emotional development in physical education essay

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Students’ emotional experience in physical education—a qualitative study for new theoretical insights.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. study design, 2.2. data analysis, 3.1. students’ emotional experiences, 3.2. attractiveness of the task, 3.3. social belonging, 3.4. perceived competence, 3.5. autonomy, 4. discussion, 4.1. which emotions do students experience in pe, 4.2. what triggers students’ emotions in secondary school pe, 4.3. present results in the context of sdt, 4.4. open questions, 4.5. implications, 5. conclusions, author contributions, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Leisterer, S.; Jekauc, D. Students’ Emotional Experience in Physical Education—A Qualitative Study for New Theoretical Insights. Sports 2019 , 7 , 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports7010010

Leisterer S, Jekauc D. Students’ Emotional Experience in Physical Education—A Qualitative Study for New Theoretical Insights. Sports . 2019; 7(1):10. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports7010010

Leisterer, Sascha, and Darko Jekauc. 2019. "Students’ Emotional Experience in Physical Education—A Qualitative Study for New Theoretical Insights" Sports 7, no. 1: 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports7010010

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Psychological Wellbeing in Physical Education and School Sports: A Systematic Review

Javier piñeiro-cossio.

1 Department of Sports and Computer Science, Pablo de Olavide University, 41013 Seville, Spain; lc.tropsocisp@orienipj (J.P.-C.); se.opu@vunvuna (A.N.)

Antonio Fernández-Martínez

Alberto nuviala, raquel pérez-ordás.

2 Faculty of Human Sciences and Education, University of Zaragoza, 22003 Huesca, Spain; se.razinu@sadropr

Mental health in children and adolescents has become an increasingly important topic in recent years. It is against this backdrop that physical education and school sports play an important role in promoting psychological wellbeing. The aim of this review was to analyse interventions for improving psychological wellbeing in this area. To this end, a literature review was conducted using four databases (WOS, SPORTDiscus, SCOPUS and ERIC) and the following keywords: psychological wellbeing, physical education, and school sports. Twenty-one articles met the inclusion criteria. The results showed that interventions varied greatly in terms of duration and used a wide range of strategies (conventional and non-conventional sports, physical activity, games, etc.) for promoting psychological wellbeing, primarily among secondary school students. There was a lack of consensus as to the conceptualisation of the construct of psychological wellbeing, resulting in a variety of tools and methods for assessing it. Some studies also suggested a link between psychological wellbeing and other variables, such as basic psychological needs and self-determination. Finally, this study provides a definition of psychological wellbeing through physical activity based on our findings.

1. Introduction

Mental health problems in adulthood originate primarily in childhood and can be related to a variety of causes, such as socioeconomic, genetic or cultural factors [ 1 ]. It is in adolescence that the greatest risks of behaviours affecting wellbeing occur [ 2 , 3 ]. The World Health Organisation (WHO) [ 4 ] describes these problems as the main cause of disability worldwide, with depression extremely prevalent among young people [ 5 ]. School is therefore a suitable location for interventions, allowing students to acquire and develop skills and strategies to face life’s challenges as best they can, with high levels of physical and psychological wellbeing [ 6 , 7 ].

In recent years, the use of physical activity (PA) and sports for personal and social development in children and adolescents has been the subject of an increasing number of studies. Research suggests that physical education (PE) and school sports provide a suitable, effective framework for transferring and teaching skills and strategies to reduce risky behaviour and promote wellbeing [ 8 , 9 ]. Although there is evidence that PA and sports enhance young people’s skills and values at these life stages, there is a gap in research on their impact on psychological wellbeing and a lack of consensus as to the definition of psychological wellbeing in this context [ 10 ].

Studies have shown that individuals with high levels of psychological wellbeing are more successful in terms of education, work, friends, stable relationships and physical health [ 11 ]. In education, psychological wellbeing leads to improved attention, creative thinking and holistic thinking [ 5 ]. Psychological wellbeing is usually understood as a construct from the eudaimonic tradition. Unlike subjective wellbeing, which derives from happiness and satisfaction through the pursuit of pleasure and the reduction of pain, psychological wellbeing seeks to allow people to attain their maximum potential by developing virtues [ 12 ], focusing on capabilities and personal growth, and understanding that happiness is achieved through individual self-realisation [ 13 , 14 ]. Psychological wellbeing focuses on the process and on pursuing values leading to personal growth rather than on pleasurable, pain-avoiding activities, thus making the individual feel alive and authentic [ 15 ]. Ryff [ 16 ] proposed a multidimensional model for understanding psychological wellbeing called the Integrated Model of Personal Development (IMPD), consisting of six dimensions: self-acceptance, autonomy, personal growth, purpose in life, environmental mastery and positive relations with others.

Although information on interventions in the context of PE and school sports using the IMPD is limited, the model is widely recognised as a coherent, logical, valid construct [ 12 ], and PA and sports represent useful tools for its implementation [ 17 ]. Two systematic reviews by Malm, Jacobsson and Nicholson [ 18 ] and Mnich, Weyland, Jekauc and Schipperijn [ 19 ] list the benefits of PA and sports, including, on a physical level, reduced risk of developing metabolic syndromes, reduced side effects of cancer, improved cardiovascular health, stronger bones and improved physical condition; and, on a psychological level, improved cognition, better school performance, increased cognitive function and improved mental health, which generates psychological wellbeing.

However, there is limited information on the effects of PA on the development and psychological wellbeing of children and adolescents in the context of PE and school sports. It is therefore necessary to identify different strategies and interventions for developing psychological wellbeing in the literature. The primary objective of this paper is to explore studies that seek to promote psychological wellbeing among schoolchildren through PE and school sports and to identify conceptualisations of psychological wellbeing in this specific context.

