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More than two hours of homework may be counterproductive, research suggests.

A Stanford education researcher found that too much homework can negatively affect kids, especially their lives away from school, where family, friends and activities matter.   "Our findings on the effects of homework challenge the traditional assumption that homework is inherently good," wrote Denise Pope , a senior lecturer at the Stanford Graduate School of Education and a co-author of a study published in the Journal of Experimental Education .   The researchers used survey data to examine perceptions about homework, student well-being and behavioral engagement in a sample of 4,317 students from 10 high-performing high schools in upper-middle-class California communities. Along with the survey data, Pope and her colleagues used open-ended answers to explore the students' views on homework.   Median household income exceeded $90,000 in these communities, and 93 percent of the students went on to college, either two-year or four-year.   Students in these schools average about 3.1 hours of homework each night.   "The findings address how current homework practices in privileged, high-performing schools sustain students' advantage in competitive climates yet hinder learning, full engagement and well-being," Pope wrote.   Pope and her colleagues found that too much homework can diminish its effectiveness and even be counterproductive. They cite prior research indicating that homework benefits plateau at about two hours per night, and that 90 minutes to two and a half hours is optimal for high school.   Their study found that too much homework is associated with:   • Greater stress : 56 percent of the students considered homework a primary source of stress, according to the survey data. Forty-three percent viewed tests as a primary stressor, while 33 percent put the pressure to get good grades in that category. Less than 1 percent of the students said homework was not a stressor.   • Reductions in health : In their open-ended answers, many students said their homework load led to sleep deprivation and other health problems. The researchers asked students whether they experienced health issues such as headaches, exhaustion, sleep deprivation, weight loss and stomach problems.   • Less time for friends, family and extracurricular pursuits : Both the survey data and student responses indicate that spending too much time on homework meant that students were "not meeting their developmental needs or cultivating other critical life skills," according to the researchers. Students were more likely to drop activities, not see friends or family, and not pursue hobbies they enjoy.   A balancing act   The results offer empirical evidence that many students struggle to find balance between homework, extracurricular activities and social time, the researchers said. Many students felt forced or obligated to choose homework over developing other talents or skills.   Also, there was no relationship between the time spent on homework and how much the student enjoyed it. The research quoted students as saying they often do homework they see as "pointless" or "mindless" in order to keep their grades up.   "This kind of busy work, by its very nature, discourages learning and instead promotes doing homework simply to get points," said Pope, who is also a co-founder of Challenge Success , a nonprofit organization affiliated with the GSE that conducts research and works with schools and parents to improve students' educational experiences..   Pope said the research calls into question the value of assigning large amounts of homework in high-performing schools. Homework should not be simply assigned as a routine practice, she said.   "Rather, any homework assigned should have a purpose and benefit, and it should be designed to cultivate learning and development," wrote Pope.   High-performing paradox   In places where students attend high-performing schools, too much homework can reduce their time to foster skills in the area of personal responsibility, the researchers concluded. "Young people are spending more time alone," they wrote, "which means less time for family and fewer opportunities to engage in their communities."   Student perspectives   The researchers say that while their open-ended or "self-reporting" methodology to gauge student concerns about homework may have limitations – some might regard it as an opportunity for "typical adolescent complaining" – it was important to learn firsthand what the students believe.   The paper was co-authored by Mollie Galloway from Lewis and Clark College and Jerusha Conner from Villanova University.

Clifton B. Parker is a writer at the Stanford News Service .

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Does Homework Really Help Students Learn?

A conversation with a Wheelock researcher, a BU student, and a fourth-grade teacher

“Quality homework is engaging and relevant to kids’ lives,” says Wheelock’s Janine Bempechat. “It gives them autonomy and engages them in the community and with their families. In some subjects, like math, worksheets can be very helpful. It has to do with the value of practicing over and over.” Photo by iStock/Glenn Cook Photography

Do your homework.

If only it were that simple.

Educators have debated the merits of homework since the late 19th century. In recent years, amid concerns of some parents and teachers that children are being stressed out by too much homework, things have only gotten more fraught.

“Homework is complicated,” says developmental psychologist Janine Bempechat, a Wheelock College of Education & Human Development clinical professor. The author of the essay “ The Case for (Quality) Homework—Why It Improves Learning and How Parents Can Help ” in the winter 2019 issue of Education Next , Bempechat has studied how the debate about homework is influencing teacher preparation, parent and student beliefs about learning, and school policies.

She worries especially about socioeconomically disadvantaged students from low-performing schools who, according to research by Bempechat and others, get little or no homework.

BU Today  sat down with Bempechat and Erin Bruce (Wheelock’17,’18), a new fourth-grade teacher at a suburban Boston school, and future teacher freshman Emma Ardizzone (Wheelock) to talk about what quality homework looks like, how it can help children learn, and how schools can equip teachers to design it, evaluate it, and facilitate parents’ role in it.

BU Today: Parents and educators who are against homework in elementary school say there is no research definitively linking it to academic performance for kids in the early grades. You’ve said that they’re missing the point.

Bempechat : I think teachers assign homework in elementary school as a way to help kids develop skills they’ll need when they’re older—to begin to instill a sense of responsibility and to learn planning and organizational skills. That’s what I think is the greatest value of homework—in cultivating beliefs about learning and skills associated with academic success. If we greatly reduce or eliminate homework in elementary school, we deprive kids and parents of opportunities to instill these important learning habits and skills.

We do know that beginning in late middle school, and continuing through high school, there is a strong and positive correlation between homework completion and academic success.

That’s what I think is the greatest value of homework—in cultivating beliefs about learning and skills associated with academic success.

You talk about the importance of quality homework. What is that?

Quality homework is engaging and relevant to kids’ lives. It gives them autonomy and engages them in the community and with their families. In some subjects, like math, worksheets can be very helpful. It has to do with the value of practicing over and over.

What are your concerns about homework and low-income children?

The argument that some people make—that homework “punishes the poor” because lower-income parents may not be as well-equipped as affluent parents to help their children with homework—is very troubling to me. There are no parents who don’t care about their children’s learning. Parents don’t actually have to help with homework completion in order for kids to do well. They can help in other ways—by helping children organize a study space, providing snacks, being there as a support, helping children work in groups with siblings or friends.

Isn’t the discussion about getting rid of homework happening mostly in affluent communities?

Yes, and the stories we hear of kids being stressed out from too much homework—four or five hours of homework a night—are real. That’s problematic for physical and mental health and overall well-being. But the research shows that higher-income students get a lot more homework than lower-income kids.

Teachers may not have as high expectations for lower-income children. Schools should bear responsibility for providing supports for kids to be able to get their homework done—after-school clubs, community support, peer group support. It does kids a disservice when our expectations are lower for them.

The conversation around homework is to some extent a social class and social justice issue. If we eliminate homework for all children because affluent children have too much, we’re really doing a disservice to low-income children. They need the challenge, and every student can rise to the challenge with enough supports in place.

What did you learn by studying how education schools are preparing future teachers to handle homework?

My colleague, Margarita Jimenez-Silva, at the University of California, Davis, School of Education, and I interviewed faculty members at education schools, as well as supervising teachers, to find out how students are being prepared. And it seemed that they weren’t. There didn’t seem to be any readings on the research, or conversations on what high-quality homework is and how to design it.

Erin, what kind of training did you get in handling homework?

Bruce : I had phenomenal professors at Wheelock, but homework just didn’t come up. I did lots of student teaching. I’ve been in classrooms where the teachers didn’t assign any homework, and I’ve been in rooms where they assigned hours of homework a night. But I never even considered homework as something that was my decision. I just thought it was something I’d pull out of a book and it’d be done.

I started giving homework on the first night of school this year. My first assignment was to go home and draw a picture of the room where you do your homework. I want to know if it’s at a table and if there are chairs around it and if mom’s cooking dinner while you’re doing homework.

The second night I asked them to talk to a grown-up about how are you going to be able to get your homework done during the week. The kids really enjoyed it. There’s a running joke that I’m teaching life skills.

Friday nights, I read all my kids’ responses to me on their homework from the week and it’s wonderful. They pour their hearts out. It’s like we’re having a conversation on my couch Friday night.

It matters to know that the teacher cares about you and that what you think matters to the teacher. Homework is a vehicle to connect home and school…for parents to know teachers are welcoming to them and their families.

Bempechat : I can’t imagine that most new teachers would have the intuition Erin had in designing homework the way she did.

Ardizzone : Conversations with kids about homework, feeling you’re being listened to—that’s such a big part of wanting to do homework….I grew up in Westchester County. It was a pretty demanding school district. My junior year English teacher—I loved her—she would give us feedback, have meetings with all of us. She’d say, “If you have any questions, if you have anything you want to talk about, you can talk to me, here are my office hours.” It felt like she actually cared.

Bempechat : It matters to know that the teacher cares about you and that what you think matters to the teacher. Homework is a vehicle to connect home and school…for parents to know teachers are welcoming to them and their families.

Ardizzone : But can’t it lead to parents being overbearing and too involved in their children’s lives as students?

Bempechat : There’s good help and there’s bad help. The bad help is what you’re describing—when parents hover inappropriately, when they micromanage, when they see their children confused and struggling and tell them what to do.

Good help is when parents recognize there’s a struggle going on and instead ask informative questions: “Where do you think you went wrong?” They give hints, or pointers, rather than saying, “You missed this,” or “You didn’t read that.”

Bruce : I hope something comes of this. I hope BU or Wheelock can think of some way to make this a more pressing issue. As a first-year teacher, it was not something I even thought about on the first day of school—until a kid raised his hand and said, “Do we have homework?” It would have been wonderful if I’d had a plan from day one.

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Sara Rimer A journalist for more than three decades, Sara Rimer worked at the Miami Herald , Washington Post and, for 26 years, the New York Times , where she was the New England bureau chief, and a national reporter covering education, aging, immigration, and other social justice issues. Her stories on the death penalty’s inequities were nominated for a Pulitzer Prize and cited in the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision outlawing the execution of people with intellectual disabilities. Her journalism honors include Columbia University’s Meyer Berger award for in-depth human interest reporting. She holds a BA degree in American Studies from the University of Michigan. Profile

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There are 81 comments on Does Homework Really Help Students Learn?

Insightful! The values about homework in elementary schools are well aligned with my intuition as a parent.

when i finish my work i do my homework and i sometimes forget what to do because i did not get enough sleep

same omg it does not help me it is stressful and if I have it in more than one class I hate it.

Same I think my parent wants to help me but, she doesn’t care if I get bad grades so I just try my best and my grades are great.

I think that last question about Good help from parents is not know to all parents, we do as our parents did or how we best think it can be done, so maybe coaching parents or giving them resources on how to help with homework would be very beneficial for the parent on how to help and for the teacher to have consistency and improve homework results, and of course for the child. I do see how homework helps reaffirm the knowledge obtained in the classroom, I also have the ability to see progress and it is a time I share with my kids

The answer to the headline question is a no-brainer – a more pressing problem is why there is a difference in how students from different cultures succeed. Perfect example is the student population at BU – why is there a majority population of Asian students and only about 3% black students at BU? In fact at some universities there are law suits by Asians to stop discrimination and quotas against admitting Asian students because the real truth is that as a group they are demonstrating better qualifications for admittance, while at the same time there are quotas and reduced requirements for black students to boost their portion of the student population because as a group they do more poorly in meeting admissions standards – and it is not about the Benjamins. The real problem is that in our PC society no one has the gazuntas to explore this issue as it may reveal that all people are not created equal after all. Or is it just environmental cultural differences??????

I get you have a concern about the issue but that is not even what the point of this article is about. If you have an issue please take this to the site we have and only post your opinion about the actual topic

This is not at all what the article is talking about.

This literally has nothing to do with the article brought up. You should really take your opinions somewhere else before you speak about something that doesn’t make sense.

we have the same name

so they have the same name what of it?

lol you tell her

totally agree

What does that have to do with homework, that is not what the article talks about AT ALL.

Yes, I think homework plays an important role in the development of student life. Through homework, students have to face challenges on a daily basis and they try to solve them quickly.I am an intense online tutor at 24x7homeworkhelp and I give homework to my students at that level in which they handle it easily.

More than two-thirds of students said they used alcohol and drugs, primarily marijuana, to cope with stress.

You know what’s funny? I got this assignment to write an argument for homework about homework and this article was really helpful and understandable, and I also agree with this article’s point of view.

I also got the same task as you! I was looking for some good resources and I found this! I really found this article useful and easy to understand, just like you! ^^

i think that homework is the best thing that a child can have on the school because it help them with their thinking and memory.

I am a child myself and i think homework is a terrific pass time because i can’t play video games during the week. It also helps me set goals.

Homework is not harmful ,but it will if there is too much

I feel like, from a minors point of view that we shouldn’t get homework. Not only is the homework stressful, but it takes us away from relaxing and being social. For example, me and my friends was supposed to hang at the mall last week but we had to postpone it since we all had some sort of work to do. Our minds shouldn’t be focused on finishing an assignment that in realty, doesn’t matter. I completely understand that we should have homework. I have to write a paper on the unimportance of homework so thanks.

homework isn’t that bad

Are you a student? if not then i don’t really think you know how much and how severe todays homework really is

i am a student and i do not enjoy homework because i practice my sport 4 out of the five days we have school for 4 hours and that’s not even counting the commute time or the fact i still have to shower and eat dinner when i get home. its draining!

i totally agree with you. these people are such boomers

why just why

they do make a really good point, i think that there should be a limit though. hours and hours of homework can be really stressful, and the extra work isn’t making a difference to our learning, but i do believe homework should be optional and extra credit. that would make it for students to not have the leaning stress of a assignment and if you have a low grade you you can catch up.

Studies show that homework improves student achievement in terms of improved grades, test results, and the likelihood to attend college. Research published in the High School Journal indicates that students who spent between 31 and 90 minutes each day on homework “scored about 40 points higher on the SAT-Mathematics subtest than their peers, who reported spending no time on homework each day, on average.” On both standardized tests and grades, students in classes that were assigned homework outperformed 69% of students who didn’t have homework. A majority of studies on homework’s impact – 64% in one meta-study and 72% in another – showed that take home assignments were effective at improving academic achievement. Research by the Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) concluded that increased homework led to better GPAs and higher probability of college attendance for high school boys. In fact, boys who attended college did more than three hours of additional homework per week in high school.

So how are your measuring student achievement? That’s the real question. The argument that doing homework is simply a tool for teaching responsibility isn’t enough for me. We can teach responsibility in a number of ways. Also the poor argument that parents don’t need to help with homework, and that students can do it on their own, is wishful thinking at best. It completely ignores neurodiverse students. Students in poverty aren’t magically going to find a space to do homework, a friend’s or siblings to help them do it, and snacks to eat. I feel like the author of this piece has never set foot in a classroom of students.

THIS. This article is pathetic coming from a university. So intellectually dishonest, refusing to address the havoc of capitalism and poverty plays on academic success in life. How can they in one sentence use poor kids in an argument and never once address that poor children have access to damn near 0 of the resources affluent kids have? Draw me a picture and let’s talk about feelings lmao what a joke is that gonna put food in their belly so they can have the calories to burn in order to use their brain to study? What about quiet their 7 other siblings that they share a single bedroom with for hours? Is it gonna force the single mom to magically be at home and at work at the same time to cook food while you study and be there to throw an encouraging word?

Also the “parents don’t need to be a parent and be able to guide their kid at all academically they just need to exist in the next room” is wild. Its one thing if a parent straight up is not equipped but to say kids can just figured it out is…. wow coming from an educator What’s next the teacher doesn’t need to teach cause the kid can just follow the packet and figure it out?

Well then get a tutor right? Oh wait you are poor only affluent kids can afford a tutor for their hours of homework a day were they on average have none of the worries a poor child does. Does this address that poor children are more likely to also suffer abuse and mental illness? Like mentioned what about kids that can’t learn or comprehend the forced standardized way? Just let em fail? These children regularly are not in “special education”(some of those are a joke in their own and full of neglect and abuse) programs cause most aren’t even acknowledged as having disabilities or disorders.

But yes all and all those pesky poor kids just aren’t being worked hard enough lol pretty sure poor children’s existence just in childhood is more work, stress, and responsibility alone than an affluent child’s entire life cycle. Love they never once talked about the quality of education in the classroom being so bad between the poor and affluent it can qualify as segregation, just basically blamed poor people for being lazy, good job capitalism for failing us once again!

why the hell?

you should feel bad for saying this, this article can be helpful for people who has to write a essay about it

This is more of a political rant than it is about homework

I know a teacher who has told his students their homework is to find something they are interested in, pursue it and then come share what they learn. The student responses are quite compelling. One girl taught herself German so she could talk to her grandfather. One boy did a research project on Nelson Mandela because the teacher had mentioned him in class. Another boy, a both on the autism spectrum, fixed his family’s computer. The list goes on. This is fourth grade. I think students are highly motivated to learn, when we step aside and encourage them.

The whole point of homework is to give the students a chance to use the material that they have been presented with in class. If they never have the opportunity to use that information, and discover that it is actually useful, it will be in one ear and out the other. As a science teacher, it is critical that the students are challenged to use the material they have been presented with, which gives them the opportunity to actually think about it rather than regurgitate “facts”. Well designed homework forces the student to think conceptually, as opposed to regurgitation, which is never a pretty sight

Wonderful discussion. and yes, homework helps in learning and building skills in students.

not true it just causes kids to stress

Homework can be both beneficial and unuseful, if you will. There are students who are gifted in all subjects in school and ones with disabilities. Why should the students who are gifted get the lucky break, whereas the people who have disabilities suffer? The people who were born with this “gift” go through school with ease whereas people with disabilities struggle with the work given to them. I speak from experience because I am one of those students: the ones with disabilities. Homework doesn’t benefit “us”, it only tears us down and put us in an abyss of confusion and stress and hopelessness because we can’t learn as fast as others. Or we can’t handle the amount of work given whereas the gifted students go through it with ease. It just brings us down and makes us feel lost; because no mater what, it feels like we are destined to fail. It feels like we weren’t “cut out” for success.

homework does help

here is the thing though, if a child is shoved in the face with a whole ton of homework that isn’t really even considered homework it is assignments, it’s not helpful. the teacher should make homework more of a fun learning experience rather than something that is dreaded

This article was wonderful, I am going to ask my teachers about extra, or at all giving homework.

I agree. Especially when you have homework before an exam. Which is distasteful as you’ll need that time to study. It doesn’t make any sense, nor does us doing homework really matters as It’s just facts thrown at us.

Homework is too severe and is just too much for students, schools need to decrease the amount of homework. When teachers assign homework they forget that the students have other classes that give them the same amount of homework each day. Students need to work on social skills and life skills.

I disagree.

Beyond achievement, proponents of homework argue that it can have many other beneficial effects. They claim it can help students develop good study habits so they are ready to grow as their cognitive capacities mature. It can help students recognize that learning can occur at home as well as at school. Homework can foster independent learning and responsible character traits. And it can give parents an opportunity to see what’s going on at school and let them express positive attitudes toward achievement.

Homework is helpful because homework helps us by teaching us how to learn a specific topic.

As a student myself, I can say that I have almost never gotten the full 9 hours of recommended sleep time, because of homework. (Now I’m writing an essay on it in the middle of the night D=)

I am a 10 year old kid doing a report about “Is homework good or bad” for homework before i was going to do homework is bad but the sources from this site changed my mind!

Homeowkr is god for stusenrs

I agree with hunter because homework can be so stressful especially with this whole covid thing no one has time for homework and every one just wants to get back to there normal lives it is especially stressful when you go on a 2 week vaca 3 weeks into the new school year and and then less then a week after you come back from the vaca you are out for over a month because of covid and you have no way to get the assignment done and turned in

As great as homework is said to be in the is article, I feel like the viewpoint of the students was left out. Every where I go on the internet researching about this topic it almost always has interviews from teachers, professors, and the like. However isn’t that a little biased? Of course teachers are going to be for homework, they’re not the ones that have to stay up past midnight completing the homework from not just one class, but all of them. I just feel like this site is one-sided and you should include what the students of today think of spending four hours every night completing 6-8 classes worth of work.

Are we talking about homework or practice? Those are two very different things and can result in different outcomes.

Homework is a graded assignment. I do not know of research showing the benefits of graded assignments going home.

Practice; however, can be extremely beneficial, especially if there is some sort of feedback (not a grade but feedback). That feedback can come from the teacher, another student or even an automated grading program.

As a former band director, I assigned daily practice. I never once thought it would be appropriate for me to require the students to turn in a recording of their practice for me to grade. Instead, I had in-class assignments/assessments that were graded and directly related to the practice assigned.

I would really like to read articles on “homework” that truly distinguish between the two.

oof i feel bad good luck!

thank you guys for the artical because I have to finish an assingment. yes i did cite it but just thanks

thx for the article guys.

Homework is good

I think homework is helpful AND harmful. Sometimes u can’t get sleep bc of homework but it helps u practice for school too so idk.

I agree with this Article. And does anyone know when this was published. I would like to know.

It was published FEb 19, 2019.

Studies have shown that homework improved student achievement in terms of improved grades, test results, and the likelihood to attend college.

i think homework can help kids but at the same time not help kids

This article is so out of touch with majority of homes it would be laughable if it wasn’t so incredibly sad.

There is no value to homework all it does is add stress to already stressed homes. Parents or adults magically having the time or energy to shepherd kids through homework is dome sort of 1950’s fantasy.

What lala land do these teachers live in?

Homework gives noting to the kid

Homework is Bad

homework is bad.

why do kids even have homework?

Comments are closed.

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How to Do Homework: 15 Expert Tips and Tricks

Coursework/GPA

Everyone struggles with homework sometimes, but if getting your homework done has become a chronic issue for you, then you may need a little extra help. That’s why we’ve written this article all about how to do homework. Once you’re finished reading it, you’ll know how to do homework (and have tons of new ways to motivate yourself to do homework)!

We’ve broken this article down into a few major sections. You’ll find:

• A diagnostic test to help you figure out why you’re struggling with homework
• A discussion of the four major homework problems students face, along with expert tips for addressing them
• A bonus section with tips for how to do homework fast

By the end of this article, you’ll be prepared to tackle whatever homework assignments your teachers throw at you .

So let’s get started!

How to Do Homework: Figure Out Your Struggles 

Sometimes it feels like everything is standing between you and getting your homework done. But the truth is, most people only have one or two major roadblocks that are keeping them from getting their homework done well and on time. 

The best way to figure out how to get motivated to do homework starts with pinpointing the issues that are affecting your ability to get your assignments done. That’s why we’ve developed a short quiz to help you identify the areas where you’re struggling. 

Take the quiz below and record your answers on your phone or on a scrap piece of paper. Keep in mind there are no wrong answers! 

1. You’ve just been assigned an essay in your English class that’s due at the end of the week. What’s the first thing you do?

A. Keep it in mind, even though you won’t start it until the day before it’s due  B. Open up your planner. You’ve got to figure out when you’ll write your paper since you have band practice, a speech tournament, and your little sister’s dance recital this week, too.  C. Groan out loud. Another essay? You could barely get yourself to write the last one!  D. Start thinking about your essay topic, which makes you think about your art project that’s due the same day, which reminds you that your favorite artist might have just posted to Instagram...so you better check your feed right now. 

2. Your mom asked you to pick up your room before she gets home from work. You’ve just gotten home from school. You decide you’ll tackle your chores: 

A. Five minutes before your mom walks through the front door. As long as it gets done, who cares when you start?  B. As soon as you get home from your shift at the local grocery store.  C. After you give yourself a 15-minute pep talk about how you need to get to work.  D. You won’t get it done. Between texts from your friends, trying to watch your favorite Netflix show, and playing with your dog, you just lost track of time! 

3. You’ve signed up to wash dogs at the Humane Society to help earn money for your senior class trip. You: 

A. Show up ten minutes late. You put off leaving your house until the last minute, then got stuck in unexpected traffic on the way to the shelter.  B. Have to call and cancel at the last minute. You forgot you’d already agreed to babysit your cousin and bake cupcakes for tomorrow’s bake sale.  C. Actually arrive fifteen minutes early with extra brushes and bandanas you picked up at the store. You’re passionate about animals, so you’re excited to help out! D. Show up on time, but only get three dogs washed. You couldn’t help it: you just kept getting distracted by how cute they were!

4. You have an hour of downtime, so you decide you’re going to watch an episode of The Great British Baking Show. You: 

A. Scroll through your social media feeds for twenty minutes before hitting play, which means you’re not able to finish the whole episode. Ugh! You really wanted to see who was sent home!  B. Watch fifteen minutes until you remember you’re supposed to pick up your sister from band practice before heading to your part-time job. No GBBO for you!  C. You finish one episode, then decide to watch another even though you’ve got SAT studying to do. It’s just more fun to watch people make scones.  D. Start the episode, but only catch bits and pieces of it because you’re reading Twitter, cleaning out your backpack, and eating a snack at the same time.

5. Your teacher asks you to stay after class because you’ve missed turning in two homework assignments in a row. When she asks you what’s wrong, you say: 

A. You planned to do your assignments during lunch, but you ran out of time. You decided it would be better to turn in nothing at all than submit unfinished work.  B. You really wanted to get the assignments done, but between your extracurriculars, family commitments, and your part-time job, your homework fell through the cracks.  C. You have a hard time psyching yourself to tackle the assignments. You just can’t seem to find the motivation to work on them once you get home.  D. You tried to do them, but you had a hard time focusing. By the time you realized you hadn’t gotten anything done, it was already time to turn them in. 

Like we said earlier, there are no right or wrong answers to this quiz (though your results will be better if you answered as honestly as possible). Here’s how your answers break down: 

• If your answers were mostly As, then your biggest struggle with doing homework is procrastination. 
• If your answers were mostly Bs, then your biggest struggle with doing homework is time management. 
• If your answers were mostly Cs, then your biggest struggle with doing homework is motivation. 
• If your answers were mostly Ds, then your biggest struggle with doing homework is getting distracted. 

Now that you’ve identified why you’re having a hard time getting your homework done, we can help you figure out how to fix it! Scroll down to find your core problem area to learn more about how you can start to address it. 

And one more thing: you’re really struggling with homework, it’s a good idea to read through every section below. You may find some additional tips that will help make homework less intimidating. 

How to Do Homework When You’re a Procrastinator  

Merriam Webster defines “procrastinate” as “to put off intentionally and habitually.” In other words, procrastination is when you choose to do something at the last minute on a regular basis. If you’ve ever found yourself pulling an all-nighter, trying to finish an assignment between periods, or sprinting to turn in a paper minutes before a deadline, you’ve experienced the effects of procrastination. 

If you’re a chronic procrastinator, you’re in good company. In fact, one study found that 70% to 95% of undergraduate students procrastinate when it comes to doing their homework. Unfortunately, procrastination can negatively impact your grades. Researchers have found that procrastination can lower your grade on an assignment by as much as five points ...which might not sound serious until you realize that can mean the difference between a B- and a C+. 

Procrastination can also negatively affect your health by increasing your stress levels , which can lead to other health conditions like insomnia, a weakened immune system, and even heart conditions. Getting a handle on procrastination can not only improve your grades, it can make you feel better, too! 

The big thing to understand about procrastination is that it’s not the result of laziness. Laziness is defined as being “disinclined to activity or exertion.” In other words, being lazy is all about doing nothing. But a s this Psychology Today article explains , procrastinators don’t put things off because they don’t want to work. Instead, procrastinators tend to postpone tasks they don’t want to do in favor of tasks that they perceive as either more important or more fun. Put another way, procrastinators want to do things...as long as it’s not their homework! 

3 Tips f or Conquering Procrastination 

Because putting off doing homework is a common problem, there are lots of good tactics for addressing procrastination. Keep reading for our three expert tips that will get your homework habits back on track in no time. 

#1: Create a Reward System

Like we mentioned earlier, procrastination happens when you prioritize other activities over getting your homework done. Many times, this happens because homework...well, just isn’t enjoyable. But you can add some fun back into the process by rewarding yourself for getting your work done. 

Here’s what we mean: let’s say you decide that every time you get your homework done before the day it’s due, you’ll give yourself a point. For every five points you earn, you’ll treat yourself to your favorite dessert: a chocolate cupcake! Now you have an extra (delicious!) incentive to motivate you to leave procrastination in the dust. 

If you’re not into cupcakes, don’t worry. Your reward can be anything that motivates you . Maybe it’s hanging out with your best friend or an extra ten minutes of video game time. As long as you’re choosing something that makes homework worth doing, you’ll be successful. 

#2: Have a Homework Accountability Partner 

If you’re having trouble getting yourself to start your homework ahead of time, it may be a good idea to call in reinforcements . Find a friend or classmate you can trust and explain to them that you’re trying to change your homework habits. Ask them if they’d be willing to text you to make sure you’re doing your homework and check in with you once a week to see if you’re meeting your anti-procrastination goals. 

Sharing your goals can make them feel more real, and an accountability partner can help hold you responsible for your decisions. For example, let’s say you’re tempted to put off your science lab write-up until the morning before it’s due. But you know that your accountability partner is going to text you about it tomorrow...and you don’t want to fess up that you haven’t started your assignment. A homework accountability partner can give you the extra support and incentive you need to keep your homework habits on track. 

#3: Create Your Own Due Dates 

If you’re a life-long procrastinator, you might find that changing the habit is harder than you expected. In that case, you might try using procrastination to your advantage! If you just can’t seem to stop doing your work at the last minute, try setting your own due dates for assignments that range from a day to a week before the assignment is actually due. 

Here’s what we mean. Let’s say you have a math worksheet that’s been assigned on Tuesday and is due on Friday. In your planner, you can write down the due date as Thursday instead. You may still put off your homework assignment until the last minute...but in this case, the “last minute” is a day before the assignment’s real due date . This little hack can trick your procrastination-addicted brain into planning ahead! 

If you feel like Kevin Hart in this meme, then our tips for doing homework when you're busy are for you. 

How to Do Homework When You’re too Busy

If you’re aiming to go to a top-tier college , you’re going to have a full plate. Because college admissions is getting more competitive, it’s important that you’re maintaining your grades , studying hard for your standardized tests , and participating in extracurriculars so your application stands out. A packed schedule can get even more hectic once you add family obligations or a part-time job to the mix. 

If you feel like you’re being pulled in a million directions at once, you’re not alone. Recent research has found that stress—and more severe stress-related conditions like anxiety and depression— are a major problem for high school students . In fact, one study from the American Psychological Association found that during the school year, students’ stress levels are higher than those of the adults around them. 

For students, homework is a major contributor to their overall stress levels . Many high schoolers have multiple hours of homework every night , and figuring out how to fit it into an already-packed schedule can seem impossible. 

3 Tips for Fitting Homework Into Your Busy Schedule

While it might feel like you have literally no time left in your schedule, there are still ways to make sure you’re able to get your homework done and meet your other commitments. Here are our expert homework tips for even the busiest of students. 

