example research question chemistry

100+ Great Chemistry Research Topics

Table of contents

• 1 5 Tips for Writing Chemistry Research Papers
• 2 Chemical Engineering Research Topics
• 3 Organic Сhemistry Research Topics
• 4 Іnorganic Сhemistry Research Topics
• 5 Biomolecular Сhemistry Research Topics
• 6 Analytical Chemistry Research Topics
• 7 Computational Chemistry Research Topics
• 8 Physical Chemistry Research Topics
• 9 Innovative Chemistry Research Topics
• 10 Environmental Chemistry Research Topics
• 11 Green Chemistry Research Topics
• 12.1 Conclusion

Do you need a topic for your chemistry research paper? Are you unsure of where to start? Don’t worry – we’re here to help. In this post, we’ll go over a series of the best chemistry research paper topics as well as Tips for Writing Chemistry Research Papers on different topics. By the time you finish reading this post, you’ll have plenty of ideas to get started on your next research project!

There are many different subfields of chemistry, so it can be tough to find interesting chemistry topics to write about. If you’re struggling to narrow down your topic, we’ll go over lists of topics in multiple fields of study.

Doing research is important to help scientists learn more about the world around us. By researching different compounds and elements, we can learn more about how they interact with one another and how they can be used to create new products or improve existing ones.

There are many different topics that you can choose to research in chemistry. Here are just a few examples:

• The history of chemistry and how it has evolved over time
• How different chemicals react with one another
• How to create new compounds or improve existing ones
• The role of chemistry in the environment
• The health effects of different chemicals

5 Tips for Writing Chemistry Research Papers

Once you have chosen a topic for your research paper , it is important to follow some tips to ensure that your paper is well-written and accurate. Here are a few tips to get you started:

• Start by doing some background research on your topic. This will help you understand the basics of the topic and give you a good foundation to build your paper on.
• Make sure to cite all of the sources that you use in your paper. This will help to show where you got your information and will also help to add credibility to your work.
• Be sure to proofread your paper before you submit it. This will ensure that there are no errors and that your paper is clear and concise.
• Get help from a tutor or friend if you are struggling with your paper. They may be able to offer helpful advice or feedback.
• Take your time when writing your research paper. This is not a race, and it is important to make sure that you do a good job on your research.

By following these tips, you can be sure that your chemistry research paper will be a success! So what are you waiting for? Let’s go over some of the best research paper topics out there. Choosing a chemistry research topic is just the first step. The complexity of scientific writing can be daunting. For those who need assistance, a professional research paper writer can help you craft a well-researched and clearly articulated paper.

Chemical Engineering Research Topics

Chemical Engineering is a branch of engineering that deals with the design and application of chemical processes. If you’re wondering how to choose a paper topic, here are some ideas to inspire you:

• How to create new alloy compounds or improve existing ones
• The health effects of the food industry chemicals
• Chemical engineering and sustainable development
• The future of chemical engineering
• Chemical engineering and the food industry
• Chemical engineering and the pharmaceutical industry
• Chemical engineering and the cosmetics industry
• Chemical engineering and the petrochemical industry
• Biocompatible materials for drug delivery systems
• Membrane technology in water treatment
• Development of synthetic fibers for industrial use

These are just a few examples – there are many more possibilities out there! So get started on your research today. Who knows what you might discover!

Need expert assistance with a research project? Get your paper written by a professional writer Get Help Reviews.io 4.9/5

Organic Сhemistry Research Topics

Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing molecules. There are many different organic chemistry research topics that a student could choose to focus on and here are just a few examples of possible research projects in organic chemistry:

• Investigating new methods for synthesizing chiral molecules
• Studying the structure and reactivity of carbon nanotubes
• Investigating metal complexes with organometallic ligands
• Designing benzene derivatives with improved thermal stability
• Exploring new ways to control the stereochemistry of chemical reactions
• Studying the role of enzymes in organic synthesis
• Investigating new strategies for combating drug resistance
• Developing new methods for detecting explosives residues
• Studying the photochemistry of organic molecules
• Studying the behavior of organometallic compounds in biological systems
• Synthetic routes for biodegradable plastics
• Catalysis in organic synthesis
• Development of non-toxic solvents

Іnorganic Сhemistry Research Topics

Inorganic Chemistry is the study of the chemistry of materials that do not contain carbon. Unlike other chemistry research topics, these include elements such as metals, minerals, and inorganic compounds. If you are looking for inorganic chemistry research topics on inorganic chemistry, here are some ideas to get you started:

• How different metals react with one another
• How to create new alloys or improve existing ones
• The role of inorganic chemistry in the environment
• Rare earth elements and their applications in electronics
• Inorganic polymers in construction materials
• Photoluminescent materials for energy conversion
• Inorganic chemistry and sustainable development
• The future of inorganic chemistry
• Inorganic chemistry and the food industry
• Inorganic chemistry and the pharmaceutical industry
• Atomic structure progressive scale grading
• Inorganiс Сhemistry and the cosmetics industry

Biomolecular Сhemistry Research Topics

Biomolecular chemistry is the study of molecules that are important for life. These molecules can be found in all living things, from tiny bacteria to the largest animals. Researchers who work in this field use a variety of techniques to learn more about how these molecules function and how they interact with each other.

If you are looking for essential biomolecular chemistry research topics, here are some ideas to get you started:

• The structure and function of DNA
• Lipidomics and its applications in disease diagnostics
• The structure and function of proteins
• The role of carbohydrates in the body
• The role of lipids in the body
• How enzymes work
• Protein engineering for therapeutic applications
• The role of biochemistry in heart disease
• Cyanides and their effect on the body
• The role of biochemistry in cancer treatment
• The role of biochemistry in Parkison’s disease treatment
• The role of biochemistry in the immune system
• Carbohydrate-based vaccines

The possibilities are endless for someone willing to dedicate some time to research.

Analytical Chemistry Research Topics

Analytical Chemistry is a type of chemistry that helps scientists figure out what something is made of. This can be done through a variety of methods, such as spectroscopy or chromatography. If you are looking for research topics, here are some ideas to get you started:

• How food chemicals react with one another
• Mass spectrometry
• Microplastics detection in marine environments
• Development of sensors for heavy metal detection in water
• Analytical aspects of gas and liquid chromatography
• Analytical chemistry and sustainable development
• Atomic absorption spectroscopy methods and best practices
• Analytical chemistry and the pharmaceutical industry in Ibuprofen consumption
• Analytical chemistry and the cosmetics industry in UV protectors
• High-throughput screening methods in pharmaceutical analysis
• Dispersive X-ray analysis of damaged tissues

Analytical chemistry is considered by many a complex science and there is a lot yet to be discovered in the field.

Computational Chemistry Research Topics

Computational chemistry is a way to use computers to help chemists understand chemical reactions. This can be done by simulating reactions or by designing new molecules. If you are looking for essential chemistry research topics in computational chemistry, here are some ideas to get you started:

• Molecular mechanics simulation
• Machine learning applications in predicting molecular properties
• Reaction rates of complex chemical reactions
• Designing new molecules: how can simulation help
• The role of computers in the study of quantum mechanics
• How to use computers to predict chemical reactions
• Using computers to understand organic chemistry
• The future of computational Chemistry in organic reactions
• The impacts of simulation on the development of new medications
• Combustion reaction simulation impact on engine development
• Quantum-chemistry simulation review
• Simulation of protein folding and misfolding in diseases
• Development of algorithms for chemical synthesis planning
• Applications of Metal-Organic Frameworks in water sequestration and catalysis

Computers are cutting-edge technology in chemical research and this relatively new field of study has a ton yet to be explored.

Physical Chemistry Research Topics

Physical chemistry is the study of how matter behaves. It looks at the physical and chemical properties of atoms and molecules and how they interact with each other. If you are looking for physical chemistry research topics, here are some ideas to get you started:

• Standardization of pH scales
• Structure of atom on a quantum scale
• Bonding across atoms and molecules
• The effect of temperature on chemical reactions
• The role of light in in-body chemical reactions
• Chemical kinetics
• Molecular dynamics in confined spaces
• Quantum computing for solving chemical problems
• Studies on non-Newtonian fluids in industrial processes
• Surface tension and its effects on mixtures
• The role of pressure in chemical reactions
• Rates of diffusion in gases and liquids
• The role of entropy in chemical reactions

Here are just a few samples, but there are plenty more options! Start your research right now!

Innovative Chemistry Research Topics

Innovative chemistry is all about coming up with new ideas and ways to do things. This can be anything from creating new materials to finding new ways to make existing products. If you are looking for ground-breaking chemistry research topics, here are some ideas to get you started:

• Amino acids side chain effects in protein folding
• Chemistry in the production of nanomaterials
• The role of enzymes in chemical reactions
• Photocatalysis in 3D printing
• Avoiding pesticides in agriculture
• Combining chemical and biological processes
• Gene modification in medicinal chemistry
• The role of quantum mechanics in chemical reactions
• Astrochemical research on extraterrestrial molecules
• Spectroscopy signatures of pressurized organic components
• Development of smart materials with responsive properties
• Chemistry in space: studying chemical reactions in microgravity
• Utilization of CO2 in chemical synthesis
• Use of black soldier fly carcasses for bioplastic production using extracted chitin
• Bioorthogonal chemistry for molecule synthesis inside living systems

If you need a hand, there are several sites that also offer research papers for sale and can be a great asset as you work to create your own research papers.

Whatever route you decide to take, good luck! And remember – the sky’s the limit when it comes to research! So get started today and see where your studies may take you. Who knows, you might just make a breakthrough discovery!

Environmental Chemistry Research Topics

Environmental Chemistry is the study of how chemicals interact with the environment. This can include anything from the air we breathe to the water we drink. If you are looking for environmental chemistry research topics, here are some ideas to get you started:

• Plastic effects on ocean life
• Urban ecology
• The role of carbon in climate change
• Air pollution and its effects
• Water pollution and its effects
• Chemicals in food and their effect on the body
• The effect of chemicals on plant life
• Earth temperature prediction models
• Effects of pharmaceuticals in aquatic environments
• Atmospheric chemistry and urban air quality
• Bioremediation techniques for oil spill cleanup
• Regulatory and environmental impact of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl (PFA) substances
• Comparison of chemical regulation impacts like PFA with historical cases such as lead in fuel

A lot of research on the environment is being conducted at the moment because the environment is in danger. There are a lot of environmental problems that need to be solved, and research is the key to solving them.

Green Chemistry Research Topics

Green chemistry is the study of how to make products and processes that are environmentally friendly. This can include anything from finding new ways to recycle materials to developing new products that are biodegradable. If you are looking for green chemistry research topics, here are some ideas to get you started:

• Recycling and reuse of materials
• Developing biodegradable materials
• Improving existing recycling processes
• Green chemistry and sustainable development
• The future of green chemistry
• Green chemistry and the food industry
• Lifecycle assessment of chemical processes
• Green chemistry and the pharmaceutical industry
• Development of catalysts for green chemistry
• Green chemistry and the cosmetics industry
• Alternative energy sources for chemical synthesis

A more environmentally friendly world is something we all aspire for and a lot of research has been conducted on how we can achieve this, making this one of the most promising areas of study. The results have been varied, but there are a few key things we can do to make a difference.

Controversial Chemistry Research Topics

Controversial chemistry is all about hot-button topics that people are passionate about. This can include anything from the use of chemicals in warfare to the health effects of different chemicals. If you are looking for controversial topics to write about , here are some ideas to get you started:

• The use of chemicals in warfare
• Gene modification in human babies
• Bioengineering
• How fast food chemicals affect the human brain
• The role of the government in regulating chemicals
• Evolution of cigarette chemicals over time
• Chemical effects of CBD oils
• Ethical issues in genetic modification of organisms
• Nuclear energy: risks and benefits
• Use of chemicals in electronic waste recycling
• Antidepressant chemical reactions
• Synthetic molecule replication methods
• Gene analysis

Controversial research papers often appear in the media before it has been peer-reviewed and published in a scientific journal. The reason for this is that the media is interested in stories that are new, exciting, and generate a lot of debate.

Chemistry is an incredibly diverse and interesting field, with many controversial topics to write about. If you are looking for a research topic, consider the examples listed in this article. With a little bit of effort, you are sure to find a topic that is both interesting and within your skillset.

In order to be a good researcher, it is important to be able to think critically and solve problems. However, innovation in chemistry research can be challenging. When thinking about how to innovate, it is important to consider both the practical and theoretical aspects of your research. Additionally, try to build on the work of others in order to create something new and unique. With a little bit of effort, you are sure to be able to find a topic that is both interesting and within your skillset.

Happy writing!

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Chemistry IA ideas (30+ topics) - Topic Description & Analysis Included!

Unlock the secrets to ace your Chemistry IA with our exclusive list of over 30+ IA Ideas! Get ready to impress your examiner & boost your grades with Nail IB.

Table of content

Ib chemistry ia ideas - stoichiometry , ib chemistry ia ideas - calorimetry , ib chemistry ia ideas - chemical kinetics, ib chemistry ia ideas - organic chemistry, ib chemistry ia ideas - periodicity, ib chemistry ia ideas - equilibrium.

The struggle involved in making one’s IB Chemistry IA is real and is, without a doubt, one of the most challenging IAs to score in. The trouble stems from inadequate information relevant to the IB Chemistry syllabus. And just when you’ve landed on an IB Chemistry IA idea of your interest, the question of whether your research topic is solid and original starts shooting up your stress levels! Topics ranging from a field as vast as Organic Chemistry to anything associated with Chemical Kinetics, opting for the right IB Chemistry IA topic can take quite a toll on one’s working capacity. 

The good news, however, is that tens of thousands of IB Chemistry students like yourself go through the same process of topic-hunting for their Chemistry IA. Besides, no one expects you to come up with a brand new groundbreaking research idea on your IB Chemistry IA; all you’ve got to take care of are the following essential points:

• Your IB Chemistry IA will be evaluated based on - Personal Engagement, Exploration, Analysis, Evaluation, and Communication. Among these, Personal Engagement refers to your choice of IB Chemistry IA idea and how well you can understand and engage with the same.
• Your IB Chemistry IA topic should be relevant to the IB Chemistry curriculum but not an easy-peasy research question you can look up quickly in your textbook. Being the scientific assessment it is, your background research is expected to be solid and can set a benchmark. It doesn’t have to be a marvel in the respective field, but the approach should be unique, not plain or copied. 
• Why does selecting your IB Chemistry IA topic wisely become so important?
• Your IB Chemistry IA is your mini-research project that  accounts for   20% of your total grade. 
• Your research question sets the base for your overall performance as it states the aim and context of your IA. Your IB Chemistry IA research question, in turn, can only be effectively framed once the topic you pick for your IA is inspired by past experiments and investigation ideas.   
• Your IB Chemistry IA idea should help you aim at a specific research question and help you develop a proper methodology for your investigation.  

Your IB Chemistry IA is the ideal chance to put your knowledge and investigation skills to work without facing the pressure of written exams. Your topic need not be unique; all that is required of you is to go for a standard, tested IB Chemistry IA topic but approach your research from a fresh, personal perspective. It isn’t a piece of cake but a process that needs your time and effort. You must meet the criteria of IB IA’s science requirements; you needn’t invent a new IB Chemistry IA idea; you must investigate an existing idea with a fresh perspective.  

To help you on this tedious IB Chemistry IA topic hunting, here we are with 30+ Chemistry IA ideas to guide your respective IB Chemistry IA journeys! Every view listed below allows you to put on your thinking cap, cover a basic experimental thesis, and then modify it according to your take on the particular concept. 

Here’s an assortment of 30+ IB Chemistry IA topics, classified by the broader field of the subject it falls under: 

Determining the value of Absolute Zero

• Determining how the volume of a gas changes with a temperature change to calculate Absolute Zero. 

Explore the drug content in tablets. 

How does the concentration of ethanoic acid-present in vinegar, as determined by acid-base titration - get affected by a change in temperature while cooking?

Investigate the Vitamin C content of different food products.

• By redox titration, one can determine the amount of iodine solution required for the complete oxidation of the vitamin C and thereby infer the vitamin C content.
• Also, the amount of time taken for different food products to cook and the method used is reported to affect the vitamin C content. 

Investigate the amount of Iodine content in Iodinated Salt.

• By redox titration, one can determine the amount of sodium thiosulphate required to reduce iodine to Iodide ions. One can further investigate what effect temperature have on the iodine content calculated via titration. 

Explore the percentage of Copper content in Brass.

• Redox Titration (Iodometric Titration- Copper(I) Iodide and Sodium thiosulphate solution) to determine the percentage of Copper in different types of Brass.

Explore Water of Crystallisation.

• Acid-Base Titration to determine water crystallization. 

Investigate the synthesis of sweetener Dulcin from Paracetamol. 

Analyze different EDTA contents of several shower cleaners.

Calculating Molar Volume of Hydrogen.

• To calculate the standard molar volume of hydrogen, opt for a barometric method using Dalton’s Law. The reaction between Zinc and Hydrochloric Acid will help determine the same.

Investigating Enthalpy changes.

• Using Calorimetry to analyze the enthalpies of combustion, say - ethanol, ethanoic acid, and ethanol.

Determine the relationship between the enthalpy of hydration, enthalpy of the solution, and lattice enthalpy by applying Calorimetry and Hess’ Law. 