This review has two objectives. Firstly, it seeks to address the following questions.

What are the characteristics of studies on psychological wellbeing interventions in PE and school sports?

What are their objectives?

What does the literature report on the outcomes of interventions aiming to improve psychological wellbeing?

Secondly, this review attempts to analyse how psychological wellbeing is conceptualised in this context and to provide a definition of the concept based on the findings.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. search strategy.

This review was carried out following the protocol outlined in the PRISMA statement. A comprehensive search was conducted in four databases: WOS, SPORTDiscus (EBSCO), SCOPUS and ERIC (Proquest). A number of articles were selected considering bibliography of reference research (6). Individual searches of all studies published up to September 2019 were performed in each database following the PICO protocol as used by Opstoel et al. [ 9 ] (P = Population, I = Intervention, C = Comparison, O = Outcomes).

• P = child, children, boys, girls, adolescents
• I = physical education
• C = no comparison group was added to the search
• O = psychological wellbeing, eudaimonic wellbeing.

The search terms used were “psychological wellbeing” and “eudaimonic wellbeing”, in combination with “AND” and the search terms “physical education” and “child”, “children”, “boys”, “girls”, and “adolescents”. Searches were conducted in English and Spanish. Only original articles were included in the study.

2.2. Selection Criteria

Potentially relevant studies for this review were checked against the following selection criteria: (a) the study had been published in an international peer-reviewed journal; (b) the study covered interventions with children and adolescents aged between 6 and 18 years old; (c) the study explored the relationship between PE or school sports and psychological wellbeing; and (d) a full-text version was available in English and/or Spanish.

Regarding the first criterion, interventions implemented in the school setting (PE classes and in-school and extracurricular sports activities) were eligible. Regarding the second criterion, interventions with children and adolescents at all stages of formal schooling within the aforementioned age range were also considered for inclusion. In the event that the studies included individuals outside that age range, only articles with the majority of participants within that age range were eligible.

Articles were excluded following Opstoel’s criteria [ 9 ]:

• Studies involving a specific population with any type of physical, cognitive or psychological impairment.
• Articles not providing primary data (non-interventions), as they do not ensure methodological and statistical rigour (reviews, conceptual articles, conference proceedings, editorials, doctoral theses, books, opinion articles, etc.).
• Instrument validations.

Duplicates were discarded. The study selection process consisted of screening the titles and abstracts identified during the search. Potentially relevant full-text studies were independently checked for eligibility by two authors, J.P.-C. and R.P.-O. Discrepancies in the selection of the articles were discusses until a consensus was reached. Figure 1 shows the sampling process used. After removing duplicates and excluding records by abstract and title, a total of 21 articles were retrieved.

Flow chart of the sampling process.

2.3. Data Extraction and Reliability

Pilot test forms were used to extract data from the studies. A content analysis of the articles included in this review was also performed. Subsequently, the data were discussed and confirmed by the researchers. The following categories were defined: authors, year, journal (volume and issue), country, objectives, sample size, characteristics of the participants, duration of the study, instruments used to assess psychological wellbeing, and results ( Table 1 ).

General overview of the articles included.

The criteria for assessing the quality of the studies included were adapted from the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) Statement [ 41 ] as used by Pozo et al. [ 42 ]. The quality assessment criteria were: (a) description of the programme, (b) number of participants, (c) inclusion of the journal of publication in the Journal Citation Reports, (d) duration of the programme, (e) description of the methodology; (f) definition of psychological wellbeing.

Each item was rated from 0 to 2 based on the criteria outlined in Figure 1 . A total score was calculated for each study depending on the number of positive items it contained. Studies with a total score of 9 or higher were considered to be of high quality (HQ); studies with a total score of 5–8 were considered to be of average quality (AQ); studies with a total score lower than 4 were considered to be of low quality (LQ). Details are shown in Table 2 .

Quality of the studies.

Parameter 1: Does the study provide a detailed description of the implementation? 0: No, 1: Yes, but it is incomplete or inaccurate, 2: Yes. Parameter 2: The number of participants: 0: fewer than 100 participants, 1: between 100 and 500 participants, 2: more than 500 participants. Parameter 3: Is the journal of publication included in the Journal Citation Reports? 0: No, 1: It is included in the Scimago Journal Rank 2: Yes. Parameter 4: Duration of the intervention: 0: less than 3 months, 1: between 3 and 4 months, 2: more than 4 months. Parameter 5: Does the study provide a detailed description of the methodology? 0: No, 1: Yes, but it is incomplete or inaccurate, 2: Yes. Parameter 6: Does the study provide a definition of wellbeing? 0: No, 1: Yes, but the definition is vague, 2: Yes, and the definition is detailed.

The risk of bias is difficult to ascertain in qualitative, social science studies. Version 5.1.0 of the Cochrane handbook emphasises that, in many situations, it is not practical or possible to blind participants or study staff in the intervention group.

3.1. Sample

The total number of participants in the studies reviewed was 10,357, ranging from 23 [ 40 ] to 3124 [ 38 ].

The ages of participants ranged from 7 to 18 years old. Two interventions involved children under 10 [ 22 , 36 ], eight interventions involved children aged 10–15 years old, eleven interventions involved children around 15 years old, one intervention involved children aged 11–16 years old [ 21 ], one intervention involved children aged 12–15 years old [ 33 ], one intervention involved children aged 12–18 years old [ 25 ], and one intervention involved children aged 13–16 years old [ 29 ].

Regarding participants’ levels of education, 5 of the 21 studies focused on primary education students, 15 studies focused on secondary education students, and 1 study focused on primary and secondary education.

