatively new field of science that allows researchers to study the links between rising temperatures and specific extreme events.

"With global temperatures rising, we are already witnessing an increase in these ocean temperatures, and as a result, more powerful fuel is being made available for these tropical cyclones, increasing their intensity," Nadia Bloemendaal, researcher at the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute, told a briefing on Wednesday ahead of the report's release.

At the same briefing, Clair Barnes, a research associate at London's Grantham Institute, said typhoons were now 30 per cent more likely to occur compared to the pre-industrial age, and warned that they will become even more common and intense if global temperature increases reach 2 degrees Celsius.

East Asia is accustomed to extreme weather, but its flood-prevention infrastructure and emergency response planning are coming under increasing pressure, said Maja Vahlberg, a climate risk consultant with the Red Cross Red Crescent Climate Centre.

"As we continue to confront the realities of climate change, the challenge before us is becoming increasingly daunting," she said.

"We're now witnessing rainfall events so extreme that they surpass the capacities of some of our current systems.

"… Even our best efforts are being stretched to their limits."

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Method for landslide area detection based on efficientnetv2 with optical image converted from sar image using pix2pixhd with spatial attention mechanism in loss function.

1. Introduction

2. related research works, 3. proposed method.

4. Experiments

4.1. research background, 4.2. effect of pix2pixhd+ in comparison to the conventional pix2pixhd, 4.3. learned model creation, 4.4. landslide area detection, 5. discussion, 6. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Arai, K.; Nakaoka, Y.; Okumura, H. Method for Landslide Area Detection Based on EfficientNetV2 with Optical Image Converted from SAR Image Using pix2pixHD with Spatial Attention Mechanism in Loss Function. Information 2024 , 15 , 524. https://doi.org/10.3390/info15090524

Arai K, Nakaoka Y, Okumura H. Method for Landslide Area Detection Based on EfficientNetV2 with Optical Image Converted from SAR Image Using pix2pixHD with Spatial Attention Mechanism in Loss Function. Information . 2024; 15(9):524. https://doi.org/10.3390/info15090524

Arai, Kohei, Yushin Nakaoka, and Hiroshi Okumura. 2024. "Method for Landslide Area Detection Based on EfficientNetV2 with Optical Image Converted from SAR Image Using pix2pixHD with Spatial Attention Mechanism in Loss Function" Information 15, no. 9: 524. https://doi.org/10.3390/info15090524

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