Use Calorimetry to verify that the enthalpy of neutralization of different acids and alkalis is 55KJ mol^-1.

Explore how calories are affected by cooking in saturated and unsaturated vegetable oils using Calorimetry. 

Calculating the Activation energy of a Chemical Reaction.

• Determine the rate of the chemical reaction at various temperatures and then calculate the Activation energy using an Arrhenius plot. 

Explore the pKa values of several natural indicators.

Hydrolysis of Aspirin - Investigation, and Analysis.

• How does the rate of hydrolysis of Aspirin change with a change in pH and temperature?

Analyzing several conditions under which lipase is denatured.

• Investigating pH, temperature, and light effects to verify which factor has the maximum impact. 

Investigate the speeds of several chemical reactions using a Spectrometer. 

Investigating the stability of unsaturated fats.

• Measuring Iodine numbers of common vegetable oils to determine how light and temperature affect their stability.

Explore common reactions such as Williamson Ether Synthesis. 

Investigate the products of nitration of various aromatic compounds using Infrared Spectroscopy.

Determine the relationship between charge density and the thermal stability of different carbonates. Explore VSPER theory. To devise a trend, use microscale chemistry to explore the solubility behavior of halides.  Use Spectrophotometry to analyze the fluorescence of chlorophyll and other different pigments.  Using simulation software, investigate the effect of atomic radius and halogen electronegativity on halogenoalkanes.

Using gas chromatography to calculate the Gibbs Energy for esterification reaction between ethanol and propanoic acid.

• Determine the equilibrium constant Kc for the reaction by measuring the ester concentration in the esterification mixture.

IB Chemistry IA Ideas - Electrochemistry

Investigating the optimal conditions involved in electroplating metals, considering various factors.

Establish a relationship, if it exists, between Gibbs energy change and Ionisation Energy using voltammetry for Electrochemical cells. 

And that's not all! 

Listed below are a few more miscellaneous IB Chemistry IA ideas to help you sort your interests and frame a research question on a topic of your choice, keeping in mind the personal engagement criterion to give your IA a unique perspective:

How does roasting coffee affect its caffeine content?

Explore the calcium content of several milk brands. 

Investigate fertilizers for their nitrogen levels/content. 

Investigate bond enthalpy trends.

• Examine how bond-enthalpy(amount of energy needed to break one mole of the bond in gaseous molecules) varies with bond length and how the bond length varies across different molecules. Modeling/simulation software can be used. 

Examine the effect of a reactant's surface area on the reaction's rate. 

Calculate the amount of oxalate in different food products like spinach using redox titration.

Investigate the Oxygen Content in Water.

• The oxygen content from several water samples can be calculated using the Winkler method (redox titration using sodium thiosulphate).
• Further, investigate the effect of temperature and pH on oxygen content. 

Examine the endothermic reactions optimal for cooling packs using simple Calorimetry. 

Examine the kinetics and thermodynamics of "Heater meals."

Investigate and explore the effectiveness of various brands of salts for snow removal.

Analyze the effect of changing temperature on the formation of rust on different steel objects.

Examine the effect of increased carbon dioxide on the acidification of saltwater.

Determine how different boiling durations affect the amount of ascorbic acid in yellow bell peppers. 

Examine the material properties of the different allotropes of Carbon, say- Diamond and Graphite (common ones).

Determine how the pH of water affects the adsorption extent of activated charcoal. 

Calculate the moles of chalk needed for you to write down your name on the board. 

During the combustion of aliphatic mono-alcohols, how does the enthalpy change with the change in the number of carbon atoms? 

Use thermal decomposition to determine the formula of an unknown metal salt.

Make use of Polarimetry to investigate, examine and analyze Isomerism.

How do the energy contents of several packaged foods differ from the printed values?

And that's a wrap for now! 

We listed a few tested, specific IB Chemistry IA ideas that can assist you massively while fighting the fear of appearing original on your assessment! 

We can't stress this enough: 

You don't have to research a novel idea; you must authentically go about your project research!

Choosing the perfect IB Chemistry IA topic seems like a monumental task. Even though you've got to be efficient as you browse through ideas, the complete process can be much easier if you approach it methodically. Once you have a great IB Chemistry IA topic in your hand, evaluate your existing research, examine the loopholes, and go through the following key points before you conduct your research on a topic. 

Key Takeaways for obtaining an entire grade on your IB Chemistry IA are compiled below:

• You need to ask yourself, "Is my Chemistry IA topic closely related to my IB Chemistry syllabus?" 
• You need to figure out for yourself if the Chemistry IA topic genuinely interests you or not. 
• Make sure that the scientific context of your project is specific, explicit, and supported by your background research. 
• The apparatus, skills, and techniques required should be determined beforehand. 

Nail IB is the go-to resource providing a platform for all the students who will take their IB exams in the future! We understand how difficult it is to look for and settle on an IB IA topic, as it makes for a great deal of your final score. 

Do you need help selecting IB IA topics for other subjects? 

Check out our  blogs  and  resources  for different subjects to quickly grab those IA marks and ultimately excel on your IB! 

For a clearer perspective on the entire IA assembling process, check out more blogs on  Nail IB  and hustle towards success! 

IB Resources you will love!

20 IB Chemistry IA ideas

Choosing a Chemistry IA Research Question

Choosing a Research Question for the Internal Assessment

Confused about what a Research Question is? This guide will help you understand what they are and how to pick a good one.

The Internal Assessment (IA) is a mini-research project. It is an opportunity to show-off your chemistry skills and knowledge and investigate interesting ideas without the pressure and constraints of the written exams.

The IA requires you to design and carry out an original investigation into a topic of interest related to IB chemistry, then produce a 6 – 12 page report of your findings. Worth 20% (the same as paper 1), the project and report should be of a high standard – the very best ones are of university research standard.

Central to your IA is the research question , around which your entire project revolves.

What is a research question?

Your research question states the aim and context of your investigation. It may be phrased as a statement or a question and it can be in more than one part, provided that each part is properly defined and focused on a common aim.

Importantly, it needs to be fully focused and clear , meaning someone reading it should understand what you investigated, the context, and what you did experimentally. The research question should not simply be a restatement of your project title.

Choosing your research question

The research question is a focused summary of your project aims, so the process of choosing one and refining it ensures you’ve thought properly about your project and is a good exercise to go through.

The flow diagram below is one I’ve used with my past students to help them identify their research question, variables and hypothesis:

To use this method:

• Think about the ‘big idea’ behind your potential project and identify the chemical reaction at its centre. (Note that for projects involving measurements of physical properties or molecular modelling, you might have a physical system or a molecule instead of a chemical reaction).
• Think about which factors will affect the reaction, focusing on only those that are relevant and that can be measured and controlled
• Determine what it is you will deliberately change, how you will change it ( e.g. how many values), and what you are going to measure as the outcome

Research question variables

Your research question should contain your independent and dependent variables (note this is a recommendation, not a rule).

• Independent variable : the thing you are going to deliberately change in order to see the outcome.
• Dependent variable : the variable you will measure.

You will also need to identify controlled variables, which are things that if not controlled and kept constant, will potentially affect the experimental outcome.

It’s vitally important that your independent variable is scientific and quantifiable ( i.e. you can measurably vary it).

Here are some examples of weak or uninteresting independent variables and how they could be improved:

Is the research question different to a hypothesis?

You should be able to generate a hypothesis describing how your dependent variable will change for a given number of independent variable values (usually, a range of 3-5 values).

So, what’s a hypothesis? It’s your prediction about the outcome of your experiment. Your hypothesis predicts how your independent variable will affect the outcome (dependent variable). You then test the prediction by experiment and will either find your results support your research question hypothesis, or don’t support it.

Refining your research question

Suppose a student wants to investigate whether “superfoods” contain more vitamin C than other foods (this sort of food chemistry project is popular).

Here are some of their potential research questions:

• Vitamin C content of vegetables – this is a project title, not a research question
• Analysis of vitamin C in vegetables – this is not focused enough
• Analysis of vitamin C content of superfoods using redox titration – this is better but the focus is unclear
• Using redox titration to determine whether the vitamin C concentration of so-called superfoods is higher than normal vegetables – this is better since it’s fully-focused, provides context for the investigation and contains the dependent variable.

But wait, this is NOT a good project idea!

The independent variable here is type of vegetable. This is not a quantifiable variable ! The outcome of the project is not rooted in scientific principles that can be investigated and correlated, so this would be a weak IA.

You must choose a project where you will change something over a range of values and then measure an outcome.

Tablet brands or types of fruits are not independent variables. There is specific guidance on this in the Science IA Guidelines, which state: “ The straightforward comparison of two organisms or “brands” probably represents a weak RQ since the underlying cause of any difference does not arise from any scientific principle ”.

Avoid weak and poorly-connected RQs

IAs sometimes seem to have a weak connection between the research question and what was actually done. This often occurs when a student wants to research a ‘big question’ that involves complex systems, many variables, and would realistically take a year to investigate. Because they can’t do that, they end up taking the ‘big question’ and reducing it down to a more mundane research question. Here are some examples:

Meeting the personal engagement criteria

• Ensure your project is something you are genuinely curious about and can show that in your report
• Ensure that you take ownership of the project and steer it using your own initiative
• Ensure that it’s clear in your report that you have engaged with your chose topic
• Be creative in your approach to designing your experimental programme

Don’t just copy an existing IA you found online, such as one from my list here !

Meeting the originality criteria

You have to pick a project that enables you to show initiative and creativity, and that is demanding to investigate.

• It must not involve experiments where the outcome is well-known and well-documented (what’s the point of investigating it?)
• It therefore can’t be a commonplace school science experiment.
• It should be more challenging and original than the class practicals you should have done as part of the chemistry IB

It also shouldn’t be something you can find the answer to in you IB chemistry textbook or in the IB chemistry data booklet e.g. how surface area affects reaction rate or determining the enthalpy of combustion of butane

Which projects work well?

Projects that can often be reliably executed are physical chemistry projects involving data collection experiments. Often, you will be able to find very reproducible experimental procedures that you can adapt for your project idea For example:

• measuring rates of reaction
• measuring activation energies
• determining enthalpy changes by calorimetry
• titrations (acid-base or redox) to determine unknowns
• spectroscopy or colorimetry to investigate mineral, vitamin or ion concentrations

However, just because physical chemistry projects tend to work well in the lab and produce good results, it does not mean you are guaranteed to get a top mark by picking one. You are marked on the quality of your research and report, not just how well the experiments worked and how good your results are.

Project selection questions

To help choose a good IA, it’s a good idea to ask yourself the following questions about your project:

• Is your topic relevant to the IB chemistry syllabus?
• Do you have genuine curiosity for this topic and will you be able to communicate that in your report?
• Is your research question suitably demanding with a strong scientific setting?
• Will your research question allow you to show creativity and initiative in the project?
• Is your project original?
• If the project is novel and risky, are you likely to be able to satisfy the assessment criteria in other ways?
• Are the project outcomes non-obvious?
• Will you be able to complete the project in around ten hours?
• Can you show that the scientific context for your project is clear, valid and supported by your background research?
• Have you carried out a risk assessment to identify potential health and safety issues?
• Is the project feasible on ethical grounds? (it cannot involve any animal experimentation for example)
• What are the main apparatus, skills and techniques required?
• Are the required apparatus and chemicals available and not too expensive?
• Do you need to learn any new experimental techniques to carry out your project?
• Will the project generate data that you can analyse and present in your report?
• Will you need to use secondary data?
• Can you demonstrate maths and graphing skills in your report?
• What are your main experimental errors and how can you plan for these?
• How will you ensure your results are reliable?
• How will you ensure fair-testing?

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IB Chemistry IA: 60 Examples and Guidance

Charles Whitehouse

The IB Diploma programme offers a variety of assessments for students, including Internal Assessments (IAs), which are pieces of coursework marked by students’ teachers. The Chemistry IA is an assessment designed to test students' understanding of the material they have learned in their chemistry course and their ability to conduct independent research. The investigation should be a self-directed study that demonstrates the student's ability to design, execute, and evaluate a scientific investigation.

What is the IA?

The IA consists of a laboratory report that students must complete during their IB chemistry course. For assessments before May 2025, the report should be 6 to 12 pages in length and should include a research question, a methodology section, data analysis, and a conclusion. From May 2025 , the report should be a maximum of 3,000 words.

What should the IA be about?

When choosing a topic for their IA, expert IB tutors recommend that the students should keep in mind that the investigation should be related to the content of the IB Chemistry course. It should also be practical, feasible, and of sufficient complexity to demonstrate their understanding of the subject matter. Some examples of topics that have been used in the past include the determination of the concentration of a substance in a solution, the effect of temperature on a chemical reaction, and the rate of a chemical reaction.

What should the IA contain?

Once a topic has been chosen, students should write a research proposal outlining their investigation. The proposal should include a clear research question, a brief literature review, a detailed methodology, and a list of the equipment and materials that will be needed. The proposal should also include a risk assessment, outlining any hazards associated with the investigation and the measures that will be taken to minimize them.

After the proposal has been approved, students can begin their investigation. They should keep a detailed laboratory notebook, including all the data they collect, any observations they make, and any calculations they perform. They should also take photographs or videos of their experiment to document the process.

Once the investigation is complete, students should analyze their data and draw conclusions. They should process their data using appropriate techniques, such as statistical analysis or graphing, and present it in a clear and concise manner. They should also evaluate their methodology and results, highlighting any limitations or uncertainties.

Finally, students should write a report, summarizing their investigation. The report should include an introduction, a method section, a results section, a discussion section, and a conclusion. The report should also include a list of references, citing any sources that were used in the research proposal or during the investigation.

Have a look at our comprehensive set resources for IB Chemistry developed by expert IB teachers and examiners!

- IB Chemistry 2024 Study Notes

- IB Chemistry 2025 Study Notes

- IB Chemistry 2024 Questions

- IB Chemistry 2025 Questions

How can I do well in the IA?

To prepare for the IA, students should ensure that they understand the material covered in their chemistry course and should practice writing lab reports. They should also seek feedback from their teachers on their writing skills and their understanding of the research process, and can also enlist the help of an IB Chemistry tutor .

Before starting the IA, students should also familiarize themselves with the assessment criteria and the guidelines provided by the IB. This will allow them to show their full potential and achieve the highest mark possible. Students should also make sure that their report is well-written and properly formatted, and that it includes all the required sections.

The assessment criteria include the following:

Personal engagement : Students should engage with the exploration, which can be demonstrated through independent thinking and creativity. The research question or topic should be linked to something of personal significance or interest, and the student should show initiative in implementing the investigation. (2 marks)

Exploration : Students should identify a relevant and fully-focused research question, which is explored with appropriate background information and investigated with an appropriate methodology. The student should consider the safety, ethical, or environmental issues that are relevant to the methodology. (6 marks)

Analysis : Students should demonstrate the ability to analyze data and draw conclusions. They should show that they have used appropriate techniques to process and present data, and that they have identified patterns and trends in the data. The report should include quantitative and qualitative data, which supports a detailed and valid conclusion, following appropriate data processing. (6 marks)

Evaluation : Students should demonstrate an understanding of the limitations and uncertainties of their investigation. They should critically evaluate their methodology and results, and suggest ways in which the investigation could be improved or extended. (6 marks)

Communication : The investigation should be clearly presented, with an effective structure, concise writing, and appropriate use of subject-specific terminology. (4 marks)

What are some example research questions?

Here are a few examples of potential research questions compiled by expert IB Chemistry tutors that could inspire your Chemistry IA:

1 - How does the concentration of a solution affect the rate of reaction between hydrochloric acid and magnesium?

Conduct a series of experiments in which hydrochloric acid is added to different concentrations of magnesium in solution. The rate of reaction could be measured by tracking the production of hydrogen gas over time. The concentration of the solution could be varied by diluting the hydrochloric acid with water. The results could be plotted on a graph to show the relationship between concentration and rate of reaction. Control variables such as temperature and stirring rate would need to be kept constant throughout the experiments.

2 - Can the purity of a sample of aspirin be determined using thin-layer chromatography?

A sample of the aspirin would be dissolved in a suitable solvent and spotted onto a thin-layer chromatography plate. The plate would then be placed in a developing chamber containing a suitable solvent. As the solvent moves up the plate, it will separate the different components of the sample based on their polarity. The purity of the aspirin can be determined by comparing the distance traveled by the aspirin spot to the distance traveled by any impurities or other components present in the sample. This can be done by measuring the Rf value (the ratio of the distance traveled by the spot to the distance traveled by the solvent) for each component. A pure sample of aspirin would have an Rf value of 1, while impurities or other components would have lower Rf values.

3 - Investigating the effect of temperature on the solubility of a salt in water.

Prepare a saturated solution of the salt at room temperature. Then, heat the solution to a higher temperature and add more of the salt until it reaches saturation again. The amount of salt that can dissolve in the water at each temperature can be measured by weighing the solution before and after adding the salt. This process can be repeated at different temperatures to create a solubility curve. The curve can then be used to determine the effect of temperature on the solubility of the salt in water.

4 - How does the concentration of hydrochloric acid affect the reaction rate with sodium thiosulfate?