3.2. Countries

Most of the studies were conducted in the United Kingdom (4/21) and the United States (4/21), followed by Australia (2/21), China (2/21), Turkey (2/21), Canada (1/21), Denmark (1/21), Greece (1/21), Finland (1/21), South Africa (1/21), Spain (1/21), and Sweden (1/21).

3.3. Duration of the Studies

The duration of the interventions ranged from 3 days [ 37 ] to 36 weeks [ 38 ]. Within that range, four of the 21 studies lasted 8 weeks, three lasted 10 weeks, two lasted 6 weeks, one lasted one week, one lasted 12 weeks, one lasted 13 weeks, one lasted 14 weeks, one lasted 18 weeks, one lasted 20 weeks, one lasted 23 weeks, and one lasted 24 weeks. One study [ 28 ] indicated that the pilot study, intervention, evaluation and follow-up lasted for 2 years.

The number of sessions ranged from 4 [ 36 ] to 35 [ 34 ]. It is important to note that 13 of the 21 studies provided information on the number of sessions conducted in their interventions/programmes.

3.4. Instruments Used to Assess Wellbeing

A variety of instruments were used to assess wellbeing depending on how wellbeing was conceptualised. Only 16 of the 21 articles mentioned instruments for measuring wellbeing: the KIDSCREEN-10, -27, and -52 measures (4/16); the Flourishing Scale (3/16); the Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule for Children (3/16); the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale (2/16); Ryff’s Psychological Wellbeing Scale (2/16); the SF-12v2 (1/16); the Profile of Mood States (1/16); the Perceived Stress Scale (1/16); the Inventory of Positive Psychological Attitudes (1/16); Harter’s Self-Perception Profile for Children (1/16); the Danish national survey of wellbeing in the school-aged population (1/16); the Personally Expressive Activities Questionnaire (1/16); the British Panel Household Survey (BHPS-Y) (1/16); the Perceived Behavioral Control Questionnaire (1/16); the Self-Efficacy Questionnaire (1/16); the Physical Self-Description Questionnaire (1/16).

3.5. Conceptualisation of Psychological Wellbeing

A variety of conceptualisations of psychological wellbeing were presented in the studies. They were so diverse that there was no consensus among the 21 articles reviewed on the definition of psychological wellbeing in the context of PE and school sports. Some definitions focused on self-confidence, improvements in mood (feeling happier or less sad), self-discipline and goal-setting [ 21 ], while other definitions revolved around a broader conceptualisation of wellbeing from the hedonic or eudaimonic perspective [ 32 , 39 ]; as well as health-related quality of life [ 31 ], specifically mental health [ 30 ]; self-concept and mental health (depression and anxiety) [ 34 ]; psychosocial wellbeing: mood states, affects, and perceived stress [ 35 ]; self-esteem, intrinsic motivation and attitudes towards dance and group PA [ 23 ]; positive feelings towards five domains in life: school, work, family, appearance and friends [ 29 ]; flourishing, establishing relationships, self-esteem, purpose in life and optimism [ 24 , 27 , 32 ] health-related quality of life, positive and negative affects, emotional intelligence and social anxiety [ 33 ]; positive thoughts and emotions [ 30 ]; self-acceptance and human fulfilment [ 25 ]; individuals’ awareness of their own abilities to overcome stress in life, be productive, and contribute their skills to the community [ 20 ]; development of human potential and self-realization, which encompasses developing self-acceptance, positive relations with others, self-determination, environmental mastery, purpose in life, and personal growth [ 26 ]. Five of the studies analysed did not provide a clear definition of the concept of psychological wellbeing [ 22 , 28 , 36 , 38 , 40 ].

3.6. Objectives of the Studies

The objectives most frequently addressed in the articles related to assessing the effects of the programmes on participants (12/21), specifically: the effectiveness of a positive youth development-based sports mentorship programme on wellbeing [ 30 ]; the effects of PA and avoiding screen time on wellbeing [ 32 ]; the effects of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) on the wellbeing of PE students [ 27 ]; the effect of a health education programme on participants’ perceptions of their quality of life [ 31 ]; the effectiveness of a randomised, controlled intervention on wellbeing [ 39 ]; the effect of a hip-hop dance programme on adolescent wellbeing [ 21 ]; the effects of a pedometer-based physical activity intervention on the psychological wellbeing of overweight adolescents [ 25 ]; the effects of a health club approach on adolescents [ 34 ]; the effect of sports education on the psychological wellbeing of high school students [ 26 ]; the effect of a curriculum-based physical activity intervention on primary school students [ 22 ], and the effects of running on wellbeing-related variables [ 36 ]. Another study sought to evaluate the effect of sports on wellbeing in general [ 20 ], while two studies aimed to develop, implement, and evaluate physical activity interventions to improve psychosocial wellbeing [ 38 ] and reduce sedentary behaviour [ 28 ]. Two other studies sought to assess the effectiveness of PA and sports induction protocols and programmes on psychological wellbeing [ 24 , 37 ]. Three studies aimed to assess the impact of specific programmes on variables related to wellbeing and PA [ 23 , 29 , 33 ] while another study sought to explore the implementation and short-term outcomes of a responsibility-based physical activity programme that was integrated into an intact high school PE class [ 40 ]. Finally, one study aimed to assess whether integrating yoga into the secondary school curriculum had a preventive effect on wellbeing among secondary school students [ 35 ].

