literature review for rainwater harvesting

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A Systematic Literature Review on Rainwater Quality Influenced by Atmospheric Conditions with a Focus on Bangladesh

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• First Online: 15 November 2023
• Cite this conference paper

• Md. Arif Hossen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3635-3011 6 ,
• M. Salauddin   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5021-9236 7 &
• Mohammad A. H. Badsha   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2561-3685 8  

Part of the book series: Environmental Science and Engineering ((ESE))

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• Asia Conference on Environment and Sustainable Development

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Rainwater quality is often influenced by atmospheric conditions, roofing materials, meteorological parameters, and their interactions. Data and knowledge on rainwater quality are crucial for the sustainable management of water resources and safeguarding public health. Notwithstanding, while several studies investigated the potential application of rainwater harvesting, detailed investigations on rainwater quality are still limited in Bangladesh. This systematic literature review examines the source apportionment of physicochemical parameters and trace elements in pure rainwater, with a detailed focus on Bangladesh. For the reviewed literature, Mn, Fe, Cu, and Zn were primary heavy metals in rainwater, with their concentrations accounting for around 90% of the total. When examining the association among physicochemical parameters and trace metals, the reviewed works showed that nitrate, sulphate, and acidity of the rainwater samples showed a strong positive correlation with most trace metals, while NH 4 + and Cl – mostly showed negative correlations with the metals. The results of this review study highlighted that further research on the influence of atmospheric conditions on rainwater quality, the presence of heavy metals in rainwater and the relationship between air quality and rainwater composition are still needed to provide a better assessment of the suitability of rainwater as a potable water source for the studied area.

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Md. Arif Hossen

UCD Dooge Centre for Water Resources Research, UCD School of Civil Engineering, and, UCD Earth Institute, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

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Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, California Polytechnic State University (Cal Poly), San Luis Obispo, CA, USA

Mohammad A. H. Badsha

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Hossen, M.A., Salauddin, M., Badsha, M.A.H. (2023). A Systematic Literature Review on Rainwater Quality Influenced by Atmospheric Conditions with a Focus on Bangladesh. In: Ujikawa, K., Ishiwatari, M., Hullebusch, E.v. (eds) Environment and Sustainable Development. ACESD 2022. Environmental Science and Engineering. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4101-8_5

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Rainwater Harvesting: A Comprehensive Review of Literature

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Issues and Challenges in Rainwater Harvesting for Potential Potable and Non-Potable Water Production

This article reviews recent literatures on issues and challenges in rainwater harvesting and its potential application for potable and non-potable uses. Vast articles published between 1982 and 2019 were found, which some of them revealing concerns on various issues regarding the factors affecting the implementation of rainwater harvesting, in fulfilling the needs for rainwater as the alternative water resource. More research should be conducted in the future, in addressing the issues. While the practice of rainwater harvesting is back to track, the degree of its modern implementation varies greatly across the globe, and often relates with problems in maximizing the potential benefits and system efficacy. Future research should be more devoted to the understanding of technological and non-technological issues, as well as the factors effecting the quantity and quality of rainwater, to improve the rainwater harvesting system, therefore increase the system efficacy and community accept...

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Other resources:

• Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), FEMA Risk Map Nature-Based Solutions Guide 2021 (pdf)

Improves Water Quality. When stormwater falls on impervious surfaces such as asphalt and concrete, it can carry pollutants—including pathogens, nutrients, sediment, and heavy metals—to our streams, lakes, and beaches. Green infrastructure can be designed to capture and absorb stormwater and filter pollutants, which improves water quality. Green infrastructure can also help minimize the amount of stormwater that enters sewer systems, which can reduce combined sewer overflows in communities with a sewer system that carries both sewage and stormwater in the same pipe. View our EcoHealth Tool to see the relationship between a healthy urban ecosystem and water quality.

• Green Infrastructure Permitting and Enforcement Series Factsheet 6: Water Quality Standards (pdf)
• Greening CSO Plans: Planning and Modeling Green Infrastructure for Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO) Control (pdf)
• U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Urban Forest Systems and Green Stormwater Infrastructure (pdf)

Reduces Localized Flooding. Localized flooding can occur when the volume of stormwater runoff exceeds the available volume in storm sewer pipes. Localized flooding may become more frequent and intense by climate change and severe weather. Green infrastructure helps reduce localized flooding by capturing water from small, frequently occurring storm events and slowing down and temporarily storing stormwater. Green infrastructure is usually designed to absorb stormwater into the ground, further reducing the volume of stormwater entering pipes.