#1: Make a Prioritized To-Do List 

You probably already have a to-do list to keep yourself on track. The next step is to prioritize the items on your to-do list so you can see what items need your attention right away. 

Here’s how it works: at the beginning of each day, sit down and make a list of all the items you need to get done before you go to bed. This includes your homework, but it should also take into account any practices, chores, events, or job shifts you may have. Once you get everything listed out, it’s time to prioritize them using the labels A, B, and C. Here’s what those labels mean:

• A Tasks : tasks that have to get done—like showing up at work or turning in an assignment—get an A. 
• B Tasks : these are tasks that you would like to get done by the end of the day but aren’t as time sensitive. For example, studying for a test you have next week could be a B-level task. It’s still important, but it doesn’t have to be done right away.
• C Tasks: these are tasks that aren’t very important and/or have no real consequences if you don’t get them done immediately. For instance, if you’re hoping to clean out your closet but it’s not an assigned chore from your parents, you could label that to-do item with a C.

Prioritizing your to-do list helps you visualize which items need your immediate attention, and which items you can leave for later. A prioritized to-do list ensures that you’re spending your time efficiently and effectively, which helps you make room in your schedule for homework. So even though you might really want to start making decorations for Homecoming (a B task), you’ll know that finishing your reading log (an A task) is more important. 

#2: Use a Planner With Time Labels

Your planner is probably packed with notes, events, and assignments already. (And if you’re not using a planner, it’s time to start!) But planners can do more for you than just remind you when an assignment is due. If you’re using a planner with time labels, it can help you visualize how you need to spend your day.

A planner with time labels breaks your day down into chunks, and you assign tasks to each chunk of time. For example, you can make a note of your class schedule with assignments, block out time to study, and make sure you know when you need to be at practice. Once you know which tasks take priority, you can add them to any empty spaces in your day. 

Planning out how you spend your time not only helps you use it wisely, it can help you feel less overwhelmed, too . We’re big fans of planners that include a task list ( like this one ) or have room for notes ( like this one ). 

#3: Set Reminders on Your Phone 

If you need a little extra nudge to make sure you’re getting your homework done on time, it’s a good idea to set some reminders on your phone. You don’t need a fancy app, either. You can use your alarm app to have it go off at specific times throughout the day to remind you to do your homework. This works especially well if you have a set homework time scheduled. So if you’ve decided you’re doing homework at 6:00 pm, you can set an alarm to remind you to bust out your books and get to work. 

If you use your phone as your planner, you may have the option to add alerts, emails, or notifications to scheduled events . Many calendar apps, including the one that comes with your phone, have built-in reminders that you can customize to meet your needs. So if you block off time to do your homework from 4:30 to 6:00 pm, you can set a reminder that will pop up on your phone when it’s time to get started. 

This dog isn't judging your lack of motivation...but your teacher might. Keep reading for tips to help you motivate yourself to do your homework.

How to Do Homework When You’re Unmotivated 

At first glance, it may seem like procrastination and being unmotivated are the same thing. After all, both of these issues usually result in you putting off your homework until the very last minute. 

But there’s one key difference: many procrastinators are working, they’re just prioritizing work differently. They know they’re going to start their homework...they’re just going to do it later. 

Conversely, people who are unmotivated to do homework just can’t find the willpower to tackle their assignments. Procrastinators know they’ll at least attempt the homework at the last minute, whereas people who are unmotivated struggle with convincing themselves to do it at a ll. For procrastinators, the stress comes from the inevitable time crunch. For unmotivated people, the stress comes from trying to convince themselves to do something they don’t want to do in the first place. 

Here are some common reasons students are unmotivated in doing homework : 

• Assignments are too easy, too hard, or seemingly pointless 
• Students aren’t interested in (or passionate about) the subject matter
• Students are intimidated by the work and/or feels like they don’t understand the assignment 
• Homework isn’t fun, and students would rather spend their time on things that they enjoy 

To sum it up: people who lack motivation to do their homework are more likely to not do it at all, or to spend more time worrying about doing their homework than...well, actually doing it.

3 Tips for How to Get Motivated to Do Homework

The key to getting homework done when you’re unmotivated is to figure out what does motivate you, then apply those things to homework. It sounds tricky...but it’s pretty simple once you get the hang of it! Here are our three expert tips for motivating yourself to do your homework. 

#1: Use Incremental Incentives

When you’re not motivated, it’s important to give yourself small rewards to stay focused on finishing the task at hand. The trick is to keep the incentives small and to reward yourself often. For example, maybe you’re reading a good book in your free time. For every ten minutes you spend on your homework, you get to read five pages of your book. Like we mentioned earlier, make sure you’re choosing a reward that works for you! 

So why does this technique work? Using small rewards more often allows you to experience small wins for getting your work done. Every time you make it to one of your tiny reward points, you get to celebrate your success, which gives your brain a boost of dopamine . Dopamine helps you stay motivated and also creates a feeling of satisfaction when you complete your homework !  

#2: Form a Homework Group 

If you’re having trouble motivating yourself, it’s okay to turn to others for support. Creating a homework group can help with this. Bring together a group of your friends or classmates, and pick one time a week where you meet and work on homework together. You don’t have to be in the same class, or even taking the same subjects— the goal is to encourage one another to start (and finish!) your assignments. 

Another added benefit of a homework group is that you can help one another if you’re struggling to understand the material covered in your classes. This is especially helpful if your lack of motivation comes from being intimidated by your assignments. Asking your friends for help may feel less scary than talking to your teacher...and once you get a handle on the material, your homework may become less frightening, too. 

#3: Change Up Your Environment 

If you find that you’re totally unmotivated, it may help if you find a new place to do your homework. For example, if you’ve been struggling to get your homework done at home, try spending an extra hour in the library after school instead. The change of scenery can limit your distractions and give you the energy you need to get your work done. 

If you’re stuck doing homework at home, you can still use this tip. For instance, maybe you’ve always done your homework sitting on your bed. Try relocating somewhere else, like your kitchen table, for a few weeks. You may find that setting up a new “homework spot” in your house gives you a motivational lift and helps you get your work done. 

Social media can be a huge problem when it comes to doing homework. We have advice for helping you unplug and regain focus.

How to Do Homework When You’re Easily Distracted

We live in an always-on world, and there are tons of things clamoring for our attention. From friends and family to pop culture and social media, it seems like there’s always something (or someone!) distracting us from the things we need to do.

The 24/7 world we live in has affected our ability to focus on tasks for prolonged periods of time. Research has shown that over the past decade, an average person’s attention span has gone from 12 seconds to eight seconds . And when we do lose focus, i t takes people a long time to get back on task . One study found that it can take as long as 23 minutes to get back to work once we’ve been distracte d. No wonder it can take hours to get your homework done! 

3 Tips to Improve Your Focus

If you have a hard time focusing when you’re doing your homework, it’s a good idea to try and eliminate as many distractions as possible. Here are three expert tips for blocking out the noise so you can focus on getting your homework done. 

#1: Create a Distraction-Free Environment

Pick a place where you’ll do your homework every day, and make it as distraction-free as possible. Try to find a location where there won’t be tons of noise, and limit your access to screens while you’re doing your homework. Put together a focus-oriented playlist (or choose one on your favorite streaming service), and put your headphones on while you work. 

You may find that other people, like your friends and family, are your biggest distraction. If that’s the case, try setting up some homework boundaries. Let them know when you’ll be working on homework every day, and ask them if they’ll help you keep a quiet environment. They’ll be happy to lend a hand! 

#2: Limit Your Access to Technology 

We know, we know...this tip isn’t fun, but it does work. For homework that doesn’t require a computer, like handouts or worksheets, it’s best to put all your technology away . Turn off your television, put your phone and laptop in your backpack, and silence notifications on any wearable tech you may be sporting. If you listen to music while you work, that’s fine...but make sure you have a playlist set up so you’re not shuffling through songs once you get started on your homework. 

If your homework requires your laptop or tablet, it can be harder to limit your access to distractions. But it’s not impossible! T here are apps you can download that will block certain websites while you’re working so that you’re not tempted to scroll through Twitter or check your Facebook feed. Silence notifications and text messages on your computer, and don’t open your email account unless you absolutely have to. And if you don’t need access to the internet to complete your assignments, turn off your WiFi. Cutting out the online chatter is a great way to make sure you’re getting your homework done. 

#3: Set a Timer (the Pomodoro Technique)

Have you ever heard of the Pomodoro technique ? It’s a productivity hack that uses a timer to help you focus!

Here’s how it works: first, set a timer for 25 minutes. This is going to be your work time. During this 25 minutes, all you can do is work on whatever homework assignment you have in front of you. No email, no text messaging, no phone calls—just homework. When that timer goes off, you get to take a 5 minute break. Every time you go through one of these cycles, it’s called a “pomodoro.” For every four pomodoros you complete, you can take a longer break of 15 to 30 minutes.

The pomodoro technique works through a combination of boundary setting and rewards. First, it gives you a finite amount of time to focus, so you know that you only have to work really hard for 25 minutes. Once you’ve done that, you’re rewarded with a short break where you can do whatever you want. Additionally, tracking how many pomodoros you complete can help you see how long you’re really working on your homework. (Once you start using our focus tips, you may find it doesn’t take as long as you thought!)

Two Bonus Tips for How to Do Homework Fast

Even if you’re doing everything right, there will be times when you just need to get your homework done as fast as possible. (Why do teachers always have projects due in the same week? The world may never know.)

The problem with speeding through homework is that it’s easy to make mistakes. While turning in an assignment is always better than not submitting anything at all, you want to make sure that you’re not compromising quality for speed. Simply put, the goal is to get your homework done quickly and still make a good grade on the assignment! 

Here are our two bonus tips for getting a decent grade on your homework assignments , even when you’re in a time crunch. 

#1: Do the Easy Parts First 

This is especially true if you’re working on a handout with multiple questions. Before you start working on the assignment, read through all the questions and problems. As you do, make a mark beside the questions you think are “easy” to answer . 

Once you’ve finished going through the whole assignment, you can answer these questions first. Getting the easy questions out of the way as quickly as possible lets you spend more time on the trickier portions of your homework, which will maximize your assignment grade. 

(Quick note: this is also a good strategy to use on timed assignments and tests, like the SAT and the ACT !) 

#2: Pay Attention in Class 

Homework gets a lot easier when you’re actively learning the material. Teachers aren’t giving you homework because they’re mean or trying to ruin your weekend... it’s because they want you to really understand the course material. Homework is designed to reinforce what you’re already learning in class so you’ll be ready to tackle harder concepts later.

When you pay attention in class, ask questions, and take good notes, you’re absorbing the information you’ll need to succeed on your homework assignments. (You’re stuck in class anyway, so you might as well make the most of it!) Not only will paying attention in class make your homework less confusing, it will also help it go much faster, too.

What’s Next?

If you’re looking to improve your productivity beyond homework, a good place to begin is with time management. After all, we only have so much time in a day...so it’s important to get the most out of it! To get you started, check out this list of the 12 best time management techniques that you can start using today.

You may have read this article because homework struggles have been affecting your GPA. Now that you’re on the path to homework success, it’s time to start being proactive about raising your grades. This article teaches you everything you need to know about raising your GPA so you can

Now you know how to get motivated to do homework...but what about your study habits? Studying is just as critical to getting good grades, and ultimately getting into a good college . We can teach you how to study bette r in high school. (We’ve also got tons of resources to help you study for your ACT and SAT exams , too!)

These recommendations are based solely on our knowledge and experience. If you purchase an item through one of our links, PrepScholar may receive a commission.

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Is Homework Valuable or Not? Try Looking at Quality Instead

• Share article

Is there an end in sight to the “homework wars?”

Homework is one those never-ending debates in K-12 circles that re-emerges every few years, bringing with it a new collection of headlines. Usually they bemoan how much homework students have, or highlight districts and even states that have sought to cap or eliminate homework .

Now, a new analysis from the Center for American Progress suggests a more fruitful way of thinking about this problem. Maybe, it suggests, what we should be doing is looking at what students are routinely being asked to do in take-home assignments, how well that homework supports their learning goals (or doesn’t), and make changes from there.

The analysis of nearly 200 pieces of homework concludes that much of what students are asked to do aligns to the Common Core State Standards—a testament to how pervasive the standards are in the U.S. education system, even though many states have tweaked, renamed, or replaced them. However, most of the homework embodied basic, procedural components of the standards, rather than the more difficult skills—such as analyzing or extending their knowledge to new problems.

“We were surprised by the degree of alignment. And we were also surprised by the degree that the homework was rote, and how much some of this stuff felt like Sudoku,” said Ulrich Boser, a senior fellow at CAP. “It made the homework debate make a lot more sense about why parents are frustrated.”

It is also similar to the findings of groups like the Education Trust, which have found that classwork tends to be aligned to state standards, but not all that rigorous.

Collecting Homework Samples

The CAP analysis appears to be one of the first studies to look at homework rigor using a national survey lens. Many studies of homework are based on one school or one district’s assignments, which obviously limits their applicability. Attempts to synthesize all this research have led to some hard-to-parse conclusions. One of the most cited studies concludes there’s some connection for grades 6-12 between homework and test scores, but less so for elementary students, and less of an impact on actual grades.

Another problem is that students’ experiences with homework seem to vary so dramatically: A Brookings Institution report based on survey data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress concluded that, while on average students aren’t overburdened by homework, a subset of students do appear to get hours upon hours.

The CAP analysis, instead, was based on getting a sample of parents from across the country to send in examples of their children’s homework. The researchers used MTurk, a crowdsourcing service offered by Amazon.com to recruit parents. Of the 372 parents who responded, the researchers got a pile of 187 useable assignments. Next, John Smithson, an emeritus researcher at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, had teams grade them on a taxonomy looking at both the content and the “cognitive demand,” or difficulty, of the work. The index fell on a 1 to 10 scale, with a score 4 to 6 range considered as “good” alignment.

The results? On average, math assignments fell within this range, while the ELA ones were slightly weaker, in the 3 to 5 range.

But the real eye-opening graphic is this one, which shows that by far the assignments were mostly low-level.

This makes some logical sense when you think about it. Just as with teaching and testing, it is much easier to write homework assignments prioritizing basic arithmetic drills and fill-in-the-blank vocabulary words than ones that get students to “prove” or “generalize” some tenet. (I suspect prepackaged curricula, too, probably lean more toward rote stuff than cognitively demanding exercises.)

Here’s another explanation: Many teachers believe homework should be for practicing known content, not learning something new. This is partially to help close the “homework gap” that surfaces because some students can access parent help or help via technology, while other students can’t. It’s possible that teachers are purposefully giving lower-level work to their students to take home for this reason.

To be sure, Boser said, it’s not that all lower-level work is intrinsically bad: Memorization does have a place in learning. But assignments like color-in-the-blank and word searches are probably just a waste of students’ time. “Homework assignments,” the study says, “should be thought-provoking.”

Study Limitations

The study does come with some significant limitations, so you must use caution in discussing its results. The surveyed population differs from the population at large, overrepresenting mothers over fathers and parents of K-5 students, and underrepresenting black parents. Also, the majority of the assignments the parents sent in came from the elementary grades.

The report makes suggestions on how districts can strategically improve the quality of their homework, rather than deciding to chuck it out altogether.

One is to is to audit homework assignments to make sure they’re actually useful at building some of the more difficult skills. Another is to extend the “curriculum revolution” of the last decade, which has focused more attention on the quality and alignment of textbooks and materials, to homework. A third is to use appropriate technology so students can access out-of-school supports for challenging homework.

A version of this news article first appeared in the Curriculum Matters blog.

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Is homework a necessary evil?

After decades of debate, researchers are still sorting out the truth about homework’s pros and cons. One point they can agree on: Quality assignments matter.

By Kirsten Weir

March 2016, Vol 47, No. 3

Print version: page 36

• Schools and Classrooms

Homework battles have raged for decades. For as long as kids have been whining about doing their homework, parents and education reformers have complained that homework's benefits are dubious. Meanwhile many teachers argue that take-home lessons are key to helping students learn. Now, as schools are shifting to the new (and hotly debated) Common Core curriculum standards, educators, administrators and researchers are turning a fresh eye toward the question of homework's value.

But when it comes to deciphering the research literature on the subject, homework is anything but an open book.

The 10-minute rule

In many ways, homework seems like common sense. Spend more time practicing multiplication or studying Spanish vocabulary and you should get better at math or Spanish. But it may not be that simple.

Homework can indeed produce academic benefits, such as increased understanding and retention of the material, says Duke University social psychologist Harris Cooper, PhD, one of the nation's leading homework researchers. But not all students benefit. In a review of studies published from 1987 to 2003, Cooper and his colleagues found that homework was linked to better test scores in high school and, to a lesser degree, in middle school. Yet they found only faint evidence that homework provided academic benefit in elementary school ( Review of Educational Research , 2006).

Then again, test scores aren't everything. Homework proponents also cite the nonacademic advantages it might confer, such as the development of personal responsibility, good study habits and time-management skills. But as to hard evidence of those benefits, "the jury is still out," says Mollie Galloway, PhD, associate professor of educational leadership at Lewis & Clark College in Portland, Oregon. "I think there's a focus on assigning homework because [teachers] think it has these positive outcomes for study skills and habits. But we don't know for sure that's the case."

Even when homework is helpful, there can be too much of a good thing. "There is a limit to how much kids can benefit from home study," Cooper says. He agrees with an oft-cited rule of thumb that students should do no more than 10 minutes a night per grade level — from about 10 minutes in first grade up to a maximum of about two hours in high school. Both the National Education Association and National Parent Teacher Association support that limit.

Beyond that point, kids don't absorb much useful information, Cooper says. In fact, too much homework can do more harm than good. Researchers have cited drawbacks, including boredom and burnout toward academic material, less time for family and extracurricular activities, lack of sleep and increased stress.

In a recent study of Spanish students, Rubén Fernández-Alonso, PhD, and colleagues found that students who were regularly assigned math and science homework scored higher on standardized tests. But when kids reported having more than 90 to 100 minutes of homework per day, scores declined ( Journal of Educational Psychology , 2015).

"At all grade levels, doing other things after school can have positive effects," Cooper says. "To the extent that homework denies access to other leisure and community activities, it's not serving the child's best interest."

Children of all ages need down time in order to thrive, says Denise Pope, PhD, a professor of education at Stanford University and a co-founder of Challenge Success, a program that partners with secondary schools to implement policies that improve students' academic engagement and well-being.

"Little kids and big kids need unstructured time for play each day," she says. Certainly, time for physical activity is important for kids' health and well-being. But even time spent on social media can help give busy kids' brains a break, she says.

All over the map

But are teachers sticking to the 10-minute rule? Studies attempting to quantify time spent on homework are all over the map, in part because of wide variations in methodology, Pope says.

A 2014 report by the Brookings Institution examined the question of homework, comparing data from a variety of sources. That report cited findings from a 2012 survey of first-year college students in which 38.4 percent reported spending six hours or more per week on homework during their last year of high school. That was down from 49.5 percent in 1986 ( The Brown Center Report on American Education , 2014).

The Brookings report also explored survey data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress, which asked 9-, 13- and 17-year-old students how much homework they'd done the previous night. They found that between 1984 and 2012, there was a slight increase in homework for 9-year-olds, but homework amounts for 13- and 17-year-olds stayed roughly the same, or even decreased slightly.

Yet other evidence suggests that some kids might be taking home much more work than they can handle. Robert Pressman, PhD, and colleagues recently investigated the 10-minute rule among more than 1,100 students, and found that elementary-school kids were receiving up to three times as much homework as recommended. As homework load increased, so did family stress, the researchers found ( American Journal of Family Therapy , 2015).

Many high school students also seem to be exceeding the recommended amounts of homework. Pope and Galloway recently surveyed more than 4,300 students from 10 high-achieving high schools. Students reported bringing home an average of just over three hours of homework nightly ( Journal of Experiential Education , 2013).

On the positive side, students who spent more time on homework in that study did report being more behaviorally engaged in school — for instance, giving more effort and paying more attention in class, Galloway says. But they were not more invested in the homework itself. They also reported greater academic stress and less time to balance family, friends and extracurricular activities. They experienced more physical health problems as well, such as headaches, stomach troubles and sleep deprivation. "Three hours per night is too much," Galloway says.

In the high-achieving schools Pope and Galloway studied, more than 90 percent of the students go on to college. There's often intense pressure to succeed academically, from both parents and peers. On top of that, kids in these communities are often overloaded with extracurricular activities, including sports and clubs. "They're very busy," Pope says. "Some kids have up to 40 hours a week — a full-time job's worth — of extracurricular activities." And homework is yet one more commitment on top of all the others.

"Homework has perennially acted as a source of stress for students, so that piece of it is not new," Galloway says. "But especially in upper-middle-class communities, where the focus is on getting ahead, I think the pressure on students has been ratcheted up."

Yet homework can be a problem at the other end of the socioeconomic spectrum as well. Kids from wealthier homes are more likely to have resources such as computers, Internet connections, dedicated areas to do schoolwork and parents who tend to be more educated and more available to help them with tricky assignments. Kids from disadvantaged homes are more likely to work at afterschool jobs, or to be home without supervision in the evenings while their parents work multiple jobs, says Lea Theodore, PhD, a professor of school psychology at the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia. They are less likely to have computers or a quiet place to do homework in peace.

"Homework can highlight those inequities," she says.

Quantity vs. quality

One point researchers agree on is that for all students, homework quality matters. But too many kids are feeling a lack of engagement with their take-home assignments, many experts say. In Pope and Galloway's research, only 20 percent to 30 percent of students said they felt their homework was useful or meaningful.

"Students are assigned a lot of busywork. They're naming it as a primary stressor, but they don't feel it's supporting their learning," Galloway says.

"Homework that's busywork is not good for anyone," Cooper agrees. Still, he says, different subjects call for different kinds of assignments. "Things like vocabulary and spelling are learned through practice. Other kinds of courses require more integration of material and drawing on different skills."

But critics say those skills can be developed with many fewer hours of homework each week. Why assign 50 math problems, Pope asks, when 10 would be just as constructive? One Advanced Placement biology teacher she worked with through Challenge Success experimented with cutting his homework assignments by a third, and then by half. "Test scores didn't go down," she says. "You can have a rigorous course and not have a crazy homework load."

Still, changing the culture of homework won't be easy. Teachers-to-be get little instruction in homework during their training, Pope says. And despite some vocal parents arguing that kids bring home too much homework, many others get nervous if they think their child doesn't have enough. "Teachers feel pressured to give homework because parents expect it to come home," says Galloway. "When it doesn't, there's this idea that the school might not be doing its job."

Galloway argues teachers and school administrators need to set clear goals when it comes to homework — and parents and students should be in on the discussion, too. "It should be a broader conversation within the community, asking what's the purpose of homework? Why are we giving it? Who is it serving? Who is it not serving?"

Until schools and communities agree to take a hard look at those questions, those backpacks full of take-home assignments will probably keep stirring up more feelings than facts.

Further reading

• Cooper, H., Robinson, J. C., & Patall, E. A. (2006). Does homework improve academic achievement? A synthesis of research, 1987-2003. Review of Educational Research, 76 (1), 1–62. doi: 10.3102/00346543076001001
• Galloway, M., Connor, J., & Pope, D. (2013). Nonacademic effects of homework in privileged, high-performing high schools. The Journal of Experimental Education, 81 (4), 490–510. doi: 10.1080/00220973.2012.745469
• Pope, D., Brown, M., & Miles, S. (2015). Overloaded and underprepared: Strategies for stronger schools and healthy, successful kids . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Letters to the Editor

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Does homework really work?

by: Leslie Crawford | Updated: December 12, 2023

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You know the drill. It’s 10:15 p.m., and the cardboard-and-toothpick Golden Gate Bridge is collapsing. The pages of polynomials have been abandoned. The paper on the Battle of Waterloo seems to have frozen in time with Napoleon lingering eternally over his breakfast at Le Caillou. Then come the tears and tantrums — while we parents wonder, Does the gain merit all this pain? Is this just too much homework?

However the drama unfolds night after night, year after year, most parents hold on to the hope that homework (after soccer games, dinner, flute practice, and, oh yes, that childhood pastime of yore known as playing) advances their children academically.

But what does homework really do for kids? Is the forest’s worth of book reports and math and spelling sheets the average American student completes in their 12 years of primary schooling making a difference? Or is it just busywork?

Homework haterz

Whether or not homework helps, or even hurts, depends on who you ask. If you ask my 12-year-old son, Sam, he’ll say, “Homework doesn’t help anything. It makes kids stressed-out and tired and makes them hate school more.”

Nothing more than common kid bellyaching?

Maybe, but in the fractious field of homework studies, it’s worth noting that Sam’s sentiments nicely synopsize one side of the ivory tower debate. Books like The End of Homework , The Homework Myth , and The Case Against Homework the film Race to Nowhere , and the anguished parent essay “ My Daughter’s Homework is Killing Me ” make the case that homework, by taking away precious family time and putting kids under unneeded pressure, is an ineffective way to help children become better learners and thinkers.

One Canadian couple took their homework apostasy all the way to the Supreme Court of Canada. After arguing that there was no evidence that it improved academic performance, they won a ruling that exempted their two children from all homework.

So what’s the real relationship between homework and academic achievement?

How much is too much?

To answer this question, researchers have been doing their homework on homework, conducting and examining hundreds of studies. Chris Drew Ph.D., founder and editor at The Helpful Professor recently compiled multiple statistics revealing the folly of today’s after-school busy work. Does any of the data he listed below ring true for you?

• 45 percent of parents think homework is too easy for their child, primarily because it is geared to the lowest standard under the Common Core State Standards .

• 74 percent of students say homework is a source of stress , defined as headaches, exhaustion, sleep deprivation, weight loss, and stomach problems.

• Students in high-performing high schools spend an average of 3.1 hours a night on homework , even though 1 to 2 hours is the optimal duration, according to a peer-reviewed study .

Not included in the list above is the fact many kids have to abandon activities they love — like sports and clubs — because homework deprives them of the needed time to enjoy themselves with other pursuits.

Conversely, The Helpful Professor does list a few pros of homework, noting it teaches discipline and time management, and helps parents know what’s being taught in the class.

The oft-bandied rule on homework quantity — 10 minutes a night per grade (starting from between 10 to 20 minutes in first grade) — is listed on the National Education Association’s website and the National Parent Teacher Association’s website , but few schools follow this rule.

Do you think your child is doing excessive homework? Harris Cooper Ph.D., author of a meta-study on homework , recommends talking with the teacher. “Often there is a miscommunication about the goals of homework assignments,” he says. “What appears to be problematic for kids, why they are doing an assignment, can be cleared up with a conversation.” Also, Cooper suggests taking a careful look at how your child is doing the assignments. It may seem like they’re taking two hours, but maybe your child is wandering off frequently to get a snack or getting distracted.

Less is often more

If your child is dutifully doing their work but still burning the midnight oil, it’s worth intervening to make sure your child gets enough sleep. A 2012 study of 535 high school students found that proper sleep may be far more essential to brain and body development.

For elementary school-age children, Cooper’s research at Duke University shows there is no measurable academic advantage to homework. For middle-schoolers, Cooper found there is a direct correlation between homework and achievement if assignments last between one to two hours per night. After two hours, however, achievement doesn’t improve. For high schoolers, Cooper’s research suggests that two hours per night is optimal. If teens have more than two hours of homework a night, their academic success flatlines. But less is not better. The average high school student doing homework outperformed 69 percent of the students in a class with no homework.

Many schools are starting to act on this research. A Florida superintendent abolished homework in her 42,000 student district, replacing it with 20 minutes of nightly reading. She attributed her decision to “ solid research about what works best in improving academic achievement in students .”

More family time

A 2020 survey by Crayola Experience reports 82 percent of children complain they don’t have enough quality time with their parents. Homework deserves much of the blame. “Kids should have a chance to just be kids and do things they enjoy, particularly after spending six hours a day in school,” says Alfie Kohn, author of The Homework Myth . “It’s absurd to insist that children must be engaged in constructive activities right up until their heads hit the pillow.”

By far, the best replacement for homework — for both parents and children — is bonding, relaxing time together.

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5 Ways to Make Homework More Meaningful

Use these insights from educators—and research—to create homework practices that work for everyone.

Homework tends to be a polarizing topic. While many teachers advocate for its complete elimination, others argue that it provides students with the extra practice they need to solidify their learning and teach them work habits—like managing time and meeting deadlines—that have lifelong benefits. 

We recently reached out to teachers in our audience to identify practices that can help educators plot a middle path. 

On Facebook , elementary school teacher John Thomas responded that the best homework is often no-strings-attached encouragement to read or play academically adjacent games with family members. “I encourage reading every night,” Thomas said, but he doesn’t use logs or other means of getting students to track their completion. “Just encouragement and book bags with self selected books students take home for enjoyment.” 

Thomas said he also suggests to parents and students that they can play around with “math and science tools” such as “calculators, tape measures, protractors, rulers, money, tangrams, and building blocks.” Math-based games like Yahtzee or dominoes can also serve as enriching—and fun—practice of skills they’re learning.

At the middle and high school level, homework generally increases, and that can be demotivating for teachers, who feel obliged to review or even grade halfhearted submissions. Student morale is at stake, too: “Most [students] don’t complete it anyway,” said high school teacher Krystn Stretzinger Charlie on Facebook . “It ends up hurting them more than it helps.”    

So how do teachers decide when to—and when not to—assign homework, and how do they ensure that the homework they assign feels meaningful, productive, and even motivating to students? 

1. Less is More

A 2017 study analyzed the homework assignments of more than 20,000 middle and high school students and found that teachers are often a bad judge of how long homework will take. 

According to researchers, students spend as much as 85 minutes or as little as 30 minutes on homework that teachers imagined would take students one hour to complete. The researchers concluded that by assigning too much homework , teachers actually increased inequalities between students in exchange for “minimal gains in achievement.” Too much homework can overwhelm students who “have more gaps in their knowledge,” the researchers said, and creates situations where homework becomes so time-consuming and frustrating that it turns students off to classwork more broadly.

To counteract this, middle school math teacher Crystal Frommert said she focuses on quality over quantity. Frommert cited the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics , which recommends only assigning “what’s necessary to augment instruction” and adds that if teachers can “get sufficient information by assigning only five problems, then don’t assign fifty.” 

Instead of sending students home with worksheets and long problem sets from textbooks that often repeat the same concepts, Frommert recommended assigning part of a page, or even a few specific problems—and explaining to students why these handpicked problems will be helpful practice. When students know there’s thought behind the problems they’re asked to solve at home, “they pay more attention to the condensed assignment because it was tailored for them,” Frommert said. 

On Instagram , high school teacher Jacob Palmer said that every now and then he condenses homework down to just one problem that is particularly engaging and challenging: “The depth and exploration that can come from one single problem can be richer than 20 routine problems.” 

2. Add Choice to the Equation 

Former educator and coach Mike Anderson said teachers can differentiate homework assignments without placing unrealistic demands on their workload by offering students some discretion in the work they complete and explicitly teaching them “how to choose appropriately challenging work for themselves.” 