3.7. Results of the Studies

The articles reviewed mainly reported on the effects of the programmes studied. In three of them [ 20 , 24 , 36 ], no statistically significant differences in wellbeing were found post-intervention. In five of them [ 21 , 27 , 28 , 39 , 40 ], the authors proposed their respective intervention programmes as strategies for promoting PA and psychosocial variables; however, they failed to provide any results on wellbeing per se. Additionally, Ho et al. [ 30 ], McNamee et al. [ 34 ], and Connolly et al. [ 23 ] described the effects of their programmes on mental health, wellbeing, and other psychological, physical, and PA-related variables among adolescents. In the same vein, Bakır & Kangalgil [ 20 ] stated that although no changes in participants’ positivity were identified, there were changes in the mental wellbeing of participants who took part in sporting activities, which was also assessed by Smedegaard et al. [ 38 ]. Karasimopoulou et al. [ 31 ] reported that children in the experimental group significantly improved their perceptions of physical wellbeing, family life, financial aspects, friends, school life and social acceptance, with better perceptions of autonomy than the control group in the final measurement. In turn, Lubans et al. [ 32 ] and Slee & Allan [ 37 ] linked their results to the fulfilment of basic psychological needs. While Lubans et al. [ 32 ] argued that in order to achieve psychological wellbeing, it is necessary to address autonomy, Slee & Allan [ 37 ] argued that psychological wellbeing could be related to self-determination. Other results were linked to the effect of the programmes on academic performance, wellbeing and brain development [ 22 ]; improved physical condition, satisfaction with appearance, more positive attitudes towards school and friends, and greater environmental awareness [ 29 ]. Finally, Noggle et al. [ 35 ] reported that although PE-as-usual students showed decreases in primary outcomes, yoga students maintained or improved them, echoing the findings of Luna et al. [ 33 ] regarding subjective wellbeing and emotional intelligence, and Gül et al. [ 26 ], who reported that PA and sports had an effect on the individual development of the different dimensions of psychological wellbeing.

4. Discussion

The aim of this review was to analyse the characteristics, objectives, and results of studies seeking to promote psychological wellbeing among schoolchildren through PE and school sports, as well as to identify different conceptualisations of the construct in this specific context and provide a definition of it.

With regard to the first objective, most of the interventions identified were held at secondary schools within school hours, both in PE classes and during in-school and extracurricular sports activities. This was consistent with results from other studies on programmes targeting this population [ 10 , 43 ]. In addition, the durations of the programmes reviewed were similar to those of other programmes involving children and, especially, adolescents. A systematic review by Opstoel et al. [ 9 ] notes that studies on this type of population tend to last between 8 and 28 weeks. However, Rodríguez-Ayllon et al. [ 44 ] report that interventions can last from 10 days to 2 years. The studies analysed had multiple, varied objectives that can be grouped into four major categories: (i) to evaluate the effects of the interventions and/or programmes on participants, (ii) to explore correlations between the programmes and wellbeing, (iii) to identify relationships between different variables, and (iv) to explore wellbeing and empirical strategies for programme evaluation. These objectives are shared by other studies on variables linked to wellbeing across different populations and settings, such as: individuals with diabetes and the effectiveness of programmes on wellbeing [ 45 ]; pre-schoolers, infants, and adolescents, and the effect of PA on mental health [ 44 ]; and the effect of PA on happiness [ 46 ].

The results obtained from the interventions are linked to other systematic reviews on personal and social growth aspects of PE that seek to explore the effects of PA on psychological wellbeing [ 43 ] and improve the psychological and social skills of children and young people to better prepare them for the future [ 9 ]. A number of studies have also argued that wellbeing is related to fulfilling basic psychological needs, such as Menéndez-Santurio & Fernández-Río [ 47 ], who identified a relationship between social responsibility, basic psychological needs and motivation, and described how these can predict positive relations with others, especially friends. Similar results are reported by Molina, Gutiérrez, Segovia & Hopper [ 48 ], who identified a relationship between the implementation of a sports programme and improved basic psychological needs, social relationships and responsibility. In addition, Menéndez-Santurio, Fernández-Río, Cecchini & González-Villora [ 49 ] confirm that students who have low wellbeing rates due to victimisation and bullying at school have low levels of satisfaction of basic psychological needs, which supports the relationship between wellbeing, basic psychological needs and self-determination put forward by various authors [ 12 , 50 , 51 ]. It is important to note that the majority of the studies reviewed used multiple forms of physical activity, such as dance, active play and modified sports, and do not use conventional sports to promote wellbeing. This is in consonance with a review by Sánchez-Alcaraz et al. [ 52 ], which discusses the importance for psychosocial development of creating a balance between conventional or more popular sports and other less popular sports and physical activities or exercises offering new experiences for children and adolescents.

There is also a lack of consensus on the definition of psychological wellbeing in the context of PE and school sports. Nevertheless, it is fairly safe to say that more than half of the studies (13 out of 21) linked the construct to Diener’s definition [ 53 ], which is related to the concept of hedonism or subjective wellbeing. As a result, these studies assessed variables such as life satisfaction, affects and depression, rather than the dimensions included in Ryff’s IMPD regarding eudaimonic or psychological wellbeing [ 16 , 54 ]. This trend could be explained by the interest in understanding and promoting individual happiness that emerged in the 1980s [ 14 ], which was reinforced by Huta & Waterman [ 55 ], who pointed out asymmetries and preferences in research on these concepts. Additionally, Cabieses, Obach & Molina [ 56 ] argue that producing knowledge from the perspective of subjective wellbeing, that is, looking into life satisfaction and happiness, could be useful when planning public policies for this population. Since subjective wellbeing is associated with immediacy, a large number of studies use this construct. Romero, García-Mas & Brustad [ 12 ] point out that psychological wellbeing in the field of PA and sports has not been approached consistently, which may explain the scarcity of studies on this topic. In line with Huta & Waterman [ 55 ], we believe that it is necessary to find a compromise definition to inform future research on this topic, as the use of a wide range of definitions produces a wide range of results when analysing and comparing studies focusing on the same concept.

