findings conclusion in research

How to Write a Conclusion for Research Papers (with Examples)

The conclusion of a research paper is a crucial section that plays a significant role in the overall impact and effectiveness of your research paper. However, this is also the section that typically receives less attention compared to the introduction and the body of the paper. The conclusion serves to provide a concise summary of the key findings, their significance, their implications, and a sense of closure to the study. Discussing how can the findings be applied in real-world scenarios or inform policy, practice, or decision-making is especially valuable to practitioners and policymakers. The research paper conclusion also provides researchers with clear insights and valuable information for their own work, which they can then build on and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in the field.

The research paper conclusion should explain the significance of your findings within the broader context of your field. It restates how your results contribute to the existing body of knowledge and whether they confirm or challenge existing theories or hypotheses. Also, by identifying unanswered questions or areas requiring further investigation, your awareness of the broader research landscape can be demonstrated.

Remember to tailor the research paper conclusion to the specific needs and interests of your intended audience, which may include researchers, practitioners, policymakers, or a combination of these.

Table of Contents

What is a conclusion in a research paper, summarizing conclusion, editorial conclusion, externalizing conclusion, importance of a good research paper conclusion, how to write a conclusion for your research paper, research paper conclusion examples.

• How to write a research paper conclusion with Paperpal? 

Frequently Asked Questions

A conclusion in a research paper is the final section where you summarize and wrap up your research, presenting the key findings and insights derived from your study. The research paper conclusion is not the place to introduce new information or data that was not discussed in the main body of the paper. When working on how to conclude a research paper, remember to stick to summarizing and interpreting existing content. The research paper conclusion serves the following purposes: 1

• Warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem.
• Recommend specific course(s) of action.
• Restate key ideas to drive home the ultimate point of your research paper.
• Provide a “take-home” message that you want the readers to remember about your study.

Types of conclusions for research papers

In research papers, the conclusion provides closure to the reader. The type of research paper conclusion you choose depends on the nature of your study, your goals, and your target audience. I provide you with three common types of conclusions:

A summarizing conclusion is the most common type of conclusion in research papers. It involves summarizing the main points, reiterating the research question, and restating the significance of the findings. This common type of research paper conclusion is used across different disciplines.

An editorial conclusion is less common but can be used in research papers that are focused on proposing or advocating for a particular viewpoint or policy. It involves presenting a strong editorial or opinion based on the research findings and offering recommendations or calls to action.

An externalizing conclusion is a type of conclusion that extends the research beyond the scope of the paper by suggesting potential future research directions or discussing the broader implications of the findings. This type of conclusion is often used in more theoretical or exploratory research papers.

Align your conclusion’s tone with the rest of your research paper. Start Writing with Paperpal Now!  

The conclusion in a research paper serves several important purposes:

• Offers Implications and Recommendations : Your research paper conclusion is an excellent place to discuss the broader implications of your research and suggest potential areas for further study. It’s also an opportunity to offer practical recommendations based on your findings.
• Provides Closure : A good research paper conclusion provides a sense of closure to your paper. It should leave the reader with a feeling that they have reached the end of a well-structured and thought-provoking research project.
• Leaves a Lasting Impression : Writing a well-crafted research paper conclusion leaves a lasting impression on your readers. It’s your final opportunity to leave them with a new idea, a call to action, or a memorable quote.

Writing a strong conclusion for your research paper is essential to leave a lasting impression on your readers. Here’s a step-by-step process to help you create and know what to put in the conclusion of a research paper: 2

• Research Statement : Begin your research paper conclusion by restating your research statement. This reminds the reader of the main point you’ve been trying to prove throughout your paper. Keep it concise and clear.
• Key Points : Summarize the main arguments and key points you’ve made in your paper. Avoid introducing new information in the research paper conclusion. Instead, provide a concise overview of what you’ve discussed in the body of your paper.
• Address the Research Questions : If your research paper is based on specific research questions or hypotheses, briefly address whether you’ve answered them or achieved your research goals. Discuss the significance of your findings in this context.
• Significance : Highlight the importance of your research and its relevance in the broader context. Explain why your findings matter and how they contribute to the existing knowledge in your field.
• Implications : Explore the practical or theoretical implications of your research. How might your findings impact future research, policy, or real-world applications? Consider the “so what?” question.
• Future Research : Offer suggestions for future research in your area. What questions or aspects remain unanswered or warrant further investigation? This shows that your work opens the door for future exploration.
• Closing Thought : Conclude your research paper conclusion with a thought-provoking or memorable statement. This can leave a lasting impression on your readers and wrap up your paper effectively. Avoid introducing new information or arguments here.
• Proofread and Revise : Carefully proofread your conclusion for grammar, spelling, and clarity. Ensure that your ideas flow smoothly and that your conclusion is coherent and well-structured.

Write your research paper conclusion 2x faster with Paperpal. Try it now!

Remember that a well-crafted research paper conclusion is a reflection of the strength of your research and your ability to communicate its significance effectively. It should leave a lasting impression on your readers and tie together all the threads of your paper. Now you know how to start the conclusion of a research paper and what elements to include to make it impactful, let’s look at a research paper conclusion sample.

How to write a research paper conclusion with Paperpal?

A research paper conclusion is not just a summary of your study, but a synthesis of the key findings that ties the research together and places it in a broader context. A research paper conclusion should be concise, typically around one paragraph in length. However, some complex topics may require a longer conclusion to ensure the reader is left with a clear understanding of the study’s significance. Paperpal, an AI writing assistant trusted by over 800,000 academics globally, can help you write a well-structured conclusion for your research paper. 

• Sign Up or Log In: Create a new Paperpal account or login with your details.  
• Navigate to Features : Once logged in, head over to the features’ side navigation pane. Click on Templates and you’ll find a suite of generative AI features to help you write better, faster.  
• Generate an outline: Under Templates, select ‘Outlines’. Choose ‘Research article’ as your document type.  
• Select your section: Since you’re focusing on the conclusion, select this section when prompted.  
• Choose your field of study: Identifying your field of study allows Paperpal to provide more targeted suggestions, ensuring the relevance of your conclusion to your specific area of research. 
• Provide a brief description of your study: Enter details about your research topic and findings. This information helps Paperpal generate a tailored outline that aligns with your paper’s content. 
• Generate the conclusion outline: After entering all necessary details, click on ‘generate’. Paperpal will then create a structured outline for your conclusion, to help you start writing and build upon the outline.  
• Write your conclusion: Use the generated outline to build your conclusion. The outline serves as a guide, ensuring you cover all critical aspects of a strong conclusion, from summarizing key findings to highlighting the research’s implications. 
• Refine and enhance: Paperpal’s ‘Make Academic’ feature can be particularly useful in the final stages. Select any paragraph of your conclusion and use this feature to elevate the academic tone, ensuring your writing is aligned to the academic journal standards. 

By following these steps, Paperpal not only simplifies the process of writing a research paper conclusion but also ensures it is impactful, concise, and aligned with academic standards. Sign up with Paperpal today and write your research paper conclusion 2x faster .  

The research paper conclusion is a crucial part of your paper as it provides the final opportunity to leave a strong impression on your readers. In the research paper conclusion, summarize the main points of your research paper by restating your research statement, highlighting the most important findings, addressing the research questions or objectives, explaining the broader context of the study, discussing the significance of your findings, providing recommendations if applicable, and emphasizing the takeaway message. The main purpose of the conclusion is to remind the reader of the main point or argument of your paper and to provide a clear and concise summary of the key findings and their implications. All these elements should feature on your list of what to put in the conclusion of a research paper to create a strong final statement for your work.

A strong conclusion is a critical component of a research paper, as it provides an opportunity to wrap up your arguments, reiterate your main points, and leave a lasting impression on your readers. Here are the key elements of a strong research paper conclusion: 1. Conciseness : A research paper conclusion should be concise and to the point. It should not introduce new information or ideas that were not discussed in the body of the paper. 2. Summarization : The research paper conclusion should be comprehensive enough to give the reader a clear understanding of the research’s main contributions. 3 . Relevance : Ensure that the information included in the research paper conclusion is directly relevant to the research paper’s main topic and objectives; avoid unnecessary details. 4 . Connection to the Introduction : A well-structured research paper conclusion often revisits the key points made in the introduction and shows how the research has addressed the initial questions or objectives. 5. Emphasis : Highlight the significance and implications of your research. Why is your study important? What are the broader implications or applications of your findings? 6 . Call to Action : Include a call to action or a recommendation for future research or action based on your findings.

The length of a research paper conclusion can vary depending on several factors, including the overall length of the paper, the complexity of the research, and the specific journal requirements. While there is no strict rule for the length of a conclusion, but it’s generally advisable to keep it relatively short. A typical research paper conclusion might be around 5-10% of the paper’s total length. For example, if your paper is 10 pages long, the conclusion might be roughly half a page to one page in length.

In general, you do not need to include citations in the research paper conclusion. Citations are typically reserved for the body of the paper to support your arguments and provide evidence for your claims. However, there may be some exceptions to this rule: 1. If you are drawing a direct quote or paraphrasing a specific source in your research paper conclusion, you should include a citation to give proper credit to the original author. 2. If your conclusion refers to or discusses specific research, data, or sources that are crucial to the overall argument, citations can be included to reinforce your conclusion’s validity.

The conclusion of a research paper serves several important purposes: 1. Summarize the Key Points 2. Reinforce the Main Argument 3. Provide Closure 4. Offer Insights or Implications 5. Engage the Reader. 6. Reflect on Limitations

Remember that the primary purpose of the research paper conclusion is to leave a lasting impression on the reader, reinforcing the key points and providing closure to your research. It’s often the last part of the paper that the reader will see, so it should be strong and well-crafted.

• Makar, G., Foltz, C., Lendner, M., & Vaccaro, A. R. (2018). How to write effective discussion and conclusion sections. Clinical spine surgery, 31(8), 345-346.
• Bunton, D. (2005). The structure of PhD conclusion chapters.  Journal of English for academic purposes ,  4 (3), 207-224.

Paperpal is a comprehensive AI writing toolkit that helps students and researchers achieve 2x the writing in half the time. It leverages 21+ years of STM experience and insights from millions of research articles to provide in-depth academic writing, language editing, and submission readiness support to help you write better, faster.  

Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed. Try for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime starting at US$19 a month to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.  

Experience the future of academic writing – Sign up to Paperpal and start writing for free!  

Related Reads:

• 5 Reasons for Rejection After Peer Review
• Ethical Research Practices For Research with Human Subjects

7 Ways to Improve Your Academic Writing Process

• Paraphrasing in Academic Writing: Answering Top Author Queries

Preflight For Editorial Desk: The Perfect Hybrid (AI + Human) Assistance Against Compromised Manuscripts

You may also like, how to cite in apa format (7th edition):..., how to write your research paper in apa..., how to choose a dissertation topic, how to write a phd research proposal, how to write an academic paragraph (step-by-step guide), research funding basics: what should a grant proposal..., how to write an abstract in research papers..., how to write dissertation acknowledgements, how to write the first draft of a..., mla works cited page: format, template & examples.

How to write a strong conclusion for your research paper

Last updated

17 February 2024

Reviewed by

Short on time? Get an AI generated summary of this article instead

Writing a research paper is a chance to share your knowledge and hypothesis. It's an opportunity to demonstrate your many hours of research and prove your ability to write convincingly.

Ideally, by the end of your research paper, you'll have brought your readers on a journey to reach the conclusions you've pre-determined. However, if you don't stick the landing with a good conclusion, you'll risk losing your reader’s trust.

Writing a strong conclusion for your research paper involves a few important steps, including restating the thesis and summing up everything properly.

Find out what to include and what to avoid, so you can effectively demonstrate your understanding of the topic and prove your expertise.

• Why is a good conclusion important?

A good conclusion can cement your paper in the reader’s mind. Making a strong impression in your introduction can draw your readers in, but it's the conclusion that will inspire them.

• What to include in a research paper conclusion

There are a few specifics you should include in your research paper conclusion. Offer your readers some sense of urgency or consequence by pointing out why they should care about the topic you have covered. Discuss any common problems associated with your topic and provide suggestions as to how these problems can be solved or addressed.

The conclusion should include a restatement of your initial thesis. Thesis statements are strengthened after you’ve presented supporting evidence (as you will have done in the paper), so make a point to reintroduce it at the end.

Finally, recap the main points of your research paper, highlighting the key takeaways you want readers to remember. If you've made multiple points throughout the paper, refer to the ones with the strongest supporting evidence.

• Steps for writing a research paper conclusion

Many writers find the conclusion the most challenging part of any research project . By following these three steps, you'll be prepared to write a conclusion that is effective and concise.

• Step 1: Restate the problem

Always begin by restating the research problem in the conclusion of a research paper. This serves to remind the reader of your hypothesis and refresh them on the main point of the paper. 

When restating the problem, take care to avoid using exactly the same words you employed earlier in the paper.

• Step 2: Sum up the paper

After you've restated the problem, sum up the paper by revealing your overall findings. The method for this differs slightly, depending on whether you're crafting an argumentative paper or an empirical paper.

Argumentative paper: Restate your thesis and arguments

Argumentative papers involve introducing a thesis statement early on. In crafting the conclusion for an argumentative paper, always restate the thesis, outlining the way you've developed it throughout the entire paper.

It might be appropriate to mention any counterarguments in the conclusion, so you can demonstrate how your thesis is correct or how the data best supports your main points.

Empirical paper: Summarize research findings

Empirical papers break down a series of research questions. In your conclusion, discuss the findings your research revealed, including any information that surprised you.

Be clear about the conclusions you reached, and explain whether or not you expected to arrive at these particular ones.

• Step 3: Discuss the implications of your research

Argumentative papers and empirical papers also differ in this part of a research paper conclusion. Here are some tips on crafting conclusions for argumentative and empirical papers.

Argumentative paper: Powerful closing statement

In an argumentative paper, you'll have spent a great deal of time expressing the opinions you formed after doing a significant amount of research. Make a strong closing statement in your argumentative paper's conclusion to share the significance of your work.

You can outline the next steps through a bold call to action, or restate how powerful your ideas turned out to be.

Empirical paper: Directions for future research

Empirical papers are broader in scope. They usually cover a variety of aspects and can include several points of view.

To write a good conclusion for an empirical paper, suggest the type of research that could be done in the future, including methods for further investigation or outlining ways other researchers might proceed.

If you feel your research had any limitations, even if they were outside your control, you could mention these in your conclusion.

After you finish outlining your conclusion, ask someone to read it and offer feedback. In any research project you're especially close to, it can be hard to identify problem areas. Having a close friend or someone whose opinion you value read the research paper and provide honest feedback can be invaluable. Take note of any suggested edits and consider incorporating them into your paper if they make sense.

• Things to avoid in a research paper conclusion

Keep these aspects to avoid in mind as you're writing your conclusion and refer to them after you've created an outline.

Dry summary

Writing a memorable, succinct conclusion is arguably more important than a strong introduction. Take care to avoid just rephrasing your main points, and don't fall into the trap of repeating dry facts or citations.

You can provide a new perspective for your readers to think about or contextualize your research. Either way, make the conclusion vibrant and interesting, rather than a rote recitation of your research paper’s highlights.

Clichéd or generic phrasing

Your research paper conclusion should feel fresh and inspiring. Avoid generic phrases like "to sum up" or "in conclusion." These phrases tend to be overused, especially in an academic context and might turn your readers off.

The conclusion also isn't the time to introduce colloquial phrases or informal language. Retain a professional, confident tone consistent throughout your paper’s conclusion so it feels exciting and bold.

New data or evidence

While you should present strong data throughout your paper, the conclusion isn't the place to introduce new evidence. This is because readers are engaged in actively learning as they read through the body of your paper.

By the time they reach the conclusion, they will have formed an opinion one way or the other (hopefully in your favor!). Introducing new evidence in the conclusion will only serve to surprise or frustrate your reader.

Ignoring contradictory evidence

If your research reveals contradictory evidence, don't ignore it in the conclusion. This will damage your credibility as an expert and might even serve to highlight the contradictions.

Be as transparent as possible and admit to any shortcomings in your research, but don't dwell on them for too long.

Ambiguous or unclear resolutions

The point of a research paper conclusion is to provide closure and bring all your ideas together. You should wrap up any arguments you introduced in the paper and tie up any loose ends, while demonstrating why your research and data are strong.

Use direct language in your conclusion and avoid ambiguity. Even if some of the data and sources you cite are inconclusive or contradictory, note this in your conclusion to come across as confident and trustworthy.

• Examples of research paper conclusions

Your research paper should provide a compelling close to the paper as a whole, highlighting your research and hard work. While the conclusion should represent your unique style, these examples offer a starting point:

Ultimately, the data we examined all point to the same conclusion: Encouraging a good work-life balance improves employee productivity and benefits the company overall. The research suggests that when employees feel their personal lives are valued and respected by their employers, they are more likely to be productive when at work. In addition, company turnover tends to be reduced when employees have a balance between their personal and professional lives. While additional research is required to establish ways companies can support employees in creating a stronger work-life balance, it's clear the need is there.

Social media is a primary method of communication among young people. As we've seen in the data presented, most young people in high school use a variety of social media applications at least every hour, including Instagram and Facebook. While social media is an avenue for connection with peers, research increasingly suggests that social media use correlates with body image issues. Young girls with lower self-esteem tend to use social media more often than those who don't log onto social media apps every day. As new applications continue to gain popularity, and as more high school students are given smartphones, more research will be required to measure the effects of prolonged social media use.

What are the different kinds of research paper conclusions?

There are no formal types of research paper conclusions. Ultimately, the conclusion depends on the outline of your paper and the type of research you’re presenting. While some experts note that research papers can end with a new perspective or commentary, most papers should conclude with a combination of both. The most important aspect of a good research paper conclusion is that it accurately represents the body of the paper.

Can I present new arguments in my research paper conclusion?

Research paper conclusions are not the place to introduce new data or arguments. The body of your paper is where you should share research and insights, where the reader is actively absorbing the content. By the time a reader reaches the conclusion of the research paper, they should have formed their opinion. Introducing new arguments in the conclusion can take a reader by surprise, and not in a positive way. It might also serve to frustrate readers.

How long should a research paper conclusion be?

There's no set length for a research paper conclusion. However, it's a good idea not to run on too long, since conclusions are supposed to be succinct. A good rule of thumb is to keep your conclusion around 5 to 10 percent of the paper's total length. If your paper is 10 pages, try to keep your conclusion under one page.

What should I include in a research paper conclusion?

A good research paper conclusion should always include a sense of urgency, so the reader can see how and why the topic should matter to them. You can also note some recommended actions to help fix the problem and some obstacles they might encounter. A conclusion should also remind the reader of the thesis statement, along with the main points you covered in the paper. At the end of the conclusion, add a powerful closing statement that helps cement the paper in the mind of the reader.

Should you be using a customer insights hub?

Do you want to discover previous research faster?

Do you share your research findings with others?

Do you analyze research data?

Start for free today, add your research, and get to key insights faster

Editor’s picks

Last updated: 18 April 2023

Last updated: 27 February 2023

Last updated: 22 August 2024

Last updated: 5 February 2023

Last updated: 16 August 2024

Last updated: 9 March 2023

Last updated: 30 April 2024

Last updated: 12 December 2023

Last updated: 11 March 2024

Last updated: 4 July 2024

Last updated: 6 March 2024

Last updated: 5 March 2024

Last updated: 13 May 2024

Latest articles

Related topics, .css-je19u9{-webkit-align-items:flex-end;-webkit-box-align:flex-end;-ms-flex-align:flex-end;align-items:flex-end;display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-flex-direction:row;-ms-flex-direction:row;flex-direction:row;-webkit-box-flex-wrap:wrap;-webkit-flex-wrap:wrap;-ms-flex-wrap:wrap;flex-wrap:wrap;-webkit-box-pack:center;-ms-flex-pack:center;-webkit-justify-content:center;justify-content:center;row-gap:0;text-align:center;max-width:671px;}@media (max-width: 1079px){.css-je19u9{max-width:400px;}.css-je19u9>span{white-space:pre;}}@media (max-width: 799px){.css-je19u9{max-width:400px;}.css-je19u9>span{white-space:pre;}} decide what to .css-1kiodld{max-height:56px;display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-align-items:center;-webkit-box-align:center;-ms-flex-align:center;align-items:center;}@media (max-width: 1079px){.css-1kiodld{display:none;}} build next, decide what to build next, log in or sign up.

Get started for free

• Link to facebook
• Link to linkedin
• Link to twitter
• Link to youtube
• Writing Tips

How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper

• 3-minute read
• 29th August 2023

If you’re writing a research paper, the conclusion is your opportunity to summarize your findings and leave a lasting impression on your readers. In this post, we’ll take you through how to write an effective conclusion for a research paper and how you can:

·   Reword your thesis statement

·   Highlight the significance of your research

·   Discuss limitations

·   Connect to the introduction

·   End with a thought-provoking statement

Rewording Your Thesis Statement

Begin your conclusion by restating your thesis statement in a way that is slightly different from the wording used in the introduction. Avoid presenting new information or evidence in your conclusion. Just summarize the main points and arguments of your essay and keep this part as concise as possible. Remember that you’ve already covered the in-depth analyses and investigations in the main body paragraphs of your essay, so it’s not necessary to restate these details in the conclusion.

Find this useful?

Subscribe to our newsletter and get writing tips from our editors straight to your inbox.

Highlighting the Significance of Your Research

The conclusion is a good place to emphasize the implications of your research . Avoid ambiguous or vague language such as “I think” or “maybe,” which could weaken your position. Clearly explain why your research is significant and how it contributes to the broader field of study.

Here’s an example from a (fictional) study on the impact of social media on mental health:

Discussing Limitations

Although it’s important to emphasize the significance of your study, you can also use the conclusion to briefly address any limitations you discovered while conducting your research, such as time constraints or a shortage of resources. Doing this demonstrates a balanced and honest approach to your research.

Connecting to the Introduction

In your conclusion, you can circle back to your introduction , perhaps by referring to a quote or anecdote you discussed earlier. If you end your paper on a similar note to how you began it, you will create a sense of cohesion for the reader and remind them of the meaning and significance of your research.

Ending With a Thought-Provoking Statement

Consider ending your paper with a thought-provoking and memorable statement that relates to the impact of your research questions or hypothesis. This statement can be a call to action, a philosophical question, or a prediction for the future (positive or negative). Here’s an example that uses the same topic as above (social media and mental health):

Expert Proofreading Services

Ensure that your essay ends on a high note by having our experts proofread your research paper. Our team has experience with a wide variety of academic fields and subjects and can help make your paper stand out from the crowd – get started today and see the difference it can make in your work.

Share this article:

Post A New Comment

Got content that needs a quick turnaround? Let us polish your work. Explore our editorial business services.

5-minute read

Free Email Newsletter Template (2024)

Promoting a brand means sharing valuable insights to connect more deeply with your audience, and...

6-minute read

How to Write a Nonprofit Grant Proposal

If you’re seeking funding to support your charitable endeavors as a nonprofit organization, you’ll need...

9-minute read

How to Use Infographics to Boost Your Presentation

Is your content getting noticed? Capturing and maintaining an audience’s attention is a challenge when...

8-minute read

Why Interactive PDFs Are Better for Engagement

Are you looking to enhance engagement and captivate your audience through your professional documents? Interactive...

7-minute read

Seven Key Strategies for Voice Search Optimization

Voice search optimization is rapidly shaping the digital landscape, requiring content professionals to adapt their...

4-minute read

Five Creative Ways to Showcase Your Digital Portfolio

Are you a creative freelancer looking to make a lasting impression on potential clients or...

Make sure your writing is the best it can be with our expert English proofreading and editing.

How To Write The Conclusion Chapter

A Simple Explainer With Examples + Free Template

By: Jenna Crossley (PhD) | Reviewed By: Dr. Eunice Rautenbach | September 2021

So, you’ve wrapped up your results and discussion chapters, and you’re finally on the home stretch – the conclusion chapter . In this post, we’ll discuss everything you need to know to craft a high-quality conclusion chapter for your dissertation or thesis project.

Overview: The Conclusion Chapter

• What the thesis/dissertation conclusion chapter is
• What to include in your conclusion
• How to structure and write up your conclusion
• A few tips  to help you ace the chapter
• FREE conclusion template

What is the conclusion chapter?