Conduct a series of experiments in which different concentrations of hydrochloric acid are mixed with a fixed amount of sodium thiosulfate. The reaction rate can be measured by observing the time it takes for the solution to turn cloudy, indicating that the reaction has occurred. The concentration of hydrochloric acid that produces the fastest reaction rate can be determined, and a graph can be created to show the relationship between concentration and reaction rate. Control variables such as temperature and stirring should be kept constant throughout the experiments.

5 - Can the enthalpy change of a chemical reaction be determined using Hess's law and calorimetry?

Use calorimetry to measure the enthalpy change of the individual reactions involved in the chemical reaction of interest. Then, use Hess's law to calculate the enthalpy change of the overall reaction. This would involve setting up a calorimeter, measuring the initial and final temperatures of the reactants and products, and calculating the heat absorbed or released during the reaction. The enthalpy change of the individual reactions could be determined by conducting them separately and measuring the heat change.

6 - Investigating the effect of different types of catalysts on the rate of decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.

Set up an experiment in which hydrogen peroxide is mixed with different types of catalysts, such as manganese dioxide, copper oxide, or iron oxide. The rate of decomposition of the hydrogen peroxide can be measured by monitoring the release of oxygen gas using a gas syringe or pressure sensor. The experiment would need to be repeated with each type of catalyst, and the results can be compared to determine which catalyst is most effective at increasing the rate of decomposition. Control variables such as temperature, concentration of hydrogen peroxide, and volume of catalyst would need to be kept constant.

7 - How does the pH of a solution affect the solubility of a sparingly soluble salt?

Prepare a solution of the sparingly soluble salt in water at a known concentration. Vary the pH of the solution using acidic or basic solutions. The solubility of the salt can be determined by measuring the concentration of the salt in the solution using techniques such as spectrophotometry or gravimetry. The solubility of the salt can then be plotted against the pH of the solution to determine the effect of pH on solubility. This process would need to be repeated for different concentrations of the salt to determine the impact of concentration on solubility.

8 - Can the concentration of a solution be determined using acid-base titration?

To determine the concentration of a solution using acid-base titration, a known volume of the solution would be added to a flask and an indicator would be added. A standardized solution of a strong acid or base would then be slowly added to the flask until the endpoint is reached, indicating that all the acid or base has reacted with the solution. The concentration of the solution can then be calculated based on the volume and concentration of the standardized solution used in the titration. This process would need to be repeated for each solution being tested.

9 - Investigating the effect of different types of surfactants on the surface tension of water.

Prepare solutions of different concentrations of the surfactants being tested. A drop of each solution would be placed on the surface of water and the surface tension of the water would be measured using a tensiometer. The process would be repeated for each concentration of surfactant being tested. The results would be plotted on a graph to determine the relationship between the concentration of surfactant and the surface tension of water.

10 - How does the concentration of a solution affect the rate of reaction between sodium thiosulfate and hydrochloric acid?

Conduct a series of experiments in which different concentrations of sodium thiosulfate and hydrochloric acid are mixed together in a controlled environment. The rate of reaction can be measured by observing the time it takes for the solution to turn cloudy due to the formation of sulfur. The concentration of the solution can be varied by diluting or concentrating the solutions before mixing them together. By comparing the rate of reaction at different concentrations, the relationship between concentration and rate of reaction can be determined.

11 - Can the concentration of copper in a brass alloy be determined using atomic absorption spectroscopy?

Prepare a series of standard solutions of known copper concentrations using a pure copper sample. The brass alloy would then be dissolved in acid and the resulting solution would be analyzed using atomic absorption spectroscopy. The absorption of light by the copper atoms in the solution would be measured and compared to the absorption of the standard solutions to determine the concentration of copper in the brass alloy. This process would need to be repeated for each brass alloy being tested.

12 - Investigating the effect of the length of an alkane chain on its boiling point.

Prepare a series of alkane samples with varying chain lengths. Each sample would be heated and the temperature at which it boils would be recorded. The boiling point of each alkane sample would be plotted against its chain length to determine the relationship between the two variables. This experiment would need to be repeated multiple times to ensure accuracy and consistency of results.

13 - How does the pH of a solution affect the color of an indicator?

Select an appropriate indicator that changes color within the pH range being tested. Prepare solutions with different pH values by adding acids or bases to a neutral solution. Add a small amount of the indicator to each solution and observe the color change. Record the pH value at which the color change occurs for each indicator. This experiment can be repeated with different indicators to compare their sensitivity to changes in pH.

14 - Can the concentration of iron in a solution be determined using spectrophotometry?

Prepare a series of standard solutions with known concentrations of iron. The absorbance of each standard solution would be measured using a spectrophotometer, which would create a calibration curve. A sample of the unknown solution containing iron would then be measured for its absorbance, and the concentration of iron in the solution can be determined by comparing its absorbance to the calibration curve. This process would need to be repeated for each solution being tested.

15 - Investigating the effect of the concentration of a solution on the rate of reaction between potassium permanganate and oxalic acid .

Set up a series of experiments in which different concentrations of the potassium permanganate solution are mixed with a fixed concentration of oxalic acid. The rate of reaction could be measured by monitoring the color change of the solution over time, as the potassium permanganate is reduced by the oxalic acid. The concentration of the potassium permanganate solution that produces the fastest rate of reaction could be determined, and the effect of varying concentrations of oxalic acid could also be investigated. Control variables such as temperature and stirring rate would need to be kept constant throughout the experiments.

16 - How does the presence of a common ion affect the solubility of a salt?

Prepare solutions of the salt at different concentrations and add a known amount of the common ion to each solution. The solubility of the salt in each solution can then be determined by measuring the amount of salt that remains undissolved after stirring the solution for a set period of time. Comparing the solubility of the salt in solutions with and without the common ion would determine the effect of the common ion on the salt's solubility. This process would need to be repeated for different concentrations of the common ion to determine the concentration at which it has the greatest effect on the salt's solubility.

17 - Can the rate constant of a chemical reaction be determined using kinetics experiments?

Conduct a series of experiments in which the concentration of reactants is varied while keeping all other variables constant. The rate of the reaction can be measured by monitoring the change in concentration of the reactants or products over time. The rate constant can then be calculated using the rate equation for the reaction. This process would need to be repeated for different temperatures and concentrations to determine the effect of these variables on the rate constant.

18 - Investigating the effect of different types of acids and bases on the pH of a buffer solution.

Prepare a buffer solution with a known pH and add different types of acids and bases to it. The pH of the buffer solution would be measured using a pH meter or indicator paper before and after the addition of each acid or base. The change in pH would indicate the effect of the acid or base on the buffer solution. This process would need to be repeated for each type of acid and base being tested. The results could be compared to determine which types of acids and bases have the greatest impact on the pH of the buffer solution.

19 - How does the concentration of a solution affect the absorbance of light by a colored compound?

Prepare a series of solutions with varying concentrations of the colored compound. Use a spectrophotometer to measure the absorbance of light by each solution at a specific wavelength. Plot the absorbance values against the concentration of the colored compound to create a calibration curve. Use this curve to determine the concentration of the colored compound in an unknown solution by measuring its absorbance and comparing it to the calibration curve. This process would need to be repeated for each colored compound being tested.

20 - Can the concentration of ammonia in a solution be determined using acid-base titration?

Prepare a standardized solution of a known concentration of acid or base. A sample of the ammonia solution would be titrated with the acid or base solution until the endpoint is reached, indicating that all the ammonia has reacted with the acid or base. The concentration of ammonia in the solution can then be calculated based on the volume and concentration of the acid or base solution used in the titration. This process would need to be repeated for each ammonia solution being tested.

21 - Investigating the effect of different types of buffers on the pH of a solution.

Prepare solutions of different buffers and measure their pH using a pH meter. Then, add a small amount of acid or base to each solution and measure the change in pH. The buffer that maintains the pH closest to its original value would be the most effective. This process would need to be repeated for each type of buffer being tested. The results could be graphed to visually compare the effectiveness of each buffer.

22 - How does the concentration of a solution affect the rate of reaction between iodine and sodium thiosulfate?

Prepare solutions of different concentrations of sodium thiosulfate and iodine. The reaction between the two solutions can be timed and the rate of reaction calculated for each concentration. The results can be graphed to show the relationship between concentration and reaction rate. This experiment would need to be repeated multiple times to ensure accuracy and to account for any experimental error.

23 - Can the concentration of a metal ion in a solution be determined using complexometric titration?

Prepare a standardized solution of a chelating agent, such as EDTA, of a known concentration. A sample of the metal ion solution would be titrated with the chelating agent until the endpoint is reached, indicating that all the metal ions have reacted with the chelating agent. The concentration of the metal ion in the solution can then be calculated based on the volume and concentration of the chelating agent used in the titration. This process would need to be repeated for each metal ion being tested.

24 - Investigating the effect of the length of a chain on the rate of esterification.

Set up an experiment in which different lengths of chains are used in the esterification reaction. The reaction could be monitored by measuring the amount of product formed over time using a spectrophotometer or by analyzing the product using gas chromatography. The rate of esterification could be calculated by determining the slope of the reaction curve. Comparing the rates of esterification for the different chain lengths would determine the effect of chain length on the reaction rate.

25 - How does the pH of a solution affect the rate of reaction between sodium thiosulfate and hydrochloric acid?

Set up a series of solutions with varying pH levels using hydrochloric acid and sodium thiosulfate. The reaction between the two chemicals would be timed and the time taken for the solution to turn cloudy would be recorded. The experiment would need to be repeated multiple times for each pH level to ensure accuracy. The data collected would then be used to plot a graph of the reaction rate against pH level, allowing for the relationship between pH and reaction rate to be determined.

26 - Can the concentration of a solution be determined using gravimetric analysis?

In gravimetric analysis, a known mass of the substance being analyzed is dissolved in a solvent and then reacted with a reagent that forms a precipitate with the substance of interest. The precipitate is then filtered, dried, and weighed to determine its mass. From this, the mass of the original substance can be calculated using stoichiometry. Therefore, to determine the concentration of a solution using gravimetric analysis, a known volume of the solution would need to be evaporated to dryness, and the resulting solid would be weighed. The mass of the solid would then be used to calculate the concentration of the original solution.

27 - Investigating the effect of different types of surfactants on the emulsification of oil and water.

Create a series of oil and water emulsions using different types and concentrations of surfactants. The emulsions could be visually inspected for stability and the time it takes for the oil and water to separate could be recorded. The effectiveness of each surfactant in emulsifying the oil and water could be compared by analyzing the data collected. Additionally, the size and distribution of the droplets in the emulsion could be measured using microscopy to gain a more detailed understanding of the emulsification process.

28 - How does the concentration of a solution affect the rate of reaction between potassium permanganate and hydrogen peroxide?

Set up a series of experiments in which different concentrations of potassium permanganate and hydrogen peroxide are mixed together. The reaction rate could be measured by tracking the change in color of the solution over time, as the potassium permanganate is reduced. The concentration of the reactants could be varied by diluting them with water, and the reaction rate could be measured for each concentration. The results could then be plotted on a graph to show the relationship between concentration and reaction rate.

29 - Can the concentration of sulfate ions in a solution be determined using gravimetric analysis?

To determine the concentration of sulfate ions in a solution using gravimetric analysis, a known volume of the solution would be evaporated to dryness to obtain the sulfate ions in solid form. The mass of the solid sulfate would be measured and compared to the mass of the original sample to determine the percentage of sulfate ions present. This process would need to be repeated for multiple samples of the solution to ensure accuracy and precision in the results.

30 - Investigating the effect of different types of acids and bases on the rate of reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium thiosulfate.

Set up an experiment in which hydrochloric acid and sodium thiosulfate are mixed with different types and concentrations of acids and bases. The reaction between the two chemicals would produce a yellow precipitate of sulfur, which would gradually become less visible as the reaction progresses. The time taken for the precipitate to disappear could be measured and used to calculate the rate of reaction. Comparing the rates of reaction for the different groups would determine the effect of the acids and bases on the reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium thiosulfate.

31 - Investigating the effects of different types of catalysts on the rate of a chemical reaction.

Set up an experiment in which a chemical reaction is carried out with different catalysts. The reaction should be monitored using a suitable method such as spectrophotometry or gas chromatography to determine the rate of the reaction. The same reaction should be carried out with each catalyst, and the results should be compared to determine the effect of the catalyst on the rate of the reaction. Control variables such as temperature, pressure, and concentration of reactants should be kept constant to ensure accurate results.

32 - How does the concentration of a reactant affect the rate of a chemical reaction?

Conduct a series of experiments in which the concentration of the reactant is varied while keeping all other variables constant. The rate of the chemical reaction can be measured by monitoring the change in concentration of the reactant or product over time. A graph can be plotted to show the relationship between the concentration of the reactant and the rate of the reaction. This can be used to determine the rate law for the reaction, which can then be used to predict the rate of the reaction under different conditions.

33 - Investigating the properties of different types of acids and bases and their behavior in different solutions.

Conduct experiments in which different types of acids and bases are added to different solutions, such as water or other acids/bases. The behavior of the acids and bases can be observed, such as whether they dissolve or react with the solution, and the pH of the solution can be measured. The properties of the acids and bases, such as their strength and reactivity, can be compared based on their behavior in the different solutions. This could also involve testing the effect of different concentrations of the acids and bases on the pH of the solution.

34 - How does the temperature affect the solubility of a solute in a solvent?

Prepare a solution of the solute in the solvent at a known concentration and temperature. The solution would then be cooled or heated to different temperatures and the solubility of the solute in the solvent would be measured at each temperature. This could be done by adding a known amount of the solute to the solvent at each temperature and measuring the amount of solute that dissolves. The results could be plotted on a solubility curve to show the relationship between temperature and solubility.

35 - Investigating the properties of different types of polymers and their behavior in different environments.

Conduct experiments in which different types of polymers are exposed to different environmental conditions, such as temperature, humidity, and UV radiation. The behavior of the polymers could be observed and measured using techniques such as tensile testing, thermal analysis, and microscopy. Comparing the properties and behavior of the different polymers in different environments would provide insights into their suitability for various applications.

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36 - How does the concentration of a solute affect the osmotic pressure of a solution?

Set up a series of solutions with varying concentrations of the solute and measure the osmotic pressure of each solution using an osmometer. The osmotic pressure can be calculated by measuring the change in pressure as the solution is introduced to a semi-permeable membrane. The results can then be plotted on a graph to determine the relationship between solute concentration and osmotic pressure. This experiment could be repeated with different solutes to compare their effects on osmotic pressure.

37 - Investigating the properties of different types of surfactants and their behavior in different solutions.

Conduct experiments in which different types of surfactants are added to different solutions, such as water or oil. The behavior of the surfactants can be observed, including their ability to reduce surface tension and form micelles. The properties of the surfactants can also be tested, such as their solubility in different solvents and their stability under different conditions. The results of these experiments can be used to compare the effectiveness of different surfactants in different applications, such as in cleaning products or in the production of emulsions.

38 - How does the temperature affect the conductivity of an electrolyte solution?

Conductivity measurements of an electrolyte solution would need to be taken at different temperatures using a conductivity meter. The temperature of the solution can be controlled using a water bath or other temperature control device. The conductivity readings can be plotted against temperature to determine the effect of temperature on conductivity. The experiment would need to be repeated multiple times to ensure accuracy and consistency of results.

39 - Investigating the properties of different types of metal alloys and their behavior under different conditions.

Conduct experiments on different types of metal alloys under varying conditions such as temperature, pressure, and exposure to different chemicals. The properties of the alloys such as strength, ductility, and corrosion resistance could be measured and compared to determine their behavior under different conditions. This would require specialized equipment such as a tensile testing machine and a corrosion testing apparatus. The results of these experiments could be used to optimize the use of different alloys in various applications.

40 - How does the concentration of a solution affect the boiling and freezing points of the solvent?

Conduct an experiment in which different concentrations of a solution are prepared and their boiling and freezing points are measured using a thermometer. The data collected can be used to create a graph showing the relationship between concentration and boiling/freezing point. This graph can be used to determine the effect of concentration on the boiling and freezing points of the solvent. Control variables such as pressure and volume of the solution should be kept constant throughout the experiment.

41 - Investigating the properties of different types of gas laws and their behavior under different conditions.

Conduct experiments using different gases, such as helium, nitrogen, and oxygen, under varying conditions of temperature and pressure. The behavior of the gases could be observed using equipment such as pressure gauges and thermometers. The data collected could then be analyzed to determine the properties of each gas and how they behave under different conditions. This could include measuring the volume of gas at different pressures, or the pressure of gas at different temperatures. The results could then be used to develop mathematical models of gas behavior, such as the ideal gas law.

42 - How does the concentration of a solution affect the rate of diffusion and effusion?

Set up a series of experiments in which solutions of varying concentrations are placed in separate compartments of a diffusion or effusion apparatus. The rate of diffusion or effusion could be measured by tracking the movement of a dye or gas through a semi-permeable membrane separating the compartments. The rate of diffusion or effusion could then be compared across the different concentrations to determine the effect of concentration on the rate of diffusion or effusion. Control variables such as temperature and pressure would need to be kept constant throughout the experiments.

43 - Investigating the properties of different types of nuclear reactions and their behavior under different conditions.

Conduct experiments with different types of nuclear reactions, such as fission and fusion, under varying conditions such as temperature, pressure, and reactant concentration. The behavior of the reactions can be observed and recorded, and data can be analyzed to determine the properties of each type of reaction. This could include factors such as energy release, reaction rate, and byproducts produced. The results of these experiments can be used to better understand the behavior of nuclear reactions and their potential applications.