To this end, we propose the following definition based on the aforementioned findings, Ryff’s theoretical approach to psychological wellbeing [ 14 , 16 , 54 , 57 ], and aspects inherent to PA and sports, such as movement and corporeality: “Psychological wellbeing in PA (PWBPA) is the state of optimal psychological functioning in the context of physical activity, which encompasses accepting one’s strengths and limitations, being independent in decision-making and self-assessment, choosing or creating favourable environments, interacting positively with others in PA and sports, developing one’s potential to the fullest, and seeking meaning and purpose in life based on PA values.”

With regard to the limitations of our study, articles in both Spanish and English were included; however, their results only provided information from English-speaking countries, limiting perceptions of the phenomenon to a particular culture, which may have influenced the researchers’ conceptualisation of the phenomenon in this particular population. In addition, the search was limited to interventions involving populations without pre-existing physical or cognitive issues, excluding other articles which may have been relevant to the topic. In light of the limited number of studies on psychological wellbeing in the field of PA, specifically in PE and school sports, it would be helpful to conduct a meta-analysis to identify the effects of PA and sports programmes/interventions on the psychological wellbeing of children and youths in the school setting. It would also be of interest for future research to analyse and review articles on PE and sports from the point of view of different countries and cultures. Also, to deepen knowledge it would be interesting in future research to consider additional threads related to other contexts besides PE classes or sport school, such as different kinds of sports practices and socioeconomic differences between schools. Finally, in order to broaden the field of knowledge, further studies could be carried out to provide information on parents, guardians and agents of socialisation, who are very important in the development of children and adolescents.

5. Conclusions

Psychological wellbeing in PE and school sports is a developing field that has drawn increasing attention in recent years, which may be due to the need for PA to improve mental health and quality of life for children and adolescents.

We found that most programmes/interventions involve adolescents, especially in secondary schools. The programmes usually last between 3 days and 36 weeks (9 months or an academic year), and it is English-speaking countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, that have conducted the majority of the studies on this topic. There is no consensus as to definitions of the concept, study objectives, methods or tools for assessing psychological wellbeing. As for whether or not PA promotes psychological wellbeing in PE and school sports, the disparate results of the studies analysed do not allow us to draw conclusions. However, there appears to be a relationship between PA, wellbeing and other variables, such as basic psychological needs and quality of life.

From an educational perspective, the authors suggest that future interventions should employ a single definition of psychological wellbeing in PA, such as the one proposed in this paper. This would promote self-realisation and personal growth in children and adolescents by focusing on transcendence rather than on a narrow search for subjective wellbeing, while providing researchers with a common criterion for applying the concept in the context of PA.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization: J.P.-C. and R.P.-O.; methodology: R.P.-O. and A.F.-M.; investigation: J.P.-C. and A.N.; resources: J.P.-C. and R.P.-O.; data curation: J.P.-C. and R.P.-O.; writing—original draft preparation: J.P.-C. and A.N.; writing—review & editing: A.F.-M. and A.N.; visualisation: A.F.-M. and A.N.; supervision: A.F.-M. and A.N. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Andalusian Regional Government (Andalusia, Spain).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects in-volved in the study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Developing Social–Emotional Learning in Physical Education Through Appropriate Instructional Practices

2021, Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance

Social-emotional learning (SEL) has become an important topic in education. SEL is also important in physical education (PE). The nature of PE has students learning in the affective, cognitive, and psychomotor domains, thus providing many opportunities for SEL. And who facilitates SEL? The PE teacher has the opportunity to provide games, activities, and experiences to assist and strengthen their students’ SEL by implementing appropriate instructional practices (AIP) in PE. This article will highlight a number of AIP that PE teachers can implement to develop their students’ SEL.

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Emotions are embedded in the everyday life of every individual. In the same way their emotions are immersed in their cultural legacy, they are conditioned by behaviors that cannot be separated from an educational context. In this sense, physical education (PE) has been reported as a school subject that facilitates the emotional expression of primary and secondary school students. Thus, it seems to be important to understand how applied methodologies that enhance emotional education in this context help to develop students' skills regarding emotional management. In this context, 18 articles were selected from the Web of Science (WoS) under robust inclusion and exclusion criteria, which posteriorly were categorized and deeply analyzed. Results show that PE creates a favorable scenario for the expression of emotions. However, there is not sufficient evidence regarding emotional education methodologies that can be applied by PE teachers in their classes to improve primary and secondary students' management of emotions. It has been concluded that more proposals based on scientific evidence in this field are required.

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Given that part of the broad mission of education is to help students develop character and prosocial values, schools and teachers should allow children opportunities to develop healthy social skills. In the pursuit of prosocial development, physical educators can take advantage of pedagogical models like Sport Education that have demonstrated its effectiveness in this domain. This article examines how this pedagogical model can be used to help students develop social responsibility and prosocial values in physical education.

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SEL Possibilities in Physical Education

Physical education teaches relationship-building and self-management skills, making it a natural for social and emotional learning.

Social and emotional learning (SEL) has become one of the fastest-growing topics in the world of education. As a result, school districts all across the country are asking, “What does SEL look like in our schools, and how can we improve it?” While the search for SEL opportunities continues, schools should consider the integral role that physical education class can play in the long-term goal of social and emotional learning. 

Outdated stereotypes of dodgeball and kickball have plagued physical education (PE) for years. But PE is far more than just rolling out the ball for kids to play and mess around. Instead, physical education today offers a wide variety of fitness, health, and wellness skills that help students to prepare for long-term healthy lives. And beyond developing cardiovascular endurance and muscular strength, PE is a subject that supports the full picture of healthy lives.