The conclusion chapter is typically the final major chapter of a dissertation or thesis. As such, it serves as a concluding summary of your research findings and wraps up the document. While some publications such as journal articles and research reports combine the discussion and conclusion sections, these are typically separate chapters in a dissertation or thesis. As always, be sure to check what your university’s structural preference is before you start writing up these chapters.

So, what’s the difference between the discussion and the conclusion chapter?

Well, the two chapters are quite similar , as they both discuss the key findings of the study. However, the conclusion chapter is typically more general and high-level in nature. In your discussion chapter, you’ll typically discuss the intricate details of your study, but in your conclusion chapter, you’ll take a   broader perspective, reporting on the main research outcomes and how these addressed your research aim (or aims) .

A core function of the conclusion chapter is to synthesise all major points covered in your study and to tell the reader what they should take away from your work. Basically, you need to tell them what you found , why it’s valuable , how it can be applied , and what further research can be done.

Whatever you do, don’t just copy and paste what you’ve written in your discussion chapter! The conclusion chapter should not be a simple rehash of the discussion chapter. While the two chapters are similar, they have distinctly different functions.  

What should I include in the conclusion chapter?

To understand what needs to go into your conclusion chapter, it’s useful to understand what the chapter needs to achieve. In general, a good dissertation conclusion chapter should achieve the following:

• Summarise the key findings of the study
• Explicitly answer the research question(s) and address the research aims
• Inform the reader of the study’s main contributions
• Discuss any limitations or weaknesses of the study
• Present recommendations for future research

Therefore, your conclusion chapter needs to cover these core components. Importantly, you need to be careful not to include any new findings or data points. Your conclusion chapter should be based purely on data and analysis findings that you’ve already presented in the earlier chapters. If there’s a new point you want to introduce, you’ll need to go back to your results and discussion chapters to weave the foundation in there.

In many cases, readers will jump from the introduction chapter directly to the conclusions chapter to get a quick overview of the study’s purpose and key findings. Therefore, when you write up your conclusion chapter, it’s useful to assume that the reader hasn’t consumed the inner chapters of your dissertation or thesis. In other words, craft your conclusion chapter such that there’s a strong connection and smooth flow between the introduction and conclusion chapters, even though they’re on opposite ends of your document.

Need a helping hand?

How to write the conclusion chapter

Now that you have a clearer view of what the conclusion chapter is about, let’s break down the structure of this chapter so that you can get writing. Keep in mind that this is merely a typical structure – it’s not set in stone or universal. Some universities will prefer that you cover some of these points in the discussion chapter , or that you cover the points at different levels in different chapters.

Step 1: Craft a brief introduction section

As with all chapters in your dissertation or thesis, the conclusions chapter needs to start with a brief introduction. In this introductory section, you’ll want to tell the reader what they can expect to find in the chapter, and in what order . Here’s an example of what this might look like:

This chapter will conclude the study by summarising the key research findings in relation to the research aims and questions and discussing the value and contribution thereof. It will also review the limitations of the study and propose opportunities for future research.

Importantly, the objective here is just to give the reader a taste of what’s to come (a roadmap of sorts), not a summary of the chapter. So, keep it short and sweet – a paragraph or two should be ample.

Step 2: Discuss the overall findings in relation to the research aims

The next step in writing your conclusions chapter is to discuss the overall findings of your study , as they relate to the research aims and research questions . You would have likely covered similar ground in the discussion chapter, so it’s important to zoom out a little bit here and focus on the broader findings – specifically, how these help address the research aims .

In practical terms, it’s useful to start this section by reminding your reader of your research aims and research questions, so that the findings are well contextualised. In this section, phrases such as, “This study aimed to…” and “the results indicate that…” will likely come in handy. For example, you could say something like the following:

This study aimed to investigate the feeding habits of the naked mole-rat. The results indicate that naked mole rats feed on underground roots and tubers. Further findings show that these creatures eat only a part of the plant, leaving essential parts to ensure long-term food stability.

Be careful not to make overly bold claims here. Avoid claims such as “this study proves that” or “the findings disprove existing the existing theory”. It’s seldom the case that a single study can prove or disprove something. Typically, this is achieved by a broader body of research, not a single study – especially not a dissertation or thesis which will inherently have significant  limitations . We’ll discuss those limitations a little later.

Step 3: Discuss how your study contributes to the field

Next, you’ll need to discuss how your research has contributed to the field – both in terms of theory and practice . This involves talking about what you achieved in your study, highlighting why this is important and valuable, and how it can be used or applied.

In this section you’ll want to:

• Mention any research outputs created as a result of your study (e.g., articles, publications, etc.)
• Inform the reader on just how your research solves your research problem , and why that matters
• Reflect on gaps in the existing research and discuss how your study contributes towards addressing these gaps
• Discuss your study in relation to relevant theories . For example, does it confirm these theories or constructively challenge them?
• Discuss how your research findings can be applied in the real world . For example, what specific actions can practitioners take, based on your findings?

Be careful to strike a careful balance between being firm but humble in your arguments here. It’s unlikely that your one study will fundamentally change paradigms or shake up the discipline, so making claims to this effect will be frowned upon . At the same time though, you need to present your arguments with confidence, firmly asserting the contribution your research has made, however small that contribution may be. Simply put, you need to keep it balanced .

Step 4: Reflect on the limitations of your study

Now that you’ve pumped your research up, the next step is to critically reflect on the limitations and potential shortcomings of your study. You may have already covered this in the discussion chapter, depending on your university’s structural preferences, so be careful not to repeat yourself unnecessarily.

There are many potential limitations that can apply to any given study. Some common ones include:

• Sampling issues that reduce the generalisability of the findings (e.g., non-probability sampling )
• Insufficient sample size (e.g., not getting enough survey responses ) or limited data access
• Low-resolution data collection or analysis techniques
• Researcher bias or lack of experience
• Lack of access to research equipment
• Time constraints that limit the methodology (e.g. cross-sectional vs longitudinal time horizon)
• Budget constraints that limit various aspects of the study

Discussing the limitations of your research may feel self-defeating (no one wants to highlight their weaknesses, right), but it’s a critical component of high-quality research. It’s important to appreciate that all studies have limitations (even well-funded studies by expert researchers) – therefore acknowledging these limitations adds credibility to your research by showing that you understand the limitations of your research design .

That being said, keep an eye on your wording and make sure that you don’t undermine your research . It’s important to strike a balance between recognising the limitations, but also highlighting the value of your research despite those limitations. Show the reader that you understand the limitations, that these were justified given your constraints, and that you know how they can be improved upon – this will get you marks.

Next, you’ll need to make recommendations for future studies. This will largely be built on the limitations you just discussed. For example, if one of your study’s weaknesses was related to a specific data collection or analysis method, you can make a recommendation that future researchers undertake similar research using a more sophisticated method.

Another potential source of future research recommendations is any data points or analysis findings that were interesting or surprising , but not directly related to your study’s research aims and research questions. So, if you observed anything that “stood out” in your analysis, but you didn’t explore it in your discussion (due to a lack of relevance to your research aims), you can earmark that for further exploration in this section.

Essentially, this section is an opportunity to outline how other researchers can build on your study to take the research further and help develop the body of knowledge. So, think carefully about the new questions that your study has raised, and clearly outline these for future researchers to pick up on.

Step 6: Wrap up with a closing summary

Tips for a top-notch conclusion chapter

Now that we’ve covered the what , why and how of the conclusion chapter, here are some quick tips and suggestions to help you craft a rock-solid conclusion.

• Don’t ramble . The conclusion chapter usually consumes 5-7% of the total word count (although this will vary between universities), so you need to be concise. Edit this chapter thoroughly with a focus on brevity and clarity.
• Be very careful about the claims you make in terms of your study’s contribution. Nothing will make the marker’s eyes roll back faster than exaggerated or unfounded claims. Be humble but firm in your claim-making.
• Use clear and simple language that can be easily understood by an intelligent layman. Remember that not every reader will be an expert in your field, so it’s important to make your writing accessible. Bear in mind that no one knows your research better than you do, so it’s important to spell things out clearly for readers.

Hopefully, this post has given you some direction and confidence to take on the conclusion chapter of your dissertation or thesis with confidence. If you’re still feeling a little shaky and need a helping hand, consider booking a free initial consultation with a friendly Grad Coach to discuss how we can help you with hands-on, private coaching.

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

17 Comments

Really you team are doing great!

Your guide on writing the concluding chapter of a research is really informative especially to the beginners who really do not know where to start. Im now ready to start. Keep it up guys

Really your team are doing great!

Very helpful guidelines, timely saved. Thanks so much for the tips.

This post was very helpful and informative. Thank you team.

A very enjoyable, understandable and crisp presentation on how to write a conclusion chapter. I thoroughly enjoyed it. Thanks Jenna.

This was a very helpful article which really gave me practical pointers for my concluding chapter. Keep doing what you are doing! It meant a lot to me to be able to have this guide. Thank you so much.

Nice content dealing with the conclusion chapter, it’s a relief after the streneous task of completing discussion part.Thanks for valuable guidance

Thanks for your guidance

I get all my doubts clarified regarding the conclusion chapter. It’s really amazing. Many thanks.

Very helpful tips. Thanks so much for the guidance

Thank you very much for this piece. It offers a very helpful starting point in writing the conclusion chapter of my thesis.

It’s awesome! Most useful and timely too. Thanks a million times

Bundle of thanks for your guidance. It was greatly helpful.

Wonderful, clear, practical guidance. So grateful to read this as I conclude my research. Thank you.

Submit a Comment Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

• Print Friendly

How to Write Conclusion in Research Paper (With Example)

Advertisement

Writing a strong conclusion is a crucial part of any research paper. It provides a final opportunity to summarize your key findings, restate your thesis, and leave a lasting impression on your reader. However, many students struggle with how to effectively write a conclusion that ties everything together.

In this article, we’ll provide some tips and strategies for writing a compelling conclusion, along with an example to help illustrate the process. By following these guidelines, you can ensure that your research paper ends on a high note and leaves a lasting impact on your audience.

Why Conclusion is Important in Research Paper

The conclusion is the final chapter of your research paper journey, sealing the deal on all your hard work. After thoroughly laying out your main points and arguments in the body paragraphs, the conclusion gives you a chance to tie everything together into a neat, cohesive package.

More than just summarizing your key ideas, an effective conclusion shows readers the bigger picture of your research and why it matters. It highlights the significance of your findings , explains how your work contributes to the field, and points to potential future directions stemming from your study.

The conclusion is your last chance to leave a lasting impact and compel readers to seriously consider your perspective. With the right phrasing and tone, you can amplify the power of your work. Choose your words wisely, be persuasive yet diplomatic, and guide readers to walk away feeling satisfied by your reasoning and conclusions.

Approach the conclusion thoughtfully, reflect deeply on the larger meaning of your research, and craft impactful final sentences that linger in the reader’s mind. Wield your conclusion skillfully to make your research paper transformative and memorable. A powerful, thoughtful conclusion inspires action, sparks curiosity, and showcases the valuable insights you bring to the academic conversation.

How to Write Conclusion for a Research Paper

Crafting an effective conclusion in research paper requires thoughtful consideration and deliberate effort. After presenting your findings and analysis, the conclusion allows you to close your work with a flourish.

Begin by briefly summarizing the main points of your paper, provide a quick recap of your thesis, methodology, and key findings without repeating too much details from the body. Use this as an opportunity to reinforce your main argument and position within the field.

Next, highlight the significance and implications of your research. What new insights or perspectives does your work contribute? Discuss how your findings can inform future studies or practical applications. Convey why your research matters and how it moves the needle forward in your discipline.

Address any limitations of the current study and propose potential next steps that could be taken by you or other scholars to further the research. This shows readers you have critically considered ways to continue expanding knowledge in this area.

Finally, close with a memorable statement that captures the essence of your work and leaves a lasting impression. This could be an apt metaphor, a call to action, or a thought provoking question for readers to ponder. Choose words that will resonate with your audience and demonstrate the impact of your research.

With care and creativity, your conclusion can elevate your paper and cement your scholarly authority. Revisit often as you write to ensure your conclusion accomplishes its purpose, to convince readers of the value of your study and ignite further progress in your field.

What Not to Include in a Research Paper Conclusion

1. New Data: In a research paper conclusion, avoid presenting new data or evidence that wasn’t discussed earlier in the paper. It’s the time to summarize, analyze, or explain the significance of data already provided, not to introduce new material.

2. Irrelevant Details: The conclusion is not the spot for extraneous details not directly related to your research or its findings. Be focused and concise, tying up the paper neatly without going off-target.

3. Personal Opinions: Try not to include personal beliefs or subjective opinions unless your paper calls for it. Stick to empirical evidence, facts, and objective interpretation of your research.

4. Vague Summarization: While summarizing is the essence of a conclusion, too much of a broad or vague narrative should be avoided. Your conclusion shouldn’t be a generalization of the research but should specifically state your significant findings and their implications.

5. Overstating Results: No matter how exhilarating your research may be, don’t exaggerate its implications or general applications. Remember to acknowledge limitations or potential areas for future exploration.

6. Procrastinating: Refrain from leaving unresolved issues for future research. The conclusion is meant to tie up loose ends, not create more.

7. Repetition: While some reiteration is necessary, completely repeating the same phrases and points made previously can make your conclusion sound boring and redundant. Instead, try to look at your argument from a fresh, summarized perspective.

8. Apologies: Do not apologize or discredit your research efforts. Avoid phrases like, “This research was only” or “Although the study wasn’t able to prove”. A conclusion should confidently present your research results even if they’re unexpected or differ from your hypothesis.

9. Impractical Recommendations: While it’s often good to suggest directions for future research, don’t go overboard by proposing impractical or unachievable goals. Keep your recommendations relevant to your findings and within the realm of possibility.

10. Too Much Jargon: While it’s appropriate to use technical language throughout your research paper, remember the conclusion might be what a layman reads. Stick with a happy medium of professional lingo intermixed with understandable, plain language.

Also Check:   Conclusion for Internship Report

Conclusion in research Example

Research: Impact of Social Media Use on Adolescent Mental Health.

In conclusion, this study has demonstrated the significant impact of social media use on adolescent mental health. Our findings indicate that frequent social media use is associated with higher levels of anxiety and depression, particularly among girls. These results underscore the need for continued research in this area, as well as the development of interventions and strategies to promote healthy social media use among young people. By addressing this issue, we can help to ensure the well-being and success of the next generation.

Conclusion in Research Paper Example

Research: Impact of climate change on coral reefs in Florida.

In conclusion, the effect of climate change on Florida’s coral reefs presents a significant concern for the state’s ecosystem and economy. The data collected during this investigation reveal a direct correlation between rising ocean temperatures and coral bleaching events. This pattern has increased over the past decade, indicating that coral reefs’ health directly correlates with climate change effects.

Example Conclusion in Research

Research: The Influence of Social Media on Consumer Buying Behavior

Social media significantly shapes consumer buying behavior. Its power to influence is seen through peer opinions, online advertising, and brand communication. However, with the potential for misinformation, the reliability and quality of information are areas for further study. Despite these concerns, businesses leveraging social media can effectively boost their market reach and sales.

Research Paper Conclusion

Research: Impacts of Remote Work on Employee Productivity

Remote work has been found to notably enhance employee productivity. The elimination of commuting time, flexible scheduling, and comforting environment contribute to this increase. However, factors like home distractions and technological difficulties offer room for further research. Yet, integrating remote work can be a strategic pathway towards improved efficiency and workforce satisfaction.

These examples demonstrate techniques for crafting an effective conclusion in a research paper, providing your thesis with a powerful final statement. Now it is your turn to compose a strong concluding paragraph that summarizes your findings, reinforces your central argument, and leaves readers with a memorable takeaway.

Remember to restate your thesis without repeating it verbatim, highlight your main points without introducing new evidence, and end on a note that conveys the significance of your research. With a clear structure and purpose, proper grammar, and impactful writing, you can give your paper the persuasive conclusion it deserves.

Writing an effective conclusion takes practice, but by honing these skills you will elevate your academic writing to new heights. Use the strategies outlined here as a guide, believe in your capabilities, and soon you will be adept at concluding research papers powerfully. The final paragraph is your last chance to impress readers, so make it count!

You May Also Like

Conclusion of women empowerment, conclusion of earthquake example, conclusion of yoga and meditation, conclusion of social media, conclusion of waste management, conclusion for assignment.

• Privacy Policy

Home » Research Findings – Types Examples and Writing Guide

Research Findings – Types Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Findings

Definition:

Research findings refer to the results obtained from a study or investigation conducted through a systematic and scientific approach. These findings are the outcomes of the data analysis, interpretation, and evaluation carried out during the research process.

Types of Research Findings

There are two main types of research findings:

Qualitative Findings

Qualitative research is an exploratory research method used to understand the complexities of human behavior and experiences. Qualitative findings are non-numerical and descriptive data that describe the meaning and interpretation of the data collected. Examples of qualitative findings include quotes from participants, themes that emerge from the data, and descriptions of experiences and phenomena.

Quantitative Findings

Quantitative research is a research method that uses numerical data and statistical analysis to measure and quantify a phenomenon or behavior. Quantitative findings include numerical data such as mean, median, and mode, as well as statistical analyses such as t-tests, ANOVA, and regression analysis. These findings are often presented in tables, graphs, or charts.

Both qualitative and quantitative findings are important in research and can provide different insights into a research question or problem. Combining both types of findings can provide a more comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon and improve the validity and reliability of research results.

Parts of Research Findings

Research findings typically consist of several parts, including:

• Introduction: This section provides an overview of the research topic and the purpose of the study.
• Literature Review: This section summarizes previous research studies and findings that are relevant to the current study.
• Methodology : This section describes the research design, methods, and procedures used in the study, including details on the sample, data collection, and data analysis.
• Results : This section presents the findings of the study, including statistical analyses and data visualizations.
• Discussion : This section interprets the results and explains what they mean in relation to the research question(s) and hypotheses. It may also compare and contrast the current findings with previous research studies and explore any implications or limitations of the study.
• Conclusion : This section provides a summary of the key findings and the main conclusions of the study.
• Recommendations: This section suggests areas for further research and potential applications or implications of the study’s findings.

How to Write Research Findings

Writing research findings requires careful planning and attention to detail. Here are some general steps to follow when writing research findings:

• Organize your findings: Before you begin writing, it’s essential to organize your findings logically. Consider creating an outline or a flowchart that outlines the main points you want to make and how they relate to one another.
• Use clear and concise language : When presenting your findings, be sure to use clear and concise language that is easy to understand. Avoid using jargon or technical terms unless they are necessary to convey your meaning.
• Use visual aids : Visual aids such as tables, charts, and graphs can be helpful in presenting your findings. Be sure to label and title your visual aids clearly, and make sure they are easy to read.
• Use headings and subheadings: Using headings and subheadings can help organize your findings and make them easier to read. Make sure your headings and subheadings are clear and descriptive.
• Interpret your findings : When presenting your findings, it’s important to provide some interpretation of what the results mean. This can include discussing how your findings relate to the existing literature, identifying any limitations of your study, and suggesting areas for future research.
• Be precise and accurate : When presenting your findings, be sure to use precise and accurate language. Avoid making generalizations or overstatements and be careful not to misrepresent your data.
• Edit and revise: Once you have written your research findings, be sure to edit and revise them carefully. Check for grammar and spelling errors, make sure your formatting is consistent, and ensure that your writing is clear and concise.

Research Findings Example

Following is a Research Findings Example sample for students:

Title: The Effects of Exercise on Mental Health

Sample : 500 participants, both men and women, between the ages of 18-45.

Methodology : Participants were divided into two groups. The first group engaged in 30 minutes of moderate intensity exercise five times a week for eight weeks. The second group did not exercise during the study period. Participants in both groups completed a questionnaire that assessed their mental health before and after the study period.

Findings : The group that engaged in regular exercise reported a significant improvement in mental health compared to the control group. Specifically, they reported lower levels of anxiety and depression, improved mood, and increased self-esteem.

Conclusion : Regular exercise can have a positive impact on mental health and may be an effective intervention for individuals experiencing symptoms of anxiety or depression.

Applications of Research Findings

Research findings can be applied in various fields to improve processes, products, services, and outcomes. Here are some examples:

• Healthcare : Research findings in medicine and healthcare can be applied to improve patient outcomes, reduce morbidity and mortality rates, and develop new treatments for various diseases.
• Education : Research findings in education can be used to develop effective teaching methods, improve learning outcomes, and design new educational programs.
• Technology : Research findings in technology can be applied to develop new products, improve existing products, and enhance user experiences.
• Business : Research findings in business can be applied to develop new strategies, improve operations, and increase profitability.
• Public Policy: Research findings can be used to inform public policy decisions on issues such as environmental protection, social welfare, and economic development.
• Social Sciences: Research findings in social sciences can be used to improve understanding of human behavior and social phenomena, inform public policy decisions, and develop interventions to address social issues.
• Agriculture: Research findings in agriculture can be applied to improve crop yields, develop new farming techniques, and enhance food security.
• Sports : Research findings in sports can be applied to improve athlete performance, reduce injuries, and develop new training programs.

When to use Research Findings

Research findings can be used in a variety of situations, depending on the context and the purpose. Here are some examples of when research findings may be useful:

• Decision-making : Research findings can be used to inform decisions in various fields, such as business, education, healthcare, and public policy. For example, a business may use market research findings to make decisions about new product development or marketing strategies.
• Problem-solving : Research findings can be used to solve problems or challenges in various fields, such as healthcare, engineering, and social sciences. For example, medical researchers may use findings from clinical trials to develop new treatments for diseases.
• Policy development : Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies in various fields, such as environmental protection, social welfare, and economic development. For example, policymakers may use research findings to develop policies aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
• Program evaluation: Research findings can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions in various fields, such as education, healthcare, and social services. For example, educational researchers may use findings from evaluations of educational programs to improve teaching and learning outcomes.
• Innovation: Research findings can be used to inspire or guide innovation in various fields, such as technology and engineering. For example, engineers may use research findings on materials science to develop new and innovative products.

Purpose of Research Findings

The purpose of research findings is to contribute to the knowledge and understanding of a particular topic or issue. Research findings are the result of a systematic and rigorous investigation of a research question or hypothesis, using appropriate research methods and techniques.

The main purposes of research findings are:

• To generate new knowledge : Research findings contribute to the body of knowledge on a particular topic, by adding new information, insights, and understanding to the existing knowledge base.
• To test hypotheses or theories : Research findings can be used to test hypotheses or theories that have been proposed in a particular field or discipline. This helps to determine the validity and reliability of the hypotheses or theories, and to refine or develop new ones.
• To inform practice: Research findings can be used to inform practice in various fields, such as healthcare, education, and business. By identifying best practices and evidence-based interventions, research findings can help practitioners to make informed decisions and improve outcomes.
• To identify gaps in knowledge: Research findings can help to identify gaps in knowledge and understanding of a particular topic, which can then be addressed by further research.
• To contribute to policy development: Research findings can be used to inform policy development in various fields, such as environmental protection, social welfare, and economic development. By providing evidence-based recommendations, research findings can help policymakers to develop effective policies that address societal challenges.

Characteristics of Research Findings

Research findings have several key characteristics that distinguish them from other types of information or knowledge. Here are some of the main characteristics of research findings:

• Objective : Research findings are based on a systematic and rigorous investigation of a research question or hypothesis, using appropriate research methods and techniques. As such, they are generally considered to be more objective and reliable than other types of information.
• Empirical : Research findings are based on empirical evidence, which means that they are derived from observations or measurements of the real world. This gives them a high degree of credibility and validity.
• Generalizable : Research findings are often intended to be generalizable to a larger population or context beyond the specific study. This means that the findings can be applied to other situations or populations with similar characteristics.
• Transparent : Research findings are typically reported in a transparent manner, with a clear description of the research methods and data analysis techniques used. This allows others to assess the credibility and reliability of the findings.
• Peer-reviewed: Research findings are often subject to a rigorous peer-review process, in which experts in the field review the research methods, data analysis, and conclusions of the study. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Reproducible : Research findings are often designed to be reproducible, meaning that other researchers can replicate the study using the same methods and obtain similar results. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.