Instead of assigning the same 20 problems or response questions on a given textbook page to all students, for example, Anderson suggested asking students to refer to the list of questions and choose and complete a designated number of them (three to five, for example) that give students “a little bit of a challenge but that [they] can still solve independently.” 

To teach students how to choose well, Anderson has students practice choosing homework questions in class before the end of the day, brainstorming in groups and sharing their thoughts about what a good homework question should accomplish. The other part, of course, involves offering students good choices: “Make sure that options for homework focus on the skills being practiced and are open-ended enough for all students to be successful,” he said. 

Once students have developed a better understanding of the purpose of challenging themselves to practice and grow as learners, Anderson also periodically asks them to come up with their own ideas for problems or other activities they can use to reinforce learning at home. A simple question, such as “What are some ideas for how you might practice this skill at home?” can be enough to get students sharing ideas, he said. 

Jill Kibler, a former high school science teacher, told Edutopia on Facebook that she implemented homework choice in her classroom by allowing students to decide how much of the work they’ve recently turned in that they’d like to redo as homework: “Students had one grading cycle (about seven school days) to redo the work they wanted to improve,” she said. 

3. Break the Mold 

According to high school English teacher Kate Dusto, the work that students produce at home doesn’t have to come in the traditional formats of written responses to a problem. On Instagram , Dusto told Edutopia that homework can often be made more interesting—and engaging—by allowing students to show evidence of their learning in creative ways. 

“Offer choices for how they show their learning,” Dusto said. “Record audio or video? Type or use speech to text? Draw or handwrite and then upload a picture?” The possibilities are endless. 

Former educator and author Jay McTighe noted that visual representations such as graphic organizers and concept maps are particularly useful for students attempting to organize new information and solidify their understanding of abstract concepts. For example, students might be asked to “draw a visual web of factors affecting plant growth” in biology class or map out the plot, characters, themes, and settings of a novel or play they’re reading to visualize relationships between different elements of the story and deepen their comprehension of it. 

Simple written responses to summarize new learning can also be made more interesting by varying the format, McTighe said. For example, ask students to compose a tweet in 280 characters or less to answer a question like “What is the big idea that you have learned about _____?” or even record a short audio podcast or video podcast explaining “key concepts from one or more lessons.”

4. Make Homework Voluntary 

When elementary school teacher Jacqueline Worthley Fiorentino stopped assigning mandatory homework to her second-grade students and suggested voluntary activities instead, she found that something surprising happened: “They started doing more work at home.” 

Some of the simple, voluntary activities she presented students with included encouraging at-home reading (without mandating how much time they should spend reading); sending home weekly spelling words and math facts that will be covered in class but that should also be mastered by the end of the week: “It will be up to each child to figure out the best way to learn to spell the words correctly or to master the math facts,” she said; and creating voluntary lesson extensions such as pointing students to outside resources—texts, videos or films, webpages, or even online or in-person exhibits—to “expand their knowledge on a topic covered in class.”

Anderson said that for older students, teachers can sometimes make whatever homework they assign a voluntary choice. “Do all students need to practice a skill? If not, you might keep homework invitational,” he said, adding that teachers can tell students, “If you think a little more practice tonight would help you solidify your learning, here are some examples you might try.”

On Facebook , Natisha Wilson, a K–12 gifted students coordinator for an Ohio school district, said that when students are working on a challenging question in class, she’ll give them the option to “take it home and figure it out” if they’re unable to complete it before the end of the period. Often students take her up on this, she said, because many of them “can’t stand not knowing the answer.” 

5. Grade for Completion—or Don’t Grade at All  

Former teacher Rick Wormeli argued that work on homework assignments isn’t “evidence of final level of proficiency”; rather, it’s practice that provides teachers with “feedback and informs where we go next in instruction.” 

Grading homework for completion—or not grading at all, Wormeli said—can help students focus on the real task at hand of consolidating understanding and self-monitoring their learning. “When early attempts at mastery are not used against them, and accountability comes in the form of actually learning content, adolescents flourish.” 

High school science teacher John Scali agreed , confirming that grading for “completion and timeliness” rather than for “correctness” makes students “more likely to do the work, especially if it ties directly into what we are doing in class the next day” without worrying about being “100% correct.” On Instagram , middle school math teacher Traci Hawks noted that any assignments that are completed and show work—even if the answer is wrong—gets a 100 from her.

But Frommert said that even grading for completion can be time-consuming for teachers and fraught for students if they don’t have home environments that are supportive of homework or if they have jobs or other after-school activities. 

Instead of traditional grading, she suggested alternatives to holding students accountable for homework, such as student presentations or even group discussions and debates as a way to check for understanding. For example, students can debate which method is best to solve a problem or discuss their prospective solutions in small groups. “Communicating their mathematical thinking deepens their understanding,” Frommert said. 

• The Journal
• Vol. 19, No. 1

The Case for (Quality) Homework

Janine Bempechat

Any parent who has battled with a child over homework night after night has to wonder: Do those math worksheets and book reports really make a difference to a student’s long-term success? Or is homework just a headache—another distraction from family time and downtime, already diminished by the likes of music and dance lessons, sports practices, and part-time jobs?

Allison, a mother of two middle-school girls from an affluent Boston suburb, describes a frenetic afterschool scenario: “My girls do gymnastics a few days a week, so homework happens for my 6th grader after gymnastics, at 6:30 p.m. She doesn’t get to bed until 9. My 8th grader does her homework immediately after school, up until gymnastics. She eats dinner at 9:15 and then goes to bed, unless there is more homework to do, in which case she’ll get to bed around 10.” The girls miss out on sleep, and weeknight family dinners are tough to swing.

Parental concerns about their children’s homework loads are nothing new. Debates over the merits of homework—tasks that teachers ask students to complete during non-instructional time—have ebbed and flowed since the late 19th century, and today its value is again being scrutinized and weighed against possible negative impacts on family life and children’s well-being.

Are American students overburdened with homework? In some middle-class and affluent communities, where pressure on students to achieve can be fierce, yes. But in families of limited means, it’s often another story. Many low-income parents value homework as an important connection to the school and the curriculum—even as their children report receiving little homework. Overall, high-school students relate that they spend less than one hour per day on homework, on average, and only 42 percent say they do it five days per week. In one recent survey by the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), a minimal 13 percent of 17-year-olds said they had devoted more than two hours to homework the previous evening (see Figure 1).

Recent years have seen an increase in the amount of homework assigned to students in grades K–2, and critics point to research findings that, at the elementary-school level, homework does not appear to enhance children’s learning. Why, then, should we burden young children and their families with homework if there is no academic benefit to doing it? Indeed, perhaps it would be best, as some propose, to eliminate homework altogether, particularly in these early grades.

On the contrary, developmentally appropriate homework plays a critical role in the formation of positive learning beliefs and behaviors, including a belief in one’s academic ability, a deliberative and effortful approach to mastery, and higher expectations and aspirations for one’s future. It can prepare children to confront ever-more-complex tasks, develop resilience in the face of difficulty, and learn to embrace rather than shy away from challenge. In short, homework is a key vehicle through which we can help shape children into mature learners.

The Homework-Achievement Connection

A narrow focus on whether or not homework boosts grades and test scores in the short run thus ignores a broader purpose in education, the development of lifelong, confident learners. Still, the question looms: does homework enhance academic success? As the educational psychologist Lyn Corno wrote more than two decades ago, “homework is a complicated thing.” Most research on the homework-achievement connection is correlational, which precludes a definitive judgment on its academic benefits. Researchers rely on correlational research in this area of study given the difficulties of randomly assigning students to homework/no-homework conditions. While correlation does not imply causality, extensive research has established that at the middle- and high-school levels, homework completion is strongly and positively associated with high achievement. Very few studies have reported a negative correlation.

As noted above, findings on the homework-achievement connection at the elementary level are mixed. A small number of experimental studies have demonstrated that elementary-school students who receive homework achieve at higher levels than those who do not. These findings suggest a causal relationship, but they are limited in scope. Within the body of correlational research, some studies report a positive homework-achievement connection, some a negative relationship, and yet others show no relationship at all. Why the mixed findings? Researchers point to a number of possible factors, such as developmental issues related to how young children learn, different goals that teachers have for younger as compared to older students, and how researchers define homework.

Certainly, young children are still developing skills that enable them to focus on the material at hand and study efficiently. Teachers’ goals for their students are also quite different in elementary school as compared to secondary school. While teachers at both levels note the value of homework for reinforcing classroom content, those in the earlier grades are more likely to assign homework mainly to foster skills such as responsibility, perseverance, and the ability to manage distractions.

Most research examines homework generally. Might a focus on homework in a specific subject shed more light on the homework-achievement connection? A recent meta-analysis did just this by examining the relationship between math/science homework and achievement. Contrary to previous findings, researchers reported a stronger relationship between homework and achievement in the elementary grades than in middle school. As the study authors note, one explanation for this finding could be that in elementary school, teachers tend to assign more homework in math than in other subjects, while at the same time assigning shorter math tasks more frequently. In addition, the authors point out that parents tend to be more involved in younger children’s math homework and more skilled in elementary-level than middle-school math.

In sum, the relationship between homework and academic achievement in the elementary-school years is not yet established, but eliminating homework at this level would do children and their families a huge disservice: we know that children’s learning beliefs have a powerful impact on their academic outcomes, and that through homework, parents and teachers can have a profound influence on the development of positive beliefs.

How Much Is Appropriate?

Harris M. Cooper of Duke University, the leading researcher on homework, has examined decades of study on what we know about the relationship between homework and scholastic achievement. He has proposed the “10-minute rule,” suggesting that daily homework be limited to 10 minutes per grade level. Thus, a 1st grader would do 10 minutes each day and a 4th grader, 40 minutes. The National Parent Teacher Association and the National Education Association both endorse this guideline, but it is not clear whether the recommended allotments include time for reading, which most teachers want children to do daily.

For middle-school students, Cooper and colleagues report that 90 minutes per day of homework is optimal for enhancing academic achievement, and for high schoolers, the ideal range is 90 minutes to two and a half hours per day. Beyond this threshold, more homework does not contribute to learning. For students enrolled in demanding Advanced Placement or honors courses, however, homework is likely to require significantly more time, leading to concerns over students’ health and well-being.

Notwithstanding media reports of parents revolting against the practice of homework, the vast majority of parents say they are highly satisfied with their children’s homework loads. The National Household Education Surveys Program recently found that between 70 and 83 percent of parents believed that the amount of homework their children had was “about right,” a result that held true regardless of social class, race/ethnicity, community size, level of education, and whether English was spoken at home.

Learning Beliefs Are Consequential

As noted above, developmentally appropriate homework can help children cultivate positive beliefs about learning. Decades of research have established that these beliefs predict the types of tasks students choose to pursue, their persistence in the face of challenge, and their academic achievement. Broadly, learning beliefs fall under the banner of achievement motivation, which is a constellation of cognitive, behavioral, and affective factors, including: the way a person perceives his or her abilities, goal-setting skills, expectation of success, the value the individual places on learning, and self-regulating behavior such as time-management skills. Positive or adaptive beliefs about learning serve as emotional and psychological protective factors for children, especially when they encounter difficulties or failure.

Motivation researcher Carol Dweck of Stanford University posits that children with a “growth mindset”—those who believe that ability is malleable—approach learning very differently than those with a “fixed mindset”—kids who believe ability cannot change. Those with a growth mindset view effort as the key to mastery. They see mistakes as helpful, persist even in the face of failure, prefer challenging over easy tasks, and do better in school than their peers who have a fixed mindset. In contrast, children with a fixed mindset view effort and mistakes as implicit condemnations of their abilities. Such children succumb easily to learned helplessness in the face of difficulty, and they gravitate toward tasks they know they can handle rather than more challenging ones.

Of course, learning beliefs do not develop in a vacuum. Studies have demonstrated that parents and teachers play a significant role in the development of positive beliefs and behaviors, and that homework is a key tool they can use to foster motivation and academic achievement.

Parents’ Beliefs and Actions Matter

It is well established that parental involvement in their children’s education promotes achievement motivation and success in school. Parents are their children’s first teachers, and their achievement-related beliefs have a profound influence on children’s developing perceptions of their own abilities, as well as their views on the value of learning and education.

Parents affect their children’s learning through the messages they send about education, whether by expressing interest in school activities and experiences, attending school events, helping with homework when they can, or exposing children to intellectually enriching experiences. Most parents view such engagement as part and parcel of their role. They also believe that doing homework fosters responsibility and organizational skills, and that doing well on homework tasks contributes to learning, even if children experience frustration from time to time.

Many parents provide support by establishing homework routines, eliminating distractions, communicating expectations, helping children manage their time, providing reassuring messages, and encouraging kids to be aware of the conditions under which they do their best work. These supports help foster the development of self-regulation, which is critical to school success.

Self-regulation involves a number of skills, such as the ability to monitor one’s performance and adjust strategies as a result of feedback; to evaluate one’s interests and realistically perceive one’s aptitude; and to work on a task autonomously. It also means learning how to structure one’s environment so that it’s conducive to learning, by, for example, minimizing distractions. As children move into higher grades, these skills and strategies help them organize, plan, and learn independently. This is precisely where parents make a demonstrable difference in students’ attitudes and approaches to homework.

Especially in the early grades, homework gives parents the opportunity to cultivate beliefs and behaviors that foster efficient study skills and academic resilience. Indeed, across age groups, there is a strong and positive relationship between homework completion and a variety of self-regulatory processes. However, the quality of parental help matters. Sometimes, well-intentioned parents can unwittingly undermine the development of children’s positive learning beliefs and their achievement. Parents who maintain a positive outlook on homework and allow their children room to learn and struggle on their own, stepping in judiciously with informational feedback and hints, do their children a much better service than those who seek to control the learning process.

A recent study of 5th and 6th graders’ perceptions of their parents’ involvement with homework distinguished between supportive and intrusive help. The former included the belief that parents encouraged the children to try to find the right answer on their own before providing them with assistance, and when the child struggled, attempted to understand the source of the confusion. In contrast, the latter included the perception that parents provided unsolicited help, interfered when the children did their homework, and told them how to complete their assignments. Supportive help predicted higher achievement, while intrusive help was associated with lower achievement.

Parents’ attitudes and emotions during homework time can support the development of positive attitudes and approaches in their children, which in turn are predictive of higher achievement. Children are more likely to focus on self-improvement during homework time and do better in school when their parents are oriented toward mastery. In contrast, if parents focus on how well children are doing relative to peers, kids tend to adopt learning goals that allow them to avoid challenge.

Homework and Social Class

Social class is another important element in the homework dynamic. What is the homework experience like for families with limited time and resources? And what of affluent families, where resources are plenty but the pressures to succeed are great?

Etta Kralovec and John Buell, authors of The End of Homework, maintain that homework “punishes the poor,” because lower-income parents may not be as well educated as their affluent counterparts and thus not as well equipped to help with homework. Poorer families also have fewer financial resources to devote to home computers, tutoring, and academic enrichment. The stresses of poverty—and work schedules—may impinge, and immigrant parents may face language barriers and an unfamiliarity with the school system and teachers’ expectations.

Yet research shows that low-income parents who are unable to assist with homework are far from passive in their children’s learning, and they do help foster scholastic performance. In fact, parental help with homework is not a necessary component for school success.

Brown University’s Jin Li queried low-income Chinese American 9th graders’ perceptions of their parents’ engagement with their education. Students said their immigrant parents rarely engaged in activities that are known to foster academic achievement, such as monitoring homework, checking it for accuracy, or attending school meetings or events. Instead, parents of higher achievers built three social networks to support their children’s learning. They designated “anchor” helpers both inside and outside the family who provided assistance; identified peer models for their children to emulate; and enlisted the assistance of extended kin to guide their children’s educational socialization. In a related vein, a recent analysis of survey data showed that Asian and Latino 5th graders, relative to native-born peers, were more likely to turn to siblings than parents for homework help.

Further, research demonstrates that low-income parents, recognizing that they lack the time to be in the classroom or participate in school governance, view homework as a critical connection to their children’s experiences in school. One study found that mothers enjoyed the routine and predictability of homework and used it as a way to demonstrate to children how to plan their time. Mothers organized homework as a family activity, with siblings doing homework together and older children reading to younger ones. In this way, homework was perceived as a collective practice wherein siblings could model effective habits and learn from one another.

In another recent study, researchers examined mathematics achievement in low-income 8th-grade Asian and Latino students. Help with homework was an advantage their mothers could not provide. They could, however, furnish structure (for example, by setting aside quiet time for homework completion), and it was this structure that most predicted high achievement. As the authors note, “It is . . . important to help [low-income] parents realize that they can still help their children get good grades in mathematics and succeed in school even if they do not know how to provide direct assistance with their child’s mathematics homework.”

The homework narrative at the other end of the socioeconomic continuum is altogether different. Media reports abound with examples of students, mostly in high school, carrying three or more hours of homework per night, a burden that can impair learning, motivation, and well-being. In affluent communities, students often experience intense pressure to cultivate a high-achieving profile that will be attractive to elite colleges. Heavy homework loads have been linked to unhealthy symptoms such as heightened stress, anxiety, physical complaints, and sleep disturbances. Like Allison’s 6th grader mentioned earlier, many students can only tackle their homework after they do extracurricular activities, which are also seen as essential for the college résumé. Not surprisingly, many students in these communities are not deeply engaged in learning; rather, they speak of “doing school,” as Stanford researcher Denise Pope has described, going through the motions necessary to excel, and undermining their physical and mental health in the process.

Fortunately, some national intervention initiatives, such as Challenge Success (co-founded by Pope), are heightening awareness of these problems. Interventions aimed at restoring balance in students’ lives (in part, by reducing homework demands) have resulted in students reporting an increased sense of well-being, decreased stress and anxiety, and perceptions of greater support from teachers, with no decrease in achievement outcomes.

What is good for this small segment of students, however, is not necessarily good for the majority. As Jessica Lahey wrote in Motherlode, a New York Times parenting blog, “homework is a red herring” in the national conversation on education. “Some otherwise privileged children may have too much, but the real issue lies in places where there is too little. . . . We shouldn’t forget that.”

My colleagues and I analyzed interviews conducted with lower-income 9th graders (African American, Mexican American, and European American) from two Northern California high schools that at the time were among the lowest-achieving schools in the state. We found that these students consistently described receiving minimal homework—perhaps one or two worksheets or textbook pages, the occasional project, and 30 minutes of reading per night. Math was the only class in which they reported having homework each night. These students noted few consequences for not completing their homework.

Indeed, greatly reducing or eliminating homework would likely increase, not diminish, the achievement gap. As Harris M. Cooper has commented, those choosing to opt their children out of homework are operating from a place of advantage. Children in higher-income families benefit from many privileges, including exposure to a larger range of language at home that may align with the language of school, access to learning and cultural experiences, and many other forms of enrichment, such as tutoring and academic summer camps, all of which may be cost-prohibitive for lower-income families. But for the 21 percent of the school-age population who live in poverty—nearly 11 million students ages 5–17—homework is one tool that can help narrow the achievement gap.

Community and School Support

Often, community organizations and afterschool programs can step up to provide structure and services that students’ need to succeed at homework. For example, Boys and Girls and 4-H clubs offer volunteer tutors as well as access to computer technology that students may not have at home. Many schools provide homework clubs or integrate homework into the afterschool program.

Home-school partnerships have succeeded in engaging parents with homework and significantly improving their children’s academic achievement. For example, Joyce Epstein of Johns Hopkins University has developed the TIPS model (Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork), which embraces homework as an integral part of family time. TIPS is a teacher-designed interactive program in which children and a parent or family member each have a specific role in the homework scenario. For example, children might show the parent how to do a mathematics task on fractions, explaining their reasoning along the way and reviewing their thinking aloud if they are unsure.

Evaluations show that elementary and middle-school students in classrooms that have adopted TIPS complete more of their homework than do students in other classrooms. Both students and parent participants show more positive beliefs about learning mathematics, and TIPS students show significant gains in writing skills and report-card science grades, as well as higher mathematics scores on standardized tests.

Another study found that asking teachers to send text messages to parents about their children’s missing homework resulted in increased parental monitoring of homework, consequences for missed assignments, and greater participation in parent-child conferences. Teachers reported fewer missed assignments and greater student effort in coursework, and math grades and GPA significantly improved.

Homework Quality Matters

Teachers favor homework for a number of reasons. They believe it fosters a sense of responsibility and promotes academic achievement. They note that homework provides valuable review and practice for students while giving teachers feedback on areas where students may need more support. Finally, teachers value homework as a way to keep parents connected to the school and their children’s educational experiences.

While students, to say the least, may not always relish the idea of doing homework, by high school most come to believe there is a positive relationship between doing homework and doing well in school. Both higher and lower achievers lament “busywork” that doesn’t promote learning. They crave high-quality, challenging assignments—and it is this kind of homework that has been associated with higher achievement.

What constitutes high-quality homework? Assignments that are developmentally appropriate and meaningful and that promote self-efficacy and self-regulation. Meaningful homework is authentic, allowing students to engage in solving problems with real-world relevance. More specifically, homework tasks should make efficient use of student time and have a clear purpose connected to what they are learning. An artistic rendition of a period in history that would take hours to complete can become instead a diary entry in the voice of an individual from that era. By allowing a measure of choice and autonomy in homework, teachers foster in their students a sense of ownership, which bolsters their investment in the work.

High-quality homework also fosters students’ perceptions of their own competence by 1) focusing them on tasks they can accomplish without help; 2) differentiating tasks so as to allow struggling students to experience success; 3) providing suggested time frames rather than a fixed period of time in which a task should be completed; 4) delivering clearly and carefully explained directions; and 5) carefully modeling methods for attacking lengthy or complex tasks. Students whose teachers have trained them to adopt strategies such as goal setting, self-monitoring, and planning develop a number of personal assets—improved time management, increased self-efficacy, greater effort and interest, a desire for mastery, and a decrease in helplessness.

Excellence with Equity

Currently, the United States has the second-highest disparity between time spent on homework by students of low socioeconomic status and time spent by their more-affluent peers out of the 34 OECD-member nations participating in the 2012 Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) (see Figure 2). Noting that PISA studies have consistently found that spending more time on math homework strongly correlates with higher academic achievement, the report’s authors suggest that the homework disparity may reflect lower teacher expectations for low-income students. If so, this is truly unfortunate. In and of itself, low socioeconomic status is not an impediment to academic achievement when appropriate parental, school, and community supports are deployed. As research makes clear, low-income parents support their children’s learning in varied ways, not all of which involve direct assistance with schoolwork. Teachers can orient students and parents toward beliefs that foster positive attitudes toward learning. Indeed, where homework is concerned, a commitment to excellence with equity is both worthwhile and attainable.

In affluent communities, parents, teachers, and school districts might consider reexamining the meaning of academic excellence and placing more emphasis on leading a balanced and well-rounded life. The homework debate in the United States has been dominated by concerns over the health and well-being of such advantaged students. As legitimate as these worries are, it’s important to avoid generalizing these children’s experiences to those with fewer family resources. Reducing or eliminating homework, though it may be desirable in some advantaged communities, would deprive poorer children of a crucial and empowering learning experience. It would also eradicate a fertile opportunity to help close the achievement gap.

Janine Bempechat is clinical professor of human development at the Boston University Wheelock College of Education and Human Development.

An unabridged version of this article is available here .

For more, please see “ The Top 20 Education Next Articles of 2023 .”

This article appeared in the Winter 2019 issue of Education Next . Suggested citation format:

Bempechat, J. (2019). The Case for (Quality) Homework: Why it improves learning, and how parents can help . Education Next, 19 (1), 36-43.

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In the News: What’s the Right Amount of Homework? Many Students Get Too Little, Brief Argues

by Education Next

In the News: Down With Homework, Say U.S. School Districts

In the News: Does Homework Really Help Students Learn?

The Cult of Homework

America’s devotion to the practice stems in part from the fact that it’s what today’s parents and teachers grew up with themselves.

America has long had a fickle relationship with homework. A century or so ago, progressive reformers argued that it made kids unduly stressed , which later led in some cases to district-level bans on it for all grades under seventh. This anti-homework sentiment faded, though, amid mid-century fears that the U.S. was falling behind the Soviet Union (which led to more homework), only to resurface in the 1960s and ’70s, when a more open culture came to see homework as stifling play and creativity (which led to less). But this didn’t last either: In the ’80s, government researchers blamed America’s schools for its economic troubles and recommended ramping homework up once more.

The 21st century has so far been a homework-heavy era, with American teenagers now averaging about twice as much time spent on homework each day as their predecessors did in the 1990s . Even little kids are asked to bring school home with them. A 2015 study , for instance, found that kindergarteners, who researchers tend to agree shouldn’t have any take-home work, were spending about 25 minutes a night on it.

But not without pushback. As many children, not to mention their parents and teachers, are drained by their daily workload, some schools and districts are rethinking how homework should work—and some teachers are doing away with it entirely. They’re reviewing the research on homework (which, it should be noted, is contested) and concluding that it’s time to revisit the subject.

Read: My daughter’s homework is killing me

Hillsborough, California, an affluent suburb of San Francisco, is one district that has changed its ways. The district, which includes three elementary schools and a middle school, worked with teachers and convened panels of parents in order to come up with a homework policy that would allow students more unscheduled time to spend with their families or to play. In August 2017, it rolled out an updated policy, which emphasized that homework should be “meaningful” and banned due dates that fell on the day after a weekend or a break.

“The first year was a bit bumpy,” says Louann Carlomagno, the district’s superintendent. She says the adjustment was at times hard for the teachers, some of whom had been doing their job in a similar fashion for a quarter of a century. Parents’ expectations were also an issue. Carlomagno says they took some time to “realize that it was okay not to have an hour of homework for a second grader—that was new.”

Most of the way through year two, though, the policy appears to be working more smoothly. “The students do seem to be less stressed based on conversations I’ve had with parents,” Carlomagno says. It also helps that the students performed just as well on the state standardized test last year as they have in the past.

Earlier this year, the district of Somerville, Massachusetts, also rewrote its homework policy, reducing the amount of homework its elementary and middle schoolers may receive. In grades six through eight, for example, homework is capped at an hour a night and can only be assigned two to three nights a week.

Jack Schneider, an education professor at the University of Massachusetts at Lowell whose daughter attends school in Somerville, is generally pleased with the new policy. But, he says, it’s part of a bigger, worrisome pattern. “The origin for this was general parental dissatisfaction, which not surprisingly was coming from a particular demographic,” Schneider says. “Middle-class white parents tend to be more vocal about concerns about homework … They feel entitled enough to voice their opinions.”

Schneider is all for revisiting taken-for-granted practices like homework, but thinks districts need to take care to be inclusive in that process. “I hear approximately zero middle-class white parents talking about how homework done best in grades K through two actually strengthens the connection between home and school for young people and their families,” he says. Because many of these parents already feel connected to their school community, this benefit of homework can seem redundant. “They don’t need it,” Schneider says, “so they’re not advocating for it.”

That doesn’t mean, necessarily, that homework is more vital in low-income districts. In fact, there are different, but just as compelling, reasons it can be burdensome in these communities as well. Allison Wienhold, who teaches high-school Spanish in the small town of Dunkerton, Iowa, has phased out homework assignments over the past three years. Her thinking: Some of her students, she says, have little time for homework because they’re working 30 hours a week or responsible for looking after younger siblings.

As educators reduce or eliminate the homework they assign, it’s worth asking what amount and what kind of homework is best for students. It turns out that there’s some disagreement about this among researchers, who tend to fall in one of two camps.

In the first camp is Harris Cooper, a professor of psychology and neuroscience at Duke University. Cooper conducted a review of the existing research on homework in the mid-2000s , and found that, up to a point, the amount of homework students reported doing correlates with their performance on in-class tests. This correlation, the review found, was stronger for older students than for younger ones.

This conclusion is generally accepted among educators, in part because it’s compatible with “the 10-minute rule,” a rule of thumb popular among teachers suggesting that the proper amount of homework is approximately 10 minutes per night, per grade level—that is, 10 minutes a night for first graders, 20 minutes a night for second graders, and so on, up to two hours a night for high schoolers.

In Cooper’s eyes, homework isn’t overly burdensome for the typical American kid. He points to a 2014 Brookings Institution report that found “little evidence that the homework load has increased for the average student”; onerous amounts of homework, it determined, are indeed out there, but relatively rare. Moreover, the report noted that most parents think their children get the right amount of homework, and that parents who are worried about under-assigning outnumber those who are worried about over-assigning. Cooper says that those latter worries tend to come from a small number of communities with “concerns about being competitive for the most selective colleges and universities.”

According to Alfie Kohn, squarely in camp two, most of the conclusions listed in the previous three paragraphs are questionable. Kohn, the author of The Homework Myth: Why Our Kids Get Too Much of a Bad Thing , considers homework to be a “reliable extinguisher of curiosity,” and has several complaints with the evidence that Cooper and others cite in favor of it. Kohn notes, among other things, that Cooper’s 2006 meta-analysis doesn’t establish causation, and that its central correlation is based on children’s (potentially unreliable) self-reporting of how much time they spend doing homework. (Kohn’s prolific writing on the subject alleges numerous other methodological faults.)

In fact, other correlations make a compelling case that homework doesn’t help. Some countries whose students regularly outperform American kids on standardized tests, such as Japan and Denmark, send their kids home with less schoolwork , while students from some countries with higher homework loads than the U.S., such as Thailand and Greece, fare worse on tests. (Of course, international comparisons can be fraught because so many factors, in education systems and in societies at large, might shape students’ success.)

Kohn also takes issue with the way achievement is commonly assessed. “If all you want is to cram kids’ heads with facts for tomorrow’s tests that they’re going to forget by next week, yeah, if you give them more time and make them do the cramming at night, that could raise the scores,” he says. “But if you’re interested in kids who know how to think or enjoy learning, then homework isn’t merely ineffective, but counterproductive.”

His concern is, in a way, a philosophical one. “The practice of homework assumes that only academic growth matters, to the point that having kids work on that most of the school day isn’t enough,” Kohn says. What about homework’s effect on quality time spent with family? On long-term information retention? On critical-thinking skills? On social development? On success later in life? On happiness? The research is quiet on these questions.

Another problem is that research tends to focus on homework’s quantity rather than its quality, because the former is much easier to measure than the latter. While experts generally agree that the substance of an assignment matters greatly (and that a lot of homework is uninspiring busywork), there isn’t a catchall rule for what’s best—the answer is often specific to a certain curriculum or even an individual student.

Given that homework’s benefits are so narrowly defined (and even then, contested), it’s a bit surprising that assigning so much of it is often a classroom default, and that more isn’t done to make the homework that is assigned more enriching. A number of things are preserving this state of affairs—things that have little to do with whether homework helps students learn.