• Addressing Green Infrastructure Design Challenges in the Pittsburgh Region (pdf)
• Lessons Learned on Integrating Water Quality and Nature-based Approaches into Hazard Mitigations Plans webcast

Captures Water for Reuse. Communities can help conserve their potable water supply by installing green infrastructure that captures stormwater for reuse. Green infrastructure such as rainwater harvesting systems (e.g., rain barrels and cisterns) captures and stores rainwater so it can be used instead of valuable—and often scarce—potable water for things like outdoor irrigation or some indoor water needs.

• Municipal Handbook: Rainwater Harvesting Policies (pdf)
• Rainwater Harvesting: Conservation, Credit, Codes, and Cost Literature Review and Case Studies (pdf)
• Minnesota Stormwater Manual: Overview for Stormwater and Rainwater Harvest and Use/Reuse
• Water-Efficient Technology Opportunity: Rainwater Harvesting Systems

Improves Air Quality. Green infrastructure often includes vegetation as a key part of its design. Trees and other vegetation improve air quality by directly filtering air pollutants and fine particulate matter. Vegetation also slows down temperature-dependent reactions that contribute to smog (i.e., ozone pollution). Air pollutants can cause respiratory illnesses, including chest pain, coughing, and aggravation of asthma. The increased shade and evaporative cooling (evapotranspiration) provided by trees and vegetation also lowers ambient temperatures and surface temperatures of impervious areas, which can reduce the amount of electricity needed for cooling and thus reduce pollutant emissions from power plants. These benefits are especially important to communities designated by EPA as nonattainment areas for the 8-hour ozone standard due to ground-level ozone and fine particulates in the ambient air.

• Exploring the Link Between Green Infrastructure and Air Quality
• Estimating the Environmental Effects of Green Roofs: A Case Study in Kansas City, Missouri
• Recommendations for Constructing Roadside Vegetation Barriers to Improve Near-Road Air Quality
• U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Tree and Forest Effects on Air Quality and Human Health in the United States

Reduces Heat Island Effect. Developed areas typically have a lot of surfaces that absorb, retain, and then release heat, which leads to these areas having higher temperatures compared to more rural, undeveloped areas. This is called the heat island effect. Trees, green roofs, and vegetation can help reduce heat island effects by shading surfaces, deflecting radiation from the sun, and releasing moisture into the atmosphere. Shaded surfaces, for example, may be 20 to 45 °F (11 to 25 °C) cooler than the peak temperatures of unshaded materials. 1 For more details, visit our Green Infrastructure Heat Island climate resiliency webpage .

• Heat Island Compendium
• Heat Island Effect webpage

Improves Habitat Connectivity. The vegetation in green infrastructure, even small patches like green roofs, provides habitat for birds, mammals, amphibians, reptiles, and insects—especially pollinators. By improving water quality, green infrastructure also improves habitat both in streams and in larger waterways and other connected aquatic areas. Interconnected parks, urban forests, habitat patches, and conserved areas help facilitate wildlife movement and connect wildlife populations between habitats, sustaining populations that cannot survive in reduced or isolated habitat. For example, learn how the state of New Jersey is partnering with dozens of organizations to achieve habitat connectivity across their state by providing land use analysis tools and guidance for habitat protection, restoration, and wildlife passage systems.

• Green Infrastructure and Wildlife Conservation
• Going Wild: The Conservation Co-benefits of Green Infrastructure webcast
• Urban Habits, Green Roofs and Facades: A Habitat Template Approach (pdf)

1 Akbari, H., D. Kurn, et al. (1997). Peak power and cooling energy savings of shade trees. Energy and Buildings 25: 139–148.

• Green Infrastructure Home
• Types of Green Infrastructure
• Environmental Benefits
• Green Infrastructure Planning, Design, & Implementation
• Using Green Infrastructure to Address Clean Water Act Requirements
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Towards sustainable water use in two university student residences: a case study.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. location and characteristics of the residences, 2.2. water consumption characterization.

• i : each of the existing devices;
• V : flushing volume (L);
• f : daily frequence of use.
• Q : water flow (L);
• f : daily frequence of use;
• t : duration of each use (minutes).