Advantages of Research Findings

Research findings have many advantages, which make them valuable sources of knowledge and information. Here are some of the main advantages of research findings:

• Evidence-based: Research findings are based on empirical evidence, which means that they are grounded in data and observations from the real world. This makes them a reliable and credible source of information.
• Inform decision-making: Research findings can be used to inform decision-making in various fields, such as healthcare, education, and business. By identifying best practices and evidence-based interventions, research findings can help practitioners and policymakers to make informed decisions and improve outcomes.
• Identify gaps in knowledge: Research findings can help to identify gaps in knowledge and understanding of a particular topic, which can then be addressed by further research. This contributes to the ongoing development of knowledge in various fields.
• Improve outcomes : Research findings can be used to develop and implement evidence-based practices and interventions, which have been shown to improve outcomes in various fields, such as healthcare, education, and social services.
• Foster innovation: Research findings can inspire or guide innovation in various fields, such as technology and engineering. By providing new information and understanding of a particular topic, research findings can stimulate new ideas and approaches to problem-solving.
• Enhance credibility: Research findings are generally considered to be more credible and reliable than other types of information, as they are based on rigorous research methods and are subject to peer-review processes.

Limitations of Research Findings

While research findings have many advantages, they also have some limitations. Here are some of the main limitations of research findings:

• Limited scope: Research findings are typically based on a particular study or set of studies, which may have a limited scope or focus. This means that they may not be applicable to other contexts or populations.
• Potential for bias : Research findings can be influenced by various sources of bias, such as researcher bias, selection bias, or measurement bias. This can affect the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Ethical considerations: Research findings can raise ethical considerations, particularly in studies involving human subjects. Researchers must ensure that their studies are conducted in an ethical and responsible manner, with appropriate measures to protect the welfare and privacy of participants.
• Time and resource constraints : Research studies can be time-consuming and require significant resources, which can limit the number and scope of studies that are conducted. This can lead to gaps in knowledge or a lack of research on certain topics.
• Complexity: Some research findings can be complex and difficult to interpret, particularly in fields such as science or medicine. This can make it challenging for practitioners and policymakers to apply the findings to their work.
• Lack of generalizability : While research findings are intended to be generalizable to larger populations or contexts, there may be factors that limit their generalizability. For example, cultural or environmental factors may influence how a particular intervention or treatment works in different populations or contexts.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Context of the Study – Writing Guide and Examples

Background of The Study – Examples and Writing...

Purpose of Research – Objectives and Applications

Chapter Summary & Overview – Writing Guide...

Future Research – Thesis Guide

Figures in Research Paper – Examples and Guide

Writing An Accurate Conclusion In A Research Study: 5 Step-By-Step Guide

Introduction.

When conducting a research study, it is crucial to provide a well-written and accurate conclusion. The conclusion serves as the final piece of the puzzle, summarizing the main findings, interpreting the results, addressing limitations, providing recommendations, and reiterating the importance of the study. A well-crafted conclusion in a research study not only helps to solidify the research study but also allows readers to understand the significance of the findings and their implications.

In this step-by-step guide, we will walk you through the process of writing an accurate conclusion in a research study. By following these steps, you will be able to effectively summarize your findings, analyze the results, acknowledge any limitations, offer recommendations, and emphasize the importance of your study. So let’s dive in and learn how to write the most accurate conclusion in a research study.

Understanding the Role of a Conclusion In A Research Study

The conclusion of a research study plays a crucial role in summarizing the main findings and providing closure to the study. It is not simply a restatement of the research problem or a summary of the main topics covered. Instead, it is a synthesis of the key points derived from the study. The purpose of a conclusion is to leave a lasting impression on the reader and prompt reflection and contemplation. A well-crafted conclusion goes beyond summarizing the findings; it emphasizes the importance of the study and provides recommendations for future research or action. In essence, the conclusion serves as the final opportunity to convey the significance of the research and its contribution to the field.

Step 1: Summarize the Main Findings

The first step in writing an accurate conclusion for a research study is to summarize the main findings. This is an essential part of the conclusion as it allows the reader to quickly understand the key results of the study. To summarize the main findings, you should revisit the research statement or question that guided your study. Identify the key points or outcomes that answer the research question or support the research statement. In this step, you should avoid introducing new information or discussing any implications or recommendations. The focus should solely be on summarizing the main findings of the study.

It is important to be concise and clear in your summary. Use clear and straightforward language to communicate the main findings without unnecessary jargon or technical terms. By summarizing the main findings in this step, you provide a foundation for the rest of the conclusion, allowing the reader to understand the key results before delving into the interpretation, limitations, and recommendations.

Step 2: Interpret the Results

After summarizing the main findings, the next step in writing an accurate conclusion in a research study is to interpret the results. Interpreting the results involves analyzing the data collected during the study and drawing meaningful conclusions from it. To interpret the results effectively, it is important to consider the research question or hypothesis and compare the findings with existing literature reviews or previous studies. This step allows researchers to determine the significance of their findings and understand the implications of the results. It is essential to provide a clear and concise interpretation of the results, avoiding any biased or subjective opinions. Researchers should objectively analyze the data and present the findings in an unbiased manner.

Additionally, it is important to discuss any unexpected or contradictory results and provide possible explanations for them. By interpreting the results accurately, researchers can provide a comprehensive understanding of the study’s outcomes and contribute to the existing body of knowledge in the field.

Step 3: Address Limitations

Identify the limitations of your research study and describe them in detail. Explain why these limitations exist and how they may have affected the results. Assess the impact of each limitation in relation to the overall findings and conclusions of your study. If appropriate, suggest ways to overcome these limitations in future research.

Step 4: Provide Recommendations

After interpreting the results of your research study, it is important to provide recommendations based on your findings. When providing recommendations, it is crucial to be specific and relevant to the evidence you have uncovered. Your recommendations should stem directly from your work and address any gaps or limitations identified in your study.

Consider recommending a specific course of action or suggesting changes that can be implemented based on your research findings. This could include proposing new strategies, interventions, or policies that can improve the current situation or address the research problem . To lend authority to your recommendations, you can cite relevant quotations or expert opinions that support the conclusions you have reached. This helps to strengthen the validity and credibility of your recommendations.

Additionally, you can also make recommendations for future research. Identify areas that require further investigation or suggest new research questions that can build upon your study. This demonstrates the significance and potential impact of your research in advancing knowledge in the field. Remember to present your recommendations in clear and concise language. Avoid simply restating your findings or the discussion of your results. Instead, provide actionable and practical suggestions that can be implemented based on your research findings.

By providing well-thought-out recommendations, you not only contribute to the existing body of knowledge but also provide guidance for future researchers and practitioners in the field.

Step 5: Reiterate the Importance of the Study

The final step in writing an accurate conclusion in a research study is to reiterate the importance of the study. This step is crucial as it reminds the readers of the significance and relevance of the research. To reiterate the importance of the study, you can start by summarizing the main findings and their implications. Highlight the key contributions and insights that your research has provided to the field. Emphasize how your study has addressed a gap in the existing knowledge and how it has advanced the understanding of the topic.

Furthermore, discuss the practical implications of your research. Explain how the findings can be applied in real-world scenarios or how they can contribute to decision-making processes. This will demonstrate the practical value of your study and its potential impact on various stakeholders.

Additionally, consider discussing the theoretical implications of your research. Explain how your findings have contributed to existing theories or have opened up new avenues for further research. This will highlight the academic significance of your study and its potential to shape future research in the field.

Finally, conclude by emphasizing the overall importance of your study in the broader context. Discuss how your research has added to the body of knowledge and how it has the potential to influence future research, policies, or practices. This will leave a lasting impression on the readers and reinforce the significance of your study.

By reiterating the importance of the study in the conclusion, you provide a strong and compelling ending to your research paper . Including this in the conclusion of a research study helps readers understand the value of your research and its implications, leaving them with a clear sense of its significance and relevance.

In conclusion, writing an accurate conclusion in a research study is crucial for summarizing the main findings, interpreting the results, addressing limitations, providing recommendations, and reiterating the importance of the study. By following the step-by-step guide outlined in this article, researchers can ensure that their conclusions are comprehensive, concise, and impactful.

Leave a Comment Cancel reply

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Related articles

7 Easy Step-By-Step Guide of Using ChatGPT: The Best Literature Review Generator for Time-Saving Academic Research

Writing Engaging Introduction in Research Papers : Tips and Tricks!

Understanding Comparative Frameworks: Their Importance, Components, Examples and 8 Best Practices

Revolutionizing Effective Thesis Writing for PhD Students Using Artificial Intelligence!

3 Types of Interviews in Qualitative Research: An Essential Research Instrument and Handy Tips to Conduct Them

Highlight Abstracts: An Ultimate Guide For Researchers!

Crafting Critical Abstracts: 11 Expert Strategies for Summarizing Research

Crafting the Perfect Informative Abstract: Definition, Importance and 8 Expert Writing Tips

• Affiliate Program

• UNITED STATES
• 台灣 (TAIWAN)
• TÜRKIYE (TURKEY)
• Academic Editing Services
• - Research Paper
• - Journal Manuscript
• - Dissertation
• - College & University Assignments
• Admissions Editing Services
• - Application Essay
• - Personal Statement
• - Recommendation Letter
• - Cover Letter
• - CV/Resume
• Business Editing Services
• - Business Documents
• - Report & Brochure
• - Website & Blog
• Writer Editing Services
• - Script & Screenplay
• Our Editors
• Client Reviews
• Editing & Proofreading Prices
• Wordvice Points
• Partner Discount
• Plagiarism Checker
• APA Citation Generator
• MLA Citation Generator
• Chicago Citation Generator
• Vancouver Citation Generator
• - APA Style
• - MLA Style
• - Chicago Style
• - Vancouver Style
• Writing & Editing Guide
• Academic Resources
• Admissions Resources

How to Write a Research Paper Conclusion Section

What is a conclusion in a research paper?

The conclusion in a research paper is the final paragraph or two in a research paper. In scientific papers, the conclusion usually follows the Discussion section , summarizing the importance of the findings and reminding the reader why the work presented in the paper is relevant.

However, it can be a bit confusing to distinguish the conclusion section/paragraph from a summary or a repetition of your findings, your own opinion, or the statement of the implications of your work. In fact, the conclusion should contain a bit of all of these other parts but go beyond it—but not too far beyond! 

The structure and content of the conclusion section can also vary depending on whether you are writing a research manuscript or an essay. This article will explain how to write a good conclusion section, what exactly it should (and should not) contain, how it should be structured, and what you should avoid when writing it.  

Table of Contents:

What does a good conclusion section do, what to include in a research paper conclusion.

• Conclusion in an Essay
• Research Paper Conclusion 
• Conclusion Paragraph Outline and Example
• What Not to Do When Writing a Conclusion

The conclusion of a research paper has several key objectives. It should:

• Restate your research problem addressed in the introduction section
• Summarize your main arguments, important findings, and broader implications
• Synthesize key takeaways from your study

The specific content in the conclusion depends on whether your paper presents the results of original scientific research or constructs an argument through engagement with previously published sources.

You presented your general field of study to the reader in the introduction section, by moving from general information (the background of your work, often combined with a literature review ) to the rationale of your study and then to the specific problem or topic you addressed, formulated in the form of the statement of the problem in research or the thesis statement in an essay.

In the conclusion section, in contrast, your task is to move from your specific findings or arguments back to a more general depiction of how your research contributes to the readers’ understanding of a certain concept or helps solve a practical problem, or fills an important gap in the literature. The content of your conclusion section depends on the type of research you are doing and what type of paper you are writing. But whatever the outcome of your work is, the conclusion is where you briefly summarize it and place it within a larger context. It could be called the “take-home message” of the entire paper.

What to summarize in the conclusion

Your conclusion section needs to contain a very brief summary of your work , a very brief summary of the main findings of your work, and a mention of anything else that seems relevant when you now look at your work from a bigger perspective, even if it was not initially listed as one of your main research questions. This could be a limitation, for example, a problem with the design of your experiment that either needs to be considered when drawing any conclusions or that led you to ask a different question and therefore draw different conclusions at the end of your study (compared to when you started out).

Once you have reminded the reader of what you did and what you found, you need to go beyond that and also provide either your own opinion on why your work is relevant (and for whom, and how) or theoretical or practical implications of the study , or make a specific call for action if there is one to be made.   

How to Write an Essay Conclusion

Academic essays follow quite different structures than their counterparts in STEM and the natural sciences. Humanities papers often have conclusion sections that are much longer and contain more detail than scientific papers. There are three main types of academic essay conclusions.

Summarizing conclusion

The most typical conclusion at the end of an analytical/explanatory/argumentative essay is a summarizing conclusion . This is, as the name suggests, a clear summary of the main points of your topic and thesis. Since you might have gone through a number of different arguments or subtopics in the main part of your essay, you need to remind the reader again what those were, how they fit into each other, and how they helped you develop or corroborate your hypothesis.

For an essay that analyzes how recruiters can hire the best candidates in the shortest time or on “how starving yourself will increase your lifespan, according to science”, a summary of all the points you discussed might be all you need. Note that you should not exactly repeat what you said earlier, but rather highlight the essential details and present those to your reader in a different way. 

Externalizing conclusion

If you think that just reminding the reader of your main points is not enough, you can opt for an externalizing conclusion instead, that presents new points that were not presented in the paper so far. These new points can be additional facts and information or they can be ideas that are relevant to the topic and have not been mentioned before.

Such a conclusion can stimulate your readers to think about your topic or the implications of your analysis in a whole new way. For example, at the end of a historical analysis of a specific event or development, you could direct your reader’s attention to some current events that were not the topic of your essay but that provide a different context for your findings.

Editorial conclusion

In an editorial conclusion , another common type of conclusion that you will find at the end of papers and essays, you do not add new information but instead present your own experiences or opinions on the topic to round everything up. What makes this type of conclusion interesting is that you can choose to agree or disagree with the information you presented in your paper so far. For example, if you have collected and analyzed information on how a specific diet helps people lose weight, you can nevertheless have your doubts on the sustainability of that diet or its practicability in real life—if such arguments were not included in your original thesis and have therefore not been covered in the main part of your paper, the conclusion section is the place where you can get your opinion across.    

How to Conclude an Empirical Research Paper

An empirical research paper is usually more concise and succinct than an essay, because, if it is written well, it focuses on one specific question, describes the method that was used to answer that one question, describes and explains the results, and guides the reader in a logical way from the introduction to the discussion without going on tangents or digging into not absolutely relevant topics.

Summarize the findings

In a scientific paper, you should include a summary of the findings. Don’t go into great detail here (you will have presented your in-depth  results  and  discussion  already), but do clearly express the answers to the  research questions  you investigated.

Describe your main findings, even if they weren’t necessarily the ones anticipated, and explain the conclusion they led you to. Explain these findings in as few words as possible.

Instead of beginning with “ In conclusion, in this study, we investigated the effect of stress on the brain using fMRI …”, you should try to find a way to incorporate the repetition of the essential (and only the essential) details into the summary of the key points. “ The findings of this fMRI study on the effect of stress on the brain suggest that …” or “ While it has been known for a long time that stress has an effect on the brain, the findings of this fMRI study show that, surprisingly… ” would be better ways to start a conclusion. 

You should also not bring up new ideas or present new facts in the conclusion of a research paper, but stick to the background information you have presented earlier, to the findings you have already discussed, and the limitations and implications you have already described. The one thing you can add here is a practical recommendation that you haven’t clearly stated before—but even that one needs to follow logically from everything you have already discussed in the discussion section.

Discuss the implications

After summing up your key arguments or findings, conclude the paper by stating the broader implications of the research , whether in methods , approach, or findings. Express practical or theoretical takeaways from your paper. This often looks like a “call to action” or a final “sales pitch” that puts an exclamation point on your paper.

If your research topic is more theoretical in nature, your closing statement should express the significance of your argument—for example, in proposing a new understanding of a topic or laying the groundwork for future research.

Future research example

Future research into education standards should focus on establishing a more detailed picture of how novel pedagogical approaches impact young people’s ability to absorb new and difficult concepts. Moreover, observational studies are needed to gain more insight into how specific teaching models affect the retention of relationships and facts—for instance, how inquiry-based learning and its emphasis on lateral thinking can be used as a jumping-off point for more holistic classroom approaches.

Research Conclusion Example and Outline

Let’s revisit the study on the effect of stress on the brain we mentioned before and see what the common structure for a conclusion paragraph looks like, in three steps. Following these simple steps will make it easy for you to wrap everything up in one short paragraph that contains all the essential information: 

One: Short summary of what you did, but integrated into the summary of your findings:

While it has been known for a long time that stress has an effect on the brain, the findings of this fMRI study in 25 university students going through mid-term exams show that, surprisingly, one’s attitude to the experienced stress significantly modulates the brain’s response to it. 

Note that you don’t need to repeat any methodological or technical details here—the reader has been presented with all of these before, they have read your results section and the discussion of your results, and even (hopefully!) a discussion of the limitations and strengths of your paper. The only thing you need to remind them of here is the essential outcome of your work. 

Two: Add implications, and don’t forget to specify who this might be relevant for: 

Students could be considered a specific subsample of the general population, but earlier research shows that the effect that exam stress has on their physical and mental health is comparable to the effects of other types of stress on individuals of other ages and occupations. Further research into practical ways of modulating not only one’s mental stress response but potentially also one’s brain activity (e.g., via neurofeedback training) are warranted.

This is a “research implication”, and it is nicely combined with a mention of a potential limitation of the study (the student sample) that turns out not to be a limitation after all (because earlier research suggests we can generalize to other populations). If there already is a lot of research on neurofeedback for stress control, by the way, then this should have been discussed in your discussion section earlier and you wouldn’t say such studies are “warranted” here but rather specify how your findings could inspire specific future experiments or how they should be implemented in existing applications. 

Three: The most important thing is that your conclusion paragraph accurately reflects the content of your paper. Compare it to your research paper title , your research paper abstract , and to your journal submission cover letter , in case you already have one—if these do not all tell the same story, then you need to go back to your paper, start again from the introduction section, and find out where you lost the logical thread. As always, consistency is key.    

Problems to Avoid When Writing a Conclusion 

• Do not suddenly introduce new information that has never been mentioned before (unless you are writing an essay and opting for an externalizing conclusion, see above). The conclusion section is not where you want to surprise your readers, but the take-home message of what you have already presented.
• Do not simply copy your abstract, the conclusion section of your abstract, or the first sentence of your introduction, and put it at the end of the discussion section. Even if these parts of your paper cover the same points, they should not be identical.
• Do not start the conclusion with “In conclusion”. If it has its own section heading, that is redundant, and if it is the last paragraph of the discussion section, it is inelegant and also not really necessary. The reader expects you to wrap your work up in the last paragraph, so you don’t have to announce that. Just look at the above example to see how to start a conclusion in a natural way.
• Do not forget what your research objectives were and how you initially formulated the statement of the problem in your introduction section. If your story/approach/conclusions changed because of methodological issues or information you were not aware of when you started, then make sure you go back to the beginning and adapt your entire story (not just the ending). 

Consider Receiving Academic Editing Services

When you have arrived at the conclusion of your paper, you might want to head over to Wordvice AI’s AI Writing Assistant to receive a free grammar check for any academic content. 

After drafting, you can also receive English editing and proofreading services , including paper editing services for your journal manuscript. If you need advice on how to write the other parts of your research paper , or on how to make a research paper outline if you are struggling with putting everything you did together, then head over to the Wordvice academic resources pages , where we have a lot more articles and videos for you.

How to Write a Conclusion for a Research Paper

When you're wrapping up a research paper, the conclusion is like the grand finale of a fireworks show – it's your chance to leave a lasting impression. In this article, we'll break down the steps to help you write a winning research paper conclusion that not only recaps your main points but also ties everything together. Consider it the "So what?" moment – why should people care about your research? Our professional essay writers will guide you through making your conclusion strong, clear, and something that sticks with your readers long after they've put down your paper. So, let's dive in and ensure your research ends on a high note!

What Is a Conclusion in a Research Paper

In a research paper, the conclusion serves as the final segment, where you summarize the main points and findings of your study. It's not just a repetition of what you've already said but rather a chance to tie everything together and highlight the significance of your research. As you learn how to start a research paper , a good conclusion also often discusses the implications of your findings, suggests potential areas for further research, and leaves the reader with a lasting impression of the importance and relevance of your work in the broader context of the field. Essentially, it's your last opportunity to make a strong impact and leave your readers with a clear understanding of the significance of your research. Here’s a research paper conclusion example:

In conclusion, this research paper has navigated the intricacies of sustainable urban development, shedding light on the pivotal role of community engagement and innovative planning strategies. Through applying qualitative and quantitative research methods, we've uncovered valuable insights into the challenges and opportunities inherent in fostering environmentally friendly urban spaces. The implications of these findings extend beyond the confines of this study, emphasizing the imperative for continued exploration in the realms of urban planning and environmental sustainability. By emphasizing both the practical applications and theoretical contributions, this research underscores the significance of community involvement and forward-thinking strategies in shaping the future of urban landscapes. As cities evolve, incorporating these insights into planning and development practices will create resilient and harmonious urban environments.

Conclusion Outline for Research Paper

This outline for a research paper conclusion provides a structured framework to ensure that your ending effectively summarizes the key elements of your research paper and leaves a lasting impression on your readers. Adjust the content based on the specific requirements and focus of your research.

Restate the Thesis Statement

• Briefly restate the main thesis or research question.
• Emphasize the core objective or purpose of the study.

Summarize Key Findings

• Recap the main points and key findings from each section of the paper.
• Provide a concise overview of the research journey.

Discuss Implications

• Explore the broader implications of the research findings.
• Discuss how the results contribute to the existing body of knowledge in the field.

Address Limitations

• Acknowledge any limitations or constraints encountered during the research process.
• Explain how these limitations may impact the interpretation of the findings.

Suggest Areas for Future Research

• Propose potential directions for future studies related to the topic.
• Identify gaps in the current research that warrant further exploration.

Reaffirm Significance

• Reaffirm the importance and relevance of the research in the broader context.
• Highlight the practical applications or real-world implications of the study.

Concluding Statement

• Craft a strong, memorable closing statement that leaves a lasting impression.
• Sum up the overall impact of the research and its potential contribution to the field.

Study the full guide on how to make a research paper outline here, which will also specify the conclusion writing specifics to improve your general prowess.

Tips on How to Make a Conclusion in Research

Here are key considerations regarding a conclusion for research paper to not only recap the primary ideas in your work but also delve deeper to earn a higher grade:

• Provide a concise recap of your main research outcomes.
• Remind readers of your research goals and their accomplishments.
• Stick to summarizing existing content; refrain from adding new details.
• Emphasize why your research matters and its broader implications.
• Clearly explain the practical or theoretical impact of your findings.
• Prompt readers to reflect on how your research influences their perspective.
• Briefly discuss the robustness of your research methods.
• End with a suggestion for future research or a practical application.
• Transparently address any constraints or biases in your study.
• End on a powerful note, leaving a memorable impression on your readers.

For your inspiration, we’ve also prepared this research proposal example APA , which dwells on another important aspect of research writing.

How to Write a Research Paper Conclusion

As you finish your research paper, the conclusion takes center stage. In this section, we've got five practical tips for writing a conclusion for a research paper. We'll guide you through summarizing your key findings, revisiting your research goals, discussing the bigger picture, addressing any limitations, and ending on a powerful note. Think of it as your roadmap to creating a conclusion that not only wraps up your research but also leaves a lasting impact on your readers. Let's dive in and make sure your conclusion stands out for all the right reasons!

Synthesize Core Discoveries. Initiate your conclusion by synthesizing the essential discoveries of your research. Offer a succinct recapitulation of the primary points and outcomes you have elucidated in your paper. This aids in reinforcing the gravity of your work and reiterates the pivotal information you have presented.

Revisit Research Objectives. Revisit the research objectives or questions you outlined at the beginning of your paper. Assess whether you have successfully addressed these objectives and if your findings align with the initial goals of your research. This reflection helps tie your conclusion back to the purpose of your study.

Discuss Implications and Contributions. Discuss the broader implications of your research and its potential contributions to the field. Consider how your findings might impact future research, applications, or understanding of the subject matter. This demonstrates the significance of your work and places it within a larger context.