As a result, physical education offers a valuable opportunity to impact all areas of student development—physical, mental, social, and emotional. Better yet, all of these are packed into the national standards for physical education.

Physical Education’s Social and Emotional Standard 

Almost every subject presents an opportunity to find unique ways to incorporate social and emotional learning into class. But not every subject has it written directly into its national standards. Physical education does. Within the five national physical education standards defined by Shape America , standard number four states, “The physically literate individual exhibits responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others.”

Many physical education teachers proudly boast of this as the SEL standard. If we take a closer look, the standard directly taps into CASEL and what they define as the five core competencies of SEL:

• Self-awareness
• Self-management
• Responsible decision-making
• Relationship skills
• Social awareness

Using these five core competencies, physical education departments can evaluate and label how they currently offer social and emotional learning throughout their program and where they can potentially improve.

The 5 Core Competencies in Action

To help illustrate the connection between SEL and PE, let’s use Canton High School in Massachusetts as an example.

Canton was recently featured in a national video spotlight for their comprehensive approach to physical education. Because it’s a nationally recognized physical education program, let’s find an example of each of the five core competencies in action.

1. Self-awareness (developing interests and a sense of purpose). At Canton High School, the physical education department has evolved its curriculum from ninth to 12th grade to promote self-awareness. Instead of a games/sports-focused ninth- and 10th-grade curriculum, the school offers classes focusing on skill development, personal fitness, and health. The shift fosters a safe and nurturing environment where students can develop personal interests and then begin to make more individual choices in 11th- and 12th-grade electives.

2. Self-management (exhibiting self-discipline and self-motivation; setting personal and collective goals). Every student in the high school's sophomore personal wellness class (featured throughout the video) goes through an introduction-to-fitness course. In this course, students set personal goals on how to improve their general fitness and are guided through ways to motivate themselves through challenging workouts and activities. All of this is done using an individualized approach so that every student has a chance to succeed.

3. Responsible decision-making (learning how to make a reasoned judgment after analyzing information, data, and facts). Students also navigate cognitive nutrition lessons in the same sophomore personal wellness class. Teachers utilize a curriculum that takes an informative, not prescriptive, approach to nutrition. After students get all the facts and information, they have to make their own decisions on personal nutrition that work best for them and their daily lives.

4. Relationship skills (practice teamwork and collaborative problem-solving). As a culmination of the personal wellness class, students form small groups and are tasked with leading a class. The teams must collaborate to find lesson materials, plan an entire lesson, and execute it with a larger group. After teaching the class, the leaders must practice empathy and patience when introducing a new topic to other students.

5. Social awareness (understanding and expressing gratitude). While much of physical education is activity based, Canton has recently implemented a mindfulness curriculum into class. These lessons guide students through mindfulness exercises and practices that include specific sessions on gratitude, heartfulness, communication, and other social awareness concepts. While this is a more obvious SEL connection, it’s one that physical education is adopting in more and more schools.

Putting PE and SEL on Display

As the above example shows, social and emotional learning is not hard to find in physical education class. It might be intimidating to put your PE curriculum under the SEL microscope, but you might be surprised by what you find. As school districts feel the added pressure of incorporating SEL, they should turn to the physical education teachers who have tirelessly worked to develop curriculum and lesson plans like the ones I describe here.

By doing so, we can also make a case for even more emphasis on and investment in SEL in physical education and schools. It all starts with advocating and highlighting that physical education plays a key role in social and emotional learning for our students.

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Physical Education in Schools

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Physical health benefits, mental health benefits, educational benefits.

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EDITORIAL article

Editorial: physical education, health and education innovation.

• 1 Faculty of Education and Psychology, University of Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
• 2 Faculty of Sport Sciences, European University of Madrid, Villaviciosa de Odón, Spain
• 3 Faculty of Human Motricity, University of Lisbon, Dafundo, Portugal
• 4 Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain

Editorial on the Research Topic Physical education, health and education innovation

Physical Education is closely linked with the overall health of individuals, with education, and with educational innovation essential aspects for shaping the development of individuals within the educational context. Thus, these aspects form part of the educational process, which encompasses knowledge from applied psychology to education. Examples include the analysis of motivation in the teaching-learning process, the analysis of physical exercise behavior, and adherence to sports practice at early ages. In this context, various studies highlight the importance of interventions among children and adolescents to promote physical fitness due to its relationship with adequate physical aptitude, motor skills, and overall wellbeing in later stages (young adulthood, adulthood, and even older adulthood). For instance, in the meta-analysis by Li H. et al. , it was observed that physical fitness and basic motor skills interventions improved these capacities and skills with sessions lasting 60 min, practiced 1–3 days a week for at least 16 weeks. Along the same lines, Chen J. et al. report on the importance of interventions through movement during preschool stages. These authors conclude that physical fitness and fundamental motor skills mutually enhance each other in young children, and both should be emphasized in preschool sports education. Similarly, the development of motor literacy can be crucial for engaging in physical activity over the years, finding that individuals with higher motor competence across various dimensions also show higher levels of moderate to vigorous physical activity ( Martinez-Lopez et al. ). Thus, there is a need to promote the development of motor competence to increase the rate of physical activity and sports activities among schoolchildren.

Regarding adolescence, the educational context could be decisive in the levels of physical exercise practice and its impact on normative behavior, as suggested by Chen H. et al.'s study where the use of the STEAM teaching method improved engagement with learning. Additionally, the study by Rojo-Ramos et al. found that in adolescence and pre-adolescence, higher self-efficacy is associated with lower levels of abuse and victimization, positioning regular physical activity as a mediator for preventing cyberbullying.