Jack Schneider, the Massachusetts parent and professor, thinks it’s important to consider the generational inertia of the practice. “The vast majority of parents of public-school students themselves are graduates of the public education system,” he says. “Therefore, their views of what is legitimate have been shaped already by the system that they would ostensibly be critiquing.” In other words, many parents’ own history with homework might lead them to expect the same for their children, and anything less is often taken as an indicator that a school or a teacher isn’t rigorous enough. (This dovetails with—and complicates—the finding that most parents think their children have the right amount of homework.)

Barbara Stengel, an education professor at Vanderbilt University’s Peabody College, brought up two developments in the educational system that might be keeping homework rote and unexciting. The first is the importance placed in the past few decades on standardized testing, which looms over many public-school classroom decisions and frequently discourages teachers from trying out more creative homework assignments. “They could do it, but they’re afraid to do it, because they’re getting pressure every day about test scores,” Stengel says.

Second, she notes that the profession of teaching, with its relatively low wages and lack of autonomy, struggles to attract and support some of the people who might reimagine homework, as well as other aspects of education. “Part of why we get less interesting homework is because some of the people who would really have pushed the limits of that are no longer in teaching,” she says.

“In general, we have no imagination when it comes to homework,” Stengel says. She wishes teachers had the time and resources to remake homework into something that actually engages students. “If we had kids reading—anything, the sports page, anything that they’re able to read—that’s the best single thing. If we had kids going to the zoo, if we had kids going to parks after school, if we had them doing all of those things, their test scores would improve. But they’re not. They’re going home and doing homework that is not expanding what they think about.”

“Exploratory” is one word Mike Simpson used when describing the types of homework he’d like his students to undertake. Simpson is the head of the Stone Independent School, a tiny private high school in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, that opened in 2017. “We were lucky to start a school a year and a half ago,” Simpson says, “so it’s been easy to say we aren’t going to assign worksheets, we aren’t going assign regurgitative problem sets.” For instance, a half-dozen students recently built a 25-foot trebuchet on campus.

Simpson says he thinks it’s a shame that the things students have to do at home are often the least fulfilling parts of schooling: “When our students can’t make the connection between the work they’re doing at 11 o’clock at night on a Tuesday to the way they want their lives to be, I think we begin to lose the plot.”

When I talked with other teachers who did homework makeovers in their classrooms, I heard few regrets. Brandy Young, a second-grade teacher in Joshua, Texas, stopped assigning take-home packets of worksheets three years ago, and instead started asking her students to do 20 minutes of pleasure reading a night. She says she’s pleased with the results, but she’s noticed something funny. “Some kids,” she says, “really do like homework.” She’s started putting out a bucket of it for students to draw from voluntarily—whether because they want an additional challenge or something to pass the time at home.

Chris Bronke, a high-school English teacher in the Chicago suburb of Downers Grove, told me something similar. This school year, he eliminated homework for his class of freshmen, and now mostly lets students study on their own or in small groups during class time. It’s usually up to them what they work on each day, and Bronke has been impressed by how they’ve managed their time.

In fact, some of them willingly spend time on assignments at home, whether because they’re particularly engaged, because they prefer to do some deeper thinking outside school, or because they needed to spend time in class that day preparing for, say, a biology test the following period. “They’re making meaningful decisions about their time that I don’t think education really ever gives students the experience, nor the practice, of doing,” Bronke said.

The typical prescription offered by those overwhelmed with homework is to assign less of it—to subtract. But perhaps a more useful approach, for many classrooms, would be to create homework only when teachers and students believe it’s actually needed to further the learning that takes place in class—to start with nothing, and add as necessary.

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Quality Over Quantity: Elements of Effective Homework

Educators often treat homework as a Goldilocks problem. Grounded in the belief that homework is fundamentally good for students, teachers aim to optimize how much they assign. If they don’t assign enough homework, they worry their students will not learn the subject matter. If, on the other hand, teachers assign too much, students may be unduly overloaded and stressed. The goal, for many educators, is to provide students the just-right homework load.

Much of the research on homework from the past several decades uses the variable of time to understand the effects of homework. How does the amount of time students spend on homework, researchers have asked, relate to their achievement in school? Do students with more homework earn higher grades? Do they get higher scores on standardized tests? Is there an amount of time spent after which students no longer reap any benefits from completing their homework?

In our own research, students frequently cite the amount of assigned homework as a primary driver of their stress. In fact, of the 50,000 high school students from predominantly middle to upper-middle-class communities that we surveyed since 2018, 67% reported homework as a primary source of stress, with 57% of students stating they had too much homework (Challenge Success, 2020).

But it’s not just the amount of homework that may provoke student stress; it’s also the type of homework assigned. When students perceive homework to be tedious or boring, for example, or they find it too advanced or confusing, they are likely to be more stressed and less engaged, regardless of how long the assignment takes. Conversely, as some studies suggest, when students find their work purposeful, meaningful, or interesting, they may derive more benefits from completing it.

In this white paper published in 2020, we aim to broaden the conversation around homework beyond the narrow focus on time spent. Drawing from decades of research, we explore the features of homework that may benefit students and consider those that may be associated with negative results. At the end of the paper, we provide educators and parents with a set of guiding questions that we hope will inform more effective homework policies and practices.

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How Much Homework is the Right Amount of Homework?

In the past, assigning mounds of homework was a way of life for most teachers. But now, many schools and teachers are opting to pull back on heavy homework to allow for more quality time at home—reading a good book, enjoying a family dinner, or playing outside. This change is in response to the growing question about the real value of homework and the changing dynamics of families with two working parents and multiple children with extra-curricular activities.

In the current debate of how much homework is the right amount, many schools rely on the 10-Minute Rule that is supported by the National PTA and the National Education Association. It equates to assigning 10 minutes of homework per grade level, per night. So, 20 minutes for second graders, 60 minutes for sixth graders, and so on, maxing at 2 hours of work for high school seniors. However, studies have shown that students may be spending three times the recommended time to complete their assignments.

• The Homework Debate

Those in support of nightly homework suggest that it:

• Helps students develop soft skills that include good study habits, time management, organization, prioritization, and personal responsibility
• Allows students to display their understanding of what they’ve learned without help from their teacher
• Keeps families involved in their children’s learning
• Fills in the gaps when teachers have less time to reinforce lessons and concepts in class

Those pushing for less homework (or none at all), especially for elementary students, argue that it does more harm than good. They point to these facts :

• The link between homework and academic achievement is not as strong as previously thought, especially for students in elementary school.
• Too much parent involvement can lessen the positive effects students should gain through after-school work.
• Homework is being blamed for increased stress, sleep deprivation, and other physical health problems in students.
• Breaking the Homework Mold

When determining your approach , remember this key point: quality over quantity. Consider the four common categories/purposes of additional work when creating assignments:

Practice Problems

Tailor, tailor, tailor! It’s easy to get lost in the sea of homework resources at hand these days. By keeping each student’s needs in mind, you’ll find the right practice for everyone. Zero in on review for the specific skills that individual students need to master. Using a variety of tools for different students, or even assigning a cluster of problems instead of the entire worksheet or book, can help you differentiate homework to make it more impactful.

Preparation Work

If a lack of classroom time is a real concern, use outside work to give your students a jumpstart on the next day’s lessons. This can include watching a video or completing a reading assignment that will give them valuable background on what they’ll be learning next. This concept is successfully used in many flipped classroom lessons.

Extension Activities

This allows you to see how well your students can take what they’ve learned and apply it to new situations.

Integration Assignments

Integration requires your students to apply several skills into a single assignment, whether it’s a research assignment, science project, presentation, or book report. It may be more time-intensive, but students are practicing many different disciplines.

• Homework Tips for Parents

Homework time can be a little difficult for a busy family, resulting in stumped parents and frustrated kids. Read on for advice that you can share with the families in your classroom to help create more positive experiences, no matter how much work is assigned.

Set a routine, but be sure to get your child’s input.

Some kids are okay to tackle homework as soon as they get home, while others may need to decompress for a while before they get back to work. Bookworms might want to save their reading for bedtime and early risers might knock out a math worksheet first thing in the morning.

Homework time should be free from distractions.

Unless a tablet or computer is required to complete the assignment, homework time should be done without TV or cell phone distractions.

Be a low-key homework helper.

The daily practice in this updated, standards-based series helps students build and maintain skills covered over the school year. Ideal for summer school students.

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Center for American Progress

Homework and Higher Standards

• Report    PDF (736 KB)

How Homework Stacks Up to the Common Core

CAP analysis found that homework is generally aligned to Common Core State Standards, but additional policy changes would make it more valuable.

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Introduction and summary

For as long as homework has been a part of school life in the United States, so too has the debate over its value. In 1900, a prominent magazine published an article on the evils of homework titled, “A National Crime at the Feet of Parents.” 1 The author, Edward Bok, believed that homework or too much school learning outside the classroom deprived children of critical time to play or participate in other activities at home. The very next year, California, influenced by those concerns, enacted a statewide prohibition on homework for students under the age of 15. 2 In 1917, the state lifted the ban, which has often been the case as districts have continually swung back and forth on the issue. 3

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More than 100 years later, homework remains a contentious issue, and the debate over its value rages on, with scholars coming down on both sides of the argument. Homework skeptic Alfie Kohn has questioned the benefit of homework, arguing that its positive effects are mythical, and in fact, it can disrupt the family dynamic. 4 He questions why teachers continue to assign homework given its mixed research base. Taking the opposite view, researchers Robert Marzano and Debra Pickering have voiced their support for purposeful homework that reinforces learning outside of school hours but still leaves time for other activities. 5

In 1989, prominent homework scholar Harris Cooper published a meta-analysis of more than 100 studies on homework in a survey that found a correlation between homework and performance on standardized tests, but only for certain grade levels. According to Cooper’s research, for students in late-elementary grades through high-school, there was a link between homework and improved standardized test performance. However, there was no evidence of the same correlation for younger students. 6 Even without a connection to academic achievement, Cooper still recommended assigning homework to younger students because it helps “develop good study habits, foster positive attitudes toward school, and communicate to students the idea that learning takes work at home as well as school.” 7

Far from academia, parents—not surprisingly—are some of homework’s most ardent supporters and, also, its most vocal critics. For better or worse, many parents help or are involved in their child’s homework in some way. As a result, homework can shape family dynamics and weeknight schedules. If a child receives too much homework, or only busywork, it can cause stress within families and resentment among parents. 8 Some parents report spending hours each night helping their children. For instance, a 2013 article in The Atlantic detailed a writer’s attempt to complete his 13-year-old daughter’s homework for a week. The headline simply read: “My Daughter’s Homework Is Killing Me.” 9 The father reported falling asleep trying to thoughtfully complete homework, which took around three hours per night. 10 On the other hand, some parents appreciate the glimpse into their child’s daily instruction and value homework’s ability to build positive learning habits.

It is no surprise that the debate over homework often spills onto the pages of newspapers and magazines, with calls to abolish homework regularly appearing in the headlines. In 2017, the superintendent of Marion County Public Schools in Florida joined districts in Massachusetts and Vermont in announcing a homework ban. To justify his decision, he used research from the University of Tennessee that showed that homework does not improve student achievement. 11 Most recently, in December 2018, The Wall Street Journal published a piece that argued that districts were “Down With Homework”—banning it, placing time caps or limiting it to certain days, or no longer grading it—in order to give students more time to sleep, read, and spend time with family. 12

Given the controversy long surrounding the issue of homework, in late spring 2018, the Center for American Progress conducted an online survey investigating the quality of students’ homework. The survey sought to better understand the nature of homework as well as whether the homework assigned was aligned to rigorous academic standards. Based on the best knowledge of the authors, the CAP survey and this report represent the first-ever national study of homework rigor and alignment to the Common Core State Standards—rigorous academic standards developed in a state-led process in 2010, which are currently in place in 41 states and Washington, D.C. The CAP study adds to existing research on homework by focusing on the quality of assignments rather than the overall value of homework of any type. There are previous studies that considered parental involvement and the potential stress on parents related to homework, but the authors believe that this report represents the first national study of parent attitudes toward homework. 13

For the CAP study, the authors used the Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) online survey tool to collect from parents their child’s actual homework assignments. Specifically, as part of the survey, the authors asked parents to submit a sample of their child’s most recent math or language arts homework assignment and have the child complete questions to gauge if the assignment was challenging, as well as how long it took to complete the assignment. In all, 372 parents responded to the survey, with CAP analyzing 187 homework assignments.

Admittedly, the methodological approach has limitations. For one, it’s a convenience sample, which means people were not selected randomly; and broadly speaking, the population on the MTurk site is younger and whiter than the U.S. population as a whole. However, research has shown that MTurk yields high-quality, nationally representative results, with data that are at least as reliable as those obtained via traditional methods. 14

In addition, the homework sample is not from a single classroom or school over the course of a year; rather, it is a snapshot of homework across many classrooms during the span of a few weeks in May 2018. The assumption is that looking at assignments from many classrooms over a short period of time helps to construct a composite picture of mathematics and language arts homework.

Moreover, the design of the CAP study has clear advantages. Many of the previous existing studies evaluated homework in a single district, whereas the CAP study draws from a national sample, and despite its limitations, the authors believe that the findings are robust and contribute significantly to the existing research on homework.

Three key findings from the CAP survey:

• Homework is largely aligned to the Common Core standards. The authors found that the homework submitted is mostly aligned to Common Core standards content. The alignment index that the authors used evaluated both topic and skill. As previously noted, the analysis is a snapshot of homework and, therefore, does not allow the authors to determine if homework over the course of a year covered all the topics represented in the standards.
• Homework is often focused on low-level skills in the Common Core standards, particularly in the earlier grades. While the authors’ analysis shows that there was significant alignment between Common Core and the topics represented in the homework studied, most of the assignments were fairly rote and often did not require students to demonstrate the full depth of knowledge required of the content standards. There was clear emphasis on procedural knowledge, and an even stronger emphasis on memorization and recall in language arts. Common Core content standards, on the other hand, require students to demonstrate deeper knowledge skills, such as the ability to analyze, conceptualize, or generate. 15
• Homework frequently fails to challenge students. Nearly half of the parents who responded to the CAP survey reported that homework is too easy for their child. In particular, parents of primary-grade children were most likely to agree or strongly agree that the homework assignment they submitted was too easy for their child.

Based on these key findings, CAP recommends that states, districts, and schools improve the quality of homework and increase opportunities for students to practice rigorous grade-level content at home. Specifically, the authors—drawing from this survey and other existing research on homework—recommend the following actions to improve the role of homework in education:

• Schools and districts should develop homework policies that emphasize strategic, rigorous homework. In many cases, the homework debate is limited and short-sighted. Currently, many arguments focus on whether or not students should have homework at all, and there are entire school districts that have simply banned homework. Instead of debating the merits of banning homework, reformers and practitioners should focus on improving the rigor and effectiveness of all instructional materials, including

Districts, schools, and teachers should ensure that the total amount of homework students receive does not exceed the 10-minute rule—that is to say, no more than 10 minutes of homework multiplied by the student’s grade level. 16 According to research, any more than that can be counterproductive. 17 Also, too much homework may be an unnecessary burden on families and parents. Homework should be engaging and aligned to Common Core standards, which allow students to develop deeper-level learning skills—such as analysis or conceptualization—that help them increase retention of content.

• Districts and schools should periodically audit homework to make sure it is challenging and aligned to standards. Rather than implementing homework bans, district policymakers and school principals should regularly review examples of homework assignments to ensure that it is aligned to grade-level standards and requires students to demonstrate conceptual learning. In instances where the district or school finds that homework assignments are not aligned or take too much or too little time to complete, they should help teachers improve homework assignments by recommending instructional materials that may make it easier for them to identify appropriate, grade-level homework assignments.
• Schools and districts should provide access to technology and other supports that can make it easier for students to complete rigorous schoolwork at home. Technology can also provide additional support or scaffolding at home, allowing more students to complete homework without help from adults or older siblings. For instance, programs such as the Khan Academy can give students rigorous homework that’s aligned to Common Core standards. 18 Unfortunately, many households across the nation still do not have adequate access to devices or internet at home. Schools and districts should consider options to ensure that all students can benefit from technology and broadband. Greater access to technology can help more students benefit from continual innovation and new tools. While most of these technologies are not yet research-based, and the use of devices may not be appropriate for younger children, incorporating new tools into homework may be a low-cost method to improve the quality of student learning.
• Curriculum reform and instructional redesign should focus on homework. There are many states and districts that are reforming curriculum or adopting different approaches to instruction, including personalized learning. Curriculum reform and personalized learning are tied to greater academic outcomes and an increase in motivation. Homework should also be a focus of these and other efforts; states and districts should consider how textbooks or other instructional materials can provide resources or examples to help teachers assign meaningful homework that will complement regular instruction.

The findings and recommendations of this study are discussed in detail below.

Homework must be rigorous and aligned to content standards

All homework is not created equal. The CAP study sought to evaluate homework quality—specifically, if homework is aligned to rigorous content standards. The authors believe that access to grade-level content at home will increase the positive impact of adopting more rigorous content standards, and they sought to examine if homework is aligned to the topics and skill level in the content standards.

The 10-minute rule

According to Harris Cooper, homework is a valuable tool, but there is such a thing as too much. In 2006, Cooper and his colleagues argued that spending a lot of time on homework can be counterproductive. He believes that research supports the 10-minute rule—that students should be able to complete their homework in no more than 10 minutes multiplied by their grade. For example, this would amount to 20 minutes for a second-grade student, 50 minutes for a fifth-grade student, and so on. 19

The Common Core, developed by the National Governors Association and the Council of Chief State School Officers, established a set of benchmarks for “what students should know and be able to do” in math and language arts by the end of the academic year in kindergarten through high school. 20 The math standards focus on fewer concepts but in more depth and ask students to develop different approaches to solve similar problems. In language arts, the standards moved students away from narrative-based assignments, instead concentrating on using evidence to build arguments and reading more nonfiction.

The Common Core is not silent in the cognitive demand needed to demonstrate mastery for each standard. 21 For example, a second grade math standard is “[s]olve word problems involving dollar bills, quarters, dimes, nickels, and pennies, using $ and ¢ symbols appropriately.” For this standard, a second-grader has not mastered the standard if they are only able to identifying the name and value of every.

Remember, apply, integrate: Levels of cognitive demand or depth of knowledge

There are numerous frameworks to describe levels of cognitive skills. One of the most prominent of these models, Bloom’s taxonomy, identifies six categories of cognition. The original levels and terms were knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation; however, these terms have changed slightly over time. 22 Learning does not necessarily follow a linear process, and certainly, all levels of cognitive demand are important. Yet these categories require individuals to demonstrate a different level of working knowledge of a topic. With the advent of standards-based reform, the role of cognitive skill—particularly in the area of assessment—has become a much more explicit component of curriculum materials.

Over the past two decades, cognitive science has shown that individuals of any age retain information longer when they demonstrate deeper learning and make their own meaning with the content—using skills such as the abilities to conjecture, generalize, prove, and more—as opposed to only committing ideas to memory or performing rote procedures, using skills such as the ability to memorize or recall.

In essence, Common Core created rigorous expectations to guide the instruction of students in all states that chose to adopt its standards. These standards aimed to increase college preparedness and make students more competitive in the workforce. Policymakers, advocates, and practitioners hoped that Common Core would create greater consistency in academic rigor across states. In addition, with the classroom and homework aligned to these standards, many anticipated that students would graduate from high school prepared for college or career. As of 2017, 41 states and the District of Columbia have adopted and are working to implement the standards, although many of these states have modified them slightly. 23

In this study, the authors evaluated homework to determine if it was aligned to Common Core standards in two ways: First, does it reflect grade-level content standards; second, does it require students to use skills similar to those required to demonstrate proficiency in a content area. This multitiered approach is critical to evaluating alignment between standards and instruction—in this case homework. Instruction must teach content and help students develop necessary levels of cognitive skill. Curricula for each grade should include instructional materials that are sequenced and rigorous, thus enabling students to develop an understanding of all content standards.

In spring 2018, the Center for American Progress used Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) to administer a survey. MTurk is a crowdsourcing marketplace managed by Amazon; it allows organizations to virtually administer surveys for a diverse sample. 24 The CAP survey asked parents to submit a sample of their child’s most recent math or language arts homework assignment and complete a few questions to gauge if the assignment was challenging, as well as how long it took for the student to complete the assignment. A total of 372 parents responded to the survey, and CAP analyzed 187 homework assignments.

Of the 372 parents who participated in the survey, 202, or about 54 percent of respondents, submitted samples of their child’s homework assignment. The researchers dropped a total of 15 homework submissions from analysis either because the subject matter was not math or language arts—but rather, science, music, or social studies—or because the authors could not examine the specific content, for example, in cases where parents only provided a copy of the cover of a textbook. Of the remaining homework samples submitted, 72 percent (134 samples) focused on mathematics content, while the remaining 28 percent (53 samples) represented language arts content.

Of the 372 responding parents, 234—or 63 percent—were female, and 126—or 37 percent—were male. Forty-eight percent of parents responding to the survey were under the age of 34, while almost 90 percent of respondents were under the age of 45. There was an unequal distribution of parents representing elementary and secondary grade levels. Seventy-one percent of the total sample were parents with students in primary (K-2) and elementary (3-5) grades. (See Methodology section below)

Based on the analysis, the authors’ drew the following conclusions:

Homework is largely aligned to Common Core standards, especially the topics in the standards

The authors found that the submitted homework, for the most part, was aligned to Common Core standards content or within the so-called “good” range based on content expert evaluations. As described in the Methodology, the authors used an alignment index that does not require a homework assignment to exactly mirror the content standards—both topic and skill level—for evaluators to note that it is within a good range. For context, the study’s alignment index has a range of 0.00 to 1.00, where 0.00 indicates no content in common whatsoever between the two descriptions—perfect misalignment—and 1.00 indicates complete agreement between the two descriptions—perfect alignment. Generally speaking, what one might call “good” alignment for instruction tends to range on the alignment index between 0.4 and 0.6, with a measure of 0.5 serving as a median indicator of good alignment.

The analysis is a snapshot of homework and, therefore, does not allow the authors to determine if homework over the course of a year covered all required standards. In other words, it is difficult to say how many of the standards for a given grade are covered across a full school year, simply because of the limited sample of assignments.

The alignment index evaluates both topic and skill, but there was particular alignment in topic areas. For instance, there was a strong emphasis in the topic areas of number sense and operations for primary math homework. When combined with the third-most emphasized topic, measurement, these three areas accounted for more than 90 percent of primary mathematics homework content. The actual math content standards for the primary grades also placed heavy emphasis on the topic areas of number sense, operations, and measurement—though they accounted for only about 80 percent of primary math content.

In general, across all age groups, math homework was more closely aligned to content standards—both topic and skill level—than language arts. The alignment results for middle school math were particularly strong, at 0.56, based on 27 homework samples. The stronger alignment among math homework samples may be in part due to the fact that there were more math assignments in the sample than language arts assignments. Larger samples offer more opportunities to show alignment. As a result, smaller samples may underestimate alignment.

The table below presents the alignment indices, which were calculated using the homework samples collected for each grade band.

Homework is often focused on low-level skills in the standards, particularly in younger grades

While the authors’ analysis shows that there was significant alignment in the topic of standards and homework assignments, most of the homework did not require students to demonstrate the full depth of knowledge required of content standards. The analysis uncovered an emphasis on procedural knowledge, with an even stronger emphasis on memorization and recall in language arts. Content standards, on the other hand, require students to demonstrate deeper-knowledge skills, such as the ability to analyze, conceptualize, or generate.

Of five performance expectation categories across math and language arts that the authors used to measure alignment between standards and homework, there was a disproportionate emphasis on skills that require a lower level of knowledge or understanding. In grades K-2, for instance, the content standards emphasize the performance expectations of “procedures,” or computation, and “demonstrate,” or understanding, but the homework samples submitted primarily emphasized the procedures level of performance expectation. Similarly, homework for grades three through five focused almost entirely on the performance expectation of procedures, rather than standards that emphasized both procedures and demonstrate. 25

As seen with the middle school grades, high school math standards—despite a continued emphasis on procedures—show increased emphasis on the more challenging performance expectations of “demonstrate understanding” and “conjecture, generalize, prove.” Interestingly, this shift toward more challenging performance expectations is most visible for the topic areas of geometric concepts and functions, in both the standards and the homework samples submitted by parents of high school students.

Parents report that homework frequently does not challenge students

Nearly half of parents that participated in the survey reported that homework does not challenge their child. In particular, parents of primary-grade children were most likely to agree or strongly agree that the homework assignment they submitted was too easy for their child—58 percent for language arts and 55 percent for math.

Parents’ opinions about homework difficulty varied between mathematics and language arts assignments. Forty-eight percent of parents who submitted a mathematics assignment and 44 percent of parents who submitted a language arts assignment reported that it was too easy for their child. There was some variance across grade spans as well. As noted above, parents of primary-grade children were most likely to find the homework assignments too easy for their child. Meanwhile, parents that submitted high school math homework were also more likely to agree or strongly agree that the assignments were too easy, with 50 percent agreeing or strongly agreeing and only 33 percent disagreeing or strongly disagreeing with the statement. While there were clear trends in parent opinions, it is important to acknowledge that the sample size for each subset was small.

The comments of surveyed parents echoed this finding. One parent noted that “most homework that they are assigned seems like nothing more than busy work.” Another parent said: “The homework is not strong enough to build conceptual knowledge. It assumes that the child already has that knowledge.” Meanwhile, another parent commented: “Homework is way oversimplified and they don’t seem to spend much time on it. It’s a bit sad that English and math don’t seem to require what they used to. I remember much longer and harder worksheets to complete when I was a child.” 26

Weak homework samples

Within the sample of homework assignments, there were some that fell short of rigorous. For instance, one assignment listed 24 pairs of numbers—three and nine, 24 and 21, and so on—and asked the student to circle the smaller number in order to build numbers sense. While homework can be critical when establishing foundational knowledge, repetitive activities such as this often fail to engage students and, instead, overemphasize rote learning. Asking a student to list or name a number of a lesser value, for instance, would make this assignment more interactive.

A second example from kindergarten asked a student to create an uppercase and lowercase letter “f” by filling in dots with paint. The parent who submitted it highlighted the limited utility of the assignment, emphasizing that it does not hold students to high expectations. What’s more, the homework only gave the student two opportunities to practice writing the letter, both in a nonauthentic way. Indeed, the assignment focused more on filling in circles than it did constructing letters. While this task might help build a kindergartener’s hand-eye coordination, it does little to support language arts.

Exemplary homework samples

While many of the assignments submitted focused on procedures and, for math, computation, it is worth acknowledging some of the more exemplary types of homework included in the samples. These offer examples of how homework can challenge students, engage rigorous cognitive processes, and demonstrate that content standards at all levels—not just middle and high school—can support challenging homework that pushes students to think critically.

For example, one math homework assignment asked a student to identify which individuals possessed each of four groups of shapes based on the following description:

Ally, Bob, Carl, and Dana each have a set of shapes.

• Bob has no triangles.
• The number of rectangles that Dana has is the same as the number of triangles that Carl has.

This example is interesting on two counts. First, the assignment goes beyond procedure, requiring the student to analyze the various sets of shapes in order to determine which set belongs to which individual. It is also interesting insofar as it demonstrates a common real-world situation: There is usually more than one way to solve a problem, and sometimes, there is more than one correct answer.

Similarly, another example asked a student to determine actions that would help students beautify the school. The header of the assignment read, “Make a Decision: Keep Our School Beautiful!” The assignment had various boxes, each with a question above, such as, “Should we recycle?” or “Should we make art?” The assignment asked the student to “(1) think about each choice, (2) consider how each choice would affect them and others in the school community, (3) write their ideas in boxes below.” In doing so, it required primary students to analyze and generate ideas—both of which are skills that promote deeper learning.

Recommendations

Homework offers a valuable window into the curricula, assessment practices, and instructional preferences of teachers. It provides insight into classroom learning as well as the types of knowledge and skills the teacher believes will reinforce that instruction at home.

This analysis shows that the content and value of homework varies. While most homework within the sample was aligned to content standards, there is still a significant need to increase the rigor of homework and create opportunities for students to use higher-order skills.

Overall, schools and districts should pay more attention to homework as a reform lever. A growing body of research shows that homework is connected to learning outcomes, and as a result, schools and districts should ensure that policies help teachers provide meaningful assignments. 27 Based on this survey and the existing research on homework quality, the authors identified recommendations that can help increase the quality of homework:

Schools and districts should develop homework policies that emphasize strategic, rigorous homework

In many cases, the current debate over homework is short-sighted. Many arguments focus on whether or not students should have homework. There are entire school districts that have simply banned homework altogether. However, the debate should move beyond the merit of homework. Research shows that homework is linked to better performance on standardized assessments, especially in higher grades. 28 Many homework scholars also believe that a reasonable homework load can help develop important work habits. 29 Therefore, instead of eliminating homework outright, schools, districts, and advocates should focus on improving its rigor and effectiveness. As discussed throughout, homework should be an extension of instruction during the school day. Accordingly, policymakers and schools must make changes to homework that are in concert with curriculum reform.

Like all instruction, homework should be aligned to states’ rigorous content standards and should engage students in order to promote deeper learning and retention. To do this, homework should ask students to use higher-order skills, such as the ability to analyze or evaluate.

However, schools and districts, rather than simply assigning longer, more complicated assignments to make homework seem more challenging, should make strategic shifts. Homework assignments should be thought-provoking. But there is a such thing as too much homework. Districts and schools should ensure that teachers follow the research-supported 10-minute rule. 30 Also, teachers, schools, and districts should consider resources to set all students up for success when faced with more rigorous home assignments; homework should never be a burden or source of stress for families and parents.

Districts and schools should audit homework to make sure it is challenging and aligned to standards

Rather than implementing homework bans, district policymakers and schools should regularly review homework samples to ensure that they are aligned to grade-level standards, are engaging, require students to demonstrate higher-order skills, and adhere to the 10-minute rule. The audit should review multiple homework assignments from each classroom and consider how much time children are receiving from all subject areas, when appropriate. The district or school should ask for ongoing feedback from students, parents, and guardians in order to collect a comprehensive representation of the learning experience at home.

In instances where the district or school principal finds that homework assignments are not aligned to grade-level standards or take too much or too little time to complete, they should help the school or teachers improve them by recommending instructional materials that may make it easier for teachers to identify appropriate, grade-level homework assignments. In addition, if parents or students identify challenges to complete assignments at home, the district or school should identify solutions to ensure that all students have access to the resources and support they need to complete homework.

Schools and districts should provide access to technology and other supports that make it easier for students to complete homework

Technology can go a long way to improve homework and provide additional support or scaffolding at home. For instance, programs such as the Khan Academy—which provides short lessons through YouTube videos and practice exercises—can give students rigorous homework that is aligned to the Common Core standards. Unfortunately, many households across the nation still do not have adequate access to devices or internet at home. A 2017 ACT survey found that 14 percent of students only have access to one technology device at home. 31 Moreover, federal data from 2013 found that about 40 percent of households with school-age children do not have access to broadband. 32 It is likely that the percentage has decreased with time, but internet access remains a significant problem.