Address Limitations and Future Research. Acknowledge any limitations in your study, such as constraints in data collection or potential biases. Briefly discuss how these limitations might have affected your results. Additionally, suggest areas for future research that could build upon your work, addressing any unanswered questions or unexplored aspects. This demonstrates a thoughtful approach to your research.

End with a Strong Conclusion Statement. Conclude your research paper with a strong and memorable statement that reinforces the key message you want readers to take away. This could be a call to action, a proposal for further investigation, or a reflection on the broader significance of your findings. Leave your readers with a lasting impression that emphasizes the importance of your research. Remember that you can buy a research paper anytime if you lack time or get stuck in writer’s block.

Want to Enjoy the Benefits of Academic Freedom?

With our top-notch writers and 24/7 support, you can relax and focus on what really matters

Stylistic Devices to Use in a Conclusion

Discover distinctive stylistic insights that you can apply when writing a conclusion for a research paper:

• Rhetorical Questions. When using rhetorical questions, strategically place them to engage readers' minds. For instance, you might pose a question that prompts reflection on the broader implications of your findings, leaving your audience with something to ponder.
• Powerful Language. Incorporate strong language to convey a sense of conviction and importance. Choose words that resonate with the overall tone of your research and amplify the significance of your conclusions. This adds weight to your key messages.
• Repetitions. Repetitions can be employed to reinforce essential ideas. Reiterate key phrases or concepts in a way that emphasizes their importance without sounding redundant. This technique serves to drive home your main points.
• Anecdotes. Integrating anecdotes into your conclusion can provide a human touch. Share a brief and relevant story that connects with your research, making the information more relatable and memorable for your audience.
• Vivid Imagery. Lastly, use vivid imagery to paint a picture in the minds of your readers. Appeal to their senses by describing scenarios or outcomes related to your research. This creates a more immersive and lasting impression.

If you have a larger paper to write, for example a thesis, use our custom dissertation writing can help you in no time.

How to Make a Conclusion Logically Appealing

Knowing how to write a conclusion for a research paper that is logically appealing is important for leaving a lasting impression on your readers. Here are some tips to achieve this:

Logical Sequencing

• Present your conclusion in a structured manner, following the natural flow of your paper. Readers should effortlessly follow your thought process, making your conclusion more accessible and persuasive.

Reinforce Main Arguments

• Emphasize the core arguments and findings from your research. By reinforcing key points, you solidify your stance and provide a logical culmination to your paper.

Address Counterarguments

• Acknowledge and address potential counterarguments or limitations in your research. Demonstrate intellectual honesty and strengthen your conclusion by preemptively addressing potential doubts.

Connect with Introduction

• Revisit themes or concepts introduced in your introduction to create a cohesive narrative, allowing readers to trace the logical progression of your research from start to finish.

Propose Actionable Insights

• Suggest practical applications or recommendations based on your findings. This will add a forward-looking dimension, making your conclusion more relevant and compelling.

Highlight Significance

• Clearly articulate the broader implications of your research to convey the importance of your work and its potential impact on the field, making your conclusion logically compelling.

Are you ready to produce an A-grade assignment? If not, opt for a custom research paper from our skilled writers across various disciplines.

Avoid These Things When Writing a Research Paper Conclusion

As you write your conclusion of research paper, there’s a list of things professional writers don’t recommend doing. Consider these issues carefully:

• Repetition of Exact Phrases
• Repetitively using the same phrases or sentences from the main body. Repetition can make your conclusion seem redundant and less engaging.
• Overly Lengthy Summaries
• Providing excessively detailed summaries of each section of your paper. Readers may lose interest if the conclusion becomes too long and detailed.
• Unclear Connection to the Introduction
• Failing to connect the conclusion back to the introduction. A lack of continuity may make the paper feel disjointed.
• Adding New Arguments or Ideas
• Introducing new arguments or ideas that were not addressed in the body. This can confuse the reader and disrupt the coherence of your paper.
• Overuse of Complex Jargon
• Using excessively complex or technical language without clarification. Clear communication is essential in the conclusion, ensuring broad understanding.
• Apologizing or Undermining Confidence
• Apologizing for limitations or expressing doubt about your work. Maintain a confident tone; if limitations exist, present them objectively without undermining your research.
• Sweeping Generalizations
• Making overly broad or unsupported generalizations. Such statements can weaken the credibility of your conclusion.
• Neglecting the Significance
• Failing to emphasize the broader significance of your research. Readers need to understand why your findings matter in a larger context.
• Abrupt Endings
• Concluding abruptly without a strong closing statement. A powerful ending leaves a lasting impression; avoid a sudden or weak conclusion.

Research Paper Conclusion Example

That covers the essential aspects of summarizing a research paper. The only remaining step is to review the conclusion examples for research paper provided by our team.

Like our examples? Order our research proposal writing service to write paper according to your instructions to avoid plagiarizing and to keep your academic integrity strong.

Final Thoughts

In conclusion, the knowledge of how to write the conclusion of a research paper is pivotal for presenting your findings and leaving a lasting impression on your readers. By summarizing the key points, reiterating the significance of your research, and offering avenues for future exploration, you can create a conclusion that not only reinforces the value of your study but also encourages further academic discourse. Remember to balance brevity and completeness, ensuring your conclusion is concise yet comprehensive. Emphasizing the practical implications of your research and connecting it to the broader academic landscape will help solidify the impact of your work. Pay someone to write a research paper if you are having a hard time finishing your coursework on time.

Tired of Stressing Over Endless Essays and Deadlines? 

Let us take the load off your shoulders! Order your custom research paper today and experience the relief of knowing that your assignment is in expert hands

How To Write A Conclusion For A Research Paper?

What should the conclusion of a research paper contain, how to start a conclusion paragraph for a research paper.

Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

is an expert in nursing and healthcare, with a strong background in history, law, and literature. Holding advanced degrees in nursing and public health, his analytical approach and comprehensive knowledge help students navigate complex topics. On EssayPro blog, Adam provides insightful articles on everything from historical analysis to the intricacies of healthcare policies. In his downtime, he enjoys historical documentaries and volunteering at local clinics.

• Differences between a finding, a conclusion, and a recommendation: examples
• Learning Center

Table of Contents

• Defining the Terms: What Is a Finding, a Conclusion, and a Recommendation in M&E?
• Why It Matters: Understanding the Importance of Differentiating between Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations in M&E
• How to Identify and Distinguish between Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations in M&E
• How to Communicate Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations Effectively in M&E Reports
• The Benefits of Clear and Accurate Reporting of Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations in M&E

1. Defining the Terms: What Is a Finding, a Conclusion, and a Recommendation in M&E?

Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) is a critical process for assessing the effectiveness of development programs and policies. During the M&E process, evaluators collect and analyze data to draw conclusions and make recommendations for program improvement. In M&E, it is essential to differentiate between findings, conclusions, and recommendations to ensure that the evaluation report accurately reflects the program’s strengths, weaknesses, and potential areas for improvement.

In an evaluation report, a finding, a conclusion, and a recommendation serve different purposes and convey different information. Here are the differences between these three elements:

1.1 Finding

A finding is a factual statement that is based on evidence collected during the evaluation . It describes what was observed, heard, or experienced during the evaluation process. A finding should be objective, unbiased, and supported by data. Findings are typically presented in the form of a summary or a list of key points, and they provide the basis for the evaluation’s conclusions and recommendations.

Findings are an important part of the evaluation process, as they provide objective and unbiased information about what was observed, heard, or experienced during the evaluation. Findings are based on the evidence collected during the evaluation, and they should be supported by data and other relevant information. They are typically presented in a summary or list format, and they serve as the basis for the evaluation’s conclusions and recommendations. By presenting clear and accurate findings, evaluators can help stakeholders understand the strengths and weaknesses of the program or initiative being evaluated, and identify opportunities for improvement.

Catch HR’s eye instantly?

• Resume Review
• Resume Writing
• Resume Optimization

Premier global development resume service since 2012

Stand Out with a Pro Resume

1.2 Examples of Finding

Here are some examples of findings in M&E:

• “Program participants reported a high level of satisfaction with the quality of training provided, with 85% rating it as good or excellent.”
• “The program was successful in increasing the number of girls enrolled in secondary school, with a 25% increase observed in the target communities.”
• “Program beneficiaries reported improved access to healthcare services, with a 40% increase in the number of individuals accessing healthcare facilities in the program area.”
• “The program’s training curriculum was found to be outdated and ineffective, with only 30% of participants reporting that the training was useful.”
• “The program’s monitoring and evaluation system was found to be inadequate, with data quality issues and insufficient capacity among staff to carry out effective monitoring and evaluation activities.”

These findings represent objective, measurable results of the data collected during the M&E process, and can be used to inform program design and implementation, as well as to draw conclusions and make recommendations for improvement.

1.3 Conclusion

A conclusion is a judgment or interpretation of the findings based on the evidence collected during the evaluation. It is typically expressed in terms of what the findings mean or what can be inferred from them. Conclusions should be logical, evidence-based, and free from personal bias or opinion.

Conclusions often answer the evaluation questions or objectives, and they provide insights into the effectiveness or impact of the program, project, or intervention being evaluated. By synthesizing the findings into a cohesive narrative, evaluators can provide stakeholders with a clear and actionable understanding of the program or initiative being evaluated. Conclusions can also inform future planning and decision-making, by identifying areas for improvement and highlighting successful strategies or interventions. Overall, conclusions are a crucial component of the evaluation process, as they help stakeholders make informed decisions about the programs and initiatives they are involved in.

1.4 Examples of Conclusion

Here are some examples of conclusions in M&E:

• Based on the data collected, it can be concluded that the program was successful in achieving its objective of increasing access to clean water in the target communities.”
• “The data indicates that the program’s training curriculum is ineffective and in need of revision in order to better meet the needs of participants.”
• “It can be concluded that the program’s community mobilization efforts were successful in increasing community participation and ownership of the program.”
• “Based on the data collected, it is concluded that the program’s impact on improving maternal and child health outcomes is limited and further efforts are needed to address the underlying health system and infrastructure issues.”
• “The data collected indicates that the program’s impact on reducing poverty in the target area is modest, but still significant, and further investment in complementary programs may be needed to achieve more substantial reductions in poverty rates.”
• These conclusions are based on the evidence presented in the findings and represent the interpretation or explanation of the meaning of the findings. They help to provide insight into the impact and effectiveness of the program and can be used to make recommendations for improvement.

1.5 Recommendation

A recommendation is a specific action or set of actions proposed based on the findings and conclusions of the evaluation. Recommendations should be practical, feasible, and tailored to the needs of the stakeholders who will be implementing them. They should be supported by evidence and aligned with the goals of the program, project, or intervention being evaluated.

Recommendations often provide guidance on how to improve the effectiveness or efficiency of the program, project, or intervention, and they can help to inform decision-making and resource allocation. By presenting clear and actionable recommendations, evaluators can help stakeholders identify and prioritize areas for improvement, and develop strategies to address identified issues. Recommendations can also serve as a roadmap for future planning and implementation and can help to ensure that the program or initiative continues to achieve its intended outcomes over time.

Overall, recommendations are an essential component of the evaluation process, as they help to bridge the gap between evaluation findings and programmatic action. By proposing specific and evidence-based actions, evaluators can help to ensure that evaluation results are translated into meaningful improvements in program design, implementation, and outcomes.

1.6 Examples of Recommendation

Here are some examples of recommendations in M&E:

• “To improve the effectiveness of the program’s training, the curriculum should be revised to better meet the needs of participants, with a focus on practical, hands-on learning activities.”
• “To address the data quality issues identified in the monitoring and evaluation system, staff should receive additional training on data collection and management, and the system should be revised to incorporate additional quality control measures.”
• “To build on the success of the program’s community mobilization efforts, further investments should be made in strengthening community-based organizations and networks, and in promoting greater community participation in program planning and decision-making.”
• “To improve the program’s impact on maternal and child health outcomes, efforts should be made to address underlying health system and infrastructure issues, such as improving access to health facilities and training health workers.”
• “To achieve more substantial reductions in poverty rates in the target area, complementary programs should be implemented to address issues such as economic development, education, and social protection.”

These recommendations are specific actions that can be taken based on the findings and conclusions of the M&E process. They should be practical, feasible, and based on the evidence presented in the evaluation report. By implementing these recommendations, development practitioners can improve program effectiveness and impact, and better meet the needs of the target population.

2. Why It Matters: Understanding the Importance of Differentiating between Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations in M&E

Differentiating between findings, conclusions, and recommendations is crucial in M&E for several reasons. First, it ensures accuracy and clarity in the evaluation report. Findings, conclusions, and recommendations are distinct components of an evaluation report, and they serve different purposes. By clearly defining and differentiating these components, evaluators can ensure that the report accurately reflects the program’s strengths and weaknesses, potential areas for improvement, and the evidence supporting the evaluation’s conclusions.

Second, differentiating between findings, conclusions, and recommendations helps to facilitate evidence-based decision-making. By clearly presenting the evidence supporting the evaluation’s findings and conclusions, and making recommendations based on that evidence, evaluators can help program managers and policymakers make informed decisions about program design, implementation, and resource allocation.

Finally, differentiating between findings, conclusions, and recommendations can help to increase the credibility and trustworthiness of the evaluation report. Clear and accurate reporting of findings, conclusions, and recommendations helps to ensure that stakeholders understand the evaluation’s results and recommendations, and can have confidence in the evaluation’s rigor and objectivity.

In summary, differentiating between findings, conclusions, and recommendations is essential in M&E to ensure accuracy and clarity in the evaluation report, facilitate evidence-based decision-making, and increase the credibility and trustworthiness of the evaluation.

3. How to Identify and Distinguish between Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations in M&E

Identifying and distinguishing between findings, conclusions, and recommendations in M&E requires careful consideration of the evidence and the purpose of each component. Here are some tips for identifying and distinguishing between findings, conclusions, and recommendations in M&E:

• Findings: Findings are the results of the data analysis and should be objective and evidence-based. To identify findings, look for statements that summarize the data collected and analyzed during the evaluation. Findings should be specific, measurable, and clearly stated.
• Conclusions: Conclusions are interpretations of the findings and should be supported by the evidence. To distinguish conclusions from findings, look for statements that interpret or explain the meaning of the findings. Conclusions should be logical and clearly explained, and should take into account any limitations of the data or analysis.
• Recommendations: Recommendations are specific actions that can be taken based on the findings and conclusions. To distinguish recommendations from conclusions, look for statements that propose actions to address the issues identified in the evaluation. Recommendations should be practical, feasible, and clearly explained, and should be based on the evidence presented in the findings and conclusions.

It is also important to ensure that each component is clearly labeled and presented in a logical order in the evaluation report. Findings should be presented first, followed by conclusions and then recommendations.

In summary, identifying and distinguishing between findings, conclusions, and recommendations in M&E requires careful consideration of the evidence and the purpose of each component. By ensuring that each component is clearly labeled and presented in a logical order, evaluators can help to ensure that the evaluation report accurately reflects the program’s strengths, weaknesses, and potential areas for improvement, and facilitates evidence-based decision-making.

4. How to Communicate Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations Effectively in M&E Reports

Communicating findings, conclusions, and recommendations effectively in M&E reports is critical to ensuring that stakeholders understand the evaluation’s results and recommendations and can use them to inform decision-making. Here are some tips for communicating findings, conclusions, and recommendations effectively in M&E reports:

• Use clear and concise language: Use clear, simple language to explain the findings, conclusions, and recommendations. Avoid technical jargon and use examples to illustrate key points.
• Present data visually: Use tables, graphs, and charts to present data visually, making it easier for stakeholders to understand and interpret the findings.
• Provide context: Provide context for the findings, conclusions, and recommendations by explaining the evaluation’s purpose, methodology, and limitations. This helps stakeholders understand the scope and significance of the evaluation’s results and recommendations.
• Highlight key points: Use headings, bullet points, and other formatting techniques to highlight key points, making it easier for stakeholders to identify and remember the most important findings, conclusions, and recommendations.
• Be objective: Present the findings, conclusions, and recommendations objectively and avoid bias. This helps to ensure that stakeholders have confidence in the evaluation’s rigor and objectivity.
• Tailor the report to the audience: Tailor the report to the audience by using language and examples that are relevant to their interests and needs. This helps to ensure that the report is accessible and useful to stakeholders.

In summary, communicating findings, conclusions, and recommendations effectively in M&E reports requires clear and concise language, visual presentation of data, contextualization, highlighting of key points, objectivity, and audience-tailoring. By following these tips, evaluators can help to ensure that stakeholders understand the evaluation’s results and recommendations and can use them to inform decision-making.

5. The Benefits of Clear and Accurate Reporting of Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations in M&E

Clear and accurate reporting of M&E findings, conclusions, and recommendations has many benefits for development programs and policies. One of the most significant benefits is improved program design and implementation. By clearly identifying areas for improvement, program designers and implementers can make adjustments that lead to more effective and efficient programs that better meet the needs of the target population.

Another important benefit is evidence-based decision-making. When M&E findings, conclusions, and recommendations are reported accurately and clearly, decision-makers have access to reliable information on which to base their decisions. This can lead to more informed decisions about program design, implementation, and resource allocation.

Clear and accurate reporting of M&E findings, conclusions, and recommendations also supports accountability. By reporting transparently on program performance, development practitioners can build trust and support among stakeholders, including program beneficiaries, donors, and the general public.

M&E findings, conclusions, and recommendations also support continuous learning and improvement. By identifying best practices, lessons learned, and areas for improvement, development practitioners can use this information to improve future programming.

Finally, clear and accurate reporting of M&E findings, conclusions, and recommendations can increase program impact. By identifying areas for improvement and supporting evidence-based decision-making, development programs can have a greater positive impact on the communities they serve.

In summary, clear and accurate reporting of M&E findings, conclusions, and recommendations is critical for improving program design and implementation, supporting evidence-based decision-making, ensuring accountability, supporting continuous learning and improvement, and increasing program impact. By prioritizing clear and accurate reporting, development practitioners can ensure that their programs are effective, efficient, and have a positive impact on the communities they serve.

Very interesting reading which clearly explain the M&E finding, recommendation and conclusion, which sometimes the terms can be confusing

This is indeed an insightful information on M & E.

Leave a Comment Cancel Reply

Your email address will not be published.

How strong is my Resume?

Only 2% of resumes land interviews.

Land a better, higher-paying career

Jobs for You

College of education: open-rank, evaluation/social research methods — educational psychology.

• Champaign, IL, USA
• University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Deputy Director – Operations and Finance

• United States

Energy/Environment Analyst

Climate finance specialist, call for consultancy: evaluation of dfpa projects in kenya, uganda and ethiopia.

• The Danish Family Planning Association

Project Assistant – Close Out

• United States (Remote)

Global Technical Advisor – Information Management

• Belfast, UK
• Concern Worldwide

Intern- International Project and Proposal Support – ISPI

Budget and billing consultant, manager ii, budget and billing, usaid/lac office of regional sustainable development – program analyst, team leader, senior finance and administrative manager, data scientist.

• New York, NY, USA
• Everytown For Gun Safety

Energy Evaluation Specialist

Services you might be interested in, useful guides ....

How to Create a Strong Resume

Monitoring And Evaluation Specialist Resume

Resume Length for the International Development Sector

Types of Evaluation

Monitoring, Evaluation, Accountability, and Learning (MEAL)

LAND A JOB REFERRAL IN 2 WEEKS (NO ONLINE APPS!)

Sign Up & To Get My Free Referral Toolkit Now:

• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• Reading Research Effectively
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

Reading a Scholarly Article or Research Paper

Identifying a research problem to investigate requires a preliminary search for and critical review of the literature in order to gain an understanding about how scholars have examined a topic. Scholars rarely structure research studies in a way that can be followed like a story; they are complex and detail-intensive and often written in a descriptive and conclusive narrative form. However, in the social and behavioral sciences, journal articles and stand-alone research reports are generally organized in a consistent format that makes it easier to compare and contrast studies and interpret their findings.

General Reading Strategies

W hen you first read an article or research paper, focus on asking specific questions about each section. This strategy can help with overall comprehension and with understanding how the content relates [or does not relate] to the problem you want to investigate. As you review more and more studies, the process of understanding and critically evaluating the research will become easier because the content of what you review will begin to coalescence around common themes and patterns of analysis. Below are recommendations on how to read each section of a research paper effectively. Note that the sections to read are out of order from how you will find them organized in a journal article or research paper.

1.  Abstract

The abstract summarizes the background, methods, results, discussion, and conclusions of a scholarly article or research paper. Use the abstract to filter out sources that may have appeared useful when you began searching for information but, in reality, are not relevant. Questions to consider when reading the abstract are:

• Is this study related to my question or area of research?
• What is this study about and why is it being done ?
• What is the working hypothesis or underlying thesis?
• What is the primary finding of the study?
• Are there words or terminology that I can use to either narrow or broaden the parameters of my search for more information?

2.  Introduction

If, after reading the abstract, you believe the paper may be useful, focus on examining the research problem and identifying the questions the author is trying to address. This information is usually located within the first few paragraphs of the introduction or in the concluding paragraph. Look for information about how and in what way this relates to what you are investigating. In addition to the research problem, the introduction should provide the main argument and theoretical framework of the study and, in the last paragraphs of the introduction, describe what the author(s) intend to accomplish. Questions to consider when reading the introduction include:

• What is this study trying to prove or disprove?
• What is the author(s) trying to test or demonstrate?
• What do we already know about this topic and what gaps does this study try to fill or contribute a new understanding to the research problem?
• Why should I care about what is being investigated?
• Will this study tell me anything new related to the research problem I am investigating?

3.  Literature Review

The literature review describes and critically evaluates what is already known about a topic. Read the literature review to obtain a big picture perspective about how the topic has been studied and to begin the process of seeing where your potential study fits within the domain of prior research. Questions to consider when reading the literature review include:

• W hat other research has been conducted about this topic and what are the main themes that have emerged?
• What does prior research reveal about what is already known about the topic and what remains to be discovered?
• What have been the most important past findings about the research problem?
• How has prior research led the author(s) to conduct this particular study?
• Is there any prior research that is unique or groundbreaking?
• Are there any studies I could use as a model for designing and organizing my own study?

4.  Discussion/Conclusion

The discussion and conclusion are usually the last two sections of text in a scholarly article or research report. They reveal how the author(s) interpreted the findings of their research and presented recommendations or courses of action based on those findings. Often in the conclusion, the author(s) highlight recommendations for further research that can be used to develop your own study. Questions to consider when reading the discussion and conclusion sections include:

• What is the overall meaning of the study and why is this important? [i.e., how have the author(s) addressed the " So What? " question].
• What do you find to be the most important ways that the findings have been interpreted?
• What are the weaknesses in their argument?
• Do you believe conclusions about the significance of the study and its findings are valid?
• What limitations of the study do the author(s) describe and how might this help formulate my own research?
• Does the conclusion contain any recommendations for future research?

5.  Methods/Methodology

The methods section describes the materials, techniques, and procedures for gathering information used to examine the research problem. If what you have read so far closely supports your understanding of the topic, then move on to examining how the author(s) gathered information during the research process. Questions to consider when reading the methods section include:

• Did the study use qualitative [based on interviews, observations, content analysis], quantitative [based on statistical analysis], or a mixed-methods approach to examining the research problem?
• What was the type of information or data used?
• Could this method of analysis be repeated and can I adopt the same approach?
• Is enough information available to repeat the study or should new data be found to expand or improve understanding of the research problem?

6.  Results

After reading the above sections, you should have a clear understanding of the general findings of the study. Therefore, read the results section to identify how key findings were discussed in relation to the research problem. If any non-textual elements [e.g., graphs, charts, tables, etc.] are confusing, focus on the explanations about them in the text. Questions to consider when reading the results section include:

• W hat did the author(s) find and how did they find it?
• Does the author(s) highlight any findings as most significant?
• Are the results presented in a factual and unbiased way?
• Does the analysis of results in the discussion section agree with how the results are presented?
• Is all the data present and did the author(s) adequately address gaps?
• What conclusions do you formulate from this data and does it match with the author's conclusions?