In relation of the concept of innovation, responsible and proportionate use of virtual reality could foster a positive attitude among basketball players and achieve professional success in the classroom, as indicated by Wang . Other studies, such as Guijarro-Romero et al. , evaluate the use of technologies, for example, the inclusion of activity bracelets and behavior modification techniques in training activities. These authors found highly satisfactory results, as they support perceived autonomy and increase physical activity levels among adolescents. Similarly, Chow and Mann shows that ‘exergaming' or games promoting physical activity through technology could contribute to improving healthy habits. Their study is based on a theoretical model using Bloom's taxonomy to obtain resources for future research on exergaming.

In the field of Physical Education, small-sided games allow high-intensity physical activity in classes flexibly and motivatingly, with many possibilities for class design and application across different sports ( Li Q. Z. et al. ). Thus, educational innovation is necessary within Physical Education through model hybridization, as evidenced by Quiñonero-Martínez et al. study, with positive results toward creating habits related to physical activity. Similarly, the use of alternative sports, as shown in Diez-Fernández et al. study with the practice of “cornerball,” is an appropriate alternative for promoting sports in different ways. Teaching artistic activities and not just sports can also greatly benefit students by improving aspects such as self-efficacy and self-esteem in young students ( Zhou et al. ). Moreover, scientific literature indicates that achieving higher academic performance necessitates appropriate physical activity, finding that students who run at least once a week excel academically with a sample of over 2200 university participants ( Du et al. ).

Finally, innovation should be present not only in Physical Education classes but also in the sports field, developing intervention program like the Real Madrid Foundation (RMF) by Ortega-Vila et al. , which show conclusive results toward personal and team success, self-fulfillment, personal and group superiority, health, and physical fitness.

Another essential aspect of the educational process, along with psychology, physical exercise behavior, and innovation, is teacher training to integrate all these concepts for the overall health development of schoolchildren and adolescents. Hence, developing theoretical models to improve the communication skills of teachers and physical trainers and providing them with didactic resources to foster learning climates based on more self-determined motivation is important ( Chen L. et al. ). Since motivation drives human behavior, it is necessary to understand how to internally motivate children and adolescents, especially from early ages, to foster values such as personal and social responsibility and the intention to engage in physical activity in the present and future ( Manzano-Sánchez ). Closely linked to motivation, emotional intelligence could influence increased life satisfaction and reduced anxiety levels, making its study essential. It seems that clarity and emotional repair variables can act as mediators, reduces the negative effects of anxiety ( Calleja-Núñez et al. ). Other psychological aspects that explain human behavior, such as personality traits, are fundamental in Physical Education classes, as they can predict satisfaction with classes, as indicated by Chen Z. et al. in older students.

Finally, it is important to consider the age and sex of students, as these aspects can influence the degree of physical activity, making it advisable to implement study plans that address these differences in Physical Education classes, investing in appropriate facilities and materials ( Ma et al. ).

Author contributions

DM-S: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. NB-P: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Conceptualization. JC-V: Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing. PM: Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing. MG-L: Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Acknowledgments

We thank all of the contributors to this Research Topic and reviewers for their time, effort, and particularly for sharing their research and opinions to make this a successful project.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Keywords: physical activity, high school, children, pedagogical models, motor competence, health

Citation: Manzano-Sánchez D, Belando-Pedreño N, Carlos-Vivas J, Martins PJ and Gómez-López M (2024) Editorial: Physical education, health and education innovation. Front. Psychol. 15:1458407. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1458407

Received: 02 July 2024; Accepted: 15 July 2024; Published: 24 July 2024.

Edited and reviewed by: Guy Cheron , Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium

Copyright © 2024 Manzano-Sánchez, Belando-Pedreño, Carlos-Vivas, Martins and Gómez-López. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Noelia Belando-Pedreño, noelia.belando@universidadeuropea.es

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Emotional Development in Childhood: 3 Theories Explained

Fast-forward to a 5-year-old playing on the playground. They have words for emotions, can recognize emotions in their friends and family, and use their knowledge of emotions to guide their own behavior and predict the behavior of others. What explains this drastic change in emotional development?

Emotions in the teenager? New and intense social experiences are brimming with emotional highs and lows, sometimes strengthening and sometimes tearing down self-esteem. How do adolescents learn the emotional skills that provide the foundation for healthy adult emotions?

In this article, we will tease apart some of the complexity of emotional development and describe how emotional development is part and parcel of some of the most pivotal experiences of human development.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Emotional Intelligence Exercises for free . These science-based exercises will enhance your ability to understand and work with your emotions and give you the tools to foster the emotional intelligence of your clients, students, or employees.

This Article Contains

• What Is Emotional Development & Why Is It Important?

3 Emotional Development Theories

6 examples of emotional development in childhood, how emotions develop in adolescence, does development continue in early adulthood, our emotional intelligence resources, a take-home message, frequently asked questions, what is emotional development & why is it important.

It is virtually impossible to fathom an experience void of emotion. Give it a try. Recall what you ate for dinner last night. What emotions come to mind? What thoughts, images, or plans were triggered? Are you hungrier?

We are in a constant state of expressing, recognizing, and interpreting emotions in ourselves, our children, our coworkers, and complete strangers. Even though emotions influence every thought, action, decision, attitude, and feeling we have, you may be surprised to learn that emotion was not studied as a developmental process until the 1970s (Pollak et al., 2019).

It is only in the past 20 years that considerable research attention has been given to explaining changes in emotions that occur from infancy through adulthood (Pollak et al., 2019).

A definition of emotional development

The definition of emotional development by Izard and Trentacosta (2020, para. 1) will ground this article. It gives us a common language for thinking about the complexity of emotional development and for analyzing how different theories of emotional development address this complexity.