44 - How does the temperature affect the viscosity of a liquid?

Measure the viscosity of a liquid at different temperatures using a viscometer. The temperature of the liquid can be controlled using a water bath or other heating/cooling apparatus. The viscosity can be measured by timing how long it takes for the liquid to flow through the viscometer at each temperature. The results can be plotted on a graph to show how the viscosity changes with temperature. This can help determine the optimal temperature for the liquid's intended use or provide insight into the physical properties of the liquid.

45 - Investigating the properties of different types of organic compounds and their behavior under different conditions.

Conduct a series of experiments to investigate the properties of different types of organic compounds. This could involve testing their solubility in different solvents, their reactivity with other compounds, their melting and boiling points, and their behavior under different conditions such as heat or pressure. The results of these experiments could be used to develop a better understanding of the behavior and properties of organic compounds, which could have applications in fields such as medicine, agriculture, and materials science.

46 - How does the concentration of a solution affect the pH of the solution?

Prepare solutions of varying concentrations of an acidic or basic substance, such as hydrochloric acid or sodium hydroxide. The pH of each solution would be measured using a pH meter or indicator paper. The results would be recorded and analyzed to determine the relationship between the concentration of the solution and its pH. A graph could be created to visualize this relationship.

47 - Investigating the properties of different types of electrochemical cells and their behavior under different conditions.

Set up different electrochemical cells using different electrodes and electrolytes. Measure the voltage and current produced by each cell under different conditions such as temperature, concentration of electrolyte, and electrode surface area. Analyze the data to determine the behavior of each cell and compare their properties. This could include calculating the cell potential, determining the rate of reaction, and identifying any limitations or advantages of each type of cell.

48 - How does the concentration of a solution affect the color and absorption spectrum of a chromophore?

Prepare a series of solutions with varying concentrations of the chromophore. The absorption spectra of each solution could be measured using a spectrophotometer, and the color of each solution could be observed visually. By comparing the absorption spectra and colors of the different solutions, the relationship between concentration, color, and absorption spectrum of the chromophore could be determined. This could be further analyzed using mathematical models to predict the absorption spectrum and color of solutions with different concentrations of the chromophore.

49 - Investigating the properties of different types of covalent compounds and their behavior under different conditions.

Conduct experiments on different covalent compounds under varying conditions such as temperature, pressure, and pH levels. Observe and record their behavior, including changes in state, solubility, and reactivity. Analyze the data to determine the properties of each compound and how they respond to different conditions. This could involve using techniques such as spectroscopy, chromatography, and mass spectrometry to identify and characterize the compounds. The results could be used to develop a better understanding of the behavior of covalent compounds and their potential applications in various fields.

50 - How does the temperature affect the rate of diffusion and effusion?

Set up an experiment in which a gas is released in a container at a constant rate and the time it takes for the gas to diffuse or effuse through a small opening is measured at different temperatures. The temperature can be varied by immersing the container in a water bath of different temperatures. The rate of diffusion or effusion can be calculated based on the time taken for the gas to pass through the opening, and the temperature can be varied to determine its effect on the rate of diffusion or effusion. The results can be plotted on a graph to visualize the relationship between temperature and the rate of diffusion or effusion.

51 - Investigating the properties of different types of intermolecular forces and their behavior under different conditions.

Conduct experiments using different substances with different types of intermolecular forces, such as hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole interactions, and London dispersion forces. The substances could be tested under different conditions, such as temperature and pressure, to observe how the intermolecular forces affect their behavior. The results could be analyzed to determine the properties of each type of intermolecular force and how they interact with each other. This could lead to a better understanding of the behavior of substances in various environments.

52 - How does the concentration of a solution affect the rate of an acid-base titration?

Prepare a standardized solution of a strong acid or base of known concentration. A sample of the solution being tested would be titrated with the acid or base solution until the endpoint is reached, indicating that all the acid or base has reacted with the solution. The concentration of the solution being tested can then be calculated based on the volume and concentration of the acid or base solution used in the titration. This process would need to be repeated for solutions of varying concentrations to determine the effect of concentration on the rate of the acid-base titration.

53 - Investigating the properties of different types of coordination compounds and their behavior under different conditions.

Conduct experiments to observe the behavior of different coordination compounds under varying conditions such as temperature, pH, and concentration. The properties of the compounds such as color, solubility, and stability could be measured and compared. The results could be analyzed to determine the effect of the different conditions on the behavior of the coordination compounds. This could provide insight into the potential applications of these compounds in various fields such as medicine or materials science.

54 - How does the concentration of a solution affect the equilibrium constant of a chemical reaction?

Conduct a series of experiments in which the concentration of a reactant or product is varied while keeping other variables constant. The equilibrium constant of the chemical reaction can then be calculated using the concentrations of the reactants and products at equilibrium. This process would need to be repeated for different initial concentrations of the reactants to determine the effect of concentration on the equilibrium constant. Graphing the data would help visualize the relationship between concentration and equilibrium constant.

55 - Investigating the properties of different types of chromatography and their behavior in different separation techniques.

Conduct a series of experiments using different types of chromatography, such as paper chromatography, thin-layer chromatography, and gas chromatography. Each experiment would involve separating a mixture of substances using the chosen chromatography technique and analyzing the results to determine the effectiveness of the technique in separating the substances. The behavior of the chromatography technique could be studied by varying the solvent used, the type of stationary phase, and other experimental conditions. The results of the experiments could be compared to determine the most effective chromatography technique for different types of separations.

56 - How does the temperature affect the activation energy of a chemical reaction?

Conduct a series of experiments in which the same chemical reaction is carried out at different temperatures. The activation energy of the reaction can be calculated by measuring the rate of the reaction at each temperature and using the Arrhenius equation to determine the activation energy. The results can be plotted on a graph to show the relationship between temperature and activation energy. This would help to determine how temperature affects the rate of chemical reactions.

57 - Investigating the properties of different types of solid-state materials and their behavior under different conditions.

Conduct experiments on different types of solid-state materials, such as metals, ceramics, and polymers, under different conditions such as temperature, pressure, and humidity. The properties that could be investigated include strength, elasticity, conductivity, and thermal expansion. The results of these experiments could be used to compare the behavior of different materials and to identify the most suitable material for a particular application. The data collected could also be used to develop models and simulations to predict the behavior of materials under different conditions.

58 - How does the concentration of a solution affect the rate of a redox reaction?

Conduct a series of experiments in which the concentration of a solution is varied while keeping all other variables constant. The redox reaction could be monitored using a colorimetric assay or by measuring the change in pH of the solution. The rate of the reaction could then be calculated based on the change in absorbance or pH over time. By comparing the rates of the reaction at different concentrations, the effect of concentration on the rate of the redox reaction could be determined.

59 - Investigating the properties of different types of nanomaterials and their behavior under different conditions.

Conduct experiments with different types of nanomaterials, varying their size, shape, and composition, and observe their behavior under different conditions such as temperature, pressure, and exposure to different chemicals. The properties of the nanomaterials, such as their conductivity, reactivity, and strength, could be measured using various techniques such as microscopy, spectroscopy, and mechanical testing. The results could be analyzed to determine the optimal conditions for each type of nanomaterial and to compare their properties to identify the most suitable material for specific applications.

60 - How does the concentration of a solution affect the rate of a precipitation reaction?

Set up multiple solutions of the same reactants with varying concentrations. The rate of precipitation can be measured by tracking the time it takes for the precipitate to form or by measuring the amount of precipitate formed over a set period of time. By comparing the rates of precipitation in the different solutions, the effect of concentration on the rate of the reaction can be determined. Control variables such as temperature and stirring rate would need to be kept constant.

Remember to come up with your own original IA topic and check it with your teacher. It should be practical to conduct and relevant to the syllabus. This is a great opportunity to develop your personal interests, while advancing your knowledge of the chemistry curriculum. Online tutors agree that this list is quite extensive and can help IB students a lot with their IB Chemistry IA.

TutorChase's IB Chemistry Study Notes , IB Past Papers and IB Chemistry Questions are the perfect resource for students who want to get a 7 in their IB Chemistry exams and also prepare for the internal assessment. They are completely free, cover all topics in depth, and are structured by topic so you can easily keep track of your progress.

How is the IA graded?

The IA is worth 20% of the final grade for the IB chemistry course, whether you are studying at Higher or at Standard Level. This applies for assessments both before and after May 2025. It is graded by the student’s teacher, who is trained and certified by the International Baccalaureate organization. The report is then sent to a moderator, who will check that the report adheres to the IB guidelines and that the grade awarded is appropriate.

Source: IB Chemistry Subject Brief, pre-May 2025

In summary, the IA in the IB is an opportunity for students to demonstrate their understanding of the chemistry curriculum, as well as their ability to conduct independent research. It consists of a laboratory report and a reflective statement, and is worth 20% of the final grade for the course. To prepare for the assessment, students should ensure that they understand the material covered in their IB chemistry course , practice writing lab reports, review their IB Chemistry Q&A Revision Notes , and seek feedback from their teachers or tutors.

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Written by: Charles Whitehouse

Charles scored 45/45 on the International Baccalaureate and has six years' experience tutoring IB and IGCSE students and advising them with their university applications. He studied a double integrated Masters at Magdalen College Oxford and has worked as a research scientist and strategy consultant.

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IB Chemistry IA Guide: Format, Topics, Rubric, And Assessment

by  Antony W

October 20, 2022

For most students, the IB Chemistry IA (Internal Assessment) assignment lurks on the path to academic success like a sphinx with an impossible riddle. The analogy is quite right too, given that the assignments take up a hefty 20% of your total marks in the coursework.

If you are reading this, you are likely confused by the guesswork that surrounds the entire exam. Luckily for you, we at Help for Assessments are old hands at chemistry assignments including IB internal assessments. We will guide you through the process as we debunk the 'nightmare' that is a chemistry IA to make sure you ace it.

If you would love a little more practical help than this detailed guide, our team of experts is at your disposal to carry out your chemistry IA with polished skill. As a multi-faceted team, we are experts in every form of academic writing assignments and projects. Don't be shy, check out our range of services  and order your very own writing expert today.

If you still want to proceed, its time you put your apprehension away as we take a practical look into how you can pass the chemistry IA.

This guide will explore the sections and format of a chemistry IA, a look into the marking criteria used, and suggestions at every point to help show you what is expected of you.

What is a Chemistry IA

The IB chemistry IA is an investigative essay that seeks to explain the chemistry behind common real-world phenomena. It seeks to assess your grasp of chemistry up to the level achieved in your coursework through practical application of the skills gained.

Unlike regular test which many students cram their way through, the chemistry IA needs a high level of independent skill, research work, and personal effort to complete.

Coupled with all the other stressful assignments in other subjects, the chemistry IA sometimes feels like an insurmountable problem partly because of the sheer amount of guesswork.

The assignment seeks to develop independent thinking and creative application of concepts learned to the real world. If you can do this successfully, you will earn top marks in the assignment. The first task you have with the chemistry internal assignment is choosing an appropriate topic.

Choosing a Topic for Your Chemistry IA

The first consideration you should take into account when choosing a topic for the IB chemistry IA is that it should be personal. That means it should be one that interests you personally, adapted to your particular cause, and related with a personal touch throughout the text.

To achieve full marks, your topic and essay must meet the conditions set out by the descriptors on IB’s chem page .

However, in the search for authenticity and originality, many students get themselves in a rut trying to invent procedures and experiments. Notice that the paper is looking for independent thinking, creativeness, and initiative.

The best way to achieve these criteria without knocking your brains out is to adapt existing experiments, procedures, or other ideas to your investigation. What you need to showcase is authentic inspiration and highly personalized methods, which you can easily do by adapting existing ones.

Let's say, for example, that you want to investigate the calories in the food you eat. Of course, that is a washed-out idea. How about you give it a new twist and investigate how cooking Ideal Protein packs affects their calorie content? This is something you can do easily with a calorimeter in the lab.

For those who don’t know, Ideal Protein is a popular, albeit shady, weight loss program when dieters substitute daily food for prepackaged ultra-refined protein packets. If you have ever tried it, you can tie it to the investigation to show innovation and inspiration.

The same goes for other common chemistry experiments you will find online, in books, journals, magazines, and other common sources.

With a topic in hand, it's time to plan the investigation and structure it accordingly.

Chemistry IA Format

You will be carrying out the IA assignment in stages, but very little of it will be actual lab work. Most of the work is in the research involved and crafting the actual write up.

So, while we are confident you can handle the actual experimentation (your instructor will be more than glad to help), let us show you how to structure the write up.

There will be seven important parts of the write up, which for the sake of simplicity we will keep calling an essay. The image below will give you a rough idea of how each section appears, but we shall also take a more in-depth look into some of the parts.

Parts of a Chemistry IA

The following image shows a sample structure of a chemistry IA. Please note that it is strictly for guidance only; in no way is it to be taken as a must-use format. Your instructor will usually provide exhaustive instructions in this regard.

Introduction

Your introduction is meant to tell your reader why they should keep reading. Here, give in very brief detail what your experiment is about, why you chose it, and stress your personal connection to the subject matter. You first person ‘I’ or ‘We’ pronouns to achieve this.

a) Background

As part of the Introduction, the background is meant to enhance the reader’s understanding of the context of your investigation. Include a general review of the science behind the concept, backed by facts and evidence.

You can also include the equations and mathematical formulas that you will be using in the assignment.

b) Hypothesis

The hypothesis is meant to be a justification for the choice of science concepts you use to explain the claim under investigation.

More technically, it should be a specific prediction about the outcome of your experiment or how the dependent variable will change with the independent one.

For example, with our example, our hypothesis might be:

“Using calorimeters to find out whether Ideal Protein packs change in calorie content value upon cooking in various ways.”

In any other discipline, this section would probably be called ‘methodology’ or ‘procedure.’ This is the part where you tell, in complete detail, how you carry out your experiment.

a) Research Question

The design part starts with a research question in the form ‘how is x dependent on Y?’ It should be a highly specific question outlining the variance you are investigating, stated without any ambiguity.

b) Variables

Outline fully what your variables are, outlining the three types:

• Independent variables - the factor you manipulate and set parameters for.
• Dependent variable - the variable you want to determine by measuring or calculating.
• Controlled variable - other variables or factors that influence the outcome and which should either be controlled or taken into consideration in the outcome.

As part of the design, the method or procedure is a detailed explanation of how you carried out the experiment or tests required to measure the variables. No matter how strong the temptation is, do not take this section off a chemistry book or lap report.

Most students trip on this section because they forget the procedure is supposed to be specially adapted and personalized for this assessment.

If you were choosing a reagent, state why you chose it. If you are choosing a flask, show the reasoning behind your choice. For example, 'use a glass stirring rod instead of a metallic one to prevent reaction with the reagent …'

It is also a good idea to include a diagram of your setup and describe any modifications you had to improvise. A picture will also do.

a) Raw Data

Record your data as soon as you collect it. This is usually done in tables where you can compare the variables easily and fill in the gaps quickly. You need to collect both quantitative (measured, e.g. 10g of residue) and qualitative data (observed, e.g. color change, bubbles).

Report every measured value and include every field on the same table where possible. If any of the data values don't match, you can enter it in different fields.

b) Analysis

Use your measured data to calculate totals, averages, correlations, among others. Draw graphs and charts as needed. Be sure to show the entirety of your working including the formulas you used. Note any uncertainties and margins of error expected.

If you have an accepted value for that kind of experiment, compare the two and see how close they come to each other. If you have graphs, make them appealing, give them names, and name them accordingly.

The conclusion should be a rewording of your research question to give an answer based on the trend observed and proved by your results. The conclusion is a three-part section that also includes:

a) Evaluation

The evaluation is a critical review of your methods and how well the procedure you chose worked to your benefit (or not). If there are any discordant data/outlier points, discuss them here.

b) Improvements

Suggest any improvements or changes you would make if you were to repeat the experiment. What would you advise anyone else using the same procedure for the experiment? Do you have any suggestions to make it better?

Marking Criteria for Your Chemistry IA

By now, you can tell that personal engagement is a pretty big deal in your chemistry IA, but it is not the only one.

Markers will rely on several other criteria to grade your work, including:

1. Exploration

Exploration is a measure of how well you establish a scientific context for the project. It measures how well focused and grounded your research question is, as well as your awareness and knowledge of safety, environmental, and ethical concerns involved, if any.

2. Methodology

This criterion measures how clearly and thoroughly you set out your procedure. You should have at least 5 variations or manipulations of the independent variable and 3 trials for each.

You should collect as many significant data points as possible, set out any safety procedures taken, and qualify each choice of equipment and supplies. 

3. Analysis 

This metric measures your data collection, organizational, and presentation skills. All calculations must be shown clearly, formulas displayed, and all qualitative and quantitative data recorded.

4. Evaluation 

This metric contributes 6 marks to the total 20 and assesses how well the results obtained serve to prove/disprove your research question in the accepted context.

You also get points for suggesting useful improvements, noting and owning up to any weakness of the methodology, and describing the strength of the correlation between the results and the hypothesis. 

5. Communication

This criterion is a measure of how clearly and effectively you presented yourself in the essay.