7.  References

The references list the sources used by the author(s) to document what prior research and information was used when conducting the study. After reviewing the article or research paper, use the references to identify additional sources of information on the topic and to examine critically how these sources supported the overall research agenda. Questions to consider when reading the references include:

• Do the sources cited by the author(s) reflect a diversity of disciplinary viewpoints, i.e., are the sources all from a particular field of study or do the sources reflect multiple areas of study?
• Are there any unique or interesting sources that could be incorporated into my study?
• What other authors are respected in this field, i.e., who has multiple works cited or is cited most often by others?
• What other research should I review to clarify any remaining issues or that I need more information about?

NOTE:   A final strategy in reviewing research is to copy and paste the title of the source [journal article, book, research report] into Google Scholar . If it appears, look for a "cited by" reference followed by a hyperlinked number under the record [e.g., Cited by 45]. This number indicates how many times the study has been subsequently cited in other, more recently published works. This strategy, known as citation tracking, can be an effective means of expanding your review of pertinent literature based on a study you have found useful and how scholars have cited it. The same strategies described above can be applied to reading articles you find in the list of cited by references.

Reading Tip

Specific Reading Strategies

Effectively reading scholarly research is an acquired skill that involves attention to detail and an ability to comprehend complex ideas, data, and theoretical concepts in a way that applies logically to the research problem you are investigating. Here are some specific reading strategies to consider.

As You are Reading

• Focus on information that is most relevant to the research problem; skim over the other parts.
• As noted above, read content out of order! This isn't a novel; you want to start with the spoiler to quickly assess the relevance of the study.
• Think critically about what you read and seek to build your own arguments; not everything may be entirely valid, examined effectively, or thoroughly investigated.
• Look up the definitions of unfamiliar words, concepts, or terminology. A good scholarly source is Credo Reference .

Taking notes as you read will save time when you go back to examine your sources. Here are some suggestions:

• Mark or highlight important text as you read [e.g., you can use the highlight text  feature in a PDF document]
• Take notes in the margins [e.g., Adobe Reader offers pop-up sticky notes].
• Highlight important quotations; consider using different highlighting colors to differentiate between quotes and other types of important text.
• Summarize key points about the study at the end of the paper. To save time, these can be in the form of a concise bulleted list of statements [e.g., intro provides useful historical background; lit review has important sources; good conclusions].

Write down thoughts that come to mind that may help clarify your understanding of the research problem. Here are some examples of questions to ask yourself:

• Do I understand all of the terminology and key concepts?
• Do I understand the parts of this study most relevant to my topic?
• What specific problem does the research address and why is it important?
• Are there any issues or perspectives the author(s) did not consider?
• Do I have any reason to question the validity or reliability of this research?
• How do the findings relate to my research interests and to other works which I have read?

Adapted from text originally created by Holly Burt, Behavioral Sciences Librarian, USC Libraries, April 2018.

Another Reading Tip

When is it Important to Read the Entire Article or Research Paper

Laubepin argues, "Very few articles in a field are so important that every word needs to be read carefully." * However, this implies that some studies are worth reading carefully if they directly relate to understanding the research problem. As arduous as it may seem, there are valid reasons for reading a study from beginning to end. Here are some examples:

• Studies Published Very Recently .  The author(s) of a recent, well written study will provide a survey of the most important or impactful prior research in the literature review section. This can establish an understanding of how scholars in the past addressed the research problem. In addition, the most recently published sources will highlight what is known and what gaps in understanding currently exist about a topic, usually in the form of the need for further research in the conclusion .
• Surveys of the Research Problem .  Some papers provide a comprehensive analytical overview of the research problem. Reading this type of study can help you understand underlying issues and discover why scholars have chosen to investigate the topic. This is particularly important if the study was published recently because the author(s) should cite all or most of the important prior research on the topic. Note that, if it is a long-standing problem, there may be studies that specifically review the literature to identify gaps that remain. These studies often include the word "review" in their title [e.g., Hügel, Stephan, and Anna R. Davies. "Public Participation, Engagement, and Climate Change Adaptation: A Review of the Research Literature." Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change 11 (July-August 2020): https://doi.org/10.1002/ wcc.645].
• Highly Cited .  If you keep coming across the same citation to a study while you are reviewing the literature, this implies it was foundational in establishing an understanding of the research problem or the study had a significant impact within the literature [either positive or negative]. Carefully reading a highly cited source can help you understand how the topic emerged and how it motivated scholars to further investigate the problem. It also could be a study you need to cite as foundational in your own paper to demonstrate to the reader that you understand the roots of the problem.
• Historical Overview .  Knowing the historical background of a research problem may not be the focus of your analysis. Nevertheless, carefully reading a study that provides a thorough description and analysis of the history behind an event, issue, or phenomenon can add important context to understanding the topic and what aspect of the problem you may want to examine further.
• Innovative Methodological Design .  Some studies are significant and should be read in their entirety because the author(s) designed a unique or innovative approach to researching the problem. This may justify reading the entire study because it can motivate you to think creatively about also pursuing an alternative or non-traditional approach to examining your topic of interest. These types of studies are generally easy to identify because they are often cited in others works because of their unique approach to examining the research problem.
• Cross-disciplinary Approach .  R eviewing studies produced outside of your discipline is an essential component of investigating research problems in the social and behavioral sciences. Consider reading a study that was conducted by author(s) based in a different discipline [e.g., an anthropologist studying political cultures; a study of hiring practices in companies published in a sociology journal]. This approach can generate a new understanding or a unique perspective about the topic . If you are not sure how to search for studies published in a discipline outside of your major or of the course you are taking, contact a librarian for assistance.

* Laubepin, Frederique. How to Read (and Understand) a Social Science Journal Article . Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research (ISPSR), 2013

Shon, Phillip Chong Ho. How to Read Journal Articles in the Social Sciences: A Very Practical Guide for Students . 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2015; Lockhart, Tara, and Mary Soliday. "The Critical Place of Reading in Writing Transfer (and Beyond): A Report of Student Experiences." Pedagogy 16 (2016): 23-37; Maguire, Moira, Ann Everitt Reynolds, and Brid Delahunt. "Reading to Be: The Role of Academic Reading in Emergent Academic and Professional Student Identities." Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice 17 (2020): 5-12.

• << Previous: 1. Choosing a Research Problem
• Next: Narrowing a Topic Idea >>
• Last Updated: Aug 30, 2024 10:02 AM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide

• Introduction
• Conclusions
• Article Information

A symptom was included if at least 5% of infected or uninfected participants reported experiencing that symptom. Adjusted odds ratios and risk differences were estimated from models that included infection status as the exposure and the presence of each prolonged symptom as the outcome, with adjustment for sex assigned at birth and race and ethnicity (see eMethods in Supplement 3 ).

A, Least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) was used to fit a logistic regression model to identify which symptoms could be used to identify individuals likely to have PASC. Estimated log odds ratios were divided by 0.10 and rounded up to the nearest 0.5 to calculate symptom scores. An individual’s PASC research index is calculated by summing the scores for each prolonged symptom a participant reported (ie, the participant experienced the symptom for 4 weeks since the beginning of the pandemic and is currently experiencing it at the time of the survey). B, The optimal index threshold for PASC was selected using bootstrapping to estimate standard error bars. An approximation of the “elbow” method was used to identify the cutoff where the number of uninfected participants misclassified as PASC-probable stabilized (eMethods in Supplement 3 ). The threshold (index of at least 5.5) can be used to identify school-age children with PASC for research purposes. Using this threshold, the percentage of infected PASC-probable school-age children with each symptom was as follows: headache, 55%; trouble with memory or focusing, 45%; trouble sleeping, 44%; stomach pain, 43%; nausea or vomiting, 34%; back or neck pain, 30%; itchy skin or skin rash, 29%; fear about specific things, 26%; feeling lightheaded or dizzy, 26%; and refusing to go to school, 23%. C, Participant responses to 3 questions from the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) Global 10 survey, stratified into 7 groups: participants with a zero PASC research index and no prolonged symptoms, zero PASC research index but at least 1 prolonged symptom, and participants with nonzero PASC index, divided into quintiles. The dark vertical line indicates the index threshold for PASC. Each cell is shaded according to the frequency of each response within each column, ranging from 0% to 100%.

A, Least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) was used to fit a logistic regression model to identify which symptoms could be used to identify individuals likely to have PASC. Estimated log odds ratios were divided by 0.10 and rounded up to the nearest 0.5 to calculate symptom scores. An individual’s PASC research index is calculated by summing the scores for each prolonged symptom a participant reported (ie, the participant experienced the symptom for 4 weeks since the beginning of the pandemic and is currently experiencing it at the time of the survey). B, The optimal index threshold for PASC was selected using 95% CIs to estimate error bars. An approximation of the “elbow” method was used to identify the cutoff where the number of uninfected participants misclassified as PASC-probable stabilized (eMethods in Supplement 3 ). The threshold (index of at least 5) can be used to identify adolescents with PASC for research purposes. Using this threshold, the percentage of infected PASC-probable adolescents with each symptom was as follows: daytime tiredness/sleepiness or low energy, 80%; body, muscle, or joint pain, 61%; headache, 56%; trouble with memory or focusing, 47%; tired after walking, 42%; back or neck pain, 40%; feeling lightheaded or dizzy, 39%; and change or loss in smell or taste, 34%. C, Participant responses to 3 questions from the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) Global 10 survey, stratified into 7 groups: participants with a zero PASC research index and no prolonged symptoms, zero PASC research index but at least 1 prolonged symptoms, and participants with nonzero PASC index, divided into quintiles. The dark vertical line indicates the index threshold for PASC (to the left is PASC-unspecified, to the right is PASC-probable). Each cell is shaded according to the frequency of each response within each column, ranging from 0% to 100%.

Symptoms, sorted from most to least common in the study population overall, are in the center column. Left columns correspond to school-age children in 3 groups: uninfected, infected and not meeting the PASC research index threshold (infected, PASC-unspecified), and infected and meeting the PASC research index threshold (infected, PASC-probable). The columns on the right correspond to adolescents with columns in the reverse order. Note that school-age children were not asked about panic attacks. Frequency of each prolonged symptom is indicated by shading, from 0% to 100%.

A and B, Subgroups formed using consensus clustering to group participants with similar symptom profiles (based on prolonged symptoms contributing to the PASC research index only). Four clusters were identified in PASC-probable school-age children and 3 clusters among adolescents. C and D, Frequencies of each prolonged symptom are shown for each cluster, where shading indicates frequency from 0%-100%. Symptoms that contribute to the PASC research index are above the dark horizontal line, and those below do not contribute to the PASC research index, sorted in decreasing frequency among all PASC-probable participants. Symptoms present in <5% of participants in every cluster were omitted. The full set of symptoms is in eFigure 6 in Supplement 3 .

Trial protocol

Statistical analysis plan

Nonauthor contributors

Data sharing statement

• Uncovering Pediatric Long COVID JAMA Editorial August 21, 2024 Suchitra Rao, MBBS, MSCS

See More About

Select your interests.

Customize your JAMA Network experience by selecting one or more topics from the list below.

• Academic Medicine
• Acid Base, Electrolytes, Fluids
• Allergy and Clinical Immunology
• American Indian or Alaska Natives
• Anesthesiology
• Anticoagulation
• Art and Images in Psychiatry
• Artificial Intelligence
• Assisted Reproduction
• Bleeding and Transfusion
• Caring for the Critically Ill Patient
• Challenges in Clinical Electrocardiography
• Climate and Health
• Climate Change
• Clinical Challenge
• Clinical Decision Support
• Clinical Implications of Basic Neuroscience
• Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology
• Complementary and Alternative Medicine
• Consensus Statements
• Coronavirus (COVID-19)
• Critical Care Medicine
• Cultural Competency
• Dental Medicine
• Dermatology
• Diabetes and Endocrinology
• Diagnostic Test Interpretation
• Drug Development
• Electronic Health Records
• Emergency Medicine
• End of Life, Hospice, Palliative Care
• Environmental Health
• Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion
• Facial Plastic Surgery
• Gastroenterology and Hepatology
• Genetics and Genomics
• Genomics and Precision Health
• Global Health
• Guide to Statistics and Methods
• Hair Disorders
• Health Care Delivery Models
• Health Care Economics, Insurance, Payment
• Health Care Quality
• Health Care Reform
• Health Care Safety
• Health Care Workforce
• Health Disparities
• Health Inequities
• Health Policy
• Health Systems Science
• History of Medicine
• Hypertension
• Images in Neurology
• Implementation Science
• Infectious Diseases
• Innovations in Health Care Delivery
• JAMA Infographic
• Law and Medicine
• Leading Change
• Less is More
• LGBTQIA Medicine
• Lifestyle Behaviors
• Medical Coding
• Medical Devices and Equipment
• Medical Education
• Medical Education and Training
• Medical Journals and Publishing
• Mobile Health and Telemedicine
• Narrative Medicine
• Neuroscience and Psychiatry
• Notable Notes
• Nutrition, Obesity, Exercise
• Obstetrics and Gynecology
• Occupational Health
• Ophthalmology
• Orthopedics
• Otolaryngology
• Pain Medicine
• Palliative Care
• Pathology and Laboratory Medicine
• Patient Care
• Patient Information
• Performance Improvement
• Performance Measures
• Perioperative Care and Consultation
• Pharmacoeconomics
• Pharmacoepidemiology
• Pharmacogenetics
• Pharmacy and Clinical Pharmacology
• Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation
• Physical Therapy
• Physician Leadership
• Population Health
• Primary Care
• Professional Well-being
• Professionalism
• Psychiatry and Behavioral Health
• Public Health
• Pulmonary Medicine
• Regulatory Agencies
• Reproductive Health
• Research, Methods, Statistics
• Resuscitation
• Rheumatology
• Risk Management
• Scientific Discovery and the Future of Medicine
• Shared Decision Making and Communication
• Sleep Medicine
• Sports Medicine
• Stem Cell Transplantation
• Substance Use and Addiction Medicine
• Surgical Innovation
• Surgical Pearls
• Teachable Moment
• Technology and Finance
• The Art of JAMA
• The Arts and Medicine
• The Rational Clinical Examination
• Tobacco and e-Cigarettes
• Translational Medicine
• Trauma and Injury
• Treatment Adherence
• Ultrasonography
• Users' Guide to the Medical Literature
• Vaccination
• Venous Thromboembolism
• Veterans Health
• Women's Health
• Workflow and Process
• Wound Care, Infection, Healing

Others Also Liked

• Download PDF
• X Facebook More LinkedIn

Gross RS , Thaweethai T , Kleinman LC, et al. Characterizing Long COVID in Children and Adolescents. JAMA. Published online August 21, 2024. doi:10.1001/jama.2024.12747

Manage citations:

© 2024

• Permissions

Characterizing Long COVID in Children and Adolescents

• 1 Division of General Pediatrics, Department of Pediatrics, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York
• 2 Department of Biostatistics, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston
• 3 Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
• 4 Division of Population Health, Quality, and Implementation Sciences (PopQuIS), Department of Pediatrics, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, New Brunswick, New Jersey
• 5 Bristol Myers Squibb Children’s Hospital, New Brunswick, New Jersey
• 6 Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock
• 7 Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, New York
• 8 Division of Pediatric Allergy, Immunology and Rheumatology, Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, New York
• 9 Division of Respiratory Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, UC San Diego School of Medicine, Rady Children’s Hospital, San Diego, California
• 10 Division of Child and Community Health, Department of Pediatrics, UC San Diego School of Medicine, Rady Children’s Hospital, San Diego, California
• 11 Departments of Cognitive Science, Psychiatry, and Radiology, UC San Diego School of Medicine, Rady Children’s Hospital, San Diego, California
• 12 School of Nursing, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond
• 13 Division of Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles
• 14 Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles
• 15 Division of Cardiology, Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles
• 16 Department of Cardiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
• 17 Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
• 18 Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah, Primary Children’s Hospital, Salt Lake City
• 19 Division of General Pediatrics, Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco
• 20 Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Utah Health, Salt Lake City
• 21 Division of Rheumatology, Inflammation, and Immunity, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston
• 22 Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts
• 23 Division of Neurology, Department of Neurology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
• 24 Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston
• 25 Division of Child Study Center, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York
• 26 Department of Medicine, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York
• 27 Division of Pediatric Critical Care Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York
• 28 Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York
• 29 NYU Grossman School of Medicine, Bellevue Hospital Center, New York
• 30 Division of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, Department of Pediatrics, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York
• 31 RECOVER Patient, Caregiver, or Community Advocate Representative, New York, New York
• 32 Long Covid Families, Charlotte, North Carolina
• 33 Division of Long COVID, Department of Pandemic Equity, Vermont Center for Independent Living, Montpelier
• 34 Patient Led Research Collaborative, Washington, DC
• 35 CORe Community, Inc (COVID Recovery through Community, a 501c3), New York, New York
• 36 Division of Community Impact, Department of Health Strategies, American Heart Association, Atlanta, Georgia
• 37 Division of Biostatistics, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston
• 38 Division of Child and Adolescent Health, Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, New York
• 39 Department of Population and Family Health, Mailman School of Public Health, New York-Presbyterian Hospital, New York
• Editorial Uncovering Pediatric Long COVID Suchitra Rao, MBBS, MSCS JAMA

Question   What prolonged symptoms experienced by youth are most associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection?

Findings   Among 5367 participants in the RECOVER-Pediatrics cohort study, 14 symptoms in both school-age children (6-11 years) and adolescents (12-17 years) were more common in those with vs without SARS-CoV-2 infection history, with 4 additional symptoms in school-age children only and 3 in adolescents only. Empirically derived indices for PASC research and associated clustering patterns were developed.

Meaning   This study developed research indices for characterizing pediatric PASC. Symptom patterns were similar but distinguishable between school-age children and adolescents, highlighting the importance of characterizing PASC separately in different age groups.

Importance   Most research to understand postacute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC), or long COVID, has focused on adults, with less known about this complex condition in children. Research is needed to characterize pediatric PASC to enable studies of underlying mechanisms that will guide future treatment.

Objective   To identify the most common prolonged symptoms experienced by children (aged 6 to 17 years) after SARS-CoV-2 infection, how these symptoms differ by age (school-age [6-11 years] vs adolescents [12-17 years]), how they cluster into distinct phenotypes, and what symptoms in combination could be used as an empirically derived index to assist researchers to study the likely presence of PASC.

Design, Setting, and Participants   Multicenter longitudinal observational cohort study with participants recruited from more than 60 US health care and community settings between March 2022 and December 2023, including school-age children and adolescents with and without SARS-CoV-2 infection history.

Exposure   SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Main Outcomes and Measures   PASC and 89 prolonged symptoms across 9 symptom domains.

Results   A total of 898 school-age children (751 with previous SARS-CoV-2 infection [referred to as infected ] and 147 without [referred to as uninfected ]; mean age, 8.6 years; 49% female; 11% were Black or African American, 34% were Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish, and 60% were White) and 4469 adolescents (3109 infected and 1360 uninfected; mean age, 14.8 years; 48% female; 13% were Black or African American, 21% were Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish, and 73% were White) were included. Median time between first infection and symptom survey was 506 days for school-age children and 556 days for adolescents. In models adjusted for sex and race and ethnicity, 14 symptoms in both school-age children and adolescents were more common in those with SARS-CoV-2 infection history compared with those without infection history, with 4 additional symptoms in school-age children only and 3 in adolescents only. These symptoms affected almost every organ system. Combinations of symptoms most associated with infection history were identified to form a PASC research index for each age group; these indices correlated with poorer overall health and quality of life. The index emphasizes neurocognitive, pain, and gastrointestinal symptoms in school-age children but change or loss in smell or taste, pain, and fatigue/malaise–related symptoms in adolescents. Clustering analyses identified 4 PASC symptom phenotypes in school-age children and 3 in adolescents.

Conclusions and Relevance   This study developed research indices for characterizing PASC in children and adolescents. Symptom patterns were similar but distinguishable between the 2 groups, highlighting the importance of characterizing PASC separately for these age ranges.

Long COVID, or postacute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection (PASC), has been broadly defined as symptoms, signs, and conditions that develop, persist, or relapse over time after SARS-CoV-2 infection. 1 , 2 These symptoms can last weeks, months, or years after the acute infection resolves and can have debilitating effects. Some experts believe that worldwide, an estimated 65 million people are living with PASC, 3 with impacts on population-level health anticipated to last for decades. Most research characterizing PASC has focused on adults, 4 leading to misperception that pediatric PASC is rare or presents similarly to PASC in adults. 5 , 6 This may lead clinicians to miss symptoms or misdiagnose children. Consistent with the life course framework in which developmental stage influences health outcomes, 7 PASC may present in both similar and different ways compared with adults.

Studies of pediatric PASC have documented a wide range of symptoms involving every organ system. 8 - 11 Most pediatric research has focused on individual symptoms and either pooled data from different ages or focused on adolescents. Little is known about differences in PASC symptoms between school-age children (6-11 years) and adolescents (12-17 years). 12 , 13 The absence of a consistent analytic approach to objectively identify children with PASC hinders the research needed to identify underlying mechanisms of disease and treatment targets. The National Institutes of Health–funded Researching COVID to Enhance Recovery ( RECOVER ) Initiative aims to fill these gaps by bringing together researchers, clinicians, communities, and families in a comprehensive study of PASC in children. 14 The aims of this analysis of the RECOVER-Pediatrics cohort were to identify (1) common prolonged symptoms experienced by children (6 to 17 years old) after SARS-CoV-2 infection, (2) how these symptoms differ by age (school-age vs adolescents), (3) how symptoms cluster into phenotypes, and (4) what symptoms in combination could be used as an empirically derived index to help researchers consistently assess the likely presence of PASC. These indices, like the one previously developed for the RECOVER-Adult cohort (18 years or older), 15 were intended to be used to identify factors that distinguish children who likely have developed PASC from those who may not have and to help evaluate risk factors for developing PASC, elucidate its pathophysiology, and enable follow-up to analyze recovery and relapse.

The RECOVER Pediatric Observational Cohort Study (RECOVER-Pediatrics) 14 is a combined retrospective and prospective longitudinal study including 4 cohorts. Data presented are from 2 cohorts: the de novo RECOVER cohort, including participants from birth through 25 years with and without SARS-CoV-2 infection history newly recruited from health care and community settings, and the extant National Institutes of Health–funded Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development cohort, 16 - 18 the largest long-term US study of brain development in adolescence. The protocol and statistical analysis plan for RECOVER-Pediatrics were previously described 19 (see Supplements 1 and 2 ). Data were obtained from more than 60 sites (eTable 1 in Supplement 3 ). The study received institutional review board approval from NYU Grossman School of Medicine (de novo cohort) or UC San Diego Human Research Protections Program (Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development cohort), with other institutions relying on these single institutional review boards. Caregiver-child pairs provided informed consent and age-appropriate assent. Strengthening and Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) guidelines were followed.

The analytic sample included individuals aged 6 to 17 years enrolled between March 16, 2022, and December 16, 2023, with and without known SARS-CoV-2 infection history ( infected and uninfected , respectively). Child age was recorded at symptom survey completion.

For these analyses, the infected group included participants who completed their survey about prolonged symptoms at least 90 days after their first infection, reported by their caregivers (eMethods in Supplement 3 ). SARS-CoV-2 antibodies were not required. The uninfected group was defined by caregiver report and required confirmation of negative nucleocapsid antibodies at enrollment. Those thought to be uninfected but found to be antibody-positive (Ab+) within 30 days of survey completion were analyzed separately to understand asymptomatic infection. 20 Throughout, uninfected refers strictly to uninfected participants who were confirmed to be nucleocapsid antibody–negative.

Infected participants with an unknown date for their first infection, participants with history of multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (because this is a well-characterized entity), 21 - 25 uninfected participants without antibody testing, and participants with missing symptom surveys (defined as <50% of questions completed) were excluded.

Caregivers completed a comprehensive symptom survey remotely (interviewer-administered if needed) assessing 89 prolonged symptoms across 9 domains, using health literacy–informed principles and plain-language descriptions (eTable 2 in Supplement 3 ). 19 , 26 Some symptoms describing a similar phenotype were combined into composites, resulting in 75 symptoms (eMethods in Supplement 3 ): general (12 symptoms), eyes/ears/nose/throat (15 symptoms), heart/lungs (10 symptoms), gastrointestinal (6 symptoms), dermatologic (5 symptoms), musculoskeletal (3 symptoms), neurologic (6 symptoms), behavioral/psychological (14 symptoms), and menstrual (4 symptoms). The same symptoms were assessed in both age groups (except panic attacks, which were assessed in adolescents only). Menstrual symptoms were assessed in those assigned female or intersex at birth and who started menstruating (reported only among adolescents).