Schools and districts should adopt programs to ensure that all students can benefit from technology and broadband. For instance, Salton City, California, installed a Wi-Fi router in a school bus. Every night, the bus parks near a neighborhood with low internet connectivity, serving as a hot spot for students. 33

Moreover, greater access to technology can help more students benefit from new innovative resources. While most of these technologies are not yet research-based, and the use of devices may not be appropriate for younger children, incorporating new tools into homework may be a low-cost option to improve the quality of student learning. For instance, ASSISTments is a free web-based tool that provides immediate feedback as students complete homework or classwork. It has been proven to raise student outcomes. 34 Other online resources can complement classroom learning as well. There are various organizations that offer students free lessons in the form of YouTube videos, while also providing supplementary practice exercises and materials for educators. LearnZillion, for example, provides its users with high-quality lessons that are aligned to the Common Core standards. 35

Curriculum reform and instruction design should focus on homework

There are many states and districts that are engaging in curriculum reform. Many of these recent reform efforts show promise. In an analysis of the curricula and instructional materials used by the nation’s 30 largest school districts, the Center for American Progress found that approximately one-third of materials adopted or recommended by these districts were highly rated and met expectations for alignment. 36

Homework should be a focus of curriculum reform, and states and districts should consider how textbooks or other instructional materials can provide resources or examples to help teachers assign meaningful homework that will complement regular classroom instruction.

Personalized learning—which tailors instruction and learning environments to meet each student’s individual interests and needs—is also gaining traction as a way to increase declining engagement in schools and increase student motivation. 37 These ideas are also relevant to homework quality. A 2010 study found that when students were offered a choice of homework assignment, they were more motivated to do the work, reported greater competence in the assignments, and performed better on unit tests, compared with peers that did not have choice in homework. 38 The study also suggested that offering students a choice improved the rate of completion of assignments. 39 Districts and schools should help implement more student-centered approaches to all instruction—in the classroom and at home.

When it comes to change management, experts often advise to look for low-hanging fruit—the simplest and easiest fixes. 40 In education, homework reform is low-hanging fruit. Research shows that quality homework and increasing student achievement are positively correlated; and yet, the authors’ analysis shows that some schools may not be taking advantage of a valuable opportunity to support student achievement. Instead of mirroring the cognitive demand in rigorous content standards, homework assigned to students is often weak or rote. But it does not have to be this way. More rigorous, insightful homework is out there. Policymakers and schools need to move beyond the debate of whether or not to assign work outside of school hours and do their own due diligence—or, put another way, their own homework—before assigning homework to students in this nation’s schools.

Methodology

As mentioned above, the authors used the Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) online survey tool to collect from parents their child’s actual homework assignments. Specifically, as part of the survey, the authors asked parents to submit a sample of their child’s most recent math or language arts homework assignment and have the child complete questions to gauge if the assignment was challenging, as well as how long it took to complete the assignment. In all, 372 parents responded to the survey, with CAP analyzing 187 homework assignments. The submissions of samples were analyzed by a group of analysts under the supervision of John L. Smithson, researcher emeritus at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.

Measuring alignment

The homework samples were reviewed by two teams of content analysts—one for mathematics and one for language arts—who were asked to describe the academic content represented by the submitted homework, as well as the performance expectation. Each team consisted of three analysts who possessed the relevant content expertise and experience in methodology used to gather the descriptive data.

The teams used a taxonomy-based methodology that was developed by education researchers Andrew Porter and John Smithson during Porter’s tenure as director of the Wisconsin Center for Education Research at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. 41 Researchers both nationally and internationally have subsequently used this approach to content description for decades in order to examine issues of alignment as well as to support program evaluation and inform school improvement efforts.

The U.S. Department of Education also recognizes the validity of this approach. Specifically, the Education Department completes a peer review of states’ annual assessment program’s alignment to state academic content standards. 42 The Porter/Smithson approach is one of a handful of alignment methodologies that has been determined to meet these federal requirements. 43

The Porter/Smithson approach is unique because it defines instructional content as a two-dimensional construct consisting of topic and cognitive demand, or skill. This approach to describing cognitive skill is similar to Bloom’s, which the authors have described above. It has five categories: recall, process, analyze, integrate, and conceptual understanding. The Porter/Smithson approach is the most stringent of alignment indicators, as it looks at both topic and cognitive demand; it is also possibly the most challenging to interpret because the final alignment score considers two dimensions.

The alignment index has a range of 0.00 to 1.00, where 0.00 indicates no content in common whatsoever between the two descriptions—perfect misalignment—and 1.00 indicates complete agreement between the two descriptions—perfect alignment. A measure of 1.00 is exceedingly unlikely, requiring perfect agreement across every cell that makes up the content description. In practice, this is only seen when comparing a document to itself. For instance, very high alignment measures—more than 0.70—have been noted when comparing different test forms used for a particular grade-level state assessment; but those are instances where high alignment is desired. In terms of instructional alignment—in other words, how well instruction is aligned to the standards—a measure of 1.00 is not the goal. For this reason, the authors did not expect any analysis of homework alignment, no matter how well designed, to have a measure of or close to 1.00.

Generally speaking, what one might call “good” alignment for instruction tends to range between 0.4 and 0.6 on the alignment index, with a measure of 0.5 serving as a median indicator of good alignment. The description of the content standards represents the goal of instructional practice—the destination, not the journey. As such, it does not indicate the best path for achieving those goals. The 0.5 indicator measure represents a middle road where teachers are balancing the expectations of the content standards with the immediate learning needs of their students.

Limitations

The authors acknowledge that the analysis has shortcomings. The sample was relatively small and does not directly mirror the national population of parents of elementary and secondary school students. As such, the sample does not necessarily reflect the views or homework experiences of the larger U.S. population.

Limited sample size

The current study analyzes a snapshot of homework across many classrooms, rather than homework from a single classroom or school. The assumption is that looking at individual homework assignments across many classrooms will help to construct a composite picture of mathematics and language arts homework that will be somewhat reflective of the picture one would get from following many classrooms for many days. If the sample is large enough with a wide enough geographical spread, that assumption serves researchers well enough.

For the current study, however, the number of homework samples available for each grade band were, in some cases, quite small—as low as five assignments each for middle and high school language arts. The largest sample sizes were for primary and elementary math, with 47 and 41 homework assignments collected, respectively. However, even 47 is a fairly small sample size for drawing inferences about a full year of homework.

Selection bias

The respondents that participated in this study were a reasonably diverse group in terms of age, gender, and ethnicity, but there are notable differences between the makeup of the parents represented in the study and the makeup of parents of school-age children more generally. Respondents were predominantly female, with women making up almost two-thirds—63 percent—of the sample. They also tended to be parents of younger school-age children, with 71 percent of the respondents reporting on children from the bottom half of the K-12 system—grades K-5. Finally, in terms of race and ethnicity, the sample overrepresented Asian American families and underrepresented African American families. These groups comprised 14 percent and 8 percent of respondents, respectively, compared with national averages of 6 percent and 12 percent.

Because the sample does not well reflect the population of parents of elementary and secondary students, the authors considered possible selection biases that may help to explain the differences in sample and overall population and that may have affected certain members of the population more than others.

For instance, the authors administered the survey using MTurk, which may have skewed the sample. In general, the population on the site is younger and whiter than the U.S. population as a whole. However, research has shown that MTurk yields high-quality, nationally representative results, with data that are at least as reliable as those obtained via traditional methods. 44 The researchers also targeted California and Texas in order to increase the diversity of the sample.

In addition, accessibility could have led to selection bias. Despite broad internet access in 2018, there remain families in low-income locales where internet access is not readily available for parents. It is also possible that older parents are less likely to be as active on the internet as younger parents, further contributing to selection bias.

About the authors

Ulrich Boser is a senior fellow at the Center for American Progress. He is also the founder and CEO of The Learning Agency.

Meg Benner is a senior consultant at the Center.

John Smithson is the researcher emeritus at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Sarah Shapiro, a former research assistant at the Center for American Progress, for her support developing the survey. They also appreciate the valuable feedback of Catherine Brown, senior fellow for Education Policy at the Center for American Progress; Tom Loveless, senior fellow at the Brookings Institution; Lisette Partelow, director of K-12 Special Initiatives at the Center; and Scott Sargrad, vice president of K-12 Education Policy at the Center.

Conflicts of interest

The author, Ulrich Boser, has a financial relationship with the creators of the online homework tool ASSISTments.

• Tom Loveless, “How Well Are American Students Learning?” (Washington: Brown Center on Education Policy , 2014), available at https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/2014-Brown-Center-Report_FINAL-4.pdf .
• Seema Mehta, “Some schools are cutting back on hoomework,” Los Angeles Times , March 22, 2009, available at http://articles.latimes.com/2009/mar/22/local/me-homework22 .
• Alfie Kohn, “Rethinking Homework,” Principal , January/February 2007, available at https://www.alfiekohn.org/article/rethinking-homework/ .
• Robert J. Marzano and Debra J. Pickering, “The Case For and Against Homework,” Educational Leadership 64 (6) (2007): 74–79, available at http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/mar07/vol64/num06/The-Case-For-and-Against-Homework.aspx .
• Michael Winerip, “Homework Bound,” The New York Times , January 3, 1999, available at https://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/03/education/homework-bound.html .
• Marzano and Pickering, “The Case For and Against Homework.”
• Brian P. Gill and Seven L. Schlossman, “Villain or Savior? The American Discourse on Homework, 1850-2003,” Theory Into Practice 43 (3) (2004): 174–181, available at http://www.history.cmu.edu/docs/schlossman/Villiain-or-Savior.pdf .
• Karl Taro Greenfeld, “My Daughter’s Homework Is Killing Me,” The Atlantic , October 2013, available at https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2013/10/my-daughters-homework-is-killing-me/309514/ .
• Fox News, “Florida students in Marion County will no longer be assigned homework, superintendent says,” July 13, 2017, available at https://www.foxnews.com/us/florida-students-in-marion-county-will-no-longer-be-assigned-homework-superintendent-says ; Kate Edwards, “East Tennessee schools consider ‘no homework policy’,” WJHL, September 13, 2016, available at https://www.wjhl.com/news/east-tennessee-schools-consider-no-homework-policy/871720275 .
• Tawnell D. Hobbs, “Down With Homework, Say U.S. School Districts,” The Wall Street Journal, December 12, 2018, available at https://www.wsj.com/articles/no-homework-its-the-new-thing-in-u-s-schools-11544610600 .
• Marzano and Pickering, “The Case For and Against Homework”; Gill and Schlossman, “Villain or savior?”.
• Matthew J. C. Crump, John V. McDonnell, and Todd M. Gureckis, “Evaluating Amazon’s Mechanical Turk as a Tool for Experimental Behavioral Research,” PLOS ONE 8 (3) (2013): 1–18, available at https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0057410&type=printable .
• Common Core requires students to demonstrate conceptual understanding of topics and use the information to analyze and make their own meaning. The abilities to analyze, conceptualize, and generate denote higher-order cognitive skills. The authors describe hierarchies of cognitive skills later in the report. Many of the standards use these verbs to describe what is expected. Common Core State Standards Initiative, “About the Standards,” available at http://www.corestandards.org/about-the-standards/ (last accessed January 2019).
• Robert J. Marzano and Debra J. Pickering, “The Case For and Against Homework.”
• Khan Academy, “Common Core,” available at https://www.khanacademy.org/commoncore (last accessed February 2019).
• Common Core State Standards Initiative, “What are educational standards?”, available at http://www.corestandards.org/faq/what-are-educational-standards/ (last accessed January 2019).
• William G. Huitt, “Bloom et al.’s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain” (Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University, 2011), available at http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/bloom.pdf .
• Solomon Friedberg and others, “The State of State Standards Post-Common Core” (Washington: Thomas B. Fordham Institute, 2018), available at http://edex.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/publication/pdfs/(08.22)%20The%20State%20of%20State%20Standards%20Post-Common%20Core.pdf .
• Amazon Mechanical Turk, “Home,” available at https://www.mturk.com/ (last accessed January 2019).
• Common Core State Standards Initiative, “Read the Standards,” available at http://www.corestandards.org/read-the-standards/ (last accessed February 2019).
• Center for American Progress survey administered on Amazon Mechanical Turk, May 2018, full survey results on file with the authors.
• Lauraine Genota, “‘Homework Gap’ Hits Minority, Impoverished Students Hardest, Survey Finds,” Education Week , September 19, 2018, available at https://blogs.edweek.org/edweek/DigitalEducation/2018/09/homework_gap_education_equity_ACT_survey.html .
• John B. Horrigan, “The numbers behind the broadband ‘homework gap’,” Pew Research Center, April 20, 2015, available at http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/04/20/the-numbers-behind-the-broadband-homework-gap/ .
• Nichole Dobo, “What to do for kids with no internet at home? How about parking a wifi-enabled school bus near their trailer park?”, The Hechinger Report , December 23, 2014, available at https://hechingerreport.org/kids-no-internet-home-parking-wifi-enabled-school-bus-near-trailer-park/ .
• Alison Duffy, “Study Shows WPI-developed Math Homework Tool Closes the Learning Gap,” Worcester Polytechnic Institute, October 24, 2016, available at https://www.wpi.edu/news/study-shows-wpi-developed-math-homework-tool-closes-learning-gap .
• Sean Cavanagh, “LearnZillion Going After District Curriculum Business, Aims to Compete With Big Publishers,” EdWeek Market Brief, June 6, 2018, available at https://marketbrief.edweek.org/marketplace-k-12/learnzillion-going-district-curriculum-business-aims-compete-big-publishers/ .
• Lisette Partelow and Sarah Shapiro, “Curriculum Reform in the Nation’s Largest School Districts” (Washington: Center for American Progress, 2018), available at https://americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2018/08/DistrictCurricula-report3.pdf .
• TNTP, “The Opportunity Myth” (New York: 2018), available at https://tntp.org/assets/documents/TNTP_The-Opportunity-Myth_Web.pdf ; Gallup, “Gallup Student Poll: Measure What Matters Most for Student Success,” available at https://www.gallup.com/education/233537/gallup-student-poll.aspx?utm_source=link_newsv9&utm_campaign=item_211028&utm_medium=copy&_ga=2.248421390.86741706.1543204564-175832835.1543204564 (last accessed January 2019).
• Erika A. Patall, Harris Cooper, and Susan R. Wynn, “The Effectiveness and Relative Importance of Choice in the Classroom,” Journal of Educational Psychology , 102 (4) (2010): 896–915, available at https://www.immagic.com/eLibrary/ARCHIVES/GENERAL/JOURNALS/E101100P.pdf .
• Jeremy Eden and Terri Long, “Forget the strategic transformation, going after the low-hanging fruit reaps more rewards,” The Globe and Mail, June 24, 2014, available at https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/careers/management/bagging-simple-cheap-ideas/article19311957/ .
• U.S. Department of Education, “A State’s Guide to the U.S. Department of Education’s Assessment Peer Review Process” (Washington: 2018), available at https://www2.ed.gov/admins/lead/account/saa/assessmentpeerreview.pdf .
• Ellen Forte, “Evaluating Alignment in Large-Scale Standards-Based Assessment Systems” (Washington: Council of Chief State School Officers, 2017) available at https://ccsso.org/sites/default/files/2018-07/TILSA%20Evaluating%20Alignment%20in%20Large-Scale%20Standards-Based%20Assessment%20Systems.pdf .
• Kevin J. Mullinix and others, “The Generalizability of Survey Experiments,” Journal of Experimental Political Science 2 (2) (2015): 109–138, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-experimental-political-science/article/generalizability-of-survey-experiments/72D4E3DB90569AD7F2D469E9DF3A94CB .

The positions of American Progress, and our policy experts, are independent, and the findings and conclusions presented are those of American Progress alone. A full list of supporters is available here . American Progress would like to acknowledge the many generous supporters who make our work possible.

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• About the Project

• Well-Designed Homework Time as a Quality-Building Aid in Afterschool

Natalie Lucas

• Read more about Natalie Lucas

Jennifer Kobrin

• Read more about Jennifer Kobrin

If any children are peering over your shoulder as you read these lines, hide the next sentence from them. 


The evidence that homework aids student achievement is inconclusive (Center for Public Education, 2007). 


Yet, for many students, not completing homework on time, or completing it incorrectly, can leave them at a serious disadvantage as they try to progress successfully through school. It is also important to note that well-designed homework, instead of just “throwing worksheets at students,” is more likely to have merit and can be a positive connection between school and afterschool programs. Combining well-designed homework with other academic enrichment activities in afterschool can provide a well-rounded package of expanded learning opportunities that contribute to school success and positive youth development.


Homework has maintained a role as a traditional component of the education system over many generations, although it has not been totally proven to be effective as a tool for improving students’ learning. A battle waged in recent decades over the value of homework did not come to a definitive conclusion, leaving both proponents and opponents with research they can cite to support either side of the debate. 1  It appears that the presence of homework serves more to forestall a decline in performance (Morrison, Storino, Robertson, Weissglass, & Dondero, 2000) rather than to advance achievement; however, making homework completion just one element of a broader, comprehensive afterschool program enhances its value.


Despite the conflicted research base, school policies continue to mandate and teachers continue to assign homework. This reality is where afterschool programs must position themselves, regardless of any personal opinions on homework. The general charge of an afterschool program is to help students succeed in school; and if homework is required by the school, then many afterschool programs see homework support as part of that charge. Going a step further is to encourage staff buy-in and enthusiasm for a program culture that embraces homework time as useful and important, rather than a bore and a chore for all involved. 


This commitment to productive homework time can be bolstered by a program’s recognition that well-designed homework, as part of a broader afterschool initiative, not only can provide benefits to youth but also serve to reinforce some of the desired—and often required—yet hard-to-come-by program goals: (a) homework is a natural link between afterschool and school, (b) homework is a promising bridge between afterschool and families, (c) homework supports principles of youth development that are central to afterschool programs, and (d) homework help can be a hook to engage students in expanded learning and broader opportunities. 


Supporting the School Day and Connecting With Teachers


Homework serves as a natural point of connection between school-day staff and afterschool staff, whose roles are parallel yet often isolated. Many school-day teachers do not ask for help from afterschool, or even do not picture the potential for afterschool programming to aid in school-day goals. The practitioner who takes the first step to building relationships with school-day staff can demonstrate that program practices, such as homework support or tutoring, are working toward the same outcomes the school-day teachers hope to achieve. 


Once this common understanding has been reached, the relationship can be maintained through intentional and sustained communication. A regular schedule of check-ins via phone or e-mail or in person should be established. Tools such as a homework contract or a homework completion tracking document allow both sides to stay up-to-date without adding additional strain on job responsibilities. By using such tools and scheduling regular check-ins, afterschool staff can more readily ask school-day teachers for help with students’ more difficult assignments. In a time when 89% of students stress about homework (Met Life, 2007) this communication builds trust that makes students more confident in the program’s ability to be helpful and meet student needs. 


In rural Missouri, for example, the West Plains R-7 Before and After School Education program utilizes the regular school day homework planner to track student assignments and facilitate information sharing between afterschool staff and teachers. The planner includes space for both groups to sign and record relevant information each day. The program director also takes advantage of the school district’s data system to track student achievement, routinely meeting with teachers when students fall behind. This real-life example illustrates the kind of collaboration and mutual support that many afterschool programs have found to be a critical ingredient in boosting student achievement.


Opening up the avenues of communication between school and afterschool was the focus of a pilot project conducted by the University of Pittsburgh’s Office of Child Development during the 2010–2011 school year. This project, funded by the Heinz Endowments, was a partnership with Pittsburgh Public Schools and five local afterschool program providers. The partnership developed a set of communication strategies based on research that indicates that formal communication between teachers and afterschool providers supports quality homework time in the afterschool setting. 


Linking together on homework can even open the door to more substantive school-afterschool collaborations—one of the hallmarks of quality afterschool programs.


Easing the Pressure off Families


Students are not the only ones whose stress levels rise with homework; in today’s society, with more single parents and more dual-income families, the demands of home life leave little time for parents to offer homework help. Most parents want their children to do homework, and they see the importance of connecting with what their children are doing in school, but dinner time, chores, and leisure activities compete with homework time. An overload of homework also competes with sleep, which suffers as a result for students, not just their overtired parents (Dudley-Maring, 2003). 


By providing a structured and supportive space for homework time, afterschool programs can become an ally of busy parents. This program role again opens up an opportunity for communication, in this case with families. The tools mentioned above, such as the homework contract, can include families as participants, and informal conversations about homework can reassure parents that their children are completing assignments, indicate what is left to be done at home with bigger projects or additional assignments, and provide a sought-after link by proxy from the parent to the school day. Through this link, an afterschool program kindles homework’s role as a cornerstone to facilitating family-to-school communication as it contributes to parents’ understanding of what school expectations are and offers direction for how they can support their children (Perlman & Redding, 2011). 


For example, the East Allen Family Resource Center in New Haven, Indiana, requires all staff to speak with parents who come to pick up their students in the program and share information about their students’ progress with homework. “We really love the parents who choose to pick up their students from the school. It provides such a wonderful opportunity for parents to see what their child is doing, the environment that is provided for them, and have face-to-face time talking with staff,” notes the program director. To reach parents who may not be able to pick up their children in person, staff routinely make phone calls to students’ homes to discuss student achievement. 


In considering homework support as one component of a family involvement plan, an afterschool program is again making strides in the direction of program quality. 


Using Homework Time to Enhance Youth Development


Within the body of evidence that exists about homework, studies have shown that homework does play a role in building skills that equip young people to be more efficient and motivated students and prepare them for 21st century careers. By completing homework, students gain soft skills such as greater self-direction, self-discipline, organization, and more independent problem solving (Protheroe, 2009). 


In four charter high schools in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, such skills are coupled with homework time in deliberate lessons taught through “mini clinics” by Foundations, Inc.’s Prep Zone Plus afterschool program. Mini clinics are quick (lasting about 20 minutes), relevant, and engaging lessons that address a variety of study skills and life skills, from reading for meaning to budgeting to selecting colleges. For students who complete their homework early or need extra assistance with certain skills, the mini clinics provide a robust but palatable lesson. Students feel that they are getting more for their time and gaining skills that will be useful as they progress toward college, careers, and independent life. 


From its experience of operating homework-based afterschool programs over the past decade, Foundations has learned that a substantive way to improve homework time and other elements of afterschool is to listen to young people in afterschool settings and solicit and use feedback from school-day teachers, administrators, and parents. 


Going Beyond Homework


Quality afterschool programs, even homework-based ones, build out engaging learning opportunities that go beyond homework and offer value-added programming. Often after homework time ends, students attend their choice of enrichment clubs (for example, robotics, chess, art, music, cooking, service learning) to round out their afterschool experience. Research shows that afterschool programs with multifaceted programming are more likely to achieve the greatest academic gains (Pearson, Russell, & Reisner, 2007). 


Starting in 2011 and continuing through 2012, the Boys and Girls Clubs of Indianapolis has been working to go beyond homework and infuse academics into regular club programming. Through a grant from the Lilly Endowmentand a partnership with the Center for Afterschool and Expanded Learning at Foundations, Inc., Boys and Girls Clubs of Indianapolis has focused on creating a sustainable approach to academically-focused enrichment across seven sites. Staff receive ongoing training on topics such as planning hands-on activities linked to academic standards, project-based learning, STEM, and literacy in out-of-school time. In turn, staff are supported by leadership teams to implement meaningful enrichment activities into a range of existing programming, from art projects to basketball tournaments. 


The enrichment opportunities offered on top of homework support help students see how they can apply what they’re learning to real-life situations, build confidence through the mastery of new talents or completion of significant projects, and understand the connections between what they are doing now and their future possibilities. 


Conclusion and Recommendations


Relationships with the school day, connections to families, youth development practices, and using the attraction of completing homework to engage students in expanded learning and broader opportunities are enhanced with a positive approach to homework.


Below are a number of key recommendations to make homework a positive component of quality afterschool programs: 


• Set up systems for communication between afterschool instructors and school-day teachers that keep everyone up to date. Do the same with families.
• Create a physical environment that encourages homework completion—include quiet space with individual desks for assignments that require deep concentration, bigger tables for study groups to gather, couches for catching up on reading, and a resource area with reference materials.

• Build in opportunities for youth choice. Do some students study better when they can listen to music through headphones? Can students seek help from peers or adults? Can they choose which assignment they want to work on first?

• Keep homework time active, even when all the assignments are done. Offer short, self-directed activities such as brain teasers, board games, or activity centers that students can enjoy while still reinforcing some academic and 21st century skills . . . not just worksheets.

• Sometimes the best homework help is just directing students to the right resources they can employ to answer a tricky question. Refrain from giving them the answer; instead, empower them to find it on their own.

• Be aware of families’ homework preferences. Some families want their students to complete as much homework as possible in the afterschool program; others may want to work with their children on some assignments at home, too.

• Keep groups fluid, not static. Depending on the students, the assignments, and the day, change grouping arrangements frequently.
• Expand your own view of homework as a positive element of expanded learning. Remember that you are a role model, and students may adopt your attitude toward homework.


If afterschool programs—and their school partners—use these recommendations, dogs all across the country can experience fewer stomachaches from the proverbial eating of the homework.


Additional Resources 


SEDL Afterschool Training Toolkit – Homework 
 http://www.sedl.org/afterschool/toolkits/about_toolkits.html?tab=homework 


Homework Sharing Tool (You for Youth web portal)
 http://y4y.ed.gov/Content/Resources/DCID20110713104426.pdf 


TASC Resource Brief 
 https://www.century21me.org/staticme21/academ_achiev/Research%20on%20Hom... 


What Research Says About the Value of Homework: Research Review 
 http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org/Main-Menu/Instruction/What-resea... 


Homework Time, Afterschool Style
 Homework Time, Afterschool Style. (2009). Mt. Laurel, NJ: Foundations, Inc.


Homework Zone Program Pack ​
Homework Zone Program Pack. (2009). Mt. Laurel, NJ: Foundations, Inc.


• See, for example, Ramdass & Zimmerman (2011), Cooper, et. al. (2006), Marzano (2003), for research that supports the use of homework. For research that is critical of homework, see Kohn (2006), Bennett & Kalish (2006), and Kralovec & Buell (2000). ↩

References


Center for Public Education. (2007). Key lessons: What research says about the value of homework . Retrieved from http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org 


Morrison, G. M., Storino, M. H., Robertson, L. M., & Weissglass, T., & Dondero, A.. (2000). The protective function of after-school programming and parent education and support for students at risk for substance abuse. Evaluation and Program Planning , 23 , 365–371. 


MetLife, Inc. (2007). MetLife survey of the American teacher: The homework experience. A survey of students, teachers and parents . New York, NY: Author.


Dudley-Marling, C. (2003). How school troubles come home: The impact of homework on families of struggling learners. Current Issues in Education, 6( 4 ) . Retrieved from http://cie.asu.edu/volume6/number4/index.html . 


Perlman, C. L., & Redding, S. (2011). Handbook on effective implementation of School Improvement Grants . Lincoln, IL: Center on Innovation & Improvement. 


Protheroe, N. (2009) Good homework policy = Good teaching. Principal, 89 (1), 42–45. 


Pearson, L. M., Russell, C. A., & Reisner, E. R. (2007). Evaluation of OST programs for youth: Patterns of youth retention in OST programs, 2005–06 to 2006–07 . Washington, DC: Policy Studies Associates.

About the Compendium

• Introduction
• The Potential of Quality Afterschool and Summer Learning Programs and 21st Century Community Learning Centers for Supporting School Success
• Expanded Learning Opportunities are Key to Student Learning
• Supporting Mathematics Learning Outside the Regular School Day in Afterschool and Summers
• How Quality Afterschool Programs Help Motivate and Engage More Young People in Learning, Schooling, and Life
• The Potential of Career and College Readiness and Exploration in Afterschool Programs
• Using Afterschool and Summer Learning to Improve Literacy Skills
• Building a Culture of Attendance: Schools and Afterschool Programs Together Can and Should Make a Difference!
• A Proven Solution for Dropout Prevention: Expanded Learning Opportunities
• Building Mastery of the Common Core State Standards by Expanding Learning With Community Stakeholder Partnerships
• Providing Innovative Opportunities and Options for Credit Recovery Through Afterschool and Summer Learning Programs
• Achieving, Connecting, Thriving: Afterschool and Summer Learning in Collaboration With Schools
• Supporting English Language Learners in School and in Afterschool and Summers
• Providing Access to Training and Resources to Afterschool and Summer Learning Professionals to Promote Full and Meaningful Inclusion for All Children
• II. Expanding Skills and Horizons
• III. Recent Evidence of Impact
• IV. The Power of Community-School Partnerships in Expanding Learning
• V. Afterschool and Summer Programs as Catalysts for Engaging Families
• VI. A Growing Nationwide Infrastructure for Quality, Expansion and Partnerships
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Resolution on Homework: Quality Over Quantity

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Optimize Your Day: Explore the Best Time Management Techniques and Tools

Struggling to master your to-do list? Do you feel like the hours slip by without much to show for it? You’re not alone. Eight out of ten people often feel they lack control over their daily work tasks.

To help you and your team address those issues, we’re sharing eight powerful time management techniques, from the Pomodoro technique’s focused bursts to the Eisenhower Matrix’s strategic layout, each designed to enhance your time management skills, increase productivity, and reduce stress.

Planning your day for 12 minutes can save two hours of wasted time.

But knowing effective time management strategies isn’t enough—we also provide you with the best tools to implement these methods. These tools aren’t just add-ons but essential companions that can significantly boost efficiency.

Dive in and start transforming chaos into order. Master these time management techniques and tools, and watch as your productivity soars and your days align more closely with your goals. Let’s begin your journey to a more organized and fulfilling life.

Boost your team’s efficiency with Hubstaff's productivity tools

Eight time management strategies to explore.

Maximize your productivity and streamline your workday with these eight powerful time management techniques. Each method will help you tackle procrastination, manage tasks efficiently, and enhance focus. 

Navigate through the time management strategies using the links below to find detailed explanations of how to implement each strategy effectively in your daily routine.

• Pomodoro Technique — Master-focused work sessions with timed intervals.
• Eisenhower Matrix — Prioritize tasks by urgency and importance.
• Pickle Jar Theory — Organize tasks by significance for optimal daily planning.
• Eat the Frog — Start the day by tackling the most challenging tasks.
• Time Blocking — Allocate specific times for tasks to enhance focus and productivity.
• MoSCoW Prioritization Method — Prioritize tasks effectively to meet project deadlines.
• Pareto Principle (80/20 Rule) —Focus on tasks that yield the most significant results.
• Deep Work — Engage in intensive focus sessions to produce high-quality output.

Choose the time management strategy that best fits your work style and challenges to start seeing improvements in your time management skills.