2.3. Water Use Efficiency Measure Impact

• ρ : water density ( ρ = 1000 kg/m 3 ).
• C p : specific heat of water ( C p = 4187 J/kg × K).
• V : consumption of hot water/resident (L).
• Δ T : Denotes the difference between the cold water inlet temperature and the hot water outlet temperature (°C). According to the long-term climate series [ 40 ], the average annual water temperature in Bragança was estimated at 12.3 °C. The water heating system raised the temperature to 60 °C, resulting in a temperature variation of 47.7 °C.
• η : efficiency of the heating system, which in the present study is 2.97 for both residences.
• V a : volume of rainwater in the reference period (L);
• C : runoff coefficient (dimensionless);
• P : average precipitation accumulated at the site (mm);
• A : catchment area (roof) (m 2 );
• η f : hydraulic filtering efficiency (dimensionless).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. characterization of water devices and their use patterns, 3.1.1. showers, 3.1.2. flushing cisterns, 3.1.3. urinals, 3.1.4. taps.

• WC basin single-lever taps: These taps had an average flow of 13.29 L/min, and the estimated number of total uses was around three times/day/user; each use is on for approximately 0.18 min (Residence I). In Residence II, these taps presented an average flow of 14 L/min, and the estimated number of total uses was around 3.4 times/day/user; each use was on for approximately 0.23 min. The water category efficiency of these devices is E.
• Timed flow tap: The average flow is 3.63 L/min in both residences. Each use is on for approximately 7.45 s, and it is used 0.33 and 0.38 times/day/user in the male and female residences, respectively. Their water category efficiency is A.
• Kitchen tap: The average flow is 10.6 L/min, and it is used for 6.67 min/day/user (Residence I). In Residence II, the average flow is 9.9 L/min, and it is used for 2.20 min/day/user. Their water category efficiency is C.

3.1.5. Washing Machines

3.1.6. build cleaning, 3.2. water use characterization, 3.3. implementation of water-saving measures, 4. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

• This survey was conducted on all users of Residences I and II, with specific questions addressed to the cleaning staff.
• 2. Age: _________
• 3. How many days a week do you stay at the Residence? ___________
• 4. How often do you wash your hands at the Residence?
• 4.1. How many times do you usually press the push button of the tap? (in the case of the timer taps) _______
• 4.2. How long does the tap remain open while you use the single lever taps? _______
• How often do you use the toilet at the Residence? _______
• 5.1. Indicate the number of flushes each time you use the toilet: _______
• 5.2. What “button” do you usually flush when you use the toilet?
• - The larger “button” (6 L) ⎕
• - The smaller “button” (3 L) ⎕
• - Both “buttons” at the same time ⎕
• - The single “button” (if there is only one “button”) ⎕
• 6. Please estimate the number of times you shower each week: _______________
• 6.1. Give an estimate, in minutes, of the time it takes to shower: _______________
• 7. Do you usually use the washing machine at the Residence?
• 7.1. If you answered “Yes”, please estimate the number of times you use the washing machine each week: _______________ and which washing programs you use ____________________________________________________________.
• 8. Do you usually use the kitchen tap at the Residence?
• 8.1. If you answered “Yes,” please estimate the amount of time, in minutes, that you use the tap each day: _______________
• 9. Do you cook your lunch and/or dinner while you are at the Residence?
• 9.1. If “Yes”, how often do you cook? _______________
• 9.2. If “Yes”, is the stove gas or electric? _____________
• 10. Have you ever detected a leak in the residence water networks?
• 10.1. If “Yes,” please describe what happened. ________________________________________
• 1. How many times a day is the floor washed? ___________
• 2. How is the residence floor washed?
• 2.1. With a mop? _______ How many times a day? _______
• 2.2. What is the capacity of the bucket? _______
• 2.3. How many times do you fill the bucket? _______

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Share and Cite

Antão-Geraldes, A.M.; Ohara, G.; Afonso, M.J.; Albuquerque, A.; Silva, F. Towards Sustainable Water Use in Two University Student Residences: A Case Study. Appl. Sci. 2024 , 14 , 7559. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177559

Antão-Geraldes AM, Ohara G, Afonso MJ, Albuquerque A, Silva F. Towards Sustainable Water Use in Two University Student Residences: A Case Study. Applied Sciences . 2024; 14(17):7559. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177559

Antão-Geraldes, Ana M., Gabriel Ohara, Maria João Afonso, Antonio Albuquerque, and Flora Silva. 2024. "Towards Sustainable Water Use in Two University Student Residences: A Case Study" Applied Sciences 14, no. 17: 7559. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177559

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