The primary outcome was a prolonged symptom lasting for more than 4 weeks that started or became worse since the beginning of the pandemic and was present at the time of survey completion (at least 90 days after infection). If a symptom lasted for more than 4 weeks but was absent at survey completion, it was not counted as a prolonged symptom.

Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) Global Health Scales were assessed, measuring caregiver perception of the child’s overall health, physical health, and quality of life. 27

The main exposure variable was SARS-CoV-2 infection. Other variables included sex, race and ethnicity, geographic origin, time since SARS-CoV-2 infection, calendar time of enrollment, and SARS-CoV-2 vaccination status (eMethods in Supplement 3 ). Like other variables, race and ethnicity were collected via caregiver report based on prespecified categories and measured to enhance understanding of racial and ethnic differences in PASC. Caregiver variables included relationship to child and educational attainment.

Statistical analyses were modeled after those published for RECOVER-Adult and were age-stratified. 15 The analysis calculated the proportion of participants who reported each prolonged symptom and who reported experiencing at least 1 prolonged symptom among infected and uninfected participants separately (eTable 3 in Supplement 3 ). For symptoms present in at least 5% of infected participants (candidate symptoms), the risk difference, odds ratio, and relative risk for infected vs uninfected participants were estimated using linear, logistic, and Poisson regression, respectively, adjusting for sex and race and ethnicity (eMethods in Supplement 3 ). Second, to identify combinations of symptoms that could be used for research, a penalized logistic regression approach (least absolute shrinkage and selection operator [LASSO]) 28 was used to identify what candidate symptoms (predictors) were best at differentiating participants with or without an infection history (outcome). 15 Because all sexes were combined for this analysis, menstrual symptoms were excluded. Based on the model fit, each symptom was assigned a score corresponding to the estimated log odds ratio, where a higher symptom score indicated a stronger association with infection. A total index was calculated for each participant by summing the individual scores for each symptom reported. An optimal index threshold for identifying PASC was selected based on the proportion of uninfected participants who were likely misclassified as having PASC (eMethods in Supplement 3 ). Participants meeting the index threshold were categorized as PASC-probable and others were categorized as PASC-unspecified . PASC rates were reported among infected and uninfected participants separately. Among infected participants, these rates were also reported by whether they were infected by December 1, 2021 (when the Omicron variant became the dominant US strain).

Third, the analysis examined correlations between PASC indices and caregiver-reported overall child health, quality of life, and physical health and symptoms selected by LASSO. Further, the frequency of all symptoms was reported in infected PASC-probable, infected PASC-unspecified, and uninfected participants separately. Fourth, symptom patterns were investigated among infected participants categorized as PASC-probable. Correlations between symptoms contributing to the PASC index among infected PASC-probable participants were calculated. K-means consensus clustering was performed based on symptoms contributing to the PASC index to identify distinct PASC symptom profiles. 29 The number of different systems affected among infected PASC-probable participants was then summarized by counting the systems in which at least 1 prolonged symptom was reported. Fifth, we summarized the characteristics and symptomatology of uninfected participants found to be Ab+.

This study included 751 infected and 147 uninfected school-age children and 3109 infected and 1369 uninfected adolescents (see cohort identification details in eFigure 1 in Supplement 3 ). The Table and eTable 4 in Supplement 3 contain demographic and infection history characteristics, respectively. eTable 5 in Supplement 3 contains demographic characteristics for the adolescent cohort, stratified by recruiting cohort (Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development vs de novo).

Overall, 45% of infected (338/751) and 33% of uninfected (48/147) school-age children and 39% of infected (1219/3109) and 27% of uninfected (372/1369) adolescents reported having at least 1 prolonged symptom. Twenty-six symptoms in infected school-age children and 18 symptoms in infected adolescents were prolonged in at least 5% of participants ( Figure 1 ). The lower 95% confidence bound of the adjusted odds ratio exceeded 0 for 14 symptoms in both school-age children and adolescents, with 4 additional symptoms in school-age children only and 3 in adolescents only ( Figure 1 ). The frequency of each symptom among infected participants did not differ after stratification into quintiles based on time between first infection and symptom survey date (eFigure 2 in Supplement 3 ).

The LASSO analysis identified 10 symptoms in school-age children and 8 in adolescents that were most associated with infection history ( Figures 2 A and 3 A). Optimal index thresholds of 5.5 in school-age children and 5.0 in adolescents were identified ( Figures 2 B and 3 B). Overall, 152 infected (20%) and 6 uninfected (4%) school-age children and 445 infected (14%) and 44 uninfected (3%) adolescents met or exceeded this index threshold (eTable 6 in Supplement 3 ). This percentage was higher for participants infected before vs after the emergence of Omicron (21% vs 14% for school-age children; 17% vs 7% for adolescents). Correlations between symptoms that contributed to the index are shown in eFigure 3 in Supplement 3 . Correlations between these symptoms and those that did not contribute to the index are shown in eTable 7 in Supplement 3 . Some uninfected participants may have met the index threshold due to misclassification or due to having other symptoms.

In both age groups, higher PASC research indices were correlated with worse PROMIS scores ( Figures 2 C and 3 C). The number of systems affected among infected PASC-probable participants (eFigure 4 in Supplement 3 ) indicated substantial multisystem burden.

Figure 4 shows the percentage of participants in each age group experiencing each symptom after stratification into 3 subgroups: infected PASC-probable, infected PASC-unspecified, and uninfected. The most common prolonged symptom among PASC-probable school-age children that also contributed to the PASC research index ( Figures 2 B and 4 ) was headache (57%), followed by trouble with memory/focusing and trouble sleeping (44%) and stomach pain (43%). Among symptoms that did not contribute to the index, body/muscle/joint pain (51%), daytime tiredness/sleepiness or low energy (49%), and feeling anxious (47%) were the most common ( Figure 4 ). The distribution of symptoms was similar between PASC-unspecified and uninfected school-age children.

Among PASC-probable adolescents, the most common prolonged symptoms contributing to the index ( Figures 3 B and 4 ) were daytime tiredness/sleepiness or low energy (80%), body/muscle/joint pain (60%), headaches (55%), and trouble with memory/focusing (47%). Among symptoms that did not contribute to the index, trouble sleeping (47%), feeling anxious (47%), and feeling sad/depressed (38%) were the most common ( Figure 4 ). The distribution of symptoms was similar between PASC-unspecified and uninfected adolescent participants.

Among school-age children, 4 symptom clusters were identified ( Figure 5 ). Cluster 1 had high rates of many symptoms and the highest symptom burden. Cluster 2 was characterized by high rates of headache (95%), body/muscle/joint pain (60%), and daytime tiredness/sleepiness or low energy (52%). Cluster 3 was characterized by higher rates of trouble sleeping (64%) and trouble with memory/focusing (62%). Cluster 4 was characterized predominantly by stomach pain (100%) and nausea/vomiting (61%). Among adolescents, 3 clusters were identified ( Figure 5 ). Cluster 1 had high rates of many symptoms, similar to the first school-age cluster. Cluster 2 was characterized by high rates of daytime tiredness/sleepiness or low energy (89%) and body/muscle/joint pain (87%). Cluster 3 was characterized by having change/loss in smell or taste (100%), with relatively low rates of all other symptoms. The clusters with the most symptoms in both school-age children and adolescents (cluster 1) had the highest mean number of systems affected (eTable 8 in Supplement 3 ) and were correlated with poorer overall health and quality of life (eFigure 5 in Supplement 3 ).

Overall, 64 school-age children and 781 adolescents enrolled as uninfected but were Ab+ (ie, asymptomatically infected; eFigure 1 and eTable 9 in Supplement 3 ). Among school-age children, 6 (9%) met the index threshold whereas 18 (28%) reported experiencing at least 1 prolonged symptom. Among adolescents, 29 (4%) met the index threshold and 175 (22%) reported at least 1 prolonged symptom.

Symptom frequencies for all groups (infected, uninfected, and uninfected Ab+), including estimated risk ratios and odds ratios, are shown in eTable 10 in Supplement 3 .

In this large-scale study, children with probable PASC experienced prolonged symptoms in almost every organ system, with the majority having multisystem involvement. A clear pattern of symptom differences was identified between school-age children and adolescents, underscoring the importance of characterizing PASC separately in these 2 age groups.

This study developed an empirically derived index that can be used to help researchers identify children likely to have PASC, which was associated with overall health, physical health, and quality of life. This PASC research index, distinct for each age group, used combinations of 10 symptoms in school-age children and 8 symptoms in adolescents to indicate the likelihood of PASC. Although many other symptoms were more common in infected compared with uninfected participants, symptoms selected for the index were those that were most associated with infection history. Because these other symptoms were highly associated with the symptoms selected for the index (eTable 7 in Supplement 3 ), it was rare for participants not meeting the index threshold to have these other symptoms ( Figure 4 ). In this cohort, 20% of infected school-age children exceeded the PASC symptom threshold, while 14% of adolescents exceeded the threshold. PASC symptoms clustered into 4 distinct clusters in school-age children and 3 in adolescents.

The PASC research index presents a framework for future studies and can be used as a continuous or binary outcome variable (based on derived thresholds) to determine risk factors for developing PASC and the trajectory of PASC and its resolution (or relapse). Although this provisional index may be used for research, it is not intended for clinical practice, and 1 symptom may be sufficient to indicate PASC in any given child.

This study makes a substantial contribution to the understanding of pediatric PASC. Most research to understand PASC symptoms has focused on adults, potentially due to the misperception that children were not severely affected by COVID-19, leaving childhood symptoms less understood. Most prior pediatric studies have relied on electronic health records. 30 , 31 The current study had the advantage of comprehensively assessing caregiver-reported symptoms across every organ system, examining them in combination, and comparing them directly to an uninfected seronegative control group. The symptoms identified as being related to PASC were associated with infection, not only symptoms that became more common during the pandemic.

This study identified separate PASC research indices for school-age children and adolescents based on symptoms most likely to differentiate between those with and without an infection history. Higher indices were correlated with worse functional outcomes, and those with indices meeting the PASC threshold reported many prolonged symptoms, not just those selected by LASSO. 28 The strongest differentiators of infection history in adults (RECOVER-Adult study) 15 and adolescents overlapped considerably. There was less overlap between adults and school-age children. These findings underscore the need for separate assessments in different age groups. This may be one reason that younger children with PASC are being undercounted in studies and/or undiagnosed clinically, although undercounting may also be due to younger children being less able to recognize and report symptoms. The pathophysiology behind these age-related differences warrants future study, given substantial changes in growth, development, immunological factors, and pubertal hormones that occur across the life course. 11

Among infected participants, there was a wide range of time elapsed between infection and survey completion (median [IQR] time was 501 [297-801] days for school-age children and 518 [333-810] days for adolescents). However, symptom frequency did not change meaningfully when comparing different times between infection and survey completion, underscoring the usefulness of the PASC index for any child in the postacute phase of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Four symptom clusters in school-age children and 3 in adolescents were identified. In both age groups, there was a single cluster with high symptom burden (as in adults) and a cluster predominated by fatigue and pain symptoms. Other clusters differed by age. School-age children had a cluster with neuropsychological and sleep impacts and another with gastrointestinal predominance. Adolescents had a cluster that was primarily loss of taste and smell, 32 similar to that found in adults, which was not noted in the school-age clusters. Clusters predominated by respiratory symptoms were not identified, possibly related to community recruitment or few participants with severe acute illness. Future research should evaluate whether these pediatric clusters are associated with different pathophysiology from adults, 33 - 35 which will be critical for identifying the treatment targets needed for clinical trials. 36 - 40

This study has limitations. First, the research index is not intended for use in clinical practice to diagnose PASC. Rather it must be considered with clinical judgement because children may have PASC without meeting the index threshold. There are many prolonged symptoms that differ between those previously infected and uninfected with SARS-CoV-2 that are not part of this index. It remains unknown how many children with other diagnoses would have similar prolonged symptoms. This index may evolve over time with changing variants and population immunity. Although children with higher PASC indices report worse quality of life, the cross-sectional analyses preclude causal inference. If a symptom lasted more than 4 weeks but was absent at survey completion, it was not included as a prolonged symptom because this index was not meant to describe incidence. However, it can be used for longitudinal follow-up of recovery and relapse, which would not be possible if resolved symptoms were used in the calculations.

Second, the population prevalence of pediatric PASC cannot be determined with the current design because participants with more prolonged symptoms may have been more inclined to enroll. To mitigate differences that may have resulted from having an extant adolescent cohort, community outreach within the school-age group was encouraged.

Third, some participants in the infected and uninfected groups could have been misclassified. Infected participants were not required to have evidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection; this study relied on caregiver-reported COVID-19 infection history, given variable access to testing. Uninfected children were confirmed to not have SARS-CoV-2 antibodies, but it is possible that some may have been unknowingly infected without developing antibodies or their immunity waned. 41 Uninfected participants may have another postviral syndrome or other conditions that may have symptoms and even pathophysiology that overlaps with PASC. 42 Despite this uncertainty, important differences between infected and uninfected groups were detected.

Fourth, given that symptoms were caregiver-reported, recall bias is possible. In addition, caregiver perceptions of their adolescents’ symptoms may differ from those of the adolescents themselves. However, to enable valid comparisons across age groups, data collection methods were standardized. Future analyses will combine caregiver-reported surveys with objective measures collected during the in-person longitudinal study phase. 19

Fifth, this empirically derived index is a framework that identified commonalities for research purposes. Iterative adaptation of how PASC is assessed may occur as more RECOVER data are collected and as children are followed up. Future analyses will examine PASC symptoms in early childhood (birth to 5 years) and the effects of SARS-CoV-2 on worsening underlying conditions and increasing new conditions, 43 - 45 such as diabetes, 46 autoimmune diseases, 47 neurocognitive disorders, and postinfectious syndromes. 11

In this large-scale study, symptoms that characterized pediatric PASC differed by age group, and several distinct phenotypic PASC presentations were described. The research indices developed here will help researchers identify children and adolescents with high likelihood of PASC. Although these indices will require further research and validation, this work provides an important step toward a clinically useful tool for diagnosis with the ultimate goal of supporting optimal care for youth with PASC.

Accepted for Publication: June 4, 2024.

Published Online: August 21, 2024. doi:10.1001/jama.2024.12747

Corresponding Author: Rachel S. Gross, MD, MS, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, 462 First Ave, New York, NY 10016 ( [email protected] ).

RECOVER-Pediatrics Group Authors: Venkataraman Balaraman, MD; Amanda Bogie, MD; Hulya Bukulmez, MD; Allen J. Dozor, MD; Daniel Eckrich, MS; Amy J. Elliott, PhD; Danielle N. Evans, DHSc, MHA; Jonathan S. Farkas, MD; E. Vincent S. Faustino, MD, MHS; Laura Fischer, MPH; Sunanda Gaur, MD; Ashraf S. Harahsheh, MD; Uzma N. Hasan, MD; Daniel S. Hsia, MD; Gredia Huerta-Montañez, MD; Kathy D. Hummel, MSN; Matt P. Kadish, MD; David C. Kaelber, MD, MPH; Sankaran Krishnan, MD, MPH; Jessica S. Kosut, MD; Jerry Larrabee, MD; Peter Paul C. Lim, MD; Ian C. Michelow, MD; Carlos R. Oliveira, MD, PhD; Hengameh Raissy, PharmD; Zaira Rosario-Pabon, MS; Judith L. Ross, MD; Alice I. Sato, MD, PhD; Michelle D. Stevenson, MD, MS; Maria M. Talavera-Barber, DO; Ronald J. Teufel, MD, MSCR; Kathryn E. Weakley, MD, MSc; Emily Zimmerman, PhD, CCC-SLP; Marie-Abele C. Bind, PhD; James Chan, MA; Zoe Guan, PhD; Richard E. Morse, BA; Harrison T. Reeder, PhD; Natascha Akshoomoff, PhD; Judy L. Aschner, MD; Rakesh Bhattacharjee, MD; Lesley A. Cottrell, PhD; Kelly Cowan, MD; Viren A. D'Sa, MD; Alexander G. Fiks, MD, MSCE; Maria L. Gennaro, MD; Katherine Irby, MD; Manaswitha Khare, MD; Jeremy Landeo Guttierrez, MD, MPH; Russell J. McCulloh, MD, MS; Shalu Narang, MD; Manette Ness-Cochinwala, MD; Sheila Nolan, MD; Paul Palumbo, MD; Julie Ryu, MD; Juan C. Salazar, MD, MPH; Rangaraj Selvarangan, PhD; Cheryl R. Stein, PhD; Alan Werzberger, MD; William T. Zempsky, MD, MPH; Robin Aupperle, PhD; Fiona C. Baker, PhD; Marie T. Banich, PhD; Deanna M. Barch, PhD; Arielle Baskin-Sommers, PhD; James M. Bjork, PhD; Susan Y. Bookheimer, PhD; Sandra A. Brown, PhD; BJ Casey, PhD; Linda Chang, MD; Duncan B. Clark, MD, PhD; Anders M. Dale, PhD; Mirella Dapretto, PhD; Thomas M. Ernst, PhD; Damien A. Fair, PA-C, PhD; Sarah W. Feldstein Ewing, PhD; John J. Foxe, PhD; Edward G. Freedman, PhD; Naomi P. Friedman, PhD; Hugh Garavan, PhD; Dylan G. Gee, PhD; Raul Gonzalez, PhD; Kevin M. Gray, MD; Mary M. Heitzeg, PhD; Megan M. Herting, PhD; Joanna Jacobus, PhD; Angela R. Laird, PhD; Christine L. Larson, PhD; Krista M. Lisdahl, PhD; Monica Luciana, PhD; Beatriz Luna, PhD; Pamela A.F. Madden, PhD; Erin C. McGlade, PhD; Eva M. Müller-Oehring, PhD; Bonnie J. Nagel, PhD; Michael C. Neale, PhD; Martin P. Paulus, PhD; Alexandra S. Potter, PhD; Perry F. Renshaw, MD, PhD; Elizabeth R. Sowell, PhD; Lindsay M. Squeglia, PhD; Susan Tapert, PhD; Lucina Q. Uddin, PhD; Sylia Wilson, PhD; Deborah A. Yurgelun-Todd, PhD.

Affiliations of RECOVER-Pediatrics Group Authors: Department of Biostatistics, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston (Chan, Guan, Morse, Reeder); Division of Respiratory Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, UC San Diego School of Medicine, Rady Children’s Hospital, San Diego, California (Bhattacharjee, Guttierrez, Ryu); Division of Biostatistics, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston (Bind); Department of Pediatrics, Kapi'olani Medical Center for Women and Children, University of Hawaii, John A. Burns School of Medicine, Honolulu, Hawaii (Balaraman, Kosut); Department of Pediatrics, Oklahoma University Health Science Center, Oklahoma City (Bogie); Division of Pediatric Rheumatology, Department of Pediatrics, MetroHealth System, Cleveland, Ohio (Bukulmez); Division of Pediatric Pulmonology, Allergy, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Health Physicians, New York Medical College, Valhalla (Dozor, Krishnan); Department of Biomedical Research Informatics Center, Nemours Children's Hospital Delaware, Wilmington (Eckrich); Avera Research Institute, Sioux Falls, South Dakota (Elliott); Division of Research, Department of Research Administration, Arkansas Children's Hospital, Little Rock (Evans, Hummel); Department of Pediatrics, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York City Health and Hospitals Bellevue, New York (Farkas); Department of Pediatrics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut (Faustino); Pediatric Research Office, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha (Fischer); Division of Allergy, Immunology, and Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, New Brunswick, New Jersey (Gaur); Division of Cardiology, Department of Pediatrics, Children's National Hospital, The George Washington University School of Medicine & Health Sciences, Washington, DC (Harahsheh); Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Cooperman Barnabas Medical Center, Livingston, New Jersey (Hasan); Department of Clinical Trials Unit, Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana (Hsia); Division of Puerto Rico Testsite for Exploring Contamination Threats, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts (Huerta-Montañez); Division of General Pediatrics, Department of Pediatrics, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque (Kadish, Larrabee); Departments of Pediatrics, Internal Medicine, and Population and Quantitative Health Sciences, MetroHealth System, Cleveland, Ohio (Kaelber); Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, University of South Dakota Sanford School of Medicine, Avera Research Institute, Sioux Falls (Lim); Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Connecticut Children's Medical Center, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, Hartford (Michelow, Salazar); Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut (Oliveira); Division of Pulmonary, Department of Pediatrics, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque (Raissy); Division of Puerto Rico Testsite for Exploring Contamination Threats, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts (Rosario-Pabon); Division of Pediatrics Administration, Department of Pediatrics, Thomas Jefferson University, Nemours Children's Hospital Delaware, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (Ross); Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Pediatrics, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha (Sato); Division of Norton Children's Emergency Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky (Stevenson); Department of Pediatrics, University of South Dakota Sanford School of Medicine, Avera Research Institute, Sioux Falls (Talavera-Barber); Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston (Teufel); Division of Norton Children's Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky (Weakley); Division of Puerto Rico Testsite for Exploring Contamination Threats, Department of Communication Sciences & Disorders, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts (Zimmerman); Department of Psychiatry, UC San Diego School of Medicine, Rady Children's Hospital, San Diego, California (Akshoomoff, Jacobus, Tapert); Center for Discovery and Innovation, Department of Pediatrics, Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine, Nutley, New Jersey (Aschner); Department of Pediatrics, West Virginia University, Morgantown (Cottrell); Division of Pediatric Pulmonology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Vermont, Burlington (Cowan); Department of Developmental Pediatrics, Rhode Island Hospital, Providence (D'Sa); Division of General Pediatrics, Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (Fiks); Public Health Research Institute, Departments of Medicine, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Newark, New Jersey (Gennaro); Department of Pediatrics, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock (Irby); Division of Hospital Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, UC San Diego School of Medicine, Rady Children's Hospital, San Diego, California (Khare); Division of Pediatric Hospital Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha (McCulloh); Cooperman Barnabas Medical Center, Livingston, New Jersey (Narang); Nicklaus Children's Hospital, Division of Population Health, Quality, and Implementation Sciences (PopQuIS), Department of Pediatrics, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Miami, Florida (Ness-Cochinwala); Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Health Physicians, New York Medical College, Valhalla (Nolan); Divisions of Infectious Disease and International Health, Departments of Pediatrics and Medicine, Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center, Lebanon, New Hampshire (Palumbo); Department of Pediatrics, Children's Mercy Hospital and Clinics, Kansas City, Missouri (Selvarangan); Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York (Stein); Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Best Healthcare Inc, Monroe, New York (Werzberger); Department of Pediatrics, Connecticut Children's Medical Center, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, Hartford (Zempsky); Laureate Institute for Brain Research, Tulsa, Oklahoma (Aupperle, Paulus); Center for Health Sciences, SRI International, Menlo Park, California (Baker, Müller-Oehring); Institute of Cognitive Science and Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder (Banich); Departments of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Psychiatry, and Radiology, Washington University in St Louis, St Louis, Missouri (Barch); Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (Baskin-Sommers, Gee); Institute for Drug and Alcohol Studies, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond (Bjork); Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of Southern California, Children's Hospital Los Angeles (Bookheimer, Dapretto, Uddin); Department of Psychology and Psychiatry, UC San Diego School of Medicine, Rady Children's Hospital, San Diego, California (Brown); Department of Psychology, Barnard College - Columbia University, New York, New York (Casey); Department of Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, University of Maryland Baltimore (Chang, Ernst); Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (Clark, Luna); Departments of Neurosciences, Radiology, and Psychiatry, UC San Diego School of Medicine, Rady Children's Hospital, San Diego, California (Dale); Institute of Child Development, Department of Pediatrics, Masonic Institute for the Developing Brain, University of Minnesota, Oregon Health & Science University, Minneapolis (Fair); Department of Psychology, University of Rhode Island, Kingston (Feldstein Ewing); Deptartment of Neuroscience, Del Monte Institute for Neuroscience, University of Rochester School of Medicine, Rochester, New York (Foxe, Freedman); Institute for Behavioral Genetics and Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of Colorado Boulder (Friedman); Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont, Burlington (Garavan); Department of Psychology, Florida International University, Miami (Gonzalez); Division of Addiction Sciences, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston (Gray, Squeglia); Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (Heitzeg); Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, University of Southern California, Children's Hospital Los Angeles (Herting); Department of Physics, Florida International University, Miami (Laird); Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee (Larson, Lisdahl); Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis (Luciana); Department of Psychiatry, Washington University in St Louis, St Louis, Missouri (Madden); Departments of Psychiatry and Veteran Affairs, MIRECC, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City (McGlade, Renshaw, Yurgelun-Todd); Department of Psychiatry, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland (Nagel); Virginia Institute for Psychiatric & Behavioral Genetics, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond (Neale); Division of Clinical Neuroscience Research Unit, Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont, Burlington (Potter); Department of Pediatrics, University of Southern California, Children's Hospital Los Angeles (Sowell); Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis (Wilson).