6. Personal Engagement

As discussed, you will need to completely own the entire project from start to finish. Choose every word with care, especially if you use textbook sources along the way. Cite each of these appropriately because, needless to say, plagiarism is a capital crime in the assessment.

Need Help With Your Chemistry IA Assignment?

Many students are tempted to rush through with the assignment to be ‘over and done with’ it. However, such IB assessments are tricky because they test not only the outcomes, but also the process, the student’s state of mind, and the overall circumstances surrounding the assessment.

If you truly want to be 'over and done with' the assignment, the only way to do it is to be diligent and do it as meticulously as you can. However, you can also hand over the entire problem to chemistry internal assessment experts at Help for Assessments to write it for you.

With years of experience and skill in the market, we will take the burden off your hands and do the entire assessment for you in record time and at the lowest prices. If you want to experience total peace of mind, order our stellar services here. We are here for you, always.

About the author 

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

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Develop your research question

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STEP 1: Understand your research objective

Before you start developing your research question, think about your research objectives:

• What are you trying to do? (compare, analyse)
• What do you need to know about the topic?
• What type of research are you doing?
• What types of information/studies do you need? (e.g. randomised controlled trial, case study, guideline, protocol?)
• Does the information need to be current?

Watch the following video (6:26) to get you started:

Key points from the video

• All good academic research starts with a research question.
• A research question is an actual question you want to answer about a particular topic.
• Developing a question helps you focus on an aspect of your topic, which will streamline your research and writing.
• Pick a topic you are interested in.
• Narrow the topic to a particular aspect.
• Brainstorm some questions around your topic aspect.
• Select a question to work with.
• Focus the question by making it more specific. Make sure your question clearly states who, what, when, where, and why.
• A good research question focuses on one issue only and requires analysis.
• Your search for information should be directed by your research question.
• Your thesis or hypothesis should be a direct answer to your research question, summarised into one sentence.

STEP 2: Search before you research

The benefits of doing a background search :

• You can gather more background knowledge on a subject
• explore different aspects of your topic
• identify additional keywords and terminology

STEP 3: Choose a topic

The resources linked below are a good place to start: 

• UpToDate It covers thousands of clinical topics grouped into specialties with links to articles, drugs and drug interaction databases, medical calculators and guidelines.
• An@tomedia This online anatomy resource features images, videos, and slides together with interactive, educational text and quiz questions.
• Anatomy.tv Find 3D anatomical images; functional anatomy animations and videos, and MRI, anatomy, and clinical slides. Test your knowledge through interactive activities and quizzes.

STEP 4: Brainstorm your questions

Now you have explored different aspects of your topic, you may construct more focused questions (you can create a few questions and pick one later).

Learn more: 

• Clear and present questions: formulating questions for evidence based practice (Booth 2006) This article provides an overview of thinking in relation to the theory and practice of formulating answerable research questions.

STEP 5: Pick a question and focus

Once you have a few questions to choose from, pick one and refine it even further.

Are you required to use "PICO"?

• PICO worksheet
• Other frameworks

The PICO framework (or other variations) can be useful for developing an answerable clinical question. 

The example question used in this guide is a PICO question:   How does speech therapy compare to cognitive behavioural therapy in improving speech fluency in adolescents?

Use the interactive PICO worksheet to get started with your question, or you can download the worksheet document.

• Building your question with PICO

Here are some different frameworks you may want to use:

There are a number of PICO variations which can be used for different types of questions, such as qualitative, and background and foreground questions. Visit the Evidence-Based Practice (EBP) Guide to learn more:

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• Last Updated: Jul 30, 2024 12:42 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.unisa.edu.au/Chemistry

The text within this Guide is licensed CC BY 4.0 . Image licenses can be found within the image attributions document on the last page of the Guide. Ask the Library for information about reuse rights for other content within this Guide.

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• 10 Research Question Examples to Guide Your Research Project

10 Research Question Examples to Guide your Research Project

Published on October 30, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on October 19, 2023.

The research question is one of the most important parts of your research paper , thesis or dissertation . It’s important to spend some time assessing and refining your question before you get started.

The exact form of your question will depend on a few things, such as the length of your project, the type of research you’re conducting, the topic , and the research problem . However, all research questions should be focused, specific, and relevant to a timely social or scholarly issue.

Once you’ve read our guide on how to write a research question , you can use these examples to craft your own.

Note that the design of your research question can depend on what method you are pursuing. Here are a few options for qualitative, quantitative, and statistical research questions.

Other interesting articles

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, October 19). 10 Research Question Examples to Guide your Research Project. Scribbr. Retrieved September 3, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/research-process/research-question-examples/

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IB Chemistry EE examples

Filter exemplars, to what extent does the type of alcohol used in the fischer-speier esterification reaction affect the average rate of reaction as measured through back titration., how does 5g of different types of oils (palm oil, avocado oil, castor oil, and olive oil) contribute to the production of soap bars with a ph level closest to 7 measured at constant temperature (50°c) and after constant time of refluxing (30 minutes) through the saponification process, want to get full marks for your ee allow us to review it for you 🎯, how does the concentration of harpagoside, which is identified by the surface area of the spot on the chromatography paper, changes in the equine mane over the period of one month after gradual consumption of the supplement “devil’s claw”, how does the type of solvent (ethanol, propanone) and its solvent to water ratio (20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, 100% v/v) in the extraction of polyphenols via ultrasound-assisted extraction (uae), affect the total phenolic content extracted from rosemary (rosmarinus officinalis), quantified by folin-ciocalteu assay, what effect does changing the concentration of the reagent, chitosan glycolate solution, have on the formation rate and the di↵usion coecient observed in the formation of liesegang rings in the reaction of the polymer-analogous transformation, from salt to base, of chitosan, fast track your coursework with mark schemes moderated by ib examiners. upgrade now 🚀, how does varying the solution ph and sodium ethanoate concentration affect the rate and yield of ethane production from its electrolysis, how does the application of different corrosion inhibitors (green tea extract, acrylic paint, chrome plating) on iron affect the amount of rust produced and the rate of corrosion of an iron nail in a 3.5% nacl solution as measured through spectrophotometric and mass-loss methods, effect of storage temperature and time on the vitamin c concnetration in citrus fruit juices, “how quick is the rate of neutralization of 5 cm3, 1 m sodium hydroxide by fatty acids, produced through the hydrolysis of milk fat, catalyzed by lipase enzyme from different seeds”, how do benzodiazepine chemicals temazepam, triazolam, flurazepam, estazolam and midazolam, in certain anxiolytic and sleep-inducing pills, manipulate neurochemistry and metabolic rates to induce sleepiness and reduce insomnia, how does the amount of bioavailable lycopene in mg per 100 g of tomato pulp change with heat treatment for 15 minutes in 40, 60, 80, and 100 degrees celsius, investigated with spectrophotometry using wavelengths of length 503 nm, how does varying the adsorption duration (5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 minutes) and eggshell powder adsorbent dosage (0.10, 0.15, 0.20, 0.25, 0.30, 0.35 grams) affect the manganese(vii) ions concentration in wastewater, to what extent do the botanical origin of starch (potato, wheat, rice, cassava and corn) and different concentrations of glycerol (5.6×10-5 , 1.7×10- 4 and 2.8×10-4 in moldm-3) contribute to improving the tensile strength (calculated through young’s modulus) and biodegradability (tested through soil burial test) of the biodegradable plastic produced, which method of determination of the amount of copper in brass yields the most accurate result: iodometric titration, spectrophotometry or potentiometry, determining the total mass phenolic and the total mass flavonoid contents of 5 different apple varieties, how does varying steamed or non-steamed vegetables affect the content of iron present, including the effect on an anemic individual’s diet, to what extent does the pka of natural indicators, isobestic points and transmittance patterns vary from the pka of the universal indicator analysis by a spectrophotometer for finding the ideal indicator by prioritising its accessibility (cost of vegetables) and effectiveness for agricultural usage., what effects does varying the identity and concentration of cation in salt solutions; sodium chloride, potassium chloride and lithium chloride, have on aggregation of silver nanoparticles manufactured through a reduction reaction, how does the yield of synthesis gas obtained from pyrolysis compare to gasification in the chemical recycling of polyethene and polypropene, to what extent does the concentration of sulfuric acid in a lead-acid cell affect the voltage at the end of a discharge cycle and the accumulation of lead sulfate on a lead electrode at standard thermodynamic conditions, how does the storing time (8 years, 7 months, 5 months, 3 months, 1 month, 1 day) affect the composition of coca-cola drinks, considering h3po4 concentration and sugar content, is the amount of sulfur dioxide in disposable chopsticks a potential health hazard, an investigation into the effect of concentration of primary alcohols and hexane and the effect of the amount of carbon atoms within the alcohol to the enthalpy of combustion of the mixture, what is the effect of varying the amount of cac03 needed to reverse the effects of acid rain the acidity of soil", to what extent does the iodine value, and the acid value of the oil, and oxidative stability affect the hydrolysis rate of fatty acids in oil, an investigation into the chemiluminescence of luminol, comparison between the effects of the addition of various cations via salt solution on the aggregation of silver nanoparticles synthesized via the reduction method.

IB Chemistry Web

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Extended essay in chemistry

The following is an overview of the extended essay guidelines for chemistry (IBO documents)

An extended essay in chemistry provides students with an opportunity to investigate a particular aspect of the materials of our environment. Such extended essays must be characterized by a particular chemical emphasis within a more general set of research criteria.

The outcome of the research should be a coherent and structured piece of writing that effectively addresses a particular issue or research question and arrives at a particular, and preferably personal, conclusion.

Choice of topic

It is important that the extended essay has a clear chemical emphasis and is not more closely related to another subject. Chemistry is the science that deals with the composition, characterization and transformation of substances. A chemistry extended essay should, therefore, incorporate chemical principles and theory, and emphasize the essential nature of chemistry, relating to the study of matter and of the changes it undergoes.

Although the same assessment criteria apply to all extended essays, for an extended essay submitted in chemistry the topic chosen must allow an approach that distinctly involves chemistry. Where a topic might be approached from different viewpoints, the treatment of the material must be approached from a chemistry perspective. For example, an extended essay in an interdisciplinary area such as biochemistry will, if registered as a chemistry extended essay, be judged on its chemical content, not its biological content.

The scope of the topic and the research associated with it should enable all the criteria to be addressed. A good topic is one where the single research question is sharply focused and can be treated effectively within the word limit. Perhaps the most important factor is the depth of treatment that can be given to the topic by the student. Broad or complex survey topics (for example, investigations into health problems caused by water pollution, chemotherapy for cancer treatment or the use of spectroscopy in chemical analysis) will not permit the student to discuss conflicting ideas and theories, nor to produce an in-depth personal analysis within the word limit.

Some topics may be unsuitable for investigation because of safety issues. For example, experiments involving toxic or dangerous chemicals, carcinogenic substances or radioactive materials should be avoided unless adequate safety apparatus and qualified supervision are available.

Other topics may be unsuitable because the outcome is already well known and documented in standard textbooks, and the student may not be able to show any personal input. An example might be a study of the reactions of the alkali metals with water as this is already covered by the syllabus. However, some care does need to be exercised in deciding whether a topic is suitable or not; for example, previously, the study of the allotropes of carbon might have been thought to be trivial but this would not be the case today.

Example essay titles

The following examples of titles for chemistry extended essays are intended as guidance only. The pairings illustrate that focused topics (indicated by the first title) should be encouraged rather than broad topics (indicated by the second title).

“The ratio of the gases evolved at the positive electrode during the electrolysis of common salt solution” is better than “Electrolysis of solutions”.

“Spectrophotometric determination of trace amounts of lead in drinking water” is better than “Water analysis”.

“The effects of sugar-free chewing gum on the pH of saliva in the mouth after a meal” is better than “Acid–base chemistry”.

“How can the natural oxidant rutin be extracted and purified from the seed of the Chinese Scholartree?” is better than “Extraction of natural products from plants”.

Moreover, it may help if the student further defines and refines the topic chosen for study in the form of a research question or statement.

The ratio of the gases evolved at the positive electrode during the electrolysis of common salt solution

Research question

Is there a relationship between the concentration of aqueous sodium chloride solution and the ratio of the amounts of oxygen and chlorine gas that are evolved at the positive electrode during electrolysis.

The caffeine content of a cup of tea

Does the time it takes to brew a cup of tea using a specific commercial brand of tea leaves significantly alter the amount of caffeine that is dissolved in the drink?

Analysis of strawberry jellies by paper chromatography

The use of paper chromatography to determine whether strawberry jellies obtained from 24 different countries in 5 different continents all contain the same red dyes.

Treatment of the topic

An extended essay in chemistry may be based on literature, theoretical models or experimental data. Whichever category or combination of categories is chosen, the student should ensure that sufficient data is available for evaluation and that the topic can be researched accurately using locally available resources.

Students who choose to write an extended essay based on literature and/or surveys should ensure that their extended essay clearly shows its chemical basis. Essays written at the level of a newspaper or news magazine article are unlikely to achieve a high mark.

Since chemistry is an experimental science, students are strongly encouraged to undertake experimental work as part of their research, although this is not compulsory. In order to place their research into the appropriate context, students should research the area of the investigation before commencing any experimental work. Where possible, they should consult original research using scientific journals, personal communications and the internet. Textbooks should never be the only source of information.

All essays involving experimental work undertaken by the student should include a clear and concise description of the experimental work. Students should indicate clearly whether they have personally designed the experiment, or give the source of an existing experiment method that they have used and state how they have adapted and improved upon it. All essays must be supervised by a school supervisor.

Many of the best essays are written by students investigating relatively simple phenomena using apparatus and materials that can be found in most school laboratories, and this approach is to be encouraged. If the practical work is carried out in an industrial or university laboratory, the essay should be accompanied by a letter from the external supervisor outlining the nature of the supervision and the level of guidance provided. The school supervisor must be satisfied that the work described in the essay is genuine and essentially that of the student.

Data collected from an experiment designed by the student is of little value unless it is analysed using appropriate scientific techniques, evaluated and perhaps compared with appropriate models.

It is possible to produce an extended essay in chemistry in which the student has used data collected elsewhere as the primary source. In such cases, the element of personal analysis and evaluation is extremely important.

In any chemistry extended essay, students should be able to demonstrate that they understand the theory underlying any experimental work and state any assumptions made. They should show an understanding of the results obtained and be able to interpret them with reference to the research question posed. They should be critical of inadequate experimental design, the limitations of the experimental method and any systematic errors.

Students should be encouraged to consider unresolved questions in their research, and to suggest new questions and areas for further investigation in their conclusion. Throughout the whole of the essay, students should emphasize clearly their own personal contribution.

Interpreting the assessment criteria

Criterion A: research question

Many research questions can be formulated as an actual question or questions. A typical example is: “What gas is evolved when zinc is added to copper (II) sulfate solution and what factors affect its formation?”. However, in chemistry extended essays it is perfectly reasonable to formulate the research question as a statement or as a hypothesis rather than an actual question. “An analysis of the amount of aluminium in three different brands of underarm deodorant by visible spectroscopy” and “The kinetics of oxidation of iodide ions with hydrogen peroxide in acidic solutions” are two such examples where a statement rather than a question is appropriate. Whichever way it is formulated, it should be identified clearly as the research question and set out prominently in the introduction.

Criterion B: introduction

The purpose of the introduction is to set the research question into context, that is, to relate the research question to existing knowledge in chemistry. It is usually appropriate to include also the underlying chemical theory required to understand how the research question has arisen. Some research questions require some background knowledge that is not related to chemistry—for example, “Do the fossils found in different strata of rocks at a particular location contain different amounts of sulfur?” . For the essay to make sense, it would be important to state the ages of the rocks and give some geological background. In such cases, only the essential non-chemistry information should be provided in the introduction, as the essay will be marked on its chemical content. If it is necessary to include more non-chemistry (for example, geological) information, then the appropriate place for it is the appendix.

Criterion C: investigation

The way in which the investigation is undertaken will depend very much on whether or not the essay contains experimental work performed by the student. For non-experimental essays, students should endeavour to show clearly how the data has been selected. They should distinguish between primary sources (original scientific publications, personal communications, interviews) and secondary sources (textbooks, newspaper articles, reviews), and show awareness of how reliable these sources are. For experimental work, sufficient information should be provided so that the work could be repeated if necessary by an independent worker. Students should make it clear which experiments they have designed themselves and which they have altered, adapted or improved from existing methods.

Criterion D: knowledge and understanding of the topic studied

Students should show that they understand fully the underlying chemistry behind the context of their research question and their subsequent investigation. They are not expected to explain basic chemistry forming part of the Diploma Programme chemistry course, but they are expected to show that they fully understand the relevant principles and ideas and can apply them correctly. They should also demonstrate that they understand the theory behind any techniques or apparatus used.

Criterion E: reasoned argument

Students should be aware of the need to give their essays the backbone of a developing argument. A good argument in chemistry will almost certainly include consideration and comparison of different approaches and methods directly relevant to the research question. Straightforward descriptive or narrative accounts that lack analysis do not usually advance an argument and should be avoided.

Criterion F: application of analytical and evaluative skills appropriate to the subject

A thorough understanding of the reliability of all data used to support the argument should be shown. Inadequate experimental design or any systematic errors should be exposed. The magnitude of uncertainties in physical data should be evaluated and discussed. Approximations in models should be accounted for and all assumptions examined thoroughly. Where possible, the quality of sources accessed or data generated should be verified by secondary sources or by direct calculations.