Emotional development [is the] emergence of the experience, expression, understanding, and regulation of emotions from birth and the growth and change in these capacities throughout childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. The development of emotions occurs in conjunction with neural, cognitive, and behavioral development and emerges within a particular social and cultural context.

Based on this definition, there are three implications for theories of emotional development:

• Emotional development is a lifelong process, so a theory of emotional development needs to account for change from birth through the end of life (spoiler: we are not there yet).
• Emotions develop in conjunction with neural, cognitive, and behavioral changes, so with every hypothesis of emotional change we have to ask what is happening in the brain. How are thinking, memory, and learning involved in this change?
• Emotional development occurs within a socio-cultural context. A theory of emotional development needs to account for differences in social experiences and differences in cultural histories, beliefs, and lived experiences in which emotions develop.

2 Reasons understanding emotional development is important

Our experiences make us who we are, literally. Emotional experiences, particularly early in life when neuroplasticity is at its peak, have a profound effect on the developing brain and lifelong health.

1. Emotional experiences become embedded in the architecture of the brain

Rapid neural organization occurs during the first few years of life and establishes the basic foundation upon which future learning, health, and behaviors develop (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2004).

The structure of this foundation is built through neurodevelopmental processes that are highly influenced by the child’s unique experiences, whether positive or negative (Perry 2002).

Neuroimaging studies provide evidence for the impact of early child maltreatment on the structure and function of the brain (Cassiers et al., 2018). A meta-analysis of adults who experienced childhood adversity found structural differences in stress-related areas of the brain compared to adults who did not experience adversity (Calem et al., 2017).

In a separate meta-analysis, studies using fMRI show that children with a history of abuse show disruption in neural pathways in the fronto-limbic networks associated with emotional and reward processing (Hart & Rubia, 2012).

Behavioral research on infant attachment histories also supports the relationship between early experience and emotional development. In a longitudinal study, Kochanska (2001) found that infants with a secure attachment to a caregiver at 14 months showed reduced fear and anger at 33 months in response to situations designed to elicit fear and anger. In contrast, negative emotions increased with age in insecurely attached infants.

2. Early emotional health is foundational for lifelong health outcomes

Babies, toddlers, and preschoolers may not be the population that immediately comes to mind when we think of mental wellness and mental health difficulties. However, because early experiences provide the foundation for neural development, we see that mental wellness begins far earlier than adolescence.

Zero to Three (2017, p. 1) defines infant and early childhood mental health as:

“the developing capacity of the child from birth to 5 years old to form close and secure adult and peer relationships; to experience, manage, and express a full range of emotions; and explore the environment and learn – all in the context of family, community, and culture.”

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) occur in early childhood environments and involve parents and caregivers in the child’s household. Maternal violence, substance abuse, mental illness, and child abuse by a parent are examples. Ample research shows that exposure to ACEs in childhood increases the long-term risk for a wide range of chronic physical diseases and mental health issues in adulthood (Chang et al., 2019; Felitti et al., 1998; Gilbert et al., 2015).

To reduce the risk of exposure to ACEs, research and policy must prioritize:

• The support of responsive relationships in early childhood
• The reduction of sources of stress experienced by children and their caregivers
• Support for core life skills in early childhood, such as daily routines and setting and achieving goals (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2020)

If you are interested in learning more about the health of babies, strength of families, and positive early experiences in the United States, check out the State of Babies Yearbook , which provides data by state.

Researcher and psychologist Bruce Perry gives a powerful and easily accessible public lecture in this video on the urgency of improving early experiences to promote mental and physical health.

Emotional development: Nature vs. nurture

“There need be no “versus” in the equation. We simply have the kind of nature that requires nurture, and they are utterly intertwined.”

Barrett, 2022, para. 10

One of the most unproductive debates in science involves theorizing about human systems through the lens of nature or nurture hypotheses. Framing questions within this dichotomy is a disadvantage to scientific progress and intervention at every level of human health and development, be it biological, sociological, or psychological.

Progress in the field of epigenetics has significantly contributed to our understanding of gene and environmental interactions and how early experience can have lifelong effects.

Epigenetic modification describes chemical alterations to the structure of genes without altering the genetic code itself (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2010). For example, prolonged periods of stress during pregnancy and early child development can produce epigenetic changes in the brain that control how the body responds to stress (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2010).

Theories of emotion explain the nature of emotions: innate, constructed, neurobiological, and cognitive.

Theories of emotional development explain the emergence of emotions and how emotions change across the lifespan.

This article is focused on emotional development, and empirical studies are often vague on the theory of emotion that drives their research and also the theory of emotional development that guides their research.

This lack of clarity has created barriers to progress in emotional development research that have not yet been resolved (Buss et al., 2019; Pollak et al., 2019; Camras, 2022).

At present, there is no widely accepted theory of emotional development that systematically guides research (Pollak et al., 2019). However, most theories agree that emotional development is intimately tied to cognitive development and is driven by social factors (Buss et al., 2019, Camras, 2022).

However, three major theories of emotional development were selected for discussion because they span the spectrum from an innate capacity for emotion to innate capacity and socialization processes to constructivism.

1. Discrete emotions perspective

Carroll Izard’s discrete emotions perspective is one of the most well-recognized theories of infant emotional development. Izard proposes that infants are born with basic emotions that are universal, meaning all humans are born ready to experience and express these emotions.

Emotions are present at birth, are hardwired, and do not rely on cognitive processes. Izard and colleagues posited a set of basic emotions including happiness, anger, fear, surprise, sadness, and disgust (Buss et al., 2019). Each emotion is discrete and distinguishable from one another and associated with specific facial expressions that