Author Contributions: Drs Thaweethai and Foulkes had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis. Drs Gross and Thaweethai contributed equally as co–first authors and Drs Foulkes and Stockwell contributed equally as co–senior authors.

Concept and design: Gross, Thaweethai, Kleinman, Snowden, Milner, Tantisira, Rhee, Jernigan, Kinser, Salisbury, Warburton, Mohandas, Flaherman, Metz, Karlson, Chibnik, Pant, Gallagher, Gennaro, Lamendola-Essel, Katz, Yin, Dreyer, Carmilani, Coombs, Fitzgerald, Taylor, Evans, Huerta-Montanez, Kaelber, Oliveira, Raissy, Reeder, Baker, Brown, Dale, D'Sa, Fair, Lisdahl, Luna, McGlade, Renshaw, Foulkes, Selvarangan, Stockwell, Yurgelun-Todd.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: All authors.

Drafting of the manuscript: Gross, Thaweethai, Snowden, Kinser, Warburton, Mohandas, Krishnamoorthy, Gallagher, Katz, Carmilani, Coombs, Fitzgerald, Taylor, Eckrich, Raissy, Ross, Sato, Feldstein Ewing, Paulus, Stockwell, Squeglia.

Critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.

Statistical analysis: Fischer, Thaweethai, Chibnik, Pant, Krishnamoorthy, Letts, Sato, Reeder, Teufel, Neale, Bind, Chan, Foulkes.

Obtained funding: Gross, Thaweethai, Kleinman, Rosenzweig, Tantisira, Rhee, Jernigan, Kinser, Salisbury, Warburton, Katz, Elliott, Raissy, Aschner, Baker, Barch, Baskin-Sommers, Bjork, Bookheimer, Casey, Chang, Clark, Dale, Dapretto, Ernst, Fair, Feldstein Ewing, Foxe, Friedman, Gee, Gonzalez, Gray, Herting, Jacobus, Laird, Lisdahl, Luciana, Muller-Oehring, Nagel, Neale, Paulus, Renshaw, Salazar, Selvarangan, Stockwell, Tapert, Wilson.

Administrative, technical, or material support: Fischer, Gross, Hasan, Hsia, Kadish, Kleinman, Kosut, Snowden, Milner, Rhee, Jernigan, Warburton, Wood, Truong, Flaherman, Karlson, Gallagher, Lamendola-Essel, Hasson, Katz, Taylor, Teufel, Eckrich, Evans, Farkas, Faustino, Huerta-Montanez, Jacobus, Kaelber, Krishnan, Raissy, Morse, Cottrell, Fiks, Landeo Guttierrez, Ness-Cochinwala, Ryu, Stein, Baskin-Sommers, Aupperle, Brown, Bukulmez, Chan, Chang, Clark, Dale, Dozor, Ernst, Foxe, Freedman, Garavan, Gee, Laird, Lisdahl, McGlade, Paulus, Renshaw, Salazar, Stevenson, Squeglia, Uddin, Werzberger.

Supervision: Gross, Hsia, Thaweethai, Kleinman, Snowden, Rhee, Jernigan, Kinser, Warburton, Mohandas, Wood, Chibnik, Lamendola-Essel, Katz, Kaelber, Krishnan, Oliveira, Cottrell, Ness-Cochinwala, Akshoomoff, Aschner, Banich, Baskin-Sommers, Brown, Bukulmez, Chan, Chang, Clark, Dozor, Gee, Heitzeg, Herting, Hummel, Larrabee, Lisdahl, McGlade, Nolan, Renshaw, Fiks, Foulkes, Jacobus, Larson, Luciana, Salazar, Sowell, Stockwell, Teufel, Werzberger, Yurgelun-Todd.

Other - discussions of findings: Gallagher.

Other - communication of scientific findings: Fitzgerald.

Other - Contributed experience and knowledge from the patient/caregiver, and Infection Associated Chronic Condition community, perspective: Letts.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Kleinman reported receiving grants from New York University via subcontract of NIH during the conduct of the study; owning shares in Amgen, Regeneron, Sanofi, and GLAXF; and being a member of the board of Dartnet Institute and member of the board of health of Borough of Metuchen, Quality Matters, Inc . Dr Snowden reported serving on a Pfizer COVID-19 advisory board, which ended in November 2023. Dr Milner reported serving on a scientific advisory board for Blueprint Medicine and receiving grants from Pharming. Dr Jernigan reported receiving grants from University of California San Diego OTA during the conduct of the study. Dr Salisbury reported receiving grants from NIH and HRSA and donated funds from Anthem outside the submitted work. Dr Newburger reported receiving grants from Pfizer for an observational study on COVID-19 associated myocarditis, serving on a data and safety monitoring committee for BMS, and serving on an independent events adjudication committee for pediatric apixiban study outside the submitted work. Dr Truong reported being co–principal investigator on a Pfizer-funded study to assess long-term sequalae of vaccine-associated myocarditis. Dr Metz reported being a site principal investigator for Pfizer studies of SARS-CoV-2 vaccination in pregnancy, RSV vaccination in pregnancy, and Paxlovid in pregnancy. Dr Dreyer reported receiving grants from NYU Grossman School of Medicine during the conduct of the study. Dr Aschner reported being a stockholder in Gilead Sciences. Dr Bhattacharjee reported serving on an advisory board for Jazz Pharmaceuticals. Dr Werzberger reported receiving funding from Merck for a hepatitis A vaccine immunology study. Dr Zempsky reported affiliations with OmmioHealth, Lundbeck Pharmacueticals, and Editas. Dr Banich reported receiving grants from University of Colorado Boulder during the conduct of the study. Dr Barch reported receiving grants from NIMH and NIDA during the conduct of the study. Dr Bhattacharjee reported consulting for Jazz Pharmaceuticals and Avadel Pharmaceuticals outside the submitted work. Dr Dale reported being a founder of and holding equity in CorTechs Labs, Inc; serving on a scientific advisory board for CorTechs Labs, Inc, Human Longevity, Inc, and the Mohn Medical Imaging and Visualization Centre; and receiving funding through a research agreement with General Electric Healthcare (GEHC). Dr Fair reported being a patent holder for the Framewise Integrated Real-Time Motion Monitoring (FIRMM) software and a cofounder of Turing Medical, Inc. Dr Fiks reported receiving personal fees from Rutgers and salary support from AAP during the conduct of the study; receiving support from American Medical Association for travel and honorarium from Atlantic Health Systems and Boston Medical Center, PCORI, and Emory University; and having a patent for decision support software known as Care Assistant pending. Dr Foulkes reported receiving grants from NIH/NHLBI during the conduct of the study. Dr Gray reported receiving grants from Aelis Farma and personal fees from Indivior and Jazz Pharmaceuticals outside the submitted work. Dr McCulloh reported receiving grants from University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences sub-awardee for the NIH RECOVER grant during the conduct of the study and grants from Merck Foundation for vaccine communication research through the Merck Investigator Studies Program outside the submitted work. Dr McGlade reported receiving salary support from Department of Veteran Affairs outside the submitted work. Dr Neale reported receiving grants from NIH/NIDA during the conduct of the study. Dr Palumbo reported being a member of a data and safety monitoring committee for Gilead and Janssen outside the submitted work. Dr Paulus reported receiving grants from National Institute on Drug Abuse during the conduct of the study, receiving royalties from an article on methamphetamine in UpToDate, and having compensated consulting agreement with Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH. Dr Ross reported receiving grants from Nemours Children’s Health-DE NIH RECOVER STUDY during the conduct of the study. Dr Stockwell reported receiving grants from CDC to Trustees of Columbia related to SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccination research and service agreement paid to trustees of Columbia for being associate director of pediatric research in office settings from American Academy of Pediatrics outside the submitted work. Dr Teufel reported receiving grants from HRSA and Duke outside the submitted work. No other disclosures were reported.

Funding/Support: This research was funded by NIH agreements OT2HL161841, OT2HL161847, and OT2HL156812, with additional support from grant R01 HL162373.

Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The NIH had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Group Information: The RECOVER-Pediatrics Consortium appear listed in Supplement 4 .

Disclaimer: The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the RECOVER Program or the NIH.

Data Sharing Statement: See Supplement 5 .

Additional Contributions: We would like to thank the National Community Engagement Group, all patient, caregiver, and community representatives, and all the participants enrolled in the RECOVER Initiative.

• Register for email alerts with links to free full-text articles
• Access PDFs of free articles
• Manage your interests
• Save searches and receive search alerts

The New Version of JsOutProx is Attacking Financial Institutions in APAC and MENA via GitLab Abuse

Malware Intelligence

banking, malware, financial services, RAT, JS

Resecurity has detected a new version of JSOutProx , targeting financial services and organizations in the APAC and MENA regions. JSOutProx is a sophisticated attack framework utilizing both JavaScript and .NET. It employs the .NET (de)serialization feature to interact with a core JavaScript module running on the victim's machine. Once executed, the malware enables the framework to load various plugins, which conduct additional malicious activities on the target. This malware was first identified in 2019 and was initially attributed to SOLAR SPIDER 's phishing campaigns, which delivered the JSOutProx RAT to financial institutions across Africa, the Middle East, South Asia, and Southeast Asia.

Notable Pattern - From GitHub to GitHab Abuse

The spike in this activity was identified around February 8, 2024, when a major system integrator based in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia reported an incident targeting customers of one of their major banks regional banks. Resecurity assisted multiple victims in acquiring relevant malicious code artifacts due to Digital Forensics & Incident Response (DFIR) engagement and helped recover the payload. Multiple banking customers were targeted via an impersonation attack using the " mike.will@my[.]com " email account . The actors employed a fake SWIFT payment notification (for enterprise customers) and a Moneygram template (for private customers), using misleading notifications to confuse victims and execute malicious code.

Transaction_Ref_jpg.zip d22f76e60a786f0c92fa20af1a1619b2 Transaction_Ref_jpg.js 89a088cd92b7ed59fd3bcc7786075130 MoneyGram_Global_Compliance_pdf.zip 9c9df8fbcef8acd1a5265be5fd8fdce9 MoneyGram_Global_Compliance_pdf.js 66514548cdffab50d1ea75772a08df3d Swift_Copy_jpg.zip 81b9e7deb17e3371d417ad94776b2a26 Swift_Copy_jpg.js / TRXN-00000087312_pdf.js bea8cf1f983120b68204f2fa9448526e MoneyGram_AML_Compliance_review.pdf.zip 72461c94bd27e5b001265bbccc931534 MoneyGram_AML_Compliance_review.pdf.js 1bd7ce64f1a7cf7dc94b912ceb9533d0 Transaction_details_jpg.zip f1858438a353d38e3e19109bf0a5e1be Transaction_details_jpg.js 6764dbc4df70e559b2a59e913d940d4b Transaction_Ref_01302024_jpg.zip 3a2104953478d1e60927aa6def17e8e7 Transaction_Ref_01302024_jpg.js 3d46a462f262818cada6899634354138

Most of the identified payloads were hosted on GitHub repositories. Notably, independent cybersecurity researchers first reported some of these payloads around November 14, 2023 . Solar Spider is employing the classic Masquerading technique (T1036), disguising its code as a PDF file rather than JS code.

hxxps://github[.]com/agbusi/ikeketeorie/blob/main/Transaction_Ref_jpg.zip -> hxxps://raw.githubusercontent[.]com/agbusi/ikeketeorie/main/Transaction_Ref_jpg.zip hxxps://github[.]com/agbusi/compliance/blob/main/MoneyGram_Global_Compliance_pdf.zip -> hxxps://raw.githubusercontent[.]com/agbusi/compliance/main/MoneyGram_Global_Compliance_pdf.zip hxxps://github[.]com/agbusi/Singapore/blob/main/Swift_Copy_jpg.zip -> hxxps://raw.githubusercontent[.]com/agbusi/Singapore/main/Swift_Copy_jpg.zip hxxps://github[.]com/vectorvector11/transaction/blob/main/MoneyGram_AML_Compliance_review.pdf.zip -> hxxps://raw.githubusercontent[.]com/vectorvector11/transaction/main/MoneyGram_AML_Compliance_review.pdf.zip hxxps://github[.]com/Conel10/deal/raw/main/Transaction_details_jpg.zip -> hxxps://raw.githubusercontent[.]com/Conel10/deal/main/Transaction_details_jpg.zip hxxps://github[.]com/winners101/admin/raw/main/Transaction_Ref_01302024_jpg.zip -> hxxps://raw.githubusercontent[.]com/winners101/admin/main/Transaction_Ref_01302024_jpg.zip

In the result of the multi-stage infection chain, the actors drop multiple JS-based obfuscated payloads to collect sensitive information and plant a proxy server to connect remotely to the victim.

March 27, 2024 - Resecurity became aware of a new malware sample attributed to the same group. The notable difference was in the act of using  GitLab (instead of GitHub) in a multi-stage infection chain:

hxxps://gitlab[.]com/godicolony4040/dox05/- /raw/main/Transactions_Copy_65880983136606696162127010122_65890982136606 696162127010102.zip hxxps://gitlab[.]com/godicolony4040/dox05/- /raw/b540e3682457f2499b687fa0cd213b03ba77290c/Transactions_Copy_658809831 36606696162127010122_65890982136606696162127010102.zip

The actor registered multiple accounts on GitLab around March 25, 2024 , and used them to deploy repositories containing malicious payloads.

The identified repositories controlled by the actor were:

• docs909 (created April 2, 2024)
• dox05 (created March 26, 2024)

Once the malicious code has been successfully delivered, the actor removes the repository and creates a new one. This tactic is likely related to the actor uses to manage multiple malicious payloads and differentiate targets.

Resecurity acquired the most recent malware payloads uploaded by the actor on April 2, 2024 :

Reverse Engineering

The analysis of this malware, as provided below, can be used to detect, mitigate, and prevent threat campaigns utilizing JSOutProx. The JSOutProx RAT malware features complex obfuscation within its JavaScript backdoor structure. It boasts a modular plugin architecture, which enables it to execute shell commands, handle file uploads and downloads, run files, modify the file system, ensure persistence, capture screenshots, and control keyboard and mouse actions. A distinctive aspect of this malware is its utilization of the Cookie header field in its command and control (C2) communications. We downloaded the implants and unzipped them from their archives. They were then obfuscated using obfuscator.io. After deobfuscating them, we obtained the decoded JavaScript code.

Obfuscated implant:

Deobfuscated implant:

The 1st stage implant supports the following commands:

• pat – update implant
• uss.s – set proxy and update sleep time
• uss.g – set proxy and set sleep time to C2
• upd – update and restart implant
• l32 – start x86 process
• l64 – start x64 process
• ejs – evaluate javascript code
• int.g – send sleep time to C2
• int.s – update sleep time

The script interacts with Windows Script Host (WSH) objects, such as ActiveXObject, to perform operations typical for automation or administration tasks, but for malicious purposes. For example, it uses WinHttp.WinHttpRequest.5.1 for HTTP requests, WScript.Shell for executing commands, and Scripting.FileSystemObject for file system access. Additionally, WMI is utilized to retrieve information about the system.

Using WMI, the implant collects information about the victim's environment:

The implant uses the following static User Agent, which could potentially be used for malware tracking: Mozilla/5.0 (Windows NT 10.0; Win64; x64) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/118.0.0.0 Safari/537.36 Edg/118.0.2088.76

The implant communicates with command and control (C2C) servers deployed using Dynamic DNS, for example :

• http://mdytreudsgurifedei.ddns.net:9708/
• http://kiftpuseridsfryiri.ddns.net:8907/
• http://hudukpgdgfytpddswq.ddns.net:8843/
• http://ykderpgdgopopfuvgt.ddns.net:7891/

One unique feature of the malware is its use of the Cookie header field in its command and control (C2C) communication. During its initialization routine, the malware gathers various types of information. These information values are separated by the delimiter "_|_", concatenated, hex-encoded, and then set in the Cookie header field.

The 2nd-stage implant supports the following additional plugins:

Industrial Implant with Chinese Character

Before the newly identified campaign targeting multiple financial institutions in the APAC and MENA regions, JSOutProx was actively used in targeted attacks against Indian Cooperative Banks and Finance Companies.

In April 2020, ZScaler observed several targeted attacks on Indian government establishments and the banking sector. Organizations such as the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), IDBI Bank, and the Department of Refinance (DOR) within the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) in India received emails with archive file attachments. These attachments contained JavaScript and Java-based backdoors.

Further analysis of the JavaScript-based backdoor allowed us to correlate it with the JSOutProx RAT. This RAT was first used by a threat actor in December 2019, as mentioned by Yoroi. The Java-based RAT in this attack provided functionalities similar to the JavaScript-based backdoor.

In one such campaign, the actors leveraging JSOutProx targeted government officials in NABARD (The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development, a national financial institution in India), using a malicious archive file attachment.

The actors used specific naming conventions for malicious files relevant to the government sector. Examples include:

• Nodal_Police_Stations_furnished_MHA_GOI_New_Delhi_xlsx.hta
• Slip_RTGS_IDBI_To_HDFC_pdf.hta
• 2685-Vishwambharlal_Kanahiyalal_Bhoot_Attachment_Order_pdf.hta
• NPCI_Compliance_Form_pdf.hta

Based on the analysis of the most recent campaign, the following victims have been identified::

• government organizations in India
• government organizations in Taiwan
• financial organizations in the Philippines
• financial organizations in Laos
• financial organizations in Singapore
• financial organizations in Malaysia
• financial organizations in India
• financial organizations in KSA

Considering the malware's significant sophistication, the profile of the targets, and the geography of past attacks, it can be suggested with a moderate level of confidence that JSOutProx may have been developed by actor(s) from China or those affiliated with it.

The malware was initially identified around 2019 and has been constantly improved, which may indicate an organized and continuous effort in its development.

Indicators of Compromise (IOCs)

The following indicators of compromise (IOCs) are associated with the recent JSOutProx malware campaigns, as described above, from November 14, 2023, March 27, 2024, and April 2, 2024:

• Transaction_Ref_jpg.zip d22f76e60a786f0c92fa20af1a1619b2
• Transaction_Ref_jpg.js 89a088cd92b7ed59fd3bcc7786075130
• MoneyGram_Global_Compliance_pdf.zip 9c9df8fbcef8acd1a5265be5fd8fdce9
• MoneyGram_Global_Compliance_pdf.js 66514548cdffab50d1ea75772a08df3d
• Swift_Copy_jpg.zip 81b9e7deb17e3371d417ad94776b2a26
• Swift_Copy_jpg.js / TRXN-00000087312_pdf.js bea8cf1f983120b68204f2fa9448526e
• MoneyGram_AML_Compliance_review.pdf.zip 72461c94bd27e5b001265bbccc931534
• MoneyGram_AML_Compliance_review.pdf.js 1bd7ce64f1a7cf7dc94b912ceb9533d0
• Transaction_details_jpg.zip f1858438a353d38e3e19109bf0a5e1be
• Transaction_details_jpg.js 6764dbc4df70e559b2a59e913d940d4b
• Transaction_Ref_01302024_jpg.zip 3a2104953478d1e60927aa6def17e8e7
• Transaction_Ref_01302024_jpg.js 3d46a462f262818cada6899634354138
• Transactions_Copy_65880983136606696162127010122_65890982136606696162127010102.zip efad51e48d585b639d974fcf39f7ee07
• Transactions_Copy_65880983136606696162127010122,65890982136606696162127010102.js 118b6673bd06c8eb082296a7b35f8fa5

C2C Communications

• suedxcapuertggando.ddns[.]net:8843/ (185.244.30[.]218)
• mdytreudsgurifedei.ddns[.]net:9708/ (offline)
• kiftpuseridsfryiri.ddns[.]net:8907/ (offline)
• hudukpgdgfytpddswq.ddns[.]net:8843/ (offline)
• ykderpgdgopopfuvgt.ddns[.]net:7891/ (offline)
• mdytreudsgurifedei.ddns[.]net (79.134.225[.]17)
• kiftpuseridsfryiri.ddns[.]net (79.134.225[.]17)
• eopgupgdpopopfuupi.ddns[.]net (103.212.81[.]155)
• ykderpgdgopopfuvgt.ddns[.]net (103.212.81[.]157)
• hudukpgdgfytpddswq.ddns[.]net (185.244.30[.]218)

Notably, some of the IP addresses identified in the most recent campaign from April 2, 2024, such as 185.244.30[.]218, were related to the Freemesh project.

Freemesh redirects to a website dedicated to a non-commercial initiative for free wireless networks.

It is possible that the actor purposely deployed the command and control (C2C) host in such infrastructure to abuse it and conceal malicious network activity.

In fact, 185.244.30[.]218 is related to " The Privacy First Project ", a non-profit which claims to provide " IPv4 space to the Freemesh community ("Freifunk"), the operators of TOR nodes, small VPN providers and take care of processing the incoming complaints ". The project also states having no log files.

Based on Virustotal  historical data, this host has an extensive malicious activity history and multiple subdomains tied to the JsOutProx infrastructure specifically.

Resecurity has reached out to both operators to learn more about this activity. Our team has arranged successful takedowns of multiple C2C servers to disrupt the new JsOutProx campaign. 

• Solar Spider (Threat Actor) https://www.crowdstrike.com/adversaries/solar-spider/
• Financial Institutions in the Sight of New JsOutProx Attack Waves https://yoroi.company/en/research/financial-institutions-in-the-sight-of-new-jsoutprox-attack-waves/ 
• Multi-Staged JSOutProx RAT Targets Indian Co-Operative Banks and Finance Companies https://www.seqrite.com/documents/en/white-papers/whitepaper-multi-staged-jsoutprox-rat-target-india...
• Unveiling JsOutProx: A New Enterprise Grade Implant https://securityaffairs.com/95438/malware/jsoutprox-enterprise-grade-implant.html
• Adversary Playbook: JavaScript RAT Looking for that Government Cheese https://www.fortinet.com/blog/threat-research/adversary-playbook-javascript-rat-looking-for-that-gov...

The increasing abuse of Public Cloud and Web 3.0 Services is a favored tactic among threat actors to distribute malicious code. In February 2024, Resecurity highlighted this trend in a comprehensive threat research publication. This report underscored the continuous evolution of cybercriminals' arsenals and their innovative strategies to escalate global malicious campaigns.

The discovery of the new version of JSOutProx, coupled with the exploitation of platforms like GitHub and GitLab, emphasizes these malicious actors' relentless efforts and sophisticated consistency. First detected in 2019, JSOutProx remains a significant and evolving threat, particularly to financial institution customers. This year, in a worrying expansion of scope, these threat actors have broadened their horizons in the MENA region, intensifying their cybercriminal footprint.

As these threats escalate in complexity and reach, Resecurity remains vigilant in its pursuit of tracking JSOutProx and safeguarding financial institutions and their customers globally from such nefarious activities.

Cyber Threat Intelligence

Keep up to date with the latest cybersecurity news and developments.

By subscribing, I understand and agree that my personal data will be collected and processed according to the Privacy and Cookies Policy

[email protected]

(+1) 888 273 82 76

Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field.

For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click here .

Loading metrics

Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Public perspectives on increased data sharing in health research in the context of the 2023 National Institutes of Health Data Sharing Policy

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Columbia University School of Nursing, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, United States of America

Roles Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Roles Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Writing – review & editing

Roles Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing – review & editing

Roles Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Biobehavioral Nursing & Health Informatics, University of Washington School of Nursing, Seattle, Washington, United States of America

Roles Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Center for Clinical Medical Ethics, Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians & Surgeons, New York, New York, United States of America

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

• Stephanie Niño de Rivera, 
• Ruth Masterson Creber, 
• Yihong Zhao, 
• Sarah Eslami, 
• Sabrina Mangal, 
• Lydia S. Dugdale, 
• Meghan Reading Turchioe

• Published: August 28, 2024
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309161
• Reader Comments

The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is the largest public research funder in the world. In an effort to make publicly funded data more accessible, the NIH established a new Data Management and Sharing (DMS) Policy effective January 2023. Though the new policy was available for public comment, the patient perspective and the potential unintended consequences of the policy on patients’ willingness to participate in research have been underexplored. This study aimed to determine: (1) participant preferences about the types of data they are willing to share with external entities, and (2) participant perspectives regarding the updated 2023 NIH DMS policy. A cross-sectional, nationally representative online survey was conducted among 610 English-speaking US adults in March 2023 using Prolific. Overall, 50% of the sample identified as women, 13% as Black or African American, and 7% as Hispanic or Latino, with a mean age of 46 years. The majority of respondents (65%) agreed with the NIH policy, but racial differences were noted with a higher percentage (28%) of Black participants indicating a decrease in willingness to participate in research studies with the updated policy in place. Participants were more willing to share research data with healthcare providers, yet their preferences for data sharing varied depending on the type of data to be shared and the recipients. Participants were less willing to share sexual health and fertility data with health technology companies (41%) and public repositories (37%) compared to their healthcare providers (75%). The findings highlight the importance of adopting a transparent approach to data sharing that balances protecting patient autonomy with more open data sharing.

Citation: Niño de Rivera S, Masterson Creber R, Zhao Y, Eslami S, Mangal S, Dugdale LS, et al. (2024) Public perspectives on increased data sharing in health research in the context of the 2023 National Institutes of Health Data Sharing Policy. PLoS ONE 19(8): e0309161. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309161

Editor: Sylvester Chidi Chima, University of KwaZulu-Natal College of Health Sciences, SOUTH AFRICA

Received: December 11, 2023; Accepted: August 7, 2024; Published: August 28, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 de Rivera et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: The dataset underlying this study cannot be publicly shared in a repository due to current restrictions imposed by the Columbia University Institutional Review Board (IRB) and the participants did not consent to the public sharing of their data. However, the data are available upon request from the Columbia University IRB (email: [email protected] ) for researchers who meet the criteria for accessing confidential information.

Funding: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, R01NS123639-03S1, Ms. Stephanie Niño de Rivera NHLBI Division of Intramural Research, R01HL161458, Dr. Ruth Masterson Creber National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, R01NS123639, Dr. Ruth Masterson Creber NHLBI Division of Intramural Research, R01HL152021, Dr. Ruth Masterson Creber National Institute of Nursing Research, R00NR019124, Dr. Meghan Reading Turchioe National Institute of Nursing Research, T32NR01691, Dr. Sabrina Mangal.

Competing interests: MRT: Boston Scientific (consulting), Iris OB Health (equity). The remaining authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose. This does not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.

Introduction

In January 2023, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) updated its Data Management and Sharing (DMS) policy to increase data sharing practices for the purposes of transparency and reproducibility [ 1 ]. The NIH provides the largest amount of public funding for research studies in health of any US federal agency, and the updated policy mandates NIH-funded researchers to make their datasets available in data repositories [ 2 , 3 ]. Data repositories serve as platforms for researchers to access research data for secondary purposes [ 4 ] and include data collected in clinical trials, except for data covered by privacy law or excluded in initial participant consent forms.

Many of the datasets contain data from electronic health records (EHRs), claims, biobanks, and patient-reported outcomes, and include sensitive information, such as sexual health, fertility, and mental health data. Private companies may be among those accessing these datasets as they may have commercial value [ 5 ]. Repositories exhibit varying degrees of accessibility; some are open to the general public without oversight from ethics review boards while others enforce more stringent access policies [ 6 , 7 ].

As a mechanism to facilitate increased data sharing, researchers can use broad consent for the secondary uses of research data [ 8 ]. At the time of consent, the future use of the data, including the industries that might have access to it, are not explicitly disclosed, as the potential future use is unknown [ 9 ]. The immediate and future consequences of the uncertainty around future access and use of data can compound mistrust in communities that are already more reluctant to participate in research [ 10 – 13 ]. Participants have previously expressed apprehension around data sharing in research, raising concerns about transparency and trust in research practices even before recent policy updates [ 10 , 11 ]. For instance, in a narrative review of 27 papers exploring participant views towards research data sharing practices, Kalkman et al. found that participants are concerned about breaches of confidentiality and potential abuses of research data by external entities [ 13 ]. Therefore, it is imperative to ensure that research practices do not lead to unintended consequences, such as decreased trust which is already present in racial and ethnic minority communities that are underrepresented in research and less trustful of the research community due to historical abuse [ 14 ].

Although the public plays a crucial role as both contributors and consumers of health data, their perspectives regarding data sharing preferences for different types of data and attitudes toward recent NIH policy developments have not been well explored. Thus, this study aims to provide insight into public perspectives on those developments.

Ethics statement

The Institutional Review Board at Columbia University approved this study. Participants were administered an information sheet about the study and provided informed consent by checking a box on the online survey.

Study design

In March 2023, a U.S. representative sample of 610 adults was recruited using Prolific, an online survey recruitment platform [ 14 ]. The recruitment platform consists of verified users willing to participate in research studies and facilitates a matching process between researchers and users for rapid recruitment. Prolific uses U.S. Census Bureau data to divide the sample into subgroups by age, gender, and race with the same proportions as the national population. A representative sample option was selected for the survey on the platform. Prolific stratifies age using seven brackets: 18–24, 25–34, 35–44, 45–54, 55–64, 65–74 and 74+. ‘Sex’ is stratified into male and female, while race adheres to the five categories outlined by the UK Office of National Statistics: White, Mixed, Asian, Black, and Other. Also, participants must reside in the country being surveyed and demonstrate fluency in its primary language. The sampling frame for our study encompassed all 50 U.S. states. Prolific sent out invitations to potential participants that met eligibility criteria to participate in the survey. The data were collected and stored using Qualtrics, a HIPAA-compliant survey development tool. Participants were compensated $15 per hour and were prorated according to time of completion.

The questions for this online survey were developed through a literature review and expert input from physicians, bioethicists, and nurse-scientists. The survey was pilot tested with 10 members of the general public using Prolific for clarity and length and then revised accordingly. This cross-sectional survey was conducted in English and collected sociodemographic characteristics and attitudes toward data sharing across four domains: (1a) recipients of identifiable research data, (1b) recipients of de-identified research data, (1c) specific data types, and (2) reactions to the NIH DMS policy. It collected primarily closed-ended quantitative items but also included a small number of open-ended qualitative items. The survey had different blocks so that participants would only see some questions at a time and have the relevant definitions needed for the questions that followed. For example, the definition of the NIH DMS policy was presented with only the questions that were related to the policy (e.g., “Do you agree or disagree with the NIH’s new efforts to make research data collected about you more accessible to the scientific community and public?”). The survey questions can be found in S1 File .

Data collection

After logging in, participants first saw an overview of the study and were then asked to provide informed consent. Once they agreed to participate, they were asked about the groups (chosen family, chosen friends, doctors and nurses, or other healthcare providers) with whom they would be willing to share identifiable research data. Identifiable data were a separate category to clarify to participants that this data could be traced back and could be clinically meaningful for them (e.g., specific research results could be used by their healthcare team to inform their care). Second, they were asked about the external groups (health technology companies, public health organizations, health policy institutions, private foundations, or public platforms) with whom they would share de-identified or aggregated data. To ensure clarity, we provided examples of de-identified and aggregate data within the survey. Third, participants were informed about the potential for secondary uses of research data. They were then asked to specify their responses to sharing seven specific types of data that aligned with the NIH DMS policy (sexual health and fertility, mental health, genetic, imaging, biological, clinical, and consumer-generated data). Finally, participants were given a summary of the updated NIH DMS policy using lay terms and asked to express their opinions about the policy, with an option for open-text feedback.

Statistical analysis

Descriptive statistics on sociodemographic variables and closed-ended survey responses were generated for the overall sample. Differences in responses by self-reported race were assessed with Pearson’s chi-squared test, and Fisher’s exact test was used in the cases of small sample cells. A secondary analysis examined differences by race.

Qualitative analysis

We conducted a general thematic analysis of the open-ended survey responses about the NIH DMS policy. Two members of the research team concurrently reviewed a subset of responses and generated a preliminary list of themes. One researcher coded the remaining responses independently. The second researcher reviewed the final list of themes and illustrative quotes and discussed them with the second researcher until they reached a consensus.

Sample characteristics

Participant sociodemographic characteristics are summarized in Table 1 . Among 610 participants, 50% were female, with an average age of 46 years (standard deviation 16). Overall, 79% of participants self-identified as White, and 7% self-identified as Hispanic or Latinx. This closely matched with the US census data with respect to race [ 15 ]. The sample included participants from 46 US states and the District of Columbia ( S1 Table ). Over half of the participants completed a college degree or higher, and 31% of participants reported financial instability, indicated by the answer “not enough” financial resources. The average time of completion for the survey was 13 min and 55 seconds. There were two survey responses that took less than 5 minutes to complete, but they were not dropped after checking the quality of their responses.

• PPT PowerPoint slide
• PNG larger image
• TIFF original image

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309161.t001

Quantitative results

Data sharing preferences varied based on the recipient involved. The majority of participants (95%) were willing to share identifiable research data with doctors and nurses, but fewer (48%) would share it with chosen friends ( Fig 1 ). Most participants (71–78%) were willing to share de-identified data with most external groups, including health technology companies, but fewer (53%) would share it with private foundations.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309161.g001

Participants’ preferences varied based on the type of data. Across all types of data, participants were most willing to share their data with doctors and nurses ( Fig 2 ). The smallest proportion of participants were willing to share their sexual health and fertility data across all the external recipients (with the exception of doctors and nurses): chosen family member (32%), chosen friends (14%), health policy institution (41%), health technology companies (32%), public platform (37%). Similarly, less than 50% of participants indicated a willingness to share mental health data with external recipients outside of their healthcare team. Many participants were more willing to share genetic data with family members (68%) and healthcare professionals (81%), but less willing to share with private foundations (31%) and health technology companies (44%). Furthermore, of participants who decided to share consumer-generated data, 70% chose doctors and nurses, 51% health technology companies, 54% health policy institutions, and 48% public platforms. The entire analysis on the different types of data can be found in Fig 2 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309161.g002

Regarding perspectives on the 2023 NIH DMS Policy ( Table 2 ), more than half (65%) of participants either agreed or strongly agreed with it, but 17% disagreed or strongly disagreed. The policy would not change more than half (61%) of participant’s willingness to participate in research. There were significant differences in perspectives by race; a higher percentage of Black/African American participants (23%) disagreed or strongly disagreed with the policy compared to all other racial groups. Additionally, a higher percentage of Black participants (28%) indicated a decrease or strong decrease in their willingness to participate in research studies in response to the updated policy compared to most other racial groups.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309161.t002

Qualitative analysis results

In response to the question regarding the new NIH Data Management and Sharing Policy, 302 (49%) participants provided written comments. The responses were categorized into one of the following themes: supportive of policy (33%), supported limiting access to data (37%), prioritized anonymity (17%), prioritized autonomy (6%), prioritized transparency (22%). Eight percent of responses were not categorized due to a theme not being applicable or identified. Some participants supported the policy, appreciating its potential benefits, such as transparency and the acceleration of research. However, many revealed concerns about the policy relating to a loss of autonomy, fear of misusing research data, lack of transparency, and lack of anonymity. Regarding concerns with loss of autonomy, participants felt that they were the rightful custodians of their data and should have control over designating data recipients, with one asserting, “It is my information, and I should be in charge of where it goes and who can access it.” (White female, 29) Other participants emphasized the importance of transparency in future uses of the data, as one mentioned, “While I agree that it can help to make positive changes, I would 100% want to know which outside companies they’re talking about before I would be willing…it does decrease my willingness [to participate].” (White female, 54) Finally, many participants were aware of how difficult it is to truly anonymize data, which also generated significant concerns: “By combining information from multiple sources, it is possible to de-anonymize data. If you know my age, zip code, and income, you are a long way towards knowing who I am.” (White Male, 66) These key themes are outlined with exemplary quotes in Table 3 .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309161.t003

Participants’ willingness to share research data depends on the recipient group and the type of data involved. Variations in the types of data participants are willing to share with external entities highlights the need to evaluate broad data sharing practices in research. Furthermore, our findings reflect public perspectives considering the current research landscape, which is moving towards increased, broad data sharing practices.

Our present study reinforces participant concerns previously described prior to the 2023 NIH Data Sharing Policy. In alignment with previous literature, participant concerns such as the commercial use of research data, re-identification of de-identified data, and trust in research practices also emerged [ 10 – 13 , 16 ]. Consequently, the research community must find solutions to develop data sharing policies that comprehensively address participants’ concerns to reinforce transparency and mitigate apprehension about participating in research studies. These findings have important implications for researchers who collect a broad range of datasets in their work, many of whom receive NIH funding and need to comply with the updated policy.

We found that participants were more willing to share all types of data with healthcare providers compared to other groups such as health technology companies or private foundations. Perceptions of how that data will be used beyond immediate patient care or research purposes may influence participants’ reluctance to share data with external recipients beyond the healthcare entities. Notably, we found that consumer-generated data were less likely to be shared with health technology companies compared to healthcare providers. This may be due to concerns previously raised about potential profit generation from health data used to develop new technologies [ 17 , 18 ]. Our qualitative findings align with these sentiments, emphasizing concerns about others potentially profiting from participants’ health data. Previous studies focused on the collection of consumer-generated data, such as data from health apps, also shared these concerns regarding possible commercial agendas by external entities [ 13 , 19 , 20 ]. Mangal et al. also describes participants’ concerns about data commercialization and highlights how countries like Canada are addressing these issues through initiatives such as digital service taxation, which provides revenue back to communities [ 11 ].

One potential reason for reticence to share data in certain contexts, especially sensitive data such as sexual health and fertility data, could be due to concerns about re-identification. For instance, Chikwetu and colleagues highlight that despite efforts to anonymize data, various reidentification methods pose significant risks to privacy, especially in the context of wearable devices that individuals commonly use to track their health (e.g., reproductive health tracking, etc.) [ 21 ]. Furthermore, in our study, we found that, sexual health and fertility data are least likely to be shared with external entities beyond healthcare professionals, such as health technology companies and health policy institutions. This reluctance can be attributed to the growing sensitivity surrounding reproductive health issues in the United States, especially after the overturn of Roe v . Wade [ 22 , 23 ]. These concerns center around limited reproductive rights and fears of data collection and sharing from fertility tracking applications, with apprehensions that such data could be used to prosecute participants for crimes and to track miscarriages or abortions [ 23 ]. Consequently, the exposure of these types of data through public repositories poses significant risks, especially for individuals subject to evolving laws, potentially making both the patients and their healthcare professionals criminally liable [ 24 ]. A similar pattern was observed for mental health data, with fewer participants willing to share it with external entities not directly involved in their care, primarily due to the stigma associated with mental health conditions [ 25 , 26 ].

As the NIH and human sciences research moves toward enhancing research data accessibility, it is crucial to maintain a balance that also safeguards patient privacy and autonomy. While many participants displayed optimism toward the 2023 NIH DMS policy, individuals from underrepresented racial backgrounds expressed apprehension, which may be impacted by their knowledge of the history of unethical research studies and their experiences with ongoing systemic inequities in terms of access to healthcare and research today [ 27 ].

Previous research has highlighted the significant influence of data sharing practices on participants’ trust in the medical research community [ 28 ]. Trust in research can erode when participants feel they have limited control over how and with whom their personal health data are shared [ 10 – 12 ]. The unintended exposure of sensitive data through public repositories can inadvertently deter patients from participating in medical research or even seeking care at academic medical centers, where secondary use of medical records for research purposes may subject those records to the NIH data sharing policies [ 22 ]. Consequently, further research is warranted to address concerns related to broadly consenting to data sharing, participant autonomy in choosing where data are shared, and transparency regarding intentions of data use.

Our findings demonstrate that participants have varying levels of comfort regarding the sharing of specific types of data with certain groups. This supports previous findings of researchers moving towards implementing a participant-centered approach that offers customization options, allowing individuals to specify which data can be shared and with which industries and organizations [ 29 ]. The informed consent process presents an avenue through which willingness to participate in future research studies can be enhanced, ensuring that participant autonomy is upheld. Aside from participants having a greater influence on how their data is shared, the research community must also identify and promote best practices that facilitate increased regulation over the secondary uses of data. This can help participants feel comfortable to opt-in to share their data, specifically in the era of big data and AI-based algorithms and data analyses. AI by definition requires large amounts of data for training and testing, and the complexities of participant data-sharing preferences and the ethics of their data being used in these contexts are nuanced. Future work can examine if patient preferences differ when data are shared for building AI models. Moreover, it is imperative for researchers to prioritize the development of strategies that foster trust in data sharing practices within research. This requires researchers to ensure that participants have a comprehensive understanding of current practices to provide more details regarding the protection of data, especially among individuals who will be participating in a research study for their first time. By doing so, participants are empowered to make informed decisions in collaboration with researchers and researchers strengthen transparency of current data sharing practices.

Limitations

Study limitations include the online and English-only survey that was conducted through the Prolific survey platform. There are limitations with the information we can access regarding the survey’s administration. Prolific does not provide information on the response rate of the individuals that invitations were sent out to participate in our study. In addition, to use Prolific, respondents must have familiarity with technology, access to the Internet, and English proficiency. These participants are also likely to have higher trust in researchers since they are actively seeking to participate in survey research studies. A limitation in our survey questions could include participants misinterpreting certain terms, such as private foundation, or having differing baseline levels in understanding privacy and security research measures around data sharing. Our race-related results are also constrained by relatively small subsamples of non-white participants. Due to sample size limitations, we merged six race categories into four. Thus, our sample size did not permit in-depth examination of racial and ethnic minority groups. Another limitation includes that Prolific does not consider ethnicity for representative samples; therefore, our sample was not representative based on ethnicity, only race. To mitigate bias, future health informatics recruitment efforts should prioritize diversity through approaches like community engagement and improved technology accessibility.

Concerns expressed by research participants, especially participants from underrepresented racial groups, underscore the necessity of addressing participant perspectives to ensure that data sharing practices align with patient preferences. Prioritizing participant preferences for data sharing will prevent unintended barriers to recruitment and participation in research. Recognizing the varying levels of comfort participants have in sharing different types of sensitive data with external entities, it is vital to explore alternatives to broad consent, to ensure greater comfort and autonomy in deciding how data are shared.

Supporting information

S1 checklist. standards for reporting qualitative research (srqr)*..

http://www.equator-network.org/reporting-guidelines/srqr/ .

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309161.s001

S1 File. Supplementary methods.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309161.s002

S1 Table. Prolific sample recruited by state in the US.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0309161.s003

• 1. NOT-OD-21-013: Final NIH Policy for Data Management and Sharing. [cited 25 Sep 2023]. Available: https://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/notice-files/NOT-OD-21-013.html .
• 2. Selecting a Data Repository. [cited 25 Sep 2023]. Available: https://sharing.nih.gov/data-management-and-sharing-policy/sharing-scientific-data/selecting-a-data-repository .
• View Article
• Google Scholar
• PubMed/NCBI
• 7. Types MD. Data Repository Guidance. Springer Nature; [cited 25 Sep 2023]. Available: https://www.nature.com/sdata/policies/repositories .
• 15. United States Census Bureau > Communications Directorate—Center for New Media. QuickFacts: United States. Available: https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/RHI825222 .

Frequently asked questions

What should i include in a research paper conclusion.

The conclusion of a research paper has several key elements you should make sure to include:

• A restatement of the research problem
• A summary of your key arguments and/or findings
• A short discussion of the implications of your research

Frequently asked questions: Writing a research paper

A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.

The best way to remember the difference between a research plan and a research proposal is that they have fundamentally different audiences. A research plan helps you, the researcher, organize your thoughts. On the other hand, a dissertation proposal or research proposal aims to convince others (e.g., a supervisor, a funding body, or a dissertation committee) that your research topic is relevant and worthy of being conducted.

Formulating a main research question can be a difficult task. Overall, your question should contribute to solving the problem that you have defined in your problem statement .

However, it should also fulfill criteria in three main areas:

• Researchability
• Feasibility and specificity
• Relevance and originality

Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to spend some time refining them.

In general, they should be:

• Focused and researchable
• Answerable using credible sources
• Complex and arguable
• Feasible and specific
• Relevant and original

All research questions should be:

• Focused on a single problem or issue
• Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
• Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
• Specific enough to answer thoroughly
• Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
• Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement , before your research objectives.

Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you’ll address the overarching aim.

Once you’ve decided on your research objectives , you need to explain them in your paper, at the end of your problem statement .

Keep your research objectives clear and concise, and use appropriate verbs to accurately convey the work that you will carry out for each one.

I will compare …

Your research objectives indicate how you’ll try to address your research problem and should be specific:

Research objectives describe what you intend your research project to accomplish.

They summarize the approach and purpose of the project and help to focus your research.

Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper , at the end of your problem statement .

The main guidelines for formatting a paper in Chicago style are to:

• Use a standard font like 12 pt Times New Roman
• Use 1 inch margins or larger
• Apply double line spacing
• Indent every new paragraph ½ inch
• Include a title page
• Place page numbers in the top right or bottom center
• Cite your sources with author-date citations or Chicago footnotes
• Include a bibliography or reference list

To automatically generate accurate Chicago references, you can use Scribbr’s free Chicago reference generator .

The main guidelines for formatting a paper in MLA style are as follows:

• Use an easily readable font like 12 pt Times New Roman
• Set 1 inch page margins
• Include a four-line MLA heading on the first page
• Center the paper’s title
• Use title case capitalization for headings
• Cite your sources with MLA in-text citations
• List all sources cited on a Works Cited page at the end

To format a paper in APA Style , follow these guidelines:

• Use a standard font like 12 pt Times New Roman or 11 pt Arial
• If submitting for publication, insert a running head on every page
• Apply APA heading styles
• Cite your sources with APA in-text citations
• List all sources cited on a reference page at the end

No, it’s not appropriate to present new arguments or evidence in the conclusion . While you might be tempted to save a striking argument for last, research papers follow a more formal structure than this.

All your findings and arguments should be presented in the body of the text (more specifically in the results and discussion sections if you are following a scientific structure). The conclusion is meant to summarize and reflect on the evidence and arguments you have already presented, not introduce new ones.

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

• A hook to catch the reader’s interest
• Relevant background on the topic
• Details of your research problem

and your problem statement

• A thesis statement or research question
• Sometimes an overview of the paper

Ask our team

Want to contact us directly? No problem.  We  are always here for you.

• Email [email protected]
• Start live chat
• Call +1 (510) 822-8066
• WhatsApp +31 20 261 6040

Our team helps students graduate by offering:

• A world-class citation generator
• Plagiarism Checker software powered by Turnitin
• Innovative Citation Checker software
• Professional proofreading services
• Over 300 helpful articles about academic writing, citing sources, plagiarism, and more

Scribbr specializes in editing study-related documents . We proofread:

• PhD dissertations
• Research proposals
• Personal statements
• Admission essays
• Motivation letters
• Reflection papers
• Journal articles
• Capstone projects

Scribbr’s Plagiarism Checker is powered by elements of Turnitin’s Similarity Checker , namely the plagiarism detection software and the Internet Archive and Premium Scholarly Publications content databases .

The add-on AI detector is powered by Scribbr’s proprietary software.

The Scribbr Citation Generator is developed using the open-source Citation Style Language (CSL) project and Frank Bennett’s citeproc-js . It’s the same technology used by dozens of other popular citation tools, including Mendeley and Zotero.

You can find all the citation styles and locales used in the Scribbr Citation Generator in our publicly accessible repository on Github .