Criterion G: use of language appropriate to the subject

Correct chemical terminology and nomenclature should be used consistently and effectively throughout the extended essay. Relevant chemical formulas (including structural formulas), balanced equations (including state symbols) and mechanisms should be included. The correct units for physical quantities must always be given and the proper use of significant figures is expected.

Criterion H: conclusion

The conclusion must be consistent with the argument presented and should not merely repeat material in the introduction or introduce new or extraneous points to the argument. In chemistry, it is almost always pertinent to consider unresolved questions and to suggest areas for further investigation.

Criterion I: formal presentation

This criterion relates to the extent to which the essay conforms to academic standards about the way in which research papers should be presented. The presentation of essays that omit a bibliography or that do not give references is deemed unacceptable (level 0). Essays that omit one of the required elements—title page, table of contents, page numbers—are deemed no better than satisfactory (maximum level 2), while essays that omit two of them are deemed poor at best (maximum level 1).

The essay must not exceed 4,000 words of narrative. Graphs, figures, calculations, diagrams, formulas and equations are not included in the word count. For experiments where numerical results are calculated from data obtained by changing one of the variables, it is generally good practice to show one example of the calculation. The remainder can be displayed in tabular or graphical form.

Criterion J: abstract

The abstract is judged on the clarity with which it presents an overview of the research and the essay, not on the quality of the research question itself, nor on the quality of the argument or the conclusions.

Criterion K: holistic judgment

Qualities that are rewarded under this criterion include the following.

Intellectual initiative: Ways of demonstrating this in chemistry essays include the choice of topic and research question, and the use of novel or innovative approaches to address the research question.

Insight and depth of understanding: These are most likely to be demonstrated as a consequence of detailed research and thorough reflection, and by a well-informed and reasoned argument that consistently and effectively addresses the research question.

Originality and creativity: These will be apparent by clear evidence of a personal approach backed up by solid research and reasoning.

The assessment criteria

Past essay titles

• Chemistry Research Strategies & Tools

Develop a Research Question

• Conduct Background Research
• Search Your Library's Discovery Tool
• Search in General & Subject Specific Databases
• Search Popular Search Engines
• Use Findings to Inform Further Searching
• Information as Tool
• Final Thought
• Library Support

All research begins with a question, a research question .

A research question is a statement that identifies a narrow area of inquiry related to a specific problem and/or gap in knowledge .

• Effective research questions are specific in that they define a narrow topic to investigate. Topics that are overly broad result in shallow, superficial research projects and are difficult to investigate due to an overwhelming amount of available information on the topic. Likewise, overly broad research questions often lack a clear focus and result in poorly executed research projects. A narrow research question allows one to focus on one topic and to go in depth in the space allowed in a relatively short research project, such as an essay or poster presentation.
• The specific problem and or gap in knowledge is the question that you need to resolve through finding and applying new information. In college, this is often found in the assignment given by an instructor. However, it's not uncommon for instructors to ask students to identify their own question to resolve.

What were Alice Ball's most notable scientific achievements, and what significant biographical details are known about Alice Ball?

Another benefit of an effective research question is that they help identify initial search terms with which to begin searching databases. To identify initial search terms using a research question, look for central concepts that you need to know more about to answer the question. In the example above, "Alice Ball" is an excellent search term to start with because she is the notable historical figure at the heart of this hypothetical research project, and it is important to locate content related to her life and achievements. As you learn more about a topic, you can include additional search terms to further refine your search.

Finally, an effective research question provides a clear road map to completing a research project. A research question limits the amount and kind of information needed to only that which answers the question and provides a clear target for completion. A research project is complete when it answers its research question.

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Developing a Research Question

From Laurier Library. 

Selecting and Narrowing a Topic

Choose an area of interest to explore. .

For you to successfully finish a research project, it is important to choose a research topic that is relevant to your field of study and piques your curiosity. The flip side is that curiosity can take you down long and winding paths, so you also need to consider scope in how to effectively cover the topic in the space that you have available. If there's an idea or concept you've recently learned that's stuck with you, that might be a good place to start !

Gather background information.

You may not know right away what your research question is - that's okay! Start out with a broad topic, and see what information is out there through cursory background research. This will help you explore possibilities and narrow your topic to something manageable.    Do a few quick searches in OneSearch@IU  or in other relevant sources. See what other researchers have already written to help narrow your focus.  

Narrow your topic.

  Once you have a sense of how other researchers are talking about the topics you’re interested, narrow down your topic by asking the 5 Ws

• Who – population or group (e.g., working class, college students, Native Americans)
• What – discipline or focus (e.g., anthropological or art history)
• Where – geographic location (e.g., United States; universities; small towns; Standing Rock)
• When – time period or era (17 th century; contemporary; 2017)
• Why – why is the topic important? (to the class, to the field, or to you)

Broad topic: Native American representations in museums

Narrowed topic: Museum efforts to adhere to NAGPRA

Adapted from: University of Michigan. (2023 Finding and Exploring your topic. Retrieved from  https://guides.lib.umich.edu/c.php?g=283095&p=1886086

From Topic to Research Question

So, you have done some background research and narrowed down your topic. Now what? Start to turn that topic into a series of questions that you will attempt to answer the course of your research.  Keep in mind that you will probably end up changing and adjusting the question(s) you have as you gather more information and synthesize it in your writing. However, having a clear line of inquiry can help you maintain a sense of your direction, which will then in turn help you evaluate sources and identify relevant information throughout your research process. 

Exploratory questions.

These are the questions that comes from a genuine curiosity about your topic. When narrowing down your topic, you got a good sense of the Who, What, When, and Where of things. Now it’s time to consider

• Asking open-ended “how” and “why” questions about your general topic, which can lead you to better explanations about a phenomenon or concept
• Consider the “so what?” of your topic. Why does this topic matter to you? Why should it matter to others? What are the implications of the information you’re discovering through the search process to the Who and the What of your topic?

Evaluate your research question.

Use the following to determine if any of the questions you generated would be appropriate and workable for your assignment. 

• Is your question clear ? Do you have a specific aspect of your general topic that you are going to explore further? Will the reader of your research be able to keep it in mind?
• Is your question focused? Will you be able to cover the topic adequately in the space available? Are you able to concisely ask the question?
• Is your question and arguable ? If it can be answered with a simple Yes or No, then dig deeper. Once you get to “it depends on X, Y, and Z” then you might be getting on the right track.

Hypothesize. 

Once you have developed your research question, consider how you will attempt to answer or address it. 

• What connections can you make between the research you’ve read and your research question? Why do those connections matter?
• What other kinds of sources will you need in order to support your argument?
• If someone refutes the answer to your research question, what is your argument to back up your conclusion?
• How might others challenge your argument? Why do those challenges ultimately not hold water?

Adapted from: George Mason University Writing Center. (2018). How to write a research question. Retrieved from  https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/writing-resources/research-based-writing/how-to-write-a-research-question

Sample research questions.

A good research question is clear, focused, and has an appropriate level of complexity. Developing a strong question is a process, so you will likely refine your question as you continue to research and to develop your ideas.  

Unclear : Why are social networking sites harmful?

Clear:  How are online users experiencing or addressing privacy issues on such social networking sites as Facebook and TikTok?

Unfocused:  What is the effect on the environment from global warming?

Focused:  How is glacial melting affecting penguins in Antarctica?

Simple vs Complex

Too simple:  How are doctors addressing diabetes in the U.S.?

Appropriately Complex:   What are common traits of those suffering from diabetes in America, and how can these commonalities be used to aid the medical community in prevention of the disease?

General Online Reference Sources

Reference sources like dictionaries and encylopedias provide general information about various subjects. They also include definitions that may help you break down your topic and understand it better. Sources includes in these entries can be springboards for more in-depth research.

A note on citation: Reference sources are generally not cited since they usually consist of common knowledge (e.g. who was the first United States President).  But if you're unsure whether to cite something it's best to do so. Specific pieces of information and direct quotes should always be cited. 

Reference resources from the Oxford University Press. Includes English dictionaries and thesauruses, English language reference books, bilingual dictionaries, quotations, maps and illustrations, timelines and subject reference sources.

Database of encyclopedias and specialized reference sources.

Encyclopedias and specialized reference resources in: Arts, Biography, History, Information and Publishing, Law, Literature, Medicine, Multicultural Studies, Nation and World, Religion, Science, Social Science

Why Use References Sources

Reference sources are a great place to begin your research. They can help you:

• gain an overview of a topic
• explore potential research areas
• identify key issues, publications, or authors in your research area

From here, you can narrow your search topic and look at more specialized sources.

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Undergraduate Research in Chemistry Guide

Research is the pursuit of new knowledge through the process of discovery. Scientific research involves diligent inquiry and systematic observation of phenomena. Most scientific research projects involve experimentation, often requiring testing the effect of changing conditions on the results. The conditions under which specific observations are made must be carefully controlled, and records must be meticulously maintained. This ensures that observations and results can be are reproduced. Scientific research can be basic (fundamental) or applied. What is the difference? The National Science Foundation uses the following definitions in its resource surveys:

• Basic research The objective of basic research is to gain more comprehensive knowledge or understanding of the subject under study, without specific applications in mind. In industry, basic research is defined as research that advances scientific knowledge but does not have specific immediate commercial objectives, although it may be in fields of present or potential commercial interest.
• Applied research Applied research is aimed at gaining knowledge or understanding to determine the means by which a specific, recognized need may be met. In industry, applied research includes investigations oriented to discovering new scientific knowledge that has specific commercial objectives with respect to products, processes, or services.

Planning for Graduate School

Get on the path to graduate school with our comprehensive guide to selecting an institution and preparing for graduate studies.

What is research at the undergraduate level?

At the undergraduate level, research is self-directed work under the guidance and supervision of a mentor/advisor ― usually a university professor. A gradual transition towards independence is encouraged as a student gains confidence and is able to work with minor supervision. Students normally participate in an ongoing research project and investigate phenomena of interest to them and their advisor. In the chemical sciences, the range of research areas is quite broad. A few groups maintain their research area within a single classical field of analytical, inorganic, organic, physical, chemical education or theoretical chemistry. More commonly, research groups today are interdisciplinary, crossing boundaries across fields and across other disciplines, such as physics, biology, materials science, engineering and medicine.

What are the benefits of being involved in undergraduate research?

There are many benefits to undergraduate research, but the most important are:

• Learning, learning, learning. Most chemists learn by working in a laboratory setting. Information learned in the classroom is more clearly understood and it is more easily remembered once it has been put into practice. This knowledge expands through experience and further reading. From the learning standpoint, research is an extremely productive cycle.
• Experiencing chemistry in a real world setting. The equipment, instrumentation and materials used in research labs are generally more sophisticated, advanced, and of far better quality than those used in lab courses
• Getting the excitement of discovery. If science is truly your vocation, regardless of any negative results, the moment of discovery will be truly exhilarating. Your results are exclusive. No one has ever seen them before.
• Preparing for graduate school. A graduate degree in a chemistry-related science is mostly a research degree. Undergraduate research will not only give you an excellent foundation, but working alongside graduate students and post-doctorates will provide you with a unique opportunity to learn what it will be like.

Is undergraduate research required for graduation?

Many chemistry programs now require undergraduate research for graduation. There are plenty of opportunities for undergraduate students to get involved in research, either during the academic year, summer, or both. If your home institution is not research intensive, you may find opportunities at other institutions, government labs, and industries.

What will I learn by participating in an undergraduate research program?

Conducting a research project involves a series of steps that start at the inquiry level and end in a report. In the process, you learn to:

• Conduct scientific literature searches
• Read, interpret and extract information from journal articles relevant to the project
• Design experimental procedures to obtain data and/or products of interest
• Operate instruments and implement laboratory techniques not usually available in laboratories associated with course work
• Interpret results, reach conclusions, and generate new ideas based on results
• Interact professionally (and socially) with students and professors within the research group, department and school as well as others from different schools, countries, cultures and backgrounds
• Communicate results orally and in writing to other peers, mentors, faculty advisors, and members of the scientific community at large via the following informal group meeting presentations, reports to mentor/advisor, poster presentations at college-wide, regional, national or international meetings; formal oral presentations at scientific meetings; or journal articles prepared for publication

When should I get involved in undergraduate research?

Chemistry is an experimental science. We recommended that you get involved in research as early in your college life as possible. Ample undergraduate research experience gives you an edge in the eyes of potential employers and graduate programs.

While most mentors prefer to accept students in their research labs once they have developed some basic lab skills through general and organic lab courses, some institutions have programs that involve students in research projects the summer prior to their freshman year. Others even involve senior high school students in summer research programs. Ask your academic/departmental advisor about the options available to you.

How much time should I allocate to research?

The quick answer is as much as possible without jeopardizing your course work. The rule of thumb is to spend 3 to 4 hours working in the lab for every credit hour in which you enroll. However, depending on the project, some progress can be achieved in just 3-4 hours of research/week. Most advisors would recommend 8-10 hours/week.

Depending on your project, a few of those hours may be of intense work and the rest may be spent simply monitoring the progress of a reaction or an instrumental analysis. Many research groups work on weekends. Saturdays are excellent days for long, uninterrupted periods of lab work.

How do I select an advisor?

This is probably the most important step in getting involved in undergraduate research. The best approach is multifaceted. Get informed about research areas and projects available in your department, which are usually posted on your departmental website under each professor’s name.

Talk to other students who are already involved in research. If your school has an ACS Student Chapter , make a point to talk to the chapter’s members. Ask your current chemistry professor and lab instructor for advice. They can usually guide you in the right direction. If a particular research area catches your interest, make an appointment with the corresponding professor.

Let the professor know that you are considering getting involved in research, you have read a bit about her/his research program, and that you would like to find out more. Professors understand that students are not experts in the field, and they will explain their research at a level that you will be able to follow. Here are some recommended questions to ask when you meet with this advisor:

• Is there a project(s) within her/his research program suitable for an undergraduate student?
• Does she/he have a position/space in the lab for you?
• If you were to work in her/his lab, would you be supervised directly by her/him or by a graduate student? If it is a graduate student, make a point of meeting with the student and other members of the research group. Determine if their schedule matches yours. A night owl may not be able to work effectively with a morning person.
• Does she/he have funding to support the project? Unfunded projects may indicate that there may not be enough resources in the lab to carry out the project to completion. It may also be an indication that funding agencies/peers do not consider this work sufficiently important enough for funding support. Of course there are exceptions. For example, a newly hired assistant professor may not have external funding yet, but he/she may have received “start-up funds” from the university and certainly has the vote of confidence of the rest of the faculty. Otherwise he/she would not have been hired. Another classical exception is computational chemistry research, for which mostly fast computers are necessary and therefore external funding is needed to support research assistants and computer equipment only. No chemicals, glassware, or instrumentation will be found in a computational chemistry lab.
• How many of his/her articles got published in the last two or three years? When prior work has been published, it is a good indicator that the research is considered worthwhile by the scientific community that reviews articles for publication. Ask for printed references. Number of publications in reputable refereed journals (for example ACS journals) is an excellent indicator of the reputation of the researcher and the quality of his/her work.

Here is one last piece of advice: If the project really excites you and you get satisfactory answers to all your questions, make sure that you and the advisor will get along and that you will enjoy working with him/her and other members of the research group.

Remember that this advisor may be writing recommendation letters on your behalf to future employers, graduate schools, etc., so you want to leave a good impression. To do this, you should understand that the research must move forward and that if you become part of a research team, you should do your best to achieve this goal. At the same time, your advisor should understand your obligations to your course work and provide you with a degree of flexibility.

Ultimately, it is your responsibility to do your best on both course work and research. Make sure that the advisor is committed to supervising you as much as you are committed to doing the required work and putting in the necessary/agreed upon hours.

What are some potential challenges?

• Time management . Each project is unique, and it will be up to you and your supervisor to decide when to be in the lab and how to best utilize the time available to move the project forward.
• Different approaches and styles . Not everyone is as clean and respectful of the equipment of others as you are. Not everyone is as punctual as you are. Not everyone follows safety procedures as diligently as you do. Some groups have established protocols for keeping the lab and equipment clean, for borrowing equipment from other members, for handling common equipment, for research meetings, for specific safety procedures, etc. Part of learning to work in a team is to avoid unnecessary conflict while establishing your ground to doing your work efficiently.
• “The project does not work.” This is a statement that advisors commonly hear from students. Although projects are generally very well conceived, and it is people that make projects work, the nature of research is such that it requires patience, perseverance, critical thinking, and on many occasions, a change in direction. Thoroughness, attention to detail, and comprehensive notes are crucial when reporting the progress of a project.

Be informed, attentive, analytical, and objective. Read all the background information. Read user manuals for instruments and equipment. In many instances the reason for failure may be related to dirty equipment, contaminated reagents, improperly set instruments, poorly chosen conditions, lack of thoroughness, and/or lack of resourcefulness. Repeating a procedure while changing one parameter may work sometimes, while repeating the procedure multiple times without systematic changes and observations probably will not.

When reporting failures or problems, make sure that you have all details at hand. Be thorough in you assessment. Then ask questions. Advisors usually have sufficient experience to detect errors in procedures and are able to lead you in the right direction when the student is able to provide all the necessary details. They also have enough experience to know when to change directions. Many times one result may be unexpected, but it may be interesting enough to lead the investigation into a totally different avenue. Communicate with your advisor/mentor often.