1. Pomodoro Technique

The Pomodoro Technique is a time management strategy developed by Francesco Cirillo in the late 1980s. It’s designed to improve focus and productivity by dividing work into intervals, traditionally 25 minutes long, called “Pomodoros,” separated by short breaks.  

 How the Pomodoro technique works

• Set a timer: Decide on a task you want to work on, set a timer for 25 minutes, and start working.
• Work until the timer ends: Focus solely on the task until the timer ends. This uninterrupted time is your Pomodoro session.
• Take a short break: When the session ends, take a 5-minute break to help clear your mind and relax, preventing fatigue.
• Repeat: After four Pomodoro sessions, take a longer break of about 20-30 minutes to rejuvenate and maintain high productivity levels throughout the day.

 Benefits of the Pomodoro technique

• Enhanced focus and concentration: Working in short bursts keeps your mind fresh and focused, reducing the likelihood of distractions.
• Improved time management: The technique encourages estimating tasks in intervals, helping to improve your time management.
• Avoidance of burnout: Regular breaks ensure you don’t wear yourself out, which is crucial for long-term productivity.
• Increased productivity: The structure allows you to break down large tasks into manageable chunks and helps maintain a high pace of work.
• Better task prioritization: Setting priorities becomes easier as you allocate Pomodoros to tasks based on their importance and urgency.

Potential downsides

• Not suitable for every task: Some tasks may require prolonged periods of concentration, and interruptions every 25 minutes might break the flow.
• Rigidity: The fixed structure can be a limitation for those who prefer flexibility in managing their work or study sessions.
• Ineffectiveness in high-flow tasks: For tasks where you’re deeply engrossed, frequent breaks disrupt your engagement and effectiveness.

The Pomodoro Technique offers a structured way to manage time effectively, enhance productivity, and maintain mental freshness. It is a practical method for tackling tasks in a manageable, systematic way. 

2. Eisenhower Matrix

The Eisenhower Matrix time management technique helps prioritize tasks.

How the Eisenhower Matrix works

The Eisenhower Matrix, named after Dwight D. Eisenhower, helps organize tasks into four categories based on their urgency and importance:

• Do (quadrant 1): Both urgent and important tasks. As they are critical and time-sensitive, do these tasks immediately.
• Schedule (quadrant 2): Important tasks that contribute to long-term goals but are not urgent and can be scheduled for later.
• Delegate (quadrant 3): Urgent but unimportant tasks that should be delegated to others as they require immediate attention but don’t contribute significantly to your goals.
• Delete (quadrant 4): Tasks that are neither urgent nor important are distractions to eliminate from your to-do list.

Benefits of the Eisenhower Matrix

• Improved prioritization: Helps clearly distinguish between what needs immediate attention and what can wait.
• Enhanced productivity: You can work more efficiently by focusing on critical tasks and eliminating or delegating others.
• Stress reduction: Managing tasks by priority reduces the anxiety of too many tasks and helps prevent burnout by first addressing the most stressful tasks.
• Better goal alignment: Encourages alignment of daily tasks with broader personal or professional goals, ensuring you are both busy and productive.

 Potential downsides

• Over-simplification: Some tasks may not fit neatly into one category, making it challenging to prioritize them accurately.
• Neglect of non-urgent tasks: Important but non-urgent tasks may be perpetually postponed unless appropriately scheduled.
• Dependence on others: Delegating tasks assumes that others are available and willing to take them on, which may not always be accurate.

The Eisenhower Matrix is a powerful tool to improve time management by focusing on the tasks that truly matter. 

3. Pickle Jar theory

The Pickle Jar Theory provides a unique approach to time management. It uses the metaphor of a pickle jar to illustrate how to prioritize and organize daily tasks effectively. 

How the Pickle Jar Theory works

Jeremy Wright developed the pickle jar theory in 2002. It compares the finite nature of time to the limited capacity of a pickle jar. The theory suggests prioritizing tasks based on their importance and urgency for optimal time management. 

The key elements within the jar represent different types of tasks:

• Rocks: These are your most critical tasks, which will have significant consequences if not completed. They represent your main objectives for the day or period.
• Pebbles: Important but less urgent tasks that support your primary goals.
• Sand: Necessary but routine tasks should be fitted around more significant tasks.
• Water: Personal life and leisure activities, emphasizing the importance of work-life balance.

To apply the Pickle Jar Theory effectively, follow these steps:

• Start with rocks: Place your most important tasks into your schedule first. These should take priority over all other tasks.
• Add pebbles: Fit these tasks around your rocks. They are important but should maintain your primary objectives.
• Sprinkle sand: Allocate time for minor tasks around your more significant tasks.
• Pour water: Ensure you include personal time to maintain balance and prevent burnout.

Benefits of using the Pickle Jar Theory

• Improved focus: By prioritizing tasks based on their impact, you can focus better on what truly matters.
• Increased productivity: Organizing tasks according to their importance can lead to more efficient workdays and less time wasted on trivial activities.
• Enhanced work-life balance: Including personal time (water) in your daily schedule helps ensure that work does not overwhelm other aspects of life.

The Pickle Jar Theory offers a strategic and effective method for time management. It prioritizes tasks that have the most significant impact on your goals. Whether applied in professional settings or personal life, it helps structure your day to maximize productivity and maintain balance. This approach not only assists in accomplishing more but also in achieving a better quality of life.

4. Eat the Frog

“ Eat the Frog ” is a time management strategy emphasizing starting your day by tackling the most challenging task. This method, inspired by a Mark Twain quote and popularized by Brian Tracy in his book Eat That Frog, is designed to overcome procrastination while also maximizing productivity. 

How the Eat the Frog technique works

• Identify the most challenging task: Begin by determining the most difficult or important task of the day—your “frog.”
• Tackle it first: Do this task first thing in the morning when your energy and concentration are at their peak.
• Continue with less demanding tasks: Once the “frog” is out of the way, proceed with other tasks, which will feel easier by comparison.
• Review and adjust: Review your progress at the end of the day and prepare for the next day’s “frog.”

Benefits of the Eat the Frog technique

• Enhanced productivity: Completing the most daunting task first provides a sense of achievement and sets a positive tone for the rest of the day.
• Procrastination reduction: By facing the most significant challenge upfront, you avoid the temptation to put off difficult tasks.
• Better time management: Prioritizing tasks based on importance ensures you complete critical tasks.
• Increased motivation: The relief and accomplishment of completing a major task early can boost your motivation for the rest of the day.
• Initial resistance: Starting with the most challenging task can be daunting, leading to resistance or heightened anxiety.
• Misjudgment of task complexity: Sometimes, what seems like the most challenging task may be less important, leading to a misallocation of effort.
• Flexibility issues: Rigidly adhering to this method may only sometimes be practical, as new priorities emerge throughout the day.

The “Eat the Frog” time management technique can enhance productivity, reduce procrastination, and help you achieve a more satisfying work-life balance. By focusing on the most challenging tasks, it also promotes a disciplined and strategic approach to daily activities, professionally or personally.

5. Time Blocking

Time blocking is a structured approach to managing your schedule by dividing your day into blocks of time, each dedicated to a specific task or group of tasks. This method can significantly enhance productivity by focusing your energy on prioritized activities without distractions. 

How Time Blocking works

• Identify tasks and priorities: List all the tasks you need to complete, ranking them based on priority.
• Allocate specific time slots: Assign each task to a specific time slot in the day, dedicating blocks of time to work on each task. Include high-priority work, meetings, and even breaks.
• Stick to the schedule: Follow the blocks strictly, focusing solely on the assigned task during its designated time.
• Review and adjust: At the end of the day or week, review what you accomplished and adjust the upcoming blocks to improve efficiency and address unfinished tasks.

Benefits of Time Blocking

• Increased focus and productivity: By dedicating specific times to tasks, you minimize the mental load of switching between activities, allowing for deeper focus and higher productivity.
• Better time management: Time blocking helps visualize how you spend your day, making it easier to manage time and prioritize tasks effectively.
• Reduces procrastination: Setting specific times for tasks encourages starting and completing tasks on schedule, reducing the likelihood of procrastination.
• Enhanced work-life balance: Allocating time for work and personal life within your schedule can lead to a more balanced lifestyle.
• Rigidity: Time blocking can sometimes be too rigid, leaving little room for spontaneous tasks or extended work on complex projects.
• Overwhelming schedule: Packing too many tasks into your day without adequate breaks or flexible time can lead to burnout.
• Difficulty in adherence: Sticking to a strict schedule requires discipline and may be challenging to maintain consistently.

Time blocking is a powerful time management technique for anyone looking to take control of their day and manage their time more effectively. By prioritizing tasks and dedicating specific time to them, you can enhance your focus, achieve more, and improve your overall quality of life.

6. MoSCoW Prioritization Method

The MoSCoW prioritization method is a time management technique for managing and prioritizing tasks within a project, ensuring that teams focus on the most critical activities first. This method is beneficial for projects with tight deadlines or limited resources. 

How the MoSCoW Prioritization Method works

MoSCoW is an acronym that stands for four different categories of task prioritization:

M: Must have. These are critical tasks for the project’s success. These are necessary for the project to succeed.

S: Should have. Here are vital but not essential tasks. Include these tasks because they significantly enhance the project.

C: Could have. Desirable tasks that have a positive impact but are unnecessary for success. Include these when they do not impact the completion of higher-priority tasks.

W: Won’t have. Tasks identified as the lowest priority are often excluded from the current project scope but may be considered in the future.

Benefits of using the MoSCoW Method

• Clear prioritization: Helps teams understand what is essential and what can wait, ensuring that critical tasks are completed first.
• Flexibility: Allows for adjustments based on changing project conditions without losing sight of the core objectives.
• Improved communication: Provides a common language for stakeholders and team members to discuss what is necessary for the project’s success.
• Efficient resource allocation: Ensures that resources are allocated to tasks with the highest value.
• Subjectivity in categorization: Different team members may have different views on what is considered a “Must have” or a “Should have.”
• Over-prioritization of specific tasks: You risk classifying too many tasks as “Must haves,” which can lead to resource strain.
• Neglect of lower categories: “Could haves” and “Won’t haves” might be consistently overlooked, which could omit potentially valuable project enhancements.

The MoSCoW prioritization method offers a straightforward framework for making informed decisions about task prioritization within a project. By distinguishing between what you must do and what you could do, teams can better manage their workloads and focus on activities that offer the highest return. 

This method streamlines project management and enhances team alignment and stakeholder communication. Whether managing a small project or overseeing a large-scale initiative, incorporating the MoSCoW method can lead to more structured and successful project outcomes.

7. The Pareto Principle  

The Pareto Principle , or the 80/20 rule, can significantly enhance productivity by focusing on the most effective efforts. This principle asserts that 80% of results typically come from 20% of the efforts. 

How the Pareto Principle works

The Pareto Principle is based on the observation that not all inputs contribute equally to outputs. 

• Identifying key contributors: By analyzing activities that contribute the most to results, you can focus more resources on these areas to maximize effectiveness.
• Resource allocation: Allocate more resources to the tasks or processes that produce the most significant results.
• Time management: Focus on tasks that yield the most significant benefits and minimize time spent on less productive activities.

Benefits of using the Pareto Principle

• Increased efficiency: Focusing on tasks that provide the most significant results can help you work more efficiently and effectively.
• Improved decision-making: Helps you make decisions that prioritize actions that contribute the most to your goals.
• Resource optimization: Ensures that resources are not wasted on low-yield tasks.
• Stress reduction: Reduces the burden of trying to accomplish all tasks by focusing on what truly matters.
• Over-simplification: While the Pareto Principle provides a useful heuristic, it can oversimplify complex situations where the relationship between inputs and outputs isn’t as clear-cut.
• Neglect of minor tasks: Some less impactful tasks may still be essential and must be addressed.
• Rigidity: Applying the principle too rigidly can lead to missed opportunities in the 80% of efforts deemed less productive.

The Pareto Principle enhances productivity by identifying and focusing on the most effective efforts. By applying this principle, individuals and organizations can optimize their activities to achieve better results with less effort. While it’s important to recognize its limitations, incorporating the Pareto Principle into your strategic planning can significantly improve productivity and effectiveness.

8. Deep work

Deep work , a time management technique popularized by Cal Newport, emphasizes the importance of focusing intensely on cognitively demanding tasks without distractions. 

Understanding deep work

Deep work is the practice of working in a state of high concentration on tasks that push your cognitive capabilities to their limits. Unlike shallow work , which includes functions you can perform while distracted, deep work requires undivided attention and deep thinking.

 Core principles of deep work

• Work deeply: Set aside dedicated time blocks where you can work uninterrupted. This might involve scheduling specific hours in your day, informing colleagues of your focus times, and setting expectations about your availability.
• Embrace boredom: Allow yourself to work through tasks without constant stimulation. This practice helps strengthen your concentration and enables you to handle prolonged periods of deep work without feeling the urge to switch tasks.
• Quit social media: Limit your use of digital distractions, particularly social media, which can fragment your attention span and reduce your ability to engage in deep work.
• Drain the shallows: Reduce the time spent on shallow work—tasks that are not cognitively demanding, such as checking emails or attending non-essential meetings. When possible, automate these tasks using tools like Clean Email , which can help you manage your email efficiently. Prioritize deep work where possible.

Benefits of Deep work

• Enhanced productivity: You complete tasks more efficiently and effectively by focusing on tasks without interruptions.
• Skill improvement: Deep work allows you to develop professional time management skills more quickly, which involves pushing your cognitive abilities to their limit.
• High-quality output: The intense focus you apply in deep work leads to higher quality results, as you can integrate complex information and produce better solutions to problems.
• Maintaining consistency: Building a habit of deep work can be challenging. Start small, one hour per day, and gradually increase the duration of your sessions.
• Balancing responsibilities: Finding time for deep work might be difficult if you have a busy schedule. Communicate the importance of this practice to your team or family to help them understand why you need this time.

Deep work is a valuable skill in our increasingly distracted world. By cultivating the ability to focus deeply, you can significantly enhance your productivity, improve your expertise, and achieve higher satisfaction levels with your work. Implementing deep work requires discipline and commitment but offers substantial rewards for personal and professional development.

Bonus: Rapid Planning Method

The Rapid Planning Method (RPM) is not just a time management system; it’s also a transformative approach designed to turn vision into reality. RPM helps individuals lead extraordinary lives by maximizing resources such as time, energy, health, relationships, and acquired knowledge. This method encourages a focus-driven lifestyle where clarity of one’s desires and a compelling purpose lead to powerful and effective action.

How RPM works:

• Define what you want (outcome): Start by determining the specific outcomes you desire, making them as precise and measurable as possible.
• Clarify your purpose (why): Identify the deep emotional reasons behind your goals that motivate you to pursue them persistently, even in the face of obstacles.
• Develop a massive action plan (how): List all possible actions and strategies to achieve your desired outcomes. This is about more than just doing just enough; it’s about thinking expansively to ensure all bases are covered.

Benefits of RPM:

• Maximized results: Focuses on achieving specific outcomes, ensuring efforts are not wasted on unimportant tasks.
• Driven by purpose: Each goal or task is backed by a strong emotional reason, making the process more fulfilling and sustainable.
• Comprehensive action planning: Encourages the creation of detailed action plans that cover multiple approaches to achieve goals, which enhances flexibility and adaptability in execution.

Potential Downsides:

• Complex setup: Initially, setting up RPM can be time-consuming, requiring deep thought and strategic planning.
• High demand for discipline: The success of RPM hinges on consistent application and discipline to follow through with the action plans.

RPM is more than a time management technique; it’s a comprehensive system for strategic life management. By focusing on results, driven by a strong purpose, and supported by a massive action plan, RPM empowers individuals to achieve their goals and enjoy the journey, making life both productive and enjoyable. Whether for personal development or professional projects, RPM provides a robust framework for achieving significant, meaningful success.

3 tools to perfect your practice of these time management techniques

Mastering time management requires more than knowledge of effective time management strategies—it requires the right tools to implement these strategies effectively. This section introduces powerful tools designed to optimize various time management strategies, ensuring you can apply these techniques seamlessly in your daily workflow. 

Whether tackling individual tasks or coordinating team projects, these tools enhance productivity and organizational efficiency. Explore how each tool can be tailored to your specific time management needs, helping you and your team boost efficiency and manage time more effectively.

1. Hubstaff

Optimal tool for Pomodoro technique, time blocking, and MoSCoW prioritization.

Hubstaff enhances productivity with robust time tracking and workforce analytics designed for remote, hybrid, and in-house teams. Integrating with over 30 apps, it offers comprehensive features such as detailed time tracking, automatic payroll, and advanced reporting systems. This tool is available on multiple platforms, including Mac, Windows, Linux, Chrome, iOS, and Android.

Time management benefits:

• Pomodoro Technique: Automate the tracking of Pomodoro sessions with customizable timers and detailed reports to maximize focus and productivity.
• Time Blocking: Allocate and track time for different tasks. This makes it easier to stick to a scheduled plan and manage day-to-day operations efficiently.
• MoSCoW Prioritization: This function supports project management by helping teams identify and prioritize tasks as ‘Must have,’ ‘Should have,’ or ‘Could have,’ ensuring that important tasks are focused on and completed first.

Ideal for Eisenhower Matrix and MoSCoW Method.

Asana is a project management tool that excels in helping teams plan, organize, and track their work in shared projects. It provides a flexible platform to categorize tasks based on urgency and importance, directly reflecting the Eisenhower Matrix and MoSCoW Method principles.

• Eisenhower Matrix: Easily categorize tasks into urgent, important, non-urgent, and non-important, helping teams focus on what needs immediate attention and what can be scheduled for later.
• MoSCoW Method: This method facilitates clear task prioritization within projects, allowing teams to quickly see which tasks are mandatory, which are desirable, and which can be postponed or dropped.

Support deep work and minimize distractions .

Forest is an innovative app designed to help users focus by planting virtual trees that grow as they remain focused on tasks without using their phones. This simple yet powerful concept supports time management strategies like Deep Work, where sustained concentration is critical.

• Deep Work: Encourages users to engage in prolonged focused work without distractions, supporting cognitive intensity and skill development.
• Minimizing Distractions: Helps users cultivate a habit of concentrated work sessions by providing a visual and rewarding incentive to stay off the phone and focus on tasks.

Mastering time management techniques for a more fulfilling lifestyle

Mastering time management is an invaluable skill that can significantly enhance one’s ability to navigate work, personal development, and leisure. By strategically applying the diverse management techniques explored—from the precision of the Pomodoro Technique to the prioritization clarity of the Eisenhower Matrix—one unlocks a more productive and focused approach to daily tasks.

The right time management tools can significantly amplify these effective time management strategies. With Hubstaff, you can seamlessly track your Pomodoros or manage project priorities, while Asana excels in task segmentation that aligns with the Eisenhower Matrix. Forest supports sustained concentration, vital for deep work sessions, by keeping distractions at bay.

Mastering time management transforms overwhelming days into structured opportunities, allowing you to advance toward your goals systematically. It is about more than just efficiency; it’s about enhancing your overall quality of life, giving you the freedom to pursue goals and enjoy well-deserved breaks with peace of mind.

Embrace these techniques and tools, and you’ll find that effective time management is not just a professional asset but a cornerstone of a fulfilling lifestyle.

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Comparing the quality and quantity of homework

Quality homework teaches better life skills 

By Kyle Nguyen

Homework is one of the most important aspects of our education because homework is a necessary learning tool if used correctly. Assignments need to prioritize quality over quantity so we can learn from them rather than just doing our assignments to turn them in.

Quality education is extremely important because it is the basis of how we think and function in our everyday lives. It is also the foundation of how we decide what we could possibly do in the future and that decides how we live our lives.

Focusing on quantity over quality in education can be effective but stress is a huge problem with it.  Stress can lead to many health concerns concerning one’s mental health so, bombarding kids with a huge workload can push them too far.

While there are some students that thrive and push past their limits, not everyone has that ability and may be forced to adjust too quickly to assignments they can’t handle.

When teachers assign too many assignments with little to no learning value, students feel restricted to a certain schedule of pumping out finished assignments without effectively learning the content in them. Students lose out on necessary critical thinking skills because they aren’t able to thoroughly think their assignments through.

It’s true that homework is necessary to practice and refine our skills. However, there are cases when if a teacher assigns an excessive amount of homework, it doesn’t help refine our skills and instead shows gaps in their own teaching.

During the pandemic, some teachers often assign more homework to make up for the staggered time in class but that doesn’t make up for us using critical thinking and learning life skills. In my experience, the classes I’ve learned the most valuable information from were the ones I received little to no homework in because I focused more on learning rather than dealing with the stress of too much homework.

It’s understandable why teachers give us homework every day, but it becomes an issue when the work feels like busy work and isn’t fulfilling for our education. Although some teachers limit the amount of homework they give each day, there are many teachers that assign multiple assignments that range from an hour to three hours to complete.

Having too much homework stresses students out because it takes more time to complete compared to assignments that allow us to critically think, while only ranging from 20 to 30 minutes, and don’t stress kids out because it’s easier to manage.

Like many students, I’ve had personal experience with this problem. I actually enjoy homework when I’m learning valuable information from it or enjoying the material I’m learning.

On the contrary, some of the homework I’ve done is filled with extra and unnecessary work that feels useless and doesn’t benefit my learning. Most of the time when students are doing homework they’re doing it just to complete it for class and not learning from it because some assignments are overwhelming and unfulfilling.

Homework should be something we can learn from. It should teach us life lessons and how to think calmly and precisely. We shouldn’t have to focus on stressing about our long list of overwhelming assignments and instead focus on learning from our teachers in class.

The quantity of our homework helps with memorization

By Lylyan Yenson

Although quality is an important part when doing homework, by doing more of a certain task, it becomes better ingrained in our minds . The main factor is finding the perfect amount of homework to give students as too much homework leads to stress. 

Repetition, especially for subjects like math, helps students take in the information for a long period of time. Most students store information for a short amount of time as most only study for their chapter test and soon forget afterward. Repetition allows students to create long-term memories about the information at hand.

An example of a long-term memory I have from school is: “The mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell.”

This phrase is one that most students know due to the fact that it is repeated multiple times in class, either through teachers or other students. This simple phrase is stored in my long-term memory simply due to the fact that I, and other students, repeatedly joked about it. 

Following this example, vocabulary is usually studied through repetition as well. Most of the students I know use Quizlet, flashcards or any attempt to use the words as much as possible. They repetitively use these words or study them to store them in their long-term memory. 

Homework requires students to study and use the material taught to them. By giving a fair amount of homework for students to work on, teachers focus on ingraining the information in the students’ memories for future reference.

Quantity of homework helps students learn the material by using repetition to store the information in their memory. Although some classes require understanding, the quantity of homework plays an important role in classes that require memorization of material.

About Lylyan Yenson

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4 Tips for Completing Your Homework On Time

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• B.A., English, University of Michigan

Homework, a necessary evil according to many teachers, has a lot of students tied up in knots. Some students can never seem to get things turned in on time. In fact, many students do not even realize that they  have  homework until a friend from class texts them or they overhear someone in the halls talking about Ms. So-and-so's terrible, no-good, awful, horrifying worksheet for Chemistry that is due the next day. These five tips for completing your homework on time, however, should help you get that homework finished on time. 

Tip 1: Rely On a Planning System

Most of you by now are well acquainted with a homework planner. It has the dates, the school subjects you are taking, and a whole lot of blank space to write down your homework assignments. Use these planners if you have them. Writing with an actual pencil or pen may seem almost archaic what with technology virtually doing everything for us, but the kinesthetic movement of writing down an assignment into one of those little squares (Language Arts test tomorrow - STUDY TONIGHT), will actually help solidify that homework in your brain.

Plus, when you are packing up to go home at the end of the school day, all you have to do is open up that planner to see which books, folders, and binders need to go home with you so you will not miss out anything that you need to do that evening.

Some people  hate  using planners. They'd rather walk on a pile of crushed glass than actually write something down in a planner. That's quite all right. One student kept a wadded up piece of paper in his pocket where he'd scrawl his assignments. It worked for him, so it was fine. For those of you not keen on planners or crumpled up notes, your phone can come in really handy. Just download a productivity app and type your assignments in there. Or, keep track of all the work due in the notes section of your phone. Or, snap a picture of the homework board in each teacher's class before you head out into the hallway. Or, if you are really dead-set against anything planner-related, then just send yourself a text after each class with your homework assignments for the night.

No matter which planning system you prefer, use it. Check off each item once you get it in your backpack. Your brain can only process so much information at a time, so you absolutely must write your homework down if you plan to complete it on time. 

Tip 2: Prioritize Your Homework Assignments

All assignments are not created equal. It's strongly recommended you use a prioritizing system when you sit down at home with your homework. Try a system a little something like this:

• Examples: Studying for a major test coming up tomorrow. Finishing a major project due tomorrow. Writing an essay worth a LOT of points that is due tomorrow. 
• Examples:  Studying for a quiz coming up tomorrow. Completing a homework sheet that is due tomorrow. Reading a chapter that is due tomorrow. 
• Examples: Studying for a spelling test that will occur on Friday. Writing a blog and posting it on the class board by Friday. Finish a book upon which you will take a quiz on Friday.
• Examples: Reviewing chapters for the midterm exam. Working on an on-going project, research paper, or long assignment due at the end of the quarter. Completing a packet that isn't due for two weeks. 

Once you've prioritized the work you have to do, complete all the 1's first, then the 2's, moving down as you go. That way, if you find yourself pressed for time because Great-Grandma decided to stop over for family dinner and your mom insisted you spend the evening playing bridge with her despite the fact that you have hours of homework ahead of you, then you will not have missed anything vitally important to your grade. 

Tip 3: Get the Worst Assignment Over With First

So, maybe you absolutely hate writing essays (But, why, though when all you have to do is follow these essay tips? ) and you have a major essay staring you in the face that  must  be completed before tomorrow. You also have to study for a major math test, complete a social studies blog by Friday, study for the ACT  next month, and finish up your science worksheet from class. Your "1" assignments would be the essay and the math test. Your "2" assignment is the science worksheet, the "3" assignment is that blog, and the "4" assignment is studying for the ACT. 

Ordinarily, you would start with the science worksheet because you  love  science, but that would be a big mistake. Start with those "1" assignments and knock out that essay first. Why? Because you hate it. And completing the worst assignment first gets it off your mind, out of your homework cache, and makes everything that comes after it appears to be really, really easy. It will be an absolute  joy  to complete that science worksheet once you have written the essay. Why rob yourself of joy? 

Then, once you've completed the stuff due first, you can focus on putting in a little bit of time on the ACT. Easy peasy.

Tip 4: Take Planned Breaks

Some people believe that sitting down to complete homework means that you literally park your behind in a chair and you don't move it for the next four thousand hours or so. That is one of the worst study ideas in history. Your brain only has the capacity to stay focused for about 45 minutes (maybe even less for some of you) before it goes on the fritz and starts wanting to make you get up and dance the Roger Rabbit. So, schedule your study time with breaks actually built in . Work for 45 minutes, then take a 10-minute break to do whatever it is people your age like to do. Then, rinse and repeat. It looks a little something like this:

Homework Time:

• 45 minutes: Work on "1" assignments, starting with the absolute worst.
• 10 minutes: Get a snack, play Pokemon Go!, surf Instagram
• 45 minutes: Work on "1" assignments again. You know you didn't finish.
• 10 minutes: Do some jumping jacks, dance the Macarena, polish your nails.
• 45 minutes: Work on "2" assignments and maybe even finish with any 3s and 4s. Put everything in your backpack.

Completing your homework on time is a learned skill. It requires some discipline and not everyone is naturally disciplined. So, you have to practice checking that you have everything you need for homework when you are still at school, prioritizing your work, plunging into the assignments you loathe, and taking planned breaks. Isn't your grade worth it?

You bet it is. 

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Guide: MoSCoW Method

Author: Daniel Croft

Daniel Croft is an experienced continuous improvement manager with a Lean Six Sigma Black Belt and a Bachelor's degree in Business Management. With more than ten years of experience applying his skills across various industries, Daniel specializes in optimizing processes and improving efficiency. His approach combines practical experience with a deep understanding of business fundamentals to drive meaningful change.

The MoSCoW Method transcends being just a prioritization tool; it is a strategic approach for navigating the intricate decision-making in project management. This methodology excels by offering a structured framework, facilitating discussions among stakeholders to assess and align on the relative importance of various tasks and features in a project.

Central to MoSCoW is its acronym, denoting four priority categories – Must have, Should have, Could have, and Won’t have. This classification is crucial in managing stakeholder expectations, directing the project team’s focus towards critical elements, and charting a clear course for project advancement.

What is the MoSCoW Method?

The MoSCoW method is used as a prioritization tool, but it is more than just that; it is also a strategic approach to handling complex decision-making processes that you can encounter in project management. This method shines by offering a structured framework for stakeholders to discuss, debate, and ultimately agree on the relative importance of different tasks or features within a project.

The uniqueness of the MoSCoW method is within its acronym, which represents four priority categories. Must have, Should have, Could have, and Won’t have. This structure is key to managing stakeholder expectations and ensuring that a project team focuses on the most crucial elements first, setting a clear path for project progression.

The MoSCoW Categories

In the ‘ Must have ‘ category, you find the key activities that are essential to your project . These are non-negotiable and pivotal for the project’s success. This category often comprises items that, if omitted, would make the project irrelevant or non-compliant with essential criteria like legal standards or core objectives.

Should Have

Moving to the ‘ Should have ‘ category, we encounter important elements that, while not critical to the project’s existence, greatly enhance its value and effectiveness . These are features that stakeholders strongly desire, and their inclusion could significantly enhance the project’s outcome . However, their absence wouldn’t label the project a failure.

The ‘ Could have ‘ category is where you place desirable but less critical elements . These are often enhancements that would be nice to include but aren’t vital to the project’s success . The inclusion of these elements is usually subject to resource availability and project timelines.

The ‘ Won’t have ‘ category is often misunderstood but is crucial for setting realistic boundaries. It includes elements that, although potentially beneficial, are beyond the scope of the current project phase or constraints. This clear demarcation helps manage expectations and focus on what’s achievable within the project’s constraints.

How to Apply the MoSCoW Method: A Step-by-Step Guide

Implementing the MoSCoW Method in a project requires a systematic approach, ensuring that all aspects of the project are considered and aligned with the prioritization framework. Here’s a detailed look into each step of implementing this method:

Step 1: Gather Requirements

The first step in the MoSCoW method requires gathering a list of the tasks , activities, features, or requirements you need to prioritize in your project. For this step, you should engage with all relevant stakeholders , including project sponsors, end-users, and technical teams. This ensures that the requirements reflect a wide range of perspectives and needs.

To help decide the categorize of each task in a later step you should understand the overall goals of the project . You will also need to gain an understanding of technical, business, time, and resource constraints right from the start. This helps in setting realistic expectations for what can be achieved.

Step 2: Categories Each Requirement

The next step is to, as a team with the relevant stakeholders, run a categorization session . Doing this with the stakeholders involved will help to gain buy-in and support for the project as well as a shared understanding of priorities. 

Each requirement’s placement in the MoSCoW categories should be a subject of discussion. Different stakeholders may have varying views on what is a ‘ Must have ‘ or ‘ Should have ‘, and these need to be reconciled.

For each decision, documenting the rationale behind the categorization can be valuable, especially for future reference or when explaining decisions to others not involved in the process.

Step 3: Review and Adjust

You will need to ensure the decisions of the categories are balanced and achievable within the scope once all are allocated. You may find that you still have too many must-haves and should-haves that either some activities need to be downgraded or a consideration to go back to decision-makers and create a case for more resources of time to achieve what is needed.

Step 4: Use as a Guiding Tool

You should continue to use the MoSCoW prioritization to inform decisions throughout the project lifecycle. This helps maintain focus on what’s most important . Prioritization can guide where to allocate resources and effort, especially when under constraints.

Step 5: Update as Necessary

Finally, regularly revisit the MoSCoW categorization , especially after major milestones or significant changes in the project environment. Also, be prepared to adjust the priorities in response to new information, stakeholder feedback, or changes in the external environment.

Implementing the MoSCoW Method is an exercise in strategic planning and adaptive management. It begins with a comprehensive gathering of project requirements, engaging a broad spectrum of stakeholders to ensure a multifaceted view of the project’s needs. The heart of the process lies in the collaborative categorization of these requirements, balancing differing perspectives to establish a shared priority framework.

As the project progresses, this method serves as a dynamic guide, directing resources and decision-making effectively. Regularly revisiting and adjusting these priorities ensures the project stays aligned with evolving objectives and constraints, making MoSCoW an indispensable tool for successful project management.

• Kuhn, J., 2009. Decrypting the MoSCoW analysis.   The workable, practical guide to Do IT Yourself ,  5 .
• Ahmad, K.S., Ahmad, N., Tahir, H. and Khan, S., 2017, July. Fuzzy_MoSCoW: A fuzzy based MoSCoW method for the prioritization of software requirements. In  2017 International Conference on Intelligent Computing, Instrumentation and Control Technologies (ICICICT)  (pp. 433-437). IEEE.

Q: What types of projects is the MoSCoW method best suited for?

A: The MoSCoW method is versatile and can be used for various types of projects, ranging from software development and website redesign to manufacturing and logistics. It’s particularly useful for projects with multiple stakeholders and those that require a clear understanding of task priority.

Q: How often should the MoSCoW list be reviewed and updated?

A: The frequency of reviewing the MoSCoW list depends on the project’s complexity and how often its circumstances change. For fast-paced projects, a weekly or bi-weekly review might be necessary. For more stable projects, a monthly review could suffice.

Q: Can the MoSCoW method be integrated with other project management techniques?

A: Absolutely! The MoSCoW method can be used in conjunction with other project management methodologies like Agile, Scrum, or Lean Six Sigma. It serves as a prioritization tool that can easily be incorporated into other frameworks to make them even more effective.

Q: What should I do if stakeholders disagree on the categorization of tasks?

A: If there’s disagreement on task categorization, it’s useful to have a facilitated discussion to reach a consensus. You can also use a weighted scoring system to quantitatively assess each task’s importance, which can help in making more objective decisions.

Q: Are there any tools or software that can help in applying the MoSCoW method?

A: While the MoSCoW method can be applied using simple tools like whiteboards and Post-It notes, there are also specialized project management software that offer built-in MoSCoW categorization features. These tools can be particularly helpful for larger or more complex projects.

Daniel Croft

Daniel Croft is a seasoned continuous improvement manager with a Black Belt in Lean Six Sigma. With over 10 years of real-world application experience across diverse sectors, Daniel has a passion for optimizing processes and fostering a culture of efficiency. He's not just a practitioner but also an avid learner, constantly seeking to expand his knowledge. Outside of his professional life, Daniel has a keen Investing, statistics and knowledge-sharing, which led him to create the website www.learnleansigma.com, a platform dedicated to Lean Six Sigma and process improvement insights.

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• Olympics 2024

‘Hopefully I Can Handle Some E. Coli.’ What Olympic Triathletes Thought About Swimming in the Seine

A merican triathlete Seth Rider wants everyone to know: his comments that went viral this week were a joke. 

The water quality of the Seine , where the swimming leg of both the women’s and men’s triathlon was held on Wednesday, has been a persistent concern for Paris 2024 organizers, athletes, and the world. Despite a $ 1.5 billion investment to rid the river of pollutants and make it safe for swimming, practice sessions were canceled and the men’s event postponed a day, thanks to high levels of E. coli, a bacteria indicating fecal contamination, in the water. Rain in Paris during the opening ceremonies and most of the day Saturday caused wastewater to flow into the river, pushing  E. coli beyond acceptable levels.

Rider said before the triathlon that to build immunity against E. coli, he was intentionally exposing himself to the bacteria before the race. “It's actually backed by science,” he said. “Proven methods. Just little things throughout your day, like not washing your hands after you go to the bathroom."

Read More: What to Know About the Chinese Swimming Doping Scandal

Many people took him seriously. But after finishing the Paris triathlon in 29th place, Rider clarified. “Yeah, it was a joke,” he said. “Hopefully I can handle some E. coli because I think I swallowed so much water out there. Probably everyone did.” 

The swimming finally went off in the Seine without incident—for now at least. “I’m not [dead]!” China’s Xinyu Lin assured reporters on Pont Alexandre III, the site of the start and finish. Symptoms, though—like diarrhea, stomach cramping, and vomiting—may creep in over the next few hours and days. “Let’s see tonight,” says Verena Steinhauser of Italy. “I hope I will be OK. But I am a little bit nervous.” 

Local fans lining the streets in the heart of Paris for the triathlon were treated to home-team gold, as Cassandre Beaugrand of France won the race in 1 hour, 50 minutes, 7 seconds, beating Julie Derron of Switzerland by 6 seconds. Beth Potter of Great Britain took the bronze. 

Beaugrand finished 30th in the Rio Games and did not finish the individual event in Tokyo. Following her victory, she spotted her brother and two cousins near a security barrier, and the guards let them in to share a tearful group hug.

Read More: Ireland Has Its Own Olympic Hero Who Wears Glasses

“I was not worried about the Seine river, because we swam last year and no one was sick after that,” said Beaugrand, referring to the triathlon test event held in 2023. “I was confident we could swim today, and that would have been a shame if we didn’t.” 

Great Britain’s Alex Yee won the men’s race, which was rescheduled to start after the women’s on Wednesday at 10:45 a.m. local time, in 1 hour, 43 minutes, 33 seconds, also 6 seconds ahead of the second-place finisher  Hayden Wilde of New Zealand. France’s Leo Bergere won bronze.  

A more pressing concern than pollution was the water current. “There was one point where I thought they would have to pull us all out,” says American Taylor Spivey, who finished in 10th place. “I come from a surfing background, I've surfed 6-ft. waves before,” says South African triathlete Jamie Riddle, who finished 25th. “I've been in massive currents. That was far more hectic than anything I've ever experienced in any sort of waves.”

Athletes offered gripes about the race. But they had little to do with pollution. Argentina’s Romina Biagioli, who did not compete in the test event last year, felt cheated by the lack of practice time in the water. “I think it's the right of an athlete,” said Biagioli, expressing the need for proper warm-up sessions. The men’s race was originally scheduled for 8 a.m. on Tuesday; the 10:45 start time on Wednesday created more humid conditions than expected for the men. “I don’t think it’s very fair that they changed the time one day before the race,” said Lasse Luhrs of Germany, who finished in 21st place and looked drained, water and sweat droplets falling from his forehead. “There are guys who can race better in the heat, and guys who are not very used to it.” Luhrs puts himself in the latter camp. He insisted he would have altered his pre-Games training routine, swimming, cycling, and running in higher temperatures for a month, if he had known about the later start.

Read More: Welcome to the Summer of Summer (McIntosh) at the Paris Olympics

American Morgan Pearson was livid about the humans, not the microbes, in the water. During the swimming portion, he accused certain opponents of impeding his progress. “These guys are pushing me under the water, and we f-cking lose 15 seconds,” says Pearson, who finished in a disappointing 31st place. “So, [Shachar] Sagiv [of Israel], [Adrien] Briffod [of Switzerland], learn how to f-cking race.”

“These guys are losers,” added Pearson. “And then they are attacking me on the bike … sick, dude. For like 50th place? What are we trying to do here?” (Sagiv came in 37th, while Briffod finished in 49th. TIME reached out to the Israeli and Swiss federations for comment and will provide any updates.) 

Some athletes thought the pollution concern was a bit overblown. “We race all around the world and in all different bodies [of water],” said Tyler Mislawchuk of Canada, the ninth-place finisher. “If you stress every race about the water quality, I mean, I’m 29, I’d probably look like I was 75. I’ve lost a little bit of hair, but not that much.” And some are clearly sick of addressing the water issue, which is understandable. You’ve just fulfilled an Olympic dream and finished one of humanity’s more difficult athletic endeavors—1500 m (a near mile) in the Seine, 40 km (25 miles) on the bike, and a 10-km (6.2 miles) run through the streets of an historic city, finishing near the Grand Palais—and you’re grilled about fecal matter.

A journalist asked Taylor Knibb of the U.S. how the water tasted. “I've been drinking a lot of bottled water so that tastes very good,” Knibb replied. No, the journalist clarified: He meant the Seine water. “I'm not really thinking about that in the race,” she said. “But you know, I think I can grab you a cup if you want to taste it.” 

Many of these triathletes will be jumping back in the Seine on August 5 for the mixed relay. And the open-water swimmers have their 10k marathon race on August 8 and August 9. They’ll all be watching the water tests, to see if there’s cause for postponement or more concern. “Doctors out there, if there's anything I can take to kill these, I'd love to know,” says Riddle, the South African. “But racing today, as skeptical as it was, I do take my hat off to Paris. That was incredible.” 

But will Riddle feel the same way tomorrow? 

More Must-Reads from TIME

• The Rise of a New Kind of Parenting Guru
• The 50 Best Romance Novels to Read Right Now
• Mark Kelly and the History of Astronauts Making the Jump to Politics
• The Young Women Challenging Iran’s Regime
• How to Be More Spontaneous As a Busy Adult
• Can Food Really Change Your Hormones?
• Column: Why Watching Simone Biles Makes Me Cry
• Get Our Paris Olympics Newsletter in Your Inbox

Write to Sean Gregory / Paris at [email protected]

From the desk of Leigh Ann . . .

The word homework makes me cringe.  I think back to the countless hours my now grown daughter and I spent at the kitchen table – more concerned about completing the seemingly endless assignments than actually learning from them.  She survived, but my heart breaks as I hear other parents discuss this same scenario.  Sadly, homework frustrates children, parents, and teachers alike.  These assignments  should  inspire student learning and be a positive connection between school and home, but research shows there is little connection between mountains of homework and student achievement.  As a new year begins, let’s reassess how homework is handled and turn the frustration into quality learning.

The amount of time spent on homework is not as important as the quality of the assignment.  So, what are some qualities that can make an assignment time well spent?

• Meaningful Assignments – Homework assignments should extend the learning that is taking place in the classroom.  The task should have meaning to the student and provide an opportunity for the child to practice and extend growing skills.
• Purposeful and Relevant Assignments –  The tasks should have a genuine purpose and reflect students’ interests. The assignment should be relevant to the real world, so students understand why they have been tasked with it.
• Open-Ended and Allowing for the Diversity of the Learner –  Assignments need to be designed to meet the individual needs of students.  Tasks that are open-ended allow students to find ways to solve problems that meet their learning styles and can support or challenge their learning.
• Opportunities to Manage Time –  Assignments that allow flexibility and are given with an extended time period for completion allow students to manage their time.  If assignments are given on Monday and are due the following Friday, students can schedule the time they will spend completing an assigned task along with their weekly soccer game or gymnastics practice.
• Allow for Student Choices –  Quality assignments can come with rubrics that make sure the guidelines for learning are met, but can also allow for students to choose ways to demonstrate their knowledge.  Everyone does not have to show what they know in the same way.  Students can then come back to class and share the many ways they solved problems or share the knowledge gained through the assignment with each other.
• Clear Expectations –  Students should know the expectations before they start the assignment.  Rubrics and task outlines are great tools for explaining exactly what a completed quality homework project will look like, so there are few (if any) questions once students get home.
• Collaborative or Individual Flexibility-  Assignments can allow for family participation, team work, or be individual in nature.  Making homework a fun time to work together can make it more meaningful for some – while others like to work on their own.  Children can interview family and friends and ask for strategies from others before choosing a method for solving a problem or completing a task.
• Evaluated for Understanding –  Homework should be evaluated for the growing understanding of the student.  Quality assignments will also give parents a snapshot of the learning that is taking place at school.  Teachers can assess the completed tasks and see if concepts were understood or need to be re-taught or extended.

Homework does not need to be time intensive to make a difference in student learning. Assignments can be meaningful, hands-on, creative, and time effective.  The answer to the homework dilemma is not more homework or less homework, but better designed homework – the kind that truly expands our students’ thinking and is worthy of their time.  Quality – not quantity makes the difference.

“If you don’t like something, change it.  If you can’t change it, change your attitude.”   – Maya Angelou

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A latent profile analysis of homework time, frequency, quality, interest, and favorability: implications for homework effort, completion, and math achievement

• Published: 05 July 2022
• Volume 38 , pages 751–775, ( 2023 )

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• Jianzhong Xu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0269-4590 1 , 2  

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The major objectives of our study were (a) to identify student profiles according to five homework characteristics (homework time, frequency, quality, interest, and favorability) and (b) to examine their relationship with three critical variables in the homework process—homework effort, completion, and math achievement. Latent profile analysis (LPA) was used to examine a data set with 3018 8th graders in China. Based on these characteristics, five distinct profiles were identified: Profile 1 ( Low ), Profile 2 ( Moderate Time/High With Others ), Profile 3 ( Low Frequency/Moderate With Others ), Profile 4 ( Moderate Time/High Frequency/Low With Others ), and Profile 5 ( High Time and Frequency/Moderate With Others ) . Parent education was positively associated with the two healthiest profiles (Profile 2 and Profile 5). Finally, profile membership was a significant predictor of homework effort, completion, and math achievement. Specifically, our study suggests that students can work about 30 min on math homework and achieve the same results, if they work often, with high quality, fueled by interest and favorability (compared with students who spend about 110 min on math homework). Taken together, our study provided novel insights into the combination of homework characteristics that could have significant implications for homework practice and research.

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Introduction

Commonly defined as “tasks assigned to students by school teachers that are meant to be carried out during nonschool hours” (Cooper, 1989 , p. 7), homework is a prevalent instructional activity with everyday importance for many teachers, parents, and students (Fan et al., 2017 ; Dettmers et al., 2010 ). It is frequently considered an important instructional strategy to promote study habits and academic achievement (Fan et al., 2017 ; Cooper, 1989 ; Yang & Tu, 2020 ).

Homework is a “complicated thing” (Corno, 1996 ), influenced by more factors than any instructional activities (Cooper, 2007 ). One cluster of factors that has thus far attracted the most attention in the field is homework characteristics—homework time, frequency, quality, interest, and favorability (Xu et al., 2016 ; Fan et al.,  2017 ; Cooper, 1989 ; Cooper et al., 2006 ; Fernández-Alonso et al., 2015 ; Rosário et al., 2018 ; Suárez et al., 2019 ). Yet, much of the prior studies have used a variable-centered approach, ignoring the likelihood that different combinations of homework characteristics might exist and associate with homework behavior and student achievement.

Our current investigation attempts to address this gap in homework research, by taking a person-centered approach to the study of homework characteristics. A study such as this is timely, as many students find it more challenging to complete their homework assignments during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic (e.g., spending more time doing homework yet with limited support traditionally provided by teachers; Suárez et al., in press ; Van Lancker & Parolin, 2020 ).

Homework characteristics: theoretical models and related research

Comprehensive homework models (Xu & Corno, in press ; Cooper, 1989 ; Trautwein et al., 2006 ) were developed to capture a multitude of factors in the homework process. Drawn from synthesis of homework research, Cooper ( 1989 ) developed a process model of factors that influence the effectiveness of homework. Cooper posited that homework outcomes such as homework completion and student achievement could be affected by the following groups of factors: exogenous factors (e.g., gender and parent education), assignment characteristics (e.g., amount), initial classroom factors (e.g., proposed approaches), home-community factors (e.g., parental help), and classroom follow-up (e.g., teacher feedback).

Extending Cooper’s work, Trautwein et al. ( 2006 ) developed a complementary homework model. Specifically, Trautwein et al. posited that academic achievement may be influenced by the following groups of variables: classroom learning environment, homework characteristics (e.g., length, frequency, and quality), student background (e.g., gender), parental involvement (e.g., homework assistance), student motivation (e.g., homework expectancy), and homework behavior (e.g., homework effort and completion).

Due to the linkage to the objectives of the current investigation, we focused on homework characteristics in the above two theoretical models along with related previous homework investigation. In Cooper’s model, the amount of homework assigned or time spent on homework is conceptualized as one important homework characteristic that may influence homework completion and academic achievement. Aside from homework time, Trautwein et al. ( 2006 ) incorporated two additional homework characteristics (i.e., homework frequency and homework quality) expected to influence academic achievement (Trautwein & Köller, 2003 ). Trautwein et al.’s model further pointed to the significance of homework effort in the homework process, in that homework characteristics such as homework time, frequency, and quality may influence homework effort (i.e., in addition to homework completion and academic achievement in Cooper’s model).

Much of the previous literature on homework characteristic variables emphasizes on the influence of homework time and frequency on student achievement. In their research synthesis, Cooper et al. ( 2006 ) examined the relation between homework time and student achievement. Their analysis of 69 separate correlations from 32 studies yielded a weighted average correlation of 0.24. In another research synthesis, Fan et al. ( 2017 ) examined the prior studies on the homework–achievement association in math and science, based on 61 separate correlations from 28 studies. Results showed a weighted average correlation of 0.15 between homework time and student achievement and of 0.12 between homework frequency and student achievement.

Influenced by Trautwein et al.’s model ( 2006 ), an increasing number of studies have linked homework quality to homework behavior and achievement (Xu, 2016 ; Dettmers et al., 2010 ; Rosário et al., 2018 ). Using data from 918 middle school students, Xu ( 2016 ) reported that homework quality was positively correlated with homework effort, completion, and student achievement. Similarly, involving 4265 6th graders, Rosário et al. ( 2018 ) reported that homework quality was positively associated with homework effort and performance (including homework completion and accuracy) and that homework performance was positively related to student achievement.

Moving beyond the three homework characteristics discussed above (i.e., homework time, frequency, and quality), one emerging line of research further suggests the importance of two additional homework characteristics—homework interest and favorability (Xu, 2008 ; Xu & Corno, 1998 ; Cooper et al., 1998 ; Rosário et al., 2018 ; Suárez et al., 2019 ). Cooper et al. ( 1998 ) related student attitudes to homework completion and student achievement. In their study, student attitudes contained both interest items (e.g., the extent to which students like homework) and belief items (e.g., the extent to which homework helps them learn). For students in grades 6–12, their attitudes was positively related to homework completion, which in turn was positively associated with student achievement. Involving secondary school students, Xu ( 2011 ) examined empirical models of factors to predict homework completion and found that homework interest was positively associated with homework completion after controlling for other important variables (e.g., teacher feedback). Likewise, Suárez et al. ( 2019 ) reported that homework interest was positively associated with homework behavior engagement (including homework completion), which in turn was positively related to student achievement.

Homework favorability can be defined as students’ favorite ratings of homework compared with subjective experiences with other competing activities during after-school hours (e.g., texting and social networking; Xu et al., 2020 ). It is initially informed by qualitative research with elementary and middle school students (Xu & Corno, 1998 ; Xu & Yuan,  2003 ) and followed by cross-sectional and longitudinal studies with secondary school students (e.g., Xu, 2008 ; Xu et al., 2020 ). Relevant results indicated that homework favorability had a large positive correlation with homework interest (0.65 ≤  r  ≤ 0.72) yet empirically distinguishable from homework interest (Xu, 2008 ; Xu et al., 2016 ) and that homework favorability and homework interest were positively reciprocally related (Xu et al., 2020 ). Additionally, as students use learning strategies more in favorite than least favorite courses, and as they are more likely to obtain higher achievement in favorite courses (Ben-Eliyahu & Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2015 ), there is a need to include homework favorability as another important homework characteristic in our study.

This line of literature further suggests that these homework characteristics (time, frequency, quality, interest, and favorability) are significantly correlated with homework behavior (effort and completion) and student achievement. Even though a variable-centered perspective offers useful information about the linkages between each homework characteristic and homework behavior (or student achievement), it overlooks the likelihood that (a) different combinations of homework characteristic profiles may emerge, and (b) these profiles may associate with differences in homework behavior and student achievement.

Our justification for studying the possible combinations of homework characteristics is further alluded to by recent studies that have attempted to identify homework profiles based on homework time and homework effort (Flunger et al., 2015 , 2017 ; Shin & Sohn, 2019 ) or based on homework time and homework time management (Valle et al., 2019 ). As these studies have limited to one homework characteristic (i.e., homework time), and as “homework behavior cannot be fully captured by focusing solely on homework time” (Flunger et al., 2017 , p. 2), it would be important to identify student profiles that draw from a broad range of homework characteristics as discussed above in our current investigation.

The present study

The first objective was to investigate student profiles according to the possible combinations of the five homework characteristics—homework time, frequency, quality, interest, and favorability. Specifically, the present study focused on eighth graders with their mathematics homework for several reasons. First, math is a highly valued yet challenging subject across many countries (León et al., 2015 ; Ramirez et al., 2018 ). Additionally, teachers often assign more homework in math than in other school subjects (Xu, 2015 ; Bempechat, 2019 ). Finally, math becomes increasingly more complex and abstract at the eighth grade level, posing significant challenges for students to learn math concepts and follow through math assignments (Xu et al., 2022 ; Lee, 2009 ).

Since our study is the first to apply a person-centered approach to a broad range of homework characteristics, we have no specific hypothesis concerning the number of homework characteristic profiles that would emerge. On the other hand, congruent with previous studies adopting a person-centered approach drawing from homework time and homework effort/homework time management (Flunger et al., 2015 , 2017 ; Shin & Sohn, 2019 ; Valle et al., 2019 ), several profiles may emerge, including a profile containing high homework time, a profile containing low homework time, and profiles with varying degrees of homework time and other homework characteristics.

Although it is not the focus in our study, student gender and parent education are considered key background variables in homework models (Xu & Corno, in press ; Cooper, 1989 ; Trautwein et al., 2006 ), thereby having important implications for research and practice (Cooper et al., 2000 ; Froiland, 2021 ). Parents with higher education, for example, “are more likely to know something about what the children are being taught and thus able to help with homework” (Davis-Kean, 2005 , p. 303). As we do not have information on how gender and parent education may influence the classification of students into profiles, it would be important to control for these two variables (i.e., incorporating them as covariates) in latent profile analysis (LPA).

The second objective was to examine how profiles related to critical variables in the homework models (Xu & Corno, in press ; Cooper, 1989 ; Trautwein et al., 2006 ), including homework effort, completion, and math achievement. Congruent with previous studies in English-speaking, European, Asian, and Latin American countries (Xu, 2016 ; Fan et al., 2017 ; Ben-Eliyahu & Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2015 ; Cooper et al., 1998 , 2006 ; Fernández-Alonso et al., 2019 ; Flunger et al., 2017 ; Suárez et al., 2019 ), we expect that a profile with a high level of homework characteristics (e.g., quality and frequency) would expend more effort, complete more homework, and score higher on math achievement than a profile with a low level of homework characteristics.

Participants and procedures

The participants were 3018 8th graders (96 classes; 100% Han nationality) from several regions in China, including southeastern, southwestern, and central. Among these participants, 54.4% identified as male and 45.6% as female. Their mean age was 13.7 years ( SD  = 0.4). Education level was 11.4 years and 10.6 years for fathers and mothers. The overall student participation rate was 88.7%. A test of mean differences between participants ( n  = 3018) and non-participants ( n  = 383) indicated that there were no significant differences between these two groups regarding student gender ( p  = 0.431), mothers’ education ( p  = 0.205), and fathers’ education ( p  = 0.331).

Regarding homework practices, 76.9% participants did math homework 4 days or more a week. They spent a mean of 34 min ( SD  = 25) on math homework daily. These math homework practices are generally congruent with related studies in China (Xu et al., 2017 ).

We sought and gained permissions from schools and parents for their children to participate in our investigation. Informed consent was taken from students and parents according to the tenets of Helsinki Declaration. Specifically, students were informed that the purpose of the investigation is “to learn more about how you approach math homework so that teachers and your family can better help you.” They were further assured that their responses were confidential and they might not answer certain items or withdraw from participation anytime. The data were collected using paper–pencil questionnaire in classrooms during normal school time at the end of October 2017. Math teachers were asked to step out of their rooms while students completed the measures.

• Homework time

Students were asked about the following question: “On a typical day, how long does it usually take you to finish your math homework?” Responses included 1 ( none ), 2 ( 1–20 min ), 3 ( 21–40 min ), 4 ( 41–60 min ), 5 ( 61–80 min ), 6 ( 81–100 min ), 7 ( 101 to 120 min ), and 8 ( more than 120 min ). In line with previous work (Xu, 2010 ; Cooper et al., 1998 ), a variable relating to homework time was created by transforming each response into its midpoint (e.g., 2 = 10.5 min).

• Homework frequency

Based on extant literature (Fan et al., 2017 ; Fernández-Alonso et al., 2015 ), students were asked about the following question: “During a typical week, how often do you get math homework?” Responses included 1 ( none ), 2 ( 1 day a week ), 3 ( 2 days a week ), 4 ( 3 days a week ), 5 ( 4 days a week ), and 6 ( 5 or more days a week ).

• Homework quality

It consisted of four items to assess student perceptions of quality of homework (Xu, 2016 ). Specifically, it assessed how well math assignments were selected, prepared, and integrated into math classes (e.g., “Our math homework assignments really help us to understand our math lessons”; α  = 0.87; ω  = 0.87). Responses ranged from 1 ( strongly disagree ) to 4 ( strongly agree ).

• Homework interest

It contained four items to assess student interest in math homework, informed by existing literature on intrinsic motivation and interest (Wigfield & Cambria, 2010 ) and homework studies (Xu et al., 2016 ; Cooper et al., 1998 ). It assessed the extent to which students enjoyed doing math homework (e.g., “I look forward to math homework”; α  = 0.91; ω  = 0.91). Responses varied from 1 ( strongly disagree ) to 5 ( strongly agree ).

• Homework favorability

It consisted of three items to measure participants’ favorability of math assignments (Xu, 2008 ; Xu et al., 2020 ). It tapped into students’ favorite ratings of math assignments, compared with their experience (e.g., motivation, attention, and moods) in other after-school activities (e.g., “My motivation to do math homework is _____ other school activities”; α  = 0.83; ω  = 0.83). Responses varied from 1 ( much lower than ) to 5 ( much higher than ).

Homework effort

Three items assessed students’ homework effort, drawn from prior studies (Xu, 2018 ; Trautwein et al., 2006 ). These items tapped into students’ initiatives to follow through on math assignments (e.g., “I always try to finish my math assignments”; α  = 0.81; ω  = 0.82). Response options varied from 1 ( strongly disagree ) to 4 ( strongly agree ).

Parent education

Students were asked about the education levels of their mothers and fathers. Response choices varied from elementary school (coded 6 years) to graduate degree (coded 19 years). As education level of mothers and fathers were highly related for our participants ( r  = 0.76, p  < 001). A variable to represent level of parent education was developed by taking the mean of education level of each parent.

Homework completion

Based on related studies (Xu et al., 2019 ; Cooper et al., 2006 ), students were asked about one item regarding homework completion: “Some students often complete math homework on time, others rarely do. How much of your assigned math homework do you usually complete?” Responses were 1 ( none ), 2 ( some ), 3 ( about half ), 4 ( most ), and 5 ( all ). Regarding this measure’s concurrent and predictive evidence, Xu ( 2017 ) found that, consistent with theoretical prediction, it was positively correlated with homework expectancy, effort, and student achievement.

Math achievement

Standardized math achievement was assessed nearly 8 months following the administration of the measures. The assessment was aligned with national curriculum (Li & Li, 2018 ) to measure knowledge and skills at the grade level (e.g., fraction, linear function, triangle, parallelogram, parallelogram, quadratic radical, and data analysis). It contained multiple-choice and short-answer questions, and students were given 120 min to work on the test. The reliability estimate (coefficient alpha) was 0.88.

Data analyses

LPA was used to investigate student profiles according to five homework characteristics—homework time, frequency, quality, interest, and favorability. All analyses were conducted with robust maximum likelihood estimator in M plus 7.2. As students were nested in classes, the standard errors were adjusted by using the command “type is complex” in M plus . Our study contained very few missing data, ranging from 0.00 to 2.12% ( M  = 0.71%). We applied full information maximum likelihood (FIML) to handle with missing data, as FILM is found to produce unbiased estimates (Marsh et al., 2016 ).

The decision for selecting the optimal number of profiles was based on multiple fit indices, interpretability, and parsimony (Xu, 2022 ; Valle et al., 2019 ). These indices include the Akaike information criterion (AIC), Schwartz’s Bayesian information criterion (BIC), sample-size adjusted BIC (SSA-BIC), and Lo-Mendell-Rubin adjusted likelihood ratio test (LMRT).

Lower values on AIC, BIC, and SSA-BIC represent better fit. A significant p value for LMRT means that a k-profile model yields better fit to the data than a k-1-profile model. We generated elbow plots of the AIC, BIC, and SSA-BIC to provide a graphic summary of these indices to facilitate the model selection. The profile at the point with which the slope of the plots noticeably flattens is considered additional indicator of an appropriate solution (Morin & Marsh, 2015 ). Entropy value (varying from 0 to 1) measures classification uncertainty (> 0.70 representing adequate classification accuracy; Jung & Wickrama, 2008 ).

We applied the 3-step procedure to perform the covariate and distal outcome testing (Asparouhov & Muthén, 2014 ). In step 1, the LPA was conducted with only the five homework characteristics. In step 2, a “most likely class” variable was created based on the LPA. In step 3, the auxiliary variables were incorporated for investigation. In particular, in a multinomial logistic regression model, we incorporated two covariates—gender and parent education—as predictors of latent profiles using the R3STEP procedure. We then used the DU3STEP procedure (assuming unequal variances and means in each profile), specifying homework effort, completion, and math achievement as three distal outcome variables. A Wald chi-square test was used to assess the equality of means of the three distal outcome variables across latent profiles.

Descriptive statistics

Table 1 provides descriptive statistics. Overall, low to positive moderate relations were found among the measures used in the LPA.

Identification of student profiles

Table 2 displays the fit of profile models. As additional profiles were extracted, the AIC, BIC, and SSA-BIC kept decreasing, and the LMRT continued to show significant differences. Yet, slopes of the elbow plots seemed to flatten around the five-profile model (see Fig.  1 ). Even though the five-profile model had one profile less than 5% of the cases (4.47%), compared with the four-profile model (Fig.  3 ), this profile exhibited rather distinctive information regarding homework time (students in this profile spending 110 min on math homework, over 3 standard deviations above the mean; see Table 6 and Fig.  4 ).

Elbow plots for AIC, BIC, and SSA-BIC

The three-profile model (Fig.  2 ) had the highest entropy (0.935) among all these models, and it included one similar profile (i.e., with one profile of students spending 108 min on math homework). Yet, as shown in this model, students in three different profiles did not show much differences in homework quality ( z  =  − 0.52 to 0.12), homework interest ( z  =  − 0.37 to 0.08), and homework favorability ( z  =  − 0.30 to 0.16). This indicates that, among others, the students in the largest profile in the three-profile model ( n  = 2369; 78.5%) can be further classified into different profiles. This information, along with our previous discussion relating to the elbow plots, suggested that the five-profile solution seemed to be the optimal choice for our study.

Homework characteristics: three-profile model

Regarding the classification accuracy of our five-profile model (Table 2 ), the entropy was 0.848, thus having a high level of entropy. Table 3 presents the classification accuracy of the five-profile model and the number of students in the five profiles. The table’s main diagonal displays the coefficients relating to each profile to which students were assigned.

Five student profiles of homework characteristics

Table 4 contains the mean scores of students assigned to the five profiles. Figure  4 presents a graphic depiction of the profiles using z-scores. Profile 1 included 6.7% of the students ( n  = 202) and could be referred to Low due to the low mean scores across all five homework characteristics ( z  =  − 0.41 to − 2.72). Profile 2 consisted of 51.7% of the cases ( n  = 1559) and could be referred to Moderate Time/High With Others because this profile had high mean scores on four homework characteristics ( z  = 0.38 to 0.49) and homework time was near the overall mean ( z  =  − 0.10). Profile 3 included 16.3% of the cases ( n  = 491) and could be referred to Low Frequency/Moderate With Others because homework frequency was more than one standard deviation lower than the overall mean ( z  =  − 1.21) and the means on the other four homework characteristics were near the overall means ( z  =  − 0.07 to − 0.23). Profile 4 included 20.9% of the cases ( n  = 631) and could be referred to Moderate Time/High Frequency/Low With Others because this profile had high mean on homework frequency ( z  = 0.46), moderate mean on homework time ( z  =  − 0.21), and low means on the other three characteristics ( z  =  − 0.54 to − 0.98). Profile 5 consisted of 4.5% of the cases ( n  = 135) and could be referred to High Time and Frequency/Moderate With Others because they had high means with homework time and frequency ( z  = 0.47 to 3.09) and the mean scores on the other three characteristics were near the overall means ( z  =  − 0.07 to 0.21).

Homework characteristics: four-profile model

Homework characteristics: five-profile model

Multinomial logistic regression results by gender and parent education

Table 5 presents multinomial logistic regression results by gender and parent education. Out of the ten comparisons among the five empirically deprived profiles, we found insignificant differences among any of these comparisons by gender. These findings indicated that gender was not significantly associated with profile membership.

As also shown in Table 5 , students with higher parental education were less likely to be in Profile 1 ( Low ; b  =  − 0.16, SE = 0.04, p  < 0.001, OR = 0.85), in Profile 3 ( Low Frequency/Moderate With Others ; b  =  − 0.13, SE = 0.03, p  < 0.001, OR = 0.88), and in Profile 4 ( Moderate Time/High Frequency/Low With Others ; b  =  − 0.08, SE = 0.03, p  = 0.001, OR = 0.92) in reference to Profile 2 ( Moderate Time/High With Others ). Additionally, students with higher parental education were more likely to be in Profile 5 ( High Time and Frequency/Moderate With Others ) than in Profile 1 ( Low ; b  = 0.12, SE = 0.06, p  = 0.027, OR = 1.13) and in Profile 3 ( Low Frequency/Moderate With Others ; b  = 0.09, SE = 0.05, p  = 0.046, OR = 1.09).

Differences among profiles on the distal outcomes

We investigated equality of the means on the distal outcomes (i.e., homework effort, completion, and math achievement) across profiles. Table 6 shows the means of the distal outcomes across the profiles. Table 7 includes chi-square tests of pairwise comparisons between the profiles.

Our findings revealed that profile membership was significantly related to homework effort, completion, and math achievement. The effect size was of medium magnitude for homework effort ( d  = 0.55) and homework completion ( d  = 0.42) and between medium and large for math achievement ( d  = 0.70). Concerning homework effort, Profile 2 and Profile 5 had higher scores than Profile 4 and Profile 3, which in turn had significantly higher scores than Profile 1. This pattern of results held for homework completion, except that Profile 2 had higher scores than Profile 5 and that there were no significant differences among Profile 3, Profile 4, and Profile 5. Finally, this pattern of results held for math achievement, except that Profile 4 had higher scores than Profile 3. Taken together, these findings provided additional empirical support for the validity of the five-profile model.

Summary of findings

The present study makes a significant contribution in understanding homework characteristics by applying a person-centered approach to generate profiles of homework time, frequency, quality, interest, and favorability. Our results provide clear empirical support for meaningful differences in homework characteristics between subgroups of students, as the findings revealed five distinct homework characteristics profiles, as parent education was significantly related to profile membership, and as profile membership was a significant predictor of homework effort, completion, and math achievement.

To sum up, we identified different combinations of five homework characteristics as meaningful profiles relative to key homework behavior and outcomes based on comprehensive homework models (Xu & Corno, in press ; Cooper, 1989 ; Trautwein et al., 2006 ) and related prior studies (e.g., Xu et al., 2016 ; Rosário et al., 2018 ; Suárez et al., 2019 ). Particularly, findings revealed these homework characteristics profiles: Profile 1 ( Low ; 6.7%), Profile 2 ( Moderate Time/High With Others ; 51.7%), Profile 3 ( Low Frequency/Moderate With Others ; 16.3%), Profile 4 ( Moderate Time/High Frequency/Low With Others ; 20.9%), and Profile 5 ( High Time and Frequency/Moderate With Others ; 4.5%). As can be seen from the above five profiles, a vast majority of students in our study (93.3%) had uneven profiles on homework characteristics, as marked by relatively high scores on some homework characteristics and low scores on others. This pattern of results suggests that these homework characteristics (time, frequency, quality, interest, and favorability) provide meaningful profile differentiation.

Interpretation

Because this is the first investigation that applied the LPA to a broad spectrum of homework characteristics, we have no specific hypothesis concerning the number of homework characteristics profiles that would exist. On the other hand, in line with our general expectation as informed by prior studies (Flunger et al., 2015 , 2017 ; Shin & Sohn, 2019 ; Valle et al., 2019 ), we identified profiles containing high homework time (i.e., High Time and Frequency/Moderate With Others ), low homework time (i.e., Low ), and moderate homework time (i.e., Moderate Time/High With Others, Low Frequency/Moderate With Others, Moderate Time/High Frequency/Low With Others ).

Following that, we examined whether gender and parent education would be associated with profile membership, something that has not been tapped into in prior homework research. The results that students with higher parent education were more likely to be in two healthiest profiles (Profile 2 and Profile 5) are congruent with previous studies. For example, Froiland and Davison ( 2016 ) reported that parent education predicted long-term math achievement via parent expectations, student intrinsic motivation to learn, and engaging with challenging courses over 3 years.

We further examined differences among these profiles relating to homework effort, completion, and student achievement. Congruent with our general expectation based on prior research (Xu, 2016 ; Fan et al., 2017 ; Ben-Eliyahu & Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2015 ; Flunger et al., 2017 ; Suárez et al., 2019 ), we found that students in Profile 2 (i.e., Moderate Time/High With Others ) exerted more homework effort, completed more homework, and obtained higher scores on math achievement test than students in Profile 1 (i.e., Low ). Given these results, the distribution of students among these five profiles appears optimal in that the least desirable profile (i.e., Low ) had the least percentage of students (6.7%) and that the most desirable profile (i.e., Moderate Time/High With Others ) had the most percentage of students (51.7%).

It is worth noting that, along with students in Profile 5 (i.e., Moderate Time/High With Others , a small group of students (4.5%) in Profile 5 (i.e., High Time and Frequency/Moderate With Others ) had comparable means in two out of the three distal outcomes (i.e., homework effort and math achievement; Table 6 ). This implies that, for students in this profile, high homework time may compensate for a moderate level of homework quality, interest, and favorability. For a large group of students (51.7%) in Moderate Time/High With Others , this also suggests that a high level of homework frequency, quality, interest, and favorability may compensate for a moderate level of homework time—one possible explanation that we did not find a profile with a high level of homework characteristics across homework time, frequency, quality, interest, and favorability. Given there appeared to be a very large difference between moderate homework time ( M  = 31.83 min; SD  = 0.51) and high homework time ( M  = 110.33 min; SD  = 2.12) in the above two profiles (Profiles 2 and 5; see Table 4 ), it suggests that one can accomplish more in less time, in part due to greater attention, engagement, and flow when autonomously motivated (e.g., fueled by interest and favorability). Consequently, it would be more beneficial and cost-effective for teachers to design math homework assignments of high frequency, quality, interest, and favorability rather than high quantity.

Regarding students in Profile 3 ( Low Frequency/Moderate With Others ) and Profile 4 ( Moderate Time/High Frequency/Low With Others ), it appeared that both two profiles functioned quite comparably; they had similar means in two out of three distal outcomes (homework effort and completion) and with math achievement favoring Profile 4. This suggests that high homework frequency may compensate for moderate homework time and for low quality, interest, and favorability, whereas low homework frequency may undermine a moderate level of homework time, quality, interest, and favorability (Fig.  4 ).

Previous studies adopting a variable-centered perspective find that homework frequency (in comparison with homework time) plays a more significant role in student achievement (e.g., Fernández-Alonso et al., 2015 ; Trautwein, 2007 ). Applying a person-centered approach, our present investigation offers novel insights into one possible explanation for this finding in that high homework frequency may compensate for moderate homework time and for low homework quality, interest, and favorability (Profile 4), whereas low homework frequency may undermine moderate homework time, quality, interest, and favorability (Profile 3). On the other hand, high homework time in Profile 5 ( High Time and Frequency/Moderate With Others ) may not necessarily lead to higher student achievement as compared with moderate homework time in Profile 2 ( Moderate Time/High With Others ).

Recent research indicates the important role of homework quality, interest, and favorability in homework behavior and student achievement (Xu, 2008 , 2016 ; Cooper et al., 1998 ; Fernández-Alonso et al., 2015 ; Rosário et al., 2018 ; Suárez et al., 2019 ). Instead of focusing on the contribution of each of these separate homework characteristics to homework behavior and student achievement, we examined the likelihood that distinct combinations of homework characteristic profiles may emerge and relate differences in homework behavior and student achievement. Our results relating to the five profiles indicated that homework quality, interest, and favorability tended to function together, and that they exerted a powerful and positive influence on homework behavior and student achievement (Table 6 ). This is vividly illustrated in Fig.  4 relating to the two largest profiles— Moderate Time/High With Others (Profile 2; 51.1% of the sample) and Moderate Time / High Frequency/Low With Others (Profile 4; 20.1%)—in which both profiles had a moderate level homework time and a high level homework frequency. Yet, students in a profile with a high level of homework quality, interest, and favorability ( Moderate Time/High With Others ) were more likely to exert homework effort, to complete more homework, and score higher in math achievement than students in a profile with a low level of homework quality, interest, and favorability ( Moderate Time / High Frequency/Low With Others ).

Implications for practice

Provided the most desirable profile is Profile 2 ( Moderate Time/High With Others ) in that a high level of homework frequency, quality, interest, and favorability may compensate for a moderate level of homework time, it would be beneficial to put more emphasis on homework frequency, quality, interest, and favorability when designing homework assignments. First, it would be beneficial to assign more frequent and high quality homework. Specifically, consistent with previous research on autonomy supportive teaching in math (e.g., promoting intrinsic motivation to learn math; Froiland et al., 2016 ), it would be beneficial for teachers to make close linkage between math homework assignments and math materials covered in the lessons and to help students see and understand this linkage from their perspectives. It would also be helpful to encourage students to share their perspectives on what constitutes high quality homework assignments, which could provide teachers with a better understanding of how to design and modify homework assignments according to the needs, concerns, and expectations of their students.

Furthermore, it would be important to pay close attention to student interest when teachers design homework assignments (e.g., content interest and activity interest), in line with the call from researchers over the last two decades (Corno & Xu, 2004 ; Xu et al.,  2020 ; Epstein & Van Voorhis, 2001 ). At the same time, it would be equally important to pay close attention to students’ homework favorability when they do homework during after-school hours, particularly as (a) homework is frequently viewed by students as one of the least favorable activities in their life (e.g., compared with schoolwork, maintenance, or leisure activities; Xu et al., 2016 ; Verma et al., 2002 ) and as (b) there are positive reciprocal influences between homework favorability and interest (Xu et al., 2020 ). Because both homework and other attractive activities often occur in home settings, parents are in a prime position to assist students develop a more favorable attitude towards homework. Consistent with research-based intervention studies (e.g., promoting homework autonomous motivation and engagement; Froiland, 2021 ; Moè et al, 2018 ), it would be especially helpful for parents to help students to develop a more favorable approach towards math homework, by encouraging them to take homework initiatives such as managing time spending on homework and its attractive alternatives. “If adolescents realize that they still have opportunities for other attractive activities during the week, they may be less conflicted and sidetracked by thoughts of competing activities while doing daily homework, thereby viewing homework tasks in a less unfavorable light” (Xu, 2008 , pp. 1199–1200).

Given our findings regarding five distinct profiles and their differential linkages to homework effort, completion, and student achievement, teachers need to pay close attention to the specific needs of students in each profile when approaching homework. In particular, teachers need to devote more close attention to students in Profile 1 (i.e., Low ) across these homework characteristics (time, frequency, quality, interest, and favorability). Additionally, whereas teachers may want to pay more attention to homework frequency for students in Profile 3 ( Low Frequency/Moderate With Others ), it would be more beneficial to devote special attention to homework quality, interest, and favorability for students in Profile 4 ( Moderate Time/High Frequency/Low With Others ). Furthermore, the above recommendations are applicable to both boys and girls, given our result that gender was not significantly related to profile membership. On the other hand, as students with higher parent education were more likely to be in the more desirable profiles (i.e., Moderate Time/High With Others ), it would be helpful for teachers to play more close attention to students with lower parent education (e.g., relating to homework frequency, quality, and interest).

Limitations and further investigation

Several possible limitations need to be acknowledged when interpreting our results. First, the current investigation is limited to a cross-sectional analysis. Although math achievement was assessed approximately 8 months later, we do not have data with repeated measures of the five homework characteristics. Second, certain homework characteristics (e.g., homework frequency) included in the PLA may also function as class variables. Hence, it is likely that the selected profile model, a consequence of the LPA at the student level, is not fully replicated if these variables are considered both at the student and class levels. Third, although our current study incorporated gender and parent education as covariates, it would be beneficial to study other important covariates (e.g., student ability or prior achievement) in further investigation.

Because this is the first investigation that used the LPA to examine a broad range of homework characteristics (time, frequency, quality, interest, and favorability), it would be informative to replicate our study in diverse settings. In particular, it would be beneficial to carry out a study such as this in cross-cultural settings, as some homework characteristics such as homework time and interest may be shaped by cultural differences (Xu et al., 2016 ). In addition, it would be beneficial to pursue this line of research at the elementary and high school levels, as the effect of homework on academic achievement can be moderated by school level (Fan et al., 2017 ; Cooper et al., 2006 ). Furthermore, as certain homework characteristics such as homework frequency may play a more important role in math achievement (e.g., short and frequent assignments rather than few and long assignments; Fan et al., 2017 ; Cooper, 2007 ), it would be vital to replicate our study in other achievement domains.

Moreover, as parent education was associated with healthiest profiles in our sample, as the quality of parental homework involvement (e.g., autonomy support) plays a more vital role in student achievement (Xu et al., 2017 ; Dettmers et al., 2019 ; Moroni et al., 2015 ), there is a need to link the quality of parental homework involvement to students’ homework profiles in future investigation (e.g., to include both autonomy support and parent education as covariates). This line of investigation is especially significant, as (a) recent studies have identified two major issues relating to homework during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic—the ambiguity in homework assignments and the decrease of student interest in homework (Cui et al., 2021 ; Zaccoletti et al., 2020 )—and as (b) the role of parental homework involvement has become increasingly important during the pandemic (e.g., parental support and supervision; Suárez et al., in press ; Xia, 2020 ). Finally, given our findings regarding the two largest profiles (i.e., students in Moderate Time/High With Others putting forth more effort, completing more homework, and scoring higher in math than students in Moderate Time / High Frequency/Low With Others ), it would be intriguing to conduct qualitative research with students in these two profiles in particular, to better understand their perspectives concerning how homework quality, interest, and favorability function along with homework frequency and time.

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Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology, and Foundations, Mississippi State University, P.O. Box 9727, Mississippi State, MS, 39762, USA

Jianzhong Xu

Faculty of Education, University of Macau, Macau, China

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Jianzhong Xu. Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology, and Foundations, Mississippi State University, P.O. Box 9727, Mississippi State, MS, 39762, USA. Faculty of Education, University of Macau, Macau, China. Email: [email protected].

Current themes of research:

Teaching and learning in the school, home, and online settings, in home-school relationships, and in partnerships with families from diverse cultural backgrounds.

Most relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education:

Fan, H., Xu, J., Cai, Z., He, J., & Fan, X. (2017). Homework and students' achievement in math and science: A 30-year meta-analysis, 1986-2015. Educational Research Review , 20 , 35-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2016.11.003 .

Xu, J. (2008). Models of secondary students’ interest in homework: A multilevel analysis. American Educational Research Journal , 45 , 1180-1205. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831208323276 .

Xu, J. (2022). A profile analysis of online assignment motivation: Combining achievement goal and expectancy-value perspectives. Computers & Education , 177 , 104367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104367 .

Xu, J. (2018). Reciprocal effects of homework self-concept, interest, effort, and math achievement. Contemporary Educational Psychology , 55 , 42-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.09.002 .

Xu, J. (2021). Homework goal orientation, interest, and achievement: Testing models of reciprocal effects. European Journal of Psychology of Education , 36 (2), 359-378. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-020-00472-7 .

Xu, J., Du, J., Cunha, J., & Rosário, P. (2021). Student perceptions of homework quality, autonomy support, effort, and math achievement: Testing models of reciprocal effects. Teaching and Teacher Education , 108 , 103508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2021.103508 .

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Xu, J. A latent profile analysis of homework time, frequency, quality, interest, and favorability: implications for homework effort, completion, and math achievement. Eur J Psychol Educ 38 , 751–775 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-022-00627-8

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Published : 05 July 2022

Issue Date : June 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-022-00627-8

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Homework: Quality Time or Hard Time?

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Effective tips on how to make learning with your child a positive and enjoyable experience.

If studying with your child seems like such a great idea, why does it take only one minute for everything to go wrong? You're disappointed in how little the kid knows. He thinks you're the meanest human being on the planet. And, right after the little angel is tearfully sent packing to his room you decide to do the exact same thing, except that you're the one crying real tears.

Here are some effective tips you can use to nurture homework harmony.

1. Resist the temptation to live vicariously through your children. We may seek redemption from our own less than stellar performance in school by pushing our kids harder than what is really healthy for them. Alternatively, many parents feel like failures when their kids get failing grades. This can create undue pressure on the parent for the child to perform. In turn, children will feel the pressure and become extremely uncomfortable during what could otherwise be a pleasant interaction between parent and child. If you are one of those overly anxious parents, just before you sit down with your child try to imagine that he is really your nephew who's come to stay with you during his parents' extended vacation abroad. By creating a little professional detachment you might help alleviate a whole lot of pressure and tension.

2. Set a clear start and finish time for your study time with your child. Otherwise, kids might become antsy even before you begin, worrying that should the session stretch on too long there'll be no time left for playing with friends or siblings and for relaxation. Make sure to verbalize the specific amount of time you'll be spending together and that your youngster has the time and patience to be comfortable for the duration.

3. Compliment your child often during your study time together and avoid sweeping criticism. Every child needs to know that his parents think highly of him. In fact, to a great extent his self-esteem will be a direct reflection of how he feels he is perceived by mom and dad. It is estimated that most parents criticize their children 40 times more than they compliment them. If you are one of those parents, it is precisely during study time when you are most likely to lose patience and become overly critical. If this happens, your child will eventually try to avoid these encounters at all costs. He will find every reason and excuse to be unavailable to you. Find things to compliment that are directly related to school and your child's scholastic accomplishments before, during and after study time. Those compliments might actually do more to enhance your child's performance in school than all the texts you study combined.

4. Enjoy your child. Every kid has his or her own charm. Begin each study session by taking a moment to "kvell" (take pleasure) at the person he is becoming. With terrific kids it'll come easy and make the time together even more pleasurable. With difficult kids it is even more important, (and you just might not get through the session intact without it!).

5. LIFT your child. Be creative during the time you spend together. Do whatever you can to make the time spent studying really pleasurable by integrating games and creating outrageous and entertaining examples. Make sure to give ample rewards for appropriate behavior. LIFT your child by conveying the message: Learning Is Fun Too.

6. Attempt to understand your child. Develop good listening skills and make a real effort to understand your child and his learning style. One real insight into your child's learning process can be worth hundreds of hours of study time. If and when your child complains about school in general or about a specific situation, teacher or another child resist the urge to belittle the perceived hardship. Listen intently to the complaints, sympathize, demonstrate that you understand and offer support and constructive advice, but do not attempt to "take over" and resolve the problem on your own.

7. Speak to your child's teachers. It's always advisable to be in touch with your child's teachers on a regular basis. PTA meetings should never be missed and an occasional note and/or phone call to the teacher will give you the feedback you need to tweak and adjust your sessions with your child. The teacher may also have a certain teaching style or plan with which you will want to be "in sync" so that your child is not receiving conflicting educational messages.

8. You're not a failure if you have to hire a tutor. Sometimes children are so different than their parents that doing homework together is just a bad idea. Sometimes children are so amazingly like their parents that it's an even worse idea! Just because the two of you can't seem to study together doesn't mean that you are a lousy parent. Quite the contrary, a lousy parent will force the issue and spend agonizing years in the attempt to prove they can tutor their own child rather than realize that there's so much more to parenting than that. My own son, with whom I have an amazingly close relationship and who is a respected educator in his own right, reminds me that the last time he and I formally studied together was when he was in the eighth grade. And, the reason he remembers it, is because it was so painful! I wisely stopped learning with him and we shared instead many wonderful informal learning opportunities and terrific life experiences. If your child needs a little extra help and the two of you can't get along as study partners, go get him a tutor. You can still spend a whole lot of quality time together in extemporaneous conversation, shopping, sharing a pizza and volunteering for any number of chesed (charitable) projects.

If studying with your child has become a parenting dead end, either give yourselves an immediate LIFT or hitch a ride with a terrific tutor.

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MoSCoW Prioritization

What is moscow prioritization.

MoSCoW prioritization, also known as the MoSCoW method or MoSCoW analysis, is a popular prioritization technique for managing requirements. 

  The acronym MoSCoW represents four categories of initiatives: must-have, should-have, could-have, and won’t-have, or will not have right now. Some companies also use the “W” in MoSCoW to mean “wish.”

What is the History of the MoSCoW Method?

Software development expert Dai Clegg created the MoSCoW method while working at Oracle. He designed the framework to help his team prioritize tasks during development work on product releases.

You can find a detailed account of using MoSCoW prioritization in the Dynamic System Development Method (DSDM) handbook . But because MoSCoW can prioritize tasks within any time-boxed project, teams have adapted the method for a broad range of uses.

How Does MoSCoW Prioritization Work?

Before running a MoSCoW analysis, a few things need to happen. First, key stakeholders and the product team need to get aligned on objectives and prioritization factors. Then, all participants must agree on which initiatives to prioritize.

At this point, your team should also discuss how they will settle any disagreements in prioritization. If you can establish how to resolve disputes before they come up, you can help prevent those disagreements from holding up progress.

Finally, you’ll also want to reach a consensus on what percentage of resources you’d like to allocate to each category.

With the groundwork complete, you may begin determining which category is most appropriate for each initiative. But, first, let’s further break down each category in the MoSCoW method.

Start prioritizing your roadmap

Moscow prioritization categories.

1. Must-have initiatives

As the name suggests, this category consists of initiatives that are “musts” for your team. They represent non-negotiable needs for the project, product, or release in question. For example, if you’re releasing a healthcare application, a must-have initiative may be security functionalities that help maintain compliance.

The “must-have” category requires the team to complete a mandatory task. If you’re unsure about whether something belongs in this category, ask yourself the following.

If the product won’t work without an initiative, or the release becomes useless without it, the initiative is most likely a “must-have.”

2. Should-have initiatives

Should-have initiatives are just a step below must-haves. They are essential to the product, project, or release, but they are not vital. If left out, the product or project still functions. However, the initiatives may add significant value.

“Should-have” initiatives are different from “must-have” initiatives in that they can get scheduled for a future release without impacting the current one. For example, performance improvements, minor bug fixes, or new functionality may be “should-have” initiatives. Without them, the product still works.

3. Could-have initiatives

Another way of describing “could-have” initiatives is nice-to-haves. “Could-have” initiatives are not necessary to the core function of the product. However, compared with “should-have” initiatives, they have a much smaller impact on the outcome if left out.

So, initiatives placed in the “could-have” category are often the first to be deprioritized if a project in the “should-have” or “must-have” category ends up larger than expected.

4. Will not have (this time)

One benefit of the MoSCoW method is that it places several initiatives in the “will-not-have” category. The category can manage expectations about what the team will not include in a specific release (or another timeframe you’re prioritizing).

Placing initiatives in the “will-not-have” category is one way to help prevent scope creep . If initiatives are in this category, the team knows they are not a priority for this specific time frame. 

Some initiatives in the “will-not-have” group will be prioritized in the future, while others are not likely to happen. Some teams decide to differentiate between those by creating a subcategory within this group.

How Can Development Teams Use MoSCoW?

  Although Dai Clegg developed the approach to help prioritize tasks around his team’s limited time, the MoSCoW method also works when a development team faces limitations other than time. For example: 

Prioritize based on budgetary constraints.

What if a development team’s limiting factor is not a deadline but a tight budget imposed by the company? Working with the product managers, the team can use MoSCoW first to decide on the initiatives that represent must-haves and the should-haves. Then, using the development department’s budget as the guide, the team can figure out which items they can complete. 

Prioritize based on the team’s skillsets.

A cross-functional product team might also find itself constrained by the experience and expertise of its developers. If the product roadmap calls for functionality the team does not have the skills to build, this limiting factor will play into scoring those items in their MoSCoW analysis.

Prioritize based on competing needs at the company.

Cross-functional teams can also find themselves constrained by other company priorities. The team wants to make progress on a new product release, but the executive staff has created tight deadlines for further releases in the same timeframe. In this case, the team can use MoSCoW to determine which aspects of their desired release represent must-haves and temporarily backlog everything else.

What Are the Drawbacks of MoSCoW Prioritization?

  Although many product and development teams have prioritized MoSCoW, the approach has potential pitfalls. Here are a few examples.

1. An inconsistent scoring process can lead to tasks placed in the wrong categories.

  One common criticism against MoSCoW is that it does not include an objective methodology for ranking initiatives against each other. Your team will need to bring this methodology to your analysis. The MoSCoW approach works only to ensure that your team applies a consistent scoring system for all initiatives.

Pro tip: One proven method is weighted scoring, where your team measures each initiative on your backlog against a standard set of cost and benefit criteria. You can use the weighted scoring approach in ProductPlan’s roadmap app .

2. Not including all relevant stakeholders can lead to items placed in the wrong categories.

To know which of your team’s initiatives represent must-haves for your product and which are merely should-haves, you will need as much context as possible.

For example, you might need someone from your sales team to let you know how important (or unimportant) prospective buyers view a proposed new feature.

One pitfall of the MoSCoW method is that you could make poor decisions about where to slot each initiative unless your team receives input from all relevant stakeholders. 

3. Team bias for (or against) initiatives can undermine MoSCoW’s effectiveness.

Because MoSCoW does not include an objective scoring method, your team members can fall victim to their own opinions about certain initiatives. 

One risk of using MoSCoW prioritization is that a team can mistakenly think MoSCoW itself represents an objective way of measuring the items on their list. They discuss an initiative, agree that it is a “should have,” and move on to the next.

But your team will also need an objective and consistent framework for ranking all initiatives. That is the only way to minimize your team’s biases in favor of items or against them.

When Do You Use the MoSCoW Method for Prioritization?

MoSCoW prioritization is effective for teams that want to include representatives from the whole organization in their process. You can capture a broader perspective by involving participants from various functional departments.

Another reason you may want to use MoSCoW prioritization is it allows your team to determine how much effort goes into each category. Therefore, you can ensure you’re delivering a good variety of initiatives in each release.

What Are Best Practices for Using MoSCoW Prioritization?

If you’re considering giving MoSCoW prioritization a try, here are a few steps to keep in mind. Incorporating these into your process will help your team gain more value from the MoSCoW method.

1. Choose an objective ranking or scoring system.

Remember, MoSCoW helps your team group items into the appropriate buckets—from must-have items down to your longer-term wish list. But MoSCoW itself doesn’t help you determine which item belongs in which category.

You will need a separate ranking methodology. You can choose from many, such as:

• Weighted scoring
• Value vs. complexity
• Buy-a-feature
• Opportunity scoring

For help finding the best scoring methodology for your team, check out ProductPlan’s article: 7 strategies to choose the best features for your product .

2. Seek input from all key stakeholders.

To make sure you’re placing each initiative into the right bucket—must-have, should-have, could-have, or won’t-have—your team needs context. 

At the beginning of your MoSCoW method, your team should consider which stakeholders can provide valuable context and insights. Sales? Customer success? The executive staff? Product managers in another area of your business? Include them in your initiative scoring process if you think they can help you see opportunities or threats your team might miss. 

3. Share your MoSCoW process across your organization.

MoSCoW gives your team a tangible way to show your organization prioritizing initiatives for your products or projects. 

The method can help you build company-wide consensus for your work, or at least help you show stakeholders why you made the decisions you did.

Communicating your team’s prioritization strategy also helps you set expectations across the business. When they see your methodology for choosing one initiative over another, stakeholders in other departments will understand that your team has thought through and weighed all decisions you’ve made. 

If any stakeholders have an issue with one of your decisions, they will understand that they can’t simply complain—they’ll need to present you with evidence to alter your course of action.  

Related Terms

2×2 prioritization matrix / Eisenhower matrix / DACI decision-making framework / ICE scoring model / RICE scoring model

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