Are there places other than my institution where I can conduct research?

Absolutely! Your school may be close to other universities, government labs and/or industries that offer part-time research opportunities during the academic year. There may also be summer opportunities in these institutions as well as in REU sites (see next question).

Contact your chemistry department advisor first. He/she may have some information readily available for you. You can also contact nearby universities, local industries and government labs directly or through the career center at your school. You can also find listings through ACS resources:

• Research Opportunities (US only)
• International Research Opportunities
• Internships and Summer Jobs

What are Research Experiences for Undergraduates (REU) sites? When should I apply for a position in one of them?

REU is a program established by the National Science Foundation (NSF) to support active research participation by undergraduate students at host institutions in the United States or abroad. An REU site may offer projects within a single department/discipline or it may have projects that are inter-departmental and interdisciplinary. There are currently over 70 domestic and approximately 5 international REU sites with a chemistry theme. Sites consist of 10-12 students each, although there are larger sites that supplement NSF funding with other sources. Students receive stipends and, in most cases, assistance with housing and travel.

Most REU sites invite rising juniors and rising seniors to participate in research during the summer. Experience in research is not required to apply, except for international sites where at least one semester or summer of prior research experience is recommended. Applications usually open around November or December for participation during the following summer. Undergraduate students supported with NSF funds must be citizens or permanent residents of the United States or its possessions. Some REU sites with supplementary funds from other sources may accept international students that are enrolled at US institutions.

• Get more information about REU sites

How do I prepare a scientific research poster?

Here are some links to sites with very useful information and samples.

• How to Prepare a Proper Scientific Paper or Poster
• Creating Effective Poster Presentations
• Designing Effective Poster Presentations

Research and Internship Opportunities

• Internships and Fellowships Find internships, fellowships, and cooperative education opportunities.
• SCI Scholars Internship Program Industrial internships for chemistry and chemical engineering undergraduates.
• ACS International Center Fellowships, scholarships, and research opportunities around the globe

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Research Question Examples 🧑🏻‍🏫

25+ Practical Examples & Ideas To Help You Get Started 

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | October 2023

A well-crafted research question (or set of questions) sets the stage for a robust study and meaningful insights.  But, if you’re new to research, it’s not always clear what exactly constitutes a good research question. In this post, we’ll provide you with clear examples of quality research questions across various disciplines, so that you can approach your research project with confidence!

Research Question Examples

• Psychology research questions
• Business research questions
• Education research questions
• Healthcare research questions
• Computer science research questions

Examples: Psychology

Let’s start by looking at some examples of research questions that you might encounter within the discipline of psychology.

How does sleep quality affect academic performance in university students?

This question is specific to a population (university students) and looks at a direct relationship between sleep and academic performance, both of which are quantifiable and measurable variables.

What factors contribute to the onset of anxiety disorders in adolescents?

The question narrows down the age group and focuses on identifying multiple contributing factors. There are various ways in which it could be approached from a methodological standpoint, including both qualitatively and quantitatively.

Do mindfulness techniques improve emotional well-being?

This is a focused research question aiming to evaluate the effectiveness of a specific intervention.

How does early childhood trauma impact adult relationships?

This research question targets a clear cause-and-effect relationship over a long timescale, making it focused but comprehensive.

Is there a correlation between screen time and depression in teenagers?

This research question focuses on an in-demand current issue and a specific demographic, allowing for a focused investigation. The key variables are clearly stated within the question and can be measured and analysed (i.e., high feasibility).

Examples: Business/Management

Next, let’s look at some examples of well-articulated research questions within the business and management realm.

How do leadership styles impact employee retention?

This is an example of a strong research question because it directly looks at the effect of one variable (leadership styles) on another (employee retention), allowing from a strongly aligned methodological approach.

What role does corporate social responsibility play in consumer choice?

Current and precise, this research question can reveal how social concerns are influencing buying behaviour by way of a qualitative exploration.

Does remote work increase or decrease productivity in tech companies?

Focused on a particular industry and a hot topic, this research question could yield timely, actionable insights that would have high practical value in the real world.

How do economic downturns affect small businesses in the homebuilding industry?

Vital for policy-making, this highly specific research question aims to uncover the challenges faced by small businesses within a certain industry.

Which employee benefits have the greatest impact on job satisfaction?

By being straightforward and specific, answering this research question could provide tangible insights to employers.

Examples: Education

Next, let’s look at some potential research questions within the education, training and development domain.

How does class size affect students’ academic performance in primary schools?

This example research question targets two clearly defined variables, which can be measured and analysed relatively easily.

Do online courses result in better retention of material than traditional courses?

Timely, specific and focused, answering this research question can help inform educational policy and personal choices about learning formats.

What impact do US public school lunches have on student health?

Targeting a specific, well-defined context, the research could lead to direct changes in public health policies.

To what degree does parental involvement improve academic outcomes in secondary education in the Midwest?

This research question focuses on a specific context (secondary education in the Midwest) and has clearly defined constructs.

What are the negative effects of standardised tests on student learning within Oklahoma primary schools?

This research question has a clear focus (negative outcomes) and is narrowed into a very specific context.

Need a helping hand?

Examples: Healthcare

Shifting to a different field, let’s look at some examples of research questions within the healthcare space.

What are the most effective treatments for chronic back pain amongst UK senior males?

Specific and solution-oriented, this research question focuses on clear variables and a well-defined context (senior males within the UK).

How do different healthcare policies affect patient satisfaction in public hospitals in South Africa?

This question is has clearly defined variables and is narrowly focused in terms of context.

Which factors contribute to obesity rates in urban areas within California?

This question is focused yet broad, aiming to reveal several contributing factors for targeted interventions.

Does telemedicine provide the same perceived quality of care as in-person visits for diabetes patients?

Ideal for a qualitative study, this research question explores a single construct (perceived quality of care) within a well-defined sample (diabetes patients).

Which lifestyle factors have the greatest affect on the risk of heart disease?

This research question aims to uncover modifiable factors, offering preventive health recommendations.

Examples: Computer Science

Last but certainly not least, let’s look at a few examples of research questions within the computer science world.

What are the perceived risks of cloud-based storage systems?

Highly relevant in our digital age, this research question would align well with a qualitative interview approach to better understand what users feel the key risks of cloud storage are.

Which factors affect the energy efficiency of data centres in Ohio?

With a clear focus, this research question lays a firm foundation for a quantitative study.

How do TikTok algorithms impact user behaviour amongst new graduates?

While this research question is more open-ended, it could form the basis for a qualitative investigation.

What are the perceived risk and benefits of open-source software software within the web design industry?

Practical and straightforward, the results could guide both developers and end-users in their choices.

Remember, these are just examples…

In this post, we’ve tried to provide a wide range of research question examples to help you get a feel for what research questions look like in practice. That said, it’s important to remember that these are just examples and don’t necessarily equate to good research topics . If you’re still trying to find a topic, check out our topic megalist for inspiration.

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Job-Winning Chemistry Teacher Resume Example & Tips

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• • Developed and implemented engaging chemistry curriculum that improved student proficiency by 20%, resulting in a higher overall grade average.
• • Incorporated digital learning tools to facilitate remote learning sessions, ensuring consistent student participation and understanding.
• • Led a team of five teachers to design a cross-disciplinary STEM project, enhancing student interest in scientific fields.
• • Organized after-school chemistry clubs that saw a 30% increase in student attendance, fostering a love for the subject.
• • Implemented formative assessment strategies, providing targeted feedback and supporting student growth and understanding.
• • Coordinated with parents and guardians to communicate student progress, resulting in a 15% improvement in parent-teacher interaction.
• • Assisted in the development of lesson plans that were aligned with the state standards, contributing to a more focused curriculum.
• • Supported lead teachers in classroom management and student engagement, ensuring a productive learning environment.
• • Participated in professional development workshops to enhance teaching skills, specifically in the area of chemical safety protocols.
• • Facilitated small group tutoring sessions that improved student understanding and performance, with an observed 10% increase in test scores.
• • Conducted lab experiments and demonstrations, engaging students with hands-on learning experiences tied directly to the curriculum.

Chemistry teachers light up classrooms with their passion and knowledge, nurturing the next generation of scientists. They break down complex concepts into digestible lessons, turning abstract theories into tangible understanding. These educators play a pivotal role in shaping students' futures, igniting curiosity and inspiring innovation.

A great chemistry teacher must possess a strong grasp of subject matter, excellent communication skills, and an inspiring teaching style. They are valued for their ability to create engaging lesson plans, manage a dynamic classroom, and assess students' progress effectively. When writing your Chemistry Teacher resume, highlight your educational background, teaching experience, and any unique skills that set you apart.

How to Structure a Job-Winning Chemistry Teacher Resume

When crafting a resume for a chemistry teacher position, certain main sections must be present to effectively communicate your experience and credentials.

• Contact information: Include your full name, phone number, email address, and physical address. This section is crucial as it allows potential employers to quickly get in touch with you. Make it easy to read by placing it at the top of your resume.
• Professional summary: Write a brief statement highlighting your career goals, teaching philosophy, and key qualifications. This helps set the tone for your resume and gives employers a snapshot of what you bring to the table. Keep it clear and concise to spark interest.
• Work experience: List your teaching positions in reverse chronological order, detailing your roles and responsibilities. Highlighting your job history demonstrates your practical experience in a classroom setting. Using bullet points for each role can ensure readability.
• Education: Include your degrees, the institutions where you earned them, and the dates you attended. Detail any relevant coursework or honors received during your studies. This section shows your foundational knowledge and formal training in chemistry.
• Certifications and licenses: List any teaching certifications or licenses you possess, including the dates you obtained them. This emphasizes that you meet legal and professional requirements. It reassures employers of your qualifications and readiness to teach.

Beyond the main sections, additional parts of your resume can further highlight your competencies and achievements.

• Professional development: Detail workshops, seminars, or conferences you have attended or presented at. Continuous learning shows your commitment to staying current with educational trends and scientific advancements. This can differentiate you from other candidates.
• Skills: Enumerate both your hard and soft skills relevant to teaching chemistry. Highlighting these skills helps employers understand your capabilities beyond your job titles and education. Including technology skills can be particularly beneficial in modern classrooms.
• Publications and research: Include any papers or articles you've written, along with research projects you have been involved in. This section showcases your expertise and contributions to the field of chemistry. Sharing your work publicly may establish your credibility and thought leadership.

Top Hard Skills for Chemistry Teacher Resumes

• Analytical Techniques
• Laboratory Skills
• Chemical Safety
• Chromatography
• Spectroscopy
• Data Analysis
• Scientific Writing
• Curriculum Development
• Lesson Planning
• Technology Integration

Top Soft Skills for Chemistry Teacher Resumes

• Communication
• Problem-Solving
• Adaptability
• Collaboration
• Organization
• Time Management

Top Action Verbs for Chemistry Teacher Resumes

• Implemented
• Facilitated
• Coordinated
• Experimented
• Collaborated

Frequently Asked Questions

How long should my chemistry teacher resume be.

Your Chemistry Teacher resume should ideally be one to two pages long. Keeping it concise ensures you present the most relevant and impactful information without overwhelming the reader. For those with less experience, one page is usually sufficient to cover your education, relevant skills, and any teaching experience you might have. Seasoned professionals might need two pages to cover years of teaching, relevant research, and additional qualifications in the field of chemistry.

What is the best format for a Chemistry Teacher resume?

For a Chemistry Teacher resume, the reverse-chronological format is often the most effective. This format highlights your most recent experience first, which is typically the most relevant to potential employers. Starting with your current or most recent position, you showcase your professional growth and the progression of your teaching career. It allows hiring managers to see a clear timeline of your work experience, education, and any other qualifications you bring to the table.

What should I highlight on my Chemistry Teacher resume to stand out?

Your Chemistry Teacher resume should emphasize your teaching experience, subject-matter expertise, and contributions to student success. Highlight your ability to develop engaging lesson plans, your experience with various teaching methods, and any positive outcomes from your teaching, such as improved student performance. Additionally, showcasing any special projects you've managed, like science fairs or lab improvements, can make your resume stand out.

What are some ways to quantify my experience on my Chemistry Teacher resume?

Quantifying your experience on your Chemistry Teacher resume can make your qualifications more tangible. You might include the number of students you've taught, the percentage by which you've improved test scores, or the number of successful laboratory experiences you've supervised. Mentioning specific achievements, like securing grant funding for new classroom equipment or leading a team of teachers in curriculum development, can also add valuable metrics to your resume.

For more inspiration, why not check out our free resource of job-focused resume examples?

College Teacher

College Teachers are the cornerstone of academic enlightenment, fostering growth and curiosity in students. They bridge the gap between raw potential and polished skill, guiding young minds toward their futures. Their passion for teaching ignites a spark that can illuminate a lifetime of learning. To be an effective College Teacher, you must possess excellent communication skills, deep subject knowledge, and the ability to inspire students. Your ability to design engaging curriculum and mentor students will be highly valued during the hiring process. A College Teacher resume should highlight your teaching experience, achievements, and commitment to student success.

History Teacher

History Teachers hold the keys to understanding our past, shaping our present, and guiding our future. They turn ancient events and figures into vivid, memorable stories for students. Without them, we'd lose sight of the rich tapestries of human experience that inform our world today. You, the History Teacher, must possess a knack for storytelling and rigorous research skills. Employers will value your ability to engage students through interactive lessons and critical thinking activities. Therefore, your History Teacher resume should highlight these capabilities clearly and compellingly.

Math Teacher

Math teachers are the torchbearers of a subject that underpins much of our daily lives, including technological advancements and scientific discoveries. They light up students' minds, fostering logical thinking and problem-solving skills. Their impact goes far beyond the classroom, crafting the thinkers and doers of tomorrow. Aspiring math teachers should be adept in simplifying complex concepts and possess strong communication skills. Activities like creating engaging lesson plans and using interactive teaching methods will be highly valued by potential employers. Your Math Teacher resume should focus on showcasing these talents and experiences effectively.

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CBSE Class 9 Sample Papers 2024-2025 Released for Skill Subjects: Download for Free Now!

Cbse class 9 skill subject sample papers 2025: the central board of secondary education (cbse) has released the sample papers of various skill subjects for students of class 9 for the 2025 annual exams. download the subject-wise sample papers with marking scheme here..

Importance of Sample Papers for Students

Download marking scheme for skill subjects .

Along with sample papers, CBSE has also released the marking scheme for the skill subjects. It will help students to understand the schematic distribution of marks. The sample question papers contain the blueprint as well.

CBSE Class 9 Skill Subject Sample Papers 2025

How to download CBSE Class 9 Skill Subject Sample Papers 2025

Step 1: Go to the official website, cbseacademic.nic.in.

Step 2: Click on ‘Skill Education’ and then click on ‘Sample Question Papers’.

Step 3: Select the class for which you want to download the sample question papers. 

Step 4: Choose the subject. 

Step 5: Download the sample question paper and marking scheme for the subject. 

CBSE Class 9 Latest Syllabus 2024-25

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CBSE Video Courses for Class 9 Students 

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Robots are coming to the kitchen − what that could mean for society and culture

Professor of Philosophy, California Polytechnic State University

Disclosure statement

Patrick Lin receives funding from the US National Science Foundation for this work.

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Automating food is unlike automating anything else. Food is fundamental to life – nourishing body and soul – so how it’s accessed, prepared and consumed can change societies fundamentally.

Automated kitchens aren’t sci-fi visions from “The Jetsons” or “Star Trek.” The technology is real and global . Right now, robots are used to flip burgers , fry chicken , create pizzas , make sushi , prepare salads , serve ramen , bake bread , mix cocktails and much more. AI can invent recipes based on the molecular compatibility of ingredients or whatever a kitchen has in stock . More advanced concepts are in the works to automate the entire kitchen for fine dining.

Since technology tends to be expensive at first, the early adopters of AI kitchen technologies are restaurants and other businesses. Over time, prices are likely to fall enough for the home market , possibly changing both home and societal dynamics.

Can food technology really change society? Yes, just consider the seismic impact of the microwave oven . With that technology, it was suddenly possible to make a quick meal for just one person, which can be a benefit but also a social disruptor.

Familiar concerns about the technology include worse nutrition and health from prepackaged meals and microwave-heated plastic containers . Less obviously, that convenience can also transform eating from a communal, cultural and creative event into a utilitarian act of survival – altering relationships, traditions, how people work, the art of cooking and other facets of life for millions of people.

For instance, think about how different life might be without the microwave. Instead of working at your desk over a reheated lunch, you might have to venture out and talk to people, as well as enjoy a break from work. There’s something to be said for living more slowly in a society that’s increasingly frenetic and socially isolated .

Convenience can come at a great cost, so it’s vital to look ahead at the possible ethical and social disruptions that emerging technologies might bring, especially for a deeply human and cultural domain – food – that’s interwoven throughout daily life.

With funding from the U.S. National Science Foundation , my team at California Polytechnic State University is halfway into what we believe is the first study of the effects AI kitchens and robot cooks could have on diverse societies and cultures worldwide. We’ve mapped out three broad areas of benefits and risks to examine.

Creators and consumers

The benefits of AI kitchens include enabling chefs to be more creative , as well as eliminating repetitive, tedious tasks such as peeling potatoes or standing at a workstation for hours. The technology can free up time. Not having to cook means being able to spend more time with family or focus on more urgent tasks. For personalized eating, AI can cater to countless special diets , allergies and tastes on demand.

However, there are also risks to human well-being. Cooking can be therapeutic and provides opportunities for many things : gratitude, learning, creativity, communication, adventure, self-expression, growth, independence, confidence and more, all of which may be lost if no one needs to cook. Family relationships could be affected if parents and children are no longer working alongside each other in the kitchen – a safe space to chat, in contrast to what can feel like an interrogation at the dining table.

The kitchen is also the science lab of the home , so science education could suffer. The alchemy of cooking involves teaching children and other learners about microbiology, physics, chemistry, materials science, math, cooking techniques and tools, food ingredients and their sourcing, human health and problem-solving. Not having to cook can erode these skills and knowledge.

Community and cultures

AI can help with experimentation and creativity, such as creating elaborate food presentations and novel recipes within the spirit of a culture. Just as AI and robotics help generate new scientific knowledge , they can increase understanding of, say, the properties of food ingredients, their interactions and cooking techniques, including new methods.

But there are risks to culture. For example, AI could bastardize traditional recipes and methods, since AI is prone to stereotyping , for example flattening or oversimplifying cultural details and distinctions. This selection bias could lead to reduced diversity in the kinds of cuisine produced by AI and robot cooks. Technology developers could become gatekeepers for food innovation, if the limits of their machines lead to homogeneity in cuisines and creativity, similar to the weirdly similar feel of AI art images across different apps.

Also, think about your favorite restaurants and favorite dinners. How might the character of those neighborhoods change with automated kitchens? Would it degrade your own gustatory experience if you knew those cooking for you weren’t your friends and family but instead were robots?

The hope with technology is that more jobs will be created than jobs lost. Even if there’s a net gain in jobs, the numbers hide the impact on real human lives. Many in the food service industry – one of the most popular occupations in any economy – could find themselves unable to learn new skills for a different job. Not everyone can be an AI developer or robot technician, and it’s far from clear that supervising a robot is a better job than cooking.

Philosophically, it’s still an open question whether AI is capable of genuine creativity , particularly if that implies inspiration and intuition. Assuming so may be the same mistake as thinking that a chatbot understands what it’s saying , instead of merely generating words that statistically follow the previous words. This has implications for aesthetics and authenticity in AI food, similar to ongoing debates about AI art and music .

Safety and responsibility

Because humans are a key disease vector , robot cooks can improve food safety. Precision trimming and other automation can reduce food waste , along with AI recipes that can make the fullest use of ingredients. Customized meals can be a benefit for nutrition and health, for example, in helping people avoid allergens and excess salt and sugar.

The technology is still emerging, so it’s unclear whether those benefits will be realized. Foodborne illnesses are an unknown. Will AI and robots be able to smell , taste or otherwise sense the freshness of an ingredient or the lack thereof and perform other safety checks?

Physical safety is another issue. It’s important to ensure that a robot chef doesn’t accidentally cut, burn or crush someone because of a computer vision failure or other error. AI chatbots have been advising people to eat rocks, glue, gasoline and poisonous mushrooms , so it’s not a stretch to think that AI recipes could be flawed, too. Where legal regimes are still struggling to sort out liability for autonomous vehicles , it may similarly be tricky to figure out liability for robot cooks, including if hacked.

Given the primacy of food, food technologies help shape society. The kitchen has a special place in homes, neighborhoods and cultures, so disrupting that venerable institution requires careful thinking to optimize benefits and reduce risks.

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Chemistry Education Research and Practice

A question of pattern recognition: investigating the impact of structure variation on students’ proficiency in deciding about resonance stabilization.

* Corresponding authors

a Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Institute of Chemistry Education, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 17, D-35392 Giessen, Germany E-mail: [email protected]

b Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, Tampa, USA

The ability to reason with representations is pivotal for successful learning in Organic Chemistry and is closely linked to representational competence. Given the visual nature of this discipline, this comprises competency in extracting and processing relevant visual information. With regard to the resonance concept, proficiency in identifying whether electron delocalization applies in a molecule is an essential prerequisite to using this concept in problem-solving. However, prior research shows that students struggle to recognize whether molecules profit from electron delocalization, and seldom use this concept in problem-solving. As it remains unclear how the variation of structural features affects students’ consideration of resonance, this quantitative study seeks to identify characteristics regarding students’ perception of electron delocalization. To this end, undergraduate students enrolled in an Organic Chemistry I course ( N = 699) completed an online survey in which they had to decide on resonance stabilization for molecular structures with varying structural features. K -means cluster analysis was performed to explore patterns in students’ proficiency in discerning resonance stabilization and how they relate to other performance variables ( e.g. , time-on-task). The results suggest pattern recognition approaches with students’ attention being guided by singular structural features or structures’ visual similarity to familiar patterns ( i.e. , allylic carbocations), with less attention to implicit features.

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Key things to know about U.S. election polling in 2024

Confidence in U.S. public opinion polling was shaken by errors in 2016 and 2020. In both years’ general elections, many polls underestimated the strength of Republican candidates, including Donald Trump. These errors laid bare some real limitations of polling.

In the midterms that followed those elections, polling performed better . But many Americans remain skeptical that it can paint an accurate portrait of the public’s political preferences.

Restoring people’s confidence in polling is an important goal, because robust and independent public polling has a critical role to play in a democratic society. It gathers and publishes information about the well-being of the public and about citizens’ views on major issues. And it provides an important counterweight to people in power, or those seeking power, when they make claims about “what the people want.”

The challenges facing polling are undeniable. In addition to the longstanding issues of rising nonresponse and cost, summer 2024 brought extraordinary events that transformed the presidential race . The good news is that people with deep knowledge of polling are working hard to fix the problems exposed in 2016 and 2020, experimenting with more data sources and interview approaches than ever before. Still, polls are more useful to the public if people have realistic expectations about what surveys can do well – and what they cannot.

With that in mind, here are some key points to know about polling heading into this year’s presidential election.

Probability sampling (or “random sampling”). This refers to a polling method in which survey participants are recruited using random sampling from a database or list that includes nearly everyone in the population. The pollster selects the sample. The survey is not open for anyone who wants to sign up.

Online opt-in polling (or “nonprobability sampling”). These polls are recruited using a variety of methods that are sometimes referred to as “convenience sampling.” Respondents come from a variety of online sources such as ads on social media or search engines, websites offering rewards in exchange for survey participation, or self-enrollment. Unlike surveys with probability samples, people can volunteer to participate in opt-in surveys.

Nonresponse and nonresponse bias. Nonresponse is when someone sampled for a survey does not participate. Nonresponse bias occurs when the pattern of nonresponse leads to error in a poll estimate. For example, college graduates are more likely than those without a degree to participate in surveys, leading to the potential that the share of college graduates in the resulting sample will be too high.

Mode of interview. This refers to the format in which respondents are presented with and respond to survey questions. The most common modes are online, live telephone, text message and paper. Some polls use more than one mode.

Weighting. This is a statistical procedure pollsters perform to make their survey align with the broader population on key characteristics like age, race, etc. For example, if a survey has too many college graduates compared with their share in the population, people without a college degree are “weighted up” to match the proper share.

How are election polls being conducted?

Pollsters are making changes in response to the problems in previous elections. As a result, polling is different today than in 2016. Most U.S. polling organizations that conducted and publicly released national surveys in both 2016 and 2022 (61%) used methods in 2022 that differed from what they used in 2016 . And change has continued since 2022.

One change is that the number of active polling organizations has grown significantly, indicating that there are fewer barriers to entry into the polling field. The number of organizations that conduct national election polls more than doubled between 2000 and 2022.

This growth has been driven largely by pollsters using inexpensive opt-in sampling methods. But previous Pew Research Center analyses have demonstrated how surveys that use nonprobability sampling may have errors twice as large , on average, as those that use probability sampling.

The second change is that many of the more prominent polling organizations that use probability sampling – including Pew Research Center – have shifted from conducting polls primarily by telephone to using online methods, or some combination of online, mail and telephone. The result is that polling methodologies are far more diverse now than in the past.

(For more about how public opinion polling works, including a chapter on election polls, read our short online course on public opinion polling basics .)

All good polling relies on statistical adjustment called “weighting,” which makes sure that the survey sample aligns with the broader population on key characteristics. Historically, public opinion researchers have adjusted their data using a core set of demographic variables to correct imbalances between the survey sample and the population.

But there is a growing realization among survey researchers that weighting a poll on just a few variables like age, race and gender is insufficient for getting accurate results. Some groups of people – such as older adults and college graduates – are more likely to take surveys, which can lead to errors that are too sizable for a simple three- or four-variable adjustment to work well. Adjusting on more variables produces more accurate results, according to Center studies in 2016 and 2018 .

A number of pollsters have taken this lesson to heart. For example, recent high-quality polls by Gallup and The New York Times/Siena College adjusted on eight and 12 variables, respectively. Our own polls typically adjust on 12 variables . In a perfect world, it wouldn’t be necessary to have that much intervention by the pollster. But the real world of survey research is not perfect.

Predicting who will vote is critical – and difficult. Preelection polls face one crucial challenge that routine opinion polls do not: determining who of the people surveyed will actually cast a ballot.

Roughly a third of eligible Americans do not vote in presidential elections , despite the enormous attention paid to these contests. Determining who will abstain is difficult because people can’t perfectly predict their future behavior – and because many people feel social pressure to say they’ll vote even if it’s unlikely.

No one knows the profile of voters ahead of Election Day. We can’t know for sure whether young people will turn out in greater numbers than usual, or whether key racial or ethnic groups will do so. This means pollsters are left to make educated guesses about turnout, often using a mix of historical data and current measures of voting enthusiasm. This is very different from routine opinion polls, which mostly do not ask about people’s future intentions.

When major news breaks, a poll’s timing can matter. Public opinion on most issues is remarkably stable, so you don’t necessarily need a recent poll about an issue to get a sense of what people think about it. But dramatic events can and do change public opinion , especially when people are first learning about a new topic. For example, polls this summer saw notable changes in voter attitudes following Joe Biden’s withdrawal from the presidential race. Polls taken immediately after a major event may pick up a shift in public opinion, but those shifts are sometimes short-lived. Polls fielded weeks or months later are what allow us to see whether an event has had a long-term impact on the public’s psyche.

How accurate are polls?

The answer to this question depends on what you want polls to do. Polls are used for all kinds of purposes in addition to showing who’s ahead and who’s behind in a campaign. Fair or not, however, the accuracy of election polling is usually judged by how closely the polls matched the outcome of the election.

By this standard, polling in 2016 and 2020 performed poorly. In both years, state polling was characterized by serious errors. National polling did reasonably well in 2016 but faltered in 2020.

In 2020, a post-election review of polling by the American Association for Public Opinion Research (AAPOR) found that “the 2020 polls featured polling error of an unusual magnitude: It was the highest in 40 years for the national popular vote and the highest in at least 20 years for state-level estimates of the vote in presidential, senatorial, and gubernatorial contests.”

How big were the errors? Polls conducted in the last two weeks before the election suggested that Biden’s margin over Trump was nearly twice as large as it ended up being in the final national vote tally.

Errors of this size make it difficult to be confident about who is leading if the election is closely contested, as many U.S. elections are .

Pollsters are rightly working to improve the accuracy of their polls. But even an error of 4 or 5 percentage points isn’t too concerning if the purpose of the poll is to describe whether the public has favorable or unfavorable opinions about candidates , or to show which issues matter to which voters. And on questions that gauge where people stand on issues, we usually want to know broadly where the public stands. We don’t necessarily need to know the precise share of Americans who say, for example, that climate change is mostly caused by human activity. Even judged by its performance in recent elections, polling can still provide a faithful picture of public sentiment on the important issues of the day.

The 2022 midterms saw generally accurate polling, despite a wave of partisan polls predicting a broad Republican victory. In fact, FiveThirtyEight found that “polls were more accurate in 2022 than in any cycle since at least 1998, with almost no bias toward either party.” Moreover, a handful of contrarian polls that predicted a 2022 “red wave” largely washed out when the votes were tallied. In sum, if we focus on polling in the most recent national election, there’s plenty of reason to be encouraged.

Compared with other elections in the past 20 years, polls have been less accurate when Donald Trump is on the ballot. Preelection surveys suffered from large errors – especially at the state level – in 2016 and 2020, when Trump was standing for election. But they performed reasonably well in the 2018 and 2022 midterms, when he was not.

During the 2016 campaign, observers speculated about the possibility that Trump supporters might be less willing to express their support to a pollster – a phenomenon sometimes described as the “shy Trump effect.” But a committee of polling experts evaluated five different tests of the “shy Trump” theory and turned up little to no evidence for each one . Later, Pew Research Center and, in a separate test, a researcher from Yale also found little to no evidence in support of the claim.

Instead, two other explanations are more likely. One is about the difficulty of estimating who will turn out to vote. Research has found that Trump is popular among people who tend to sit out midterms but turn out for him in presidential election years. Since pollsters often use past turnout to predict who will vote, it can be difficult to anticipate when irregular voters will actually show up.

The other explanation is that Republicans in the Trump era have become a little less likely than Democrats to participate in polls . Pollsters call this “partisan nonresponse bias.” Surprisingly, polls historically have not shown any particular pattern of favoring one side or the other. The errors that favored Democratic candidates in the past eight years may be a result of the growth of political polarization, along with declining trust among conservatives in news organizations and other institutions that conduct polls.

Whatever the cause, the fact that Trump is again the nominee of the Republican Party means that pollsters must be especially careful to make sure all segments of the population are properly represented in surveys.

The real margin of error is often about double the one reported. A typical election poll sample of about 1,000 people has a margin of sampling error that’s about plus or minus 3 percentage points. That number expresses the uncertainty that results from taking a sample of the population rather than interviewing everyone . Random samples are likely to differ a little from the population just by chance, in the same way that the quality of your hand in a card game varies from one deal to the next.

The problem is that sampling error is not the only kind of error that affects a poll. Those other kinds of error, in fact, can be as large or larger than sampling error. Consequently, the reported margin of error can lead people to think that polls are more accurate than they really are.

There are three other, equally important sources of error in polling: noncoverage error , where not all the target population has a chance of being sampled; nonresponse error, where certain groups of people may be less likely to participate; and measurement error, where people may not properly understand the questions or misreport their opinions. Not only does the margin of error fail to account for those other sources of potential error, putting a number only on sampling error implies to the public that other kinds of error do not exist.

Several recent studies show that the average total error in a poll estimate may be closer to twice as large as that implied by a typical margin of sampling error. This hidden error underscores the fact that polls may not be precise enough to call the winner in a close election.

Other important things to remember

Transparency in how a poll was conducted is associated with better accuracy . The polling industry has several platforms and initiatives aimed at promoting transparency in survey methodology. These include AAPOR’s transparency initiative and the Roper Center archive . Polling organizations that participate in these organizations have less error, on average, than those that don’t participate, an analysis by FiveThirtyEight found .

Participation in these transparency efforts does not guarantee that a poll is rigorous, but it is undoubtedly a positive signal. Transparency in polling means disclosing essential information, including the poll’s sponsor, the data collection firm, where and how participants were selected, modes of interview, field dates, sample size, question wording, and weighting procedures.

There is evidence that when the public is told that a candidate is extremely likely to win, some people may be less likely to vote . Following the 2016 election, many people wondered whether the pervasive forecasts that seemed to all but guarantee a Hillary Clinton victory – two modelers put her chances at 99% – led some would-be voters to conclude that the race was effectively over and that their vote would not make a difference. There is scientific research to back up that claim: A team of researchers found experimental evidence that when people have high confidence that one candidate will win, they are less likely to vote. This helps explain why some polling analysts say elections should be covered using traditional polling estimates and margins of error rather than speculative win probabilities (also known as “probabilistic forecasts”).

National polls tell us what the entire public thinks about the presidential candidates, but the outcome of the election is determined state by state in the Electoral College . The 2000 and 2016 presidential elections demonstrated a difficult truth: The candidate with the largest share of support among all voters in the United States sometimes loses the election. In those two elections, the national popular vote winners (Al Gore and Hillary Clinton) lost the election in the Electoral College (to George W. Bush and Donald Trump). In recent years, analysts have shown that Republican candidates do somewhat better in the Electoral College than in the popular vote because every state gets three electoral votes regardless of population – and many less-populated states are rural and more Republican.

For some, this raises the question: What is the use of national polls if they don’t tell us who is likely to win the presidency? In fact, national polls try to gauge the opinions of all Americans, regardless of whether they live in a battleground state like Pennsylvania, a reliably red state like Idaho or a reliably blue state like Rhode Island. In short, national polls tell us what the entire citizenry is thinking. Polls that focus only on the competitive states run the risk of giving too little attention to the needs and views of the vast majority of Americans who live in uncompetitive states – about 80%.

Fortunately, this is not how most pollsters view the world . As the noted political scientist Sidney Verba explained, “Surveys produce just what democracy is supposed to produce – equal representation of all citizens.”

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Scott Keeter is a senior survey advisor at Pew Research Center .

Courtney Kennedy is Vice President of Methods and Innovation at Pew Research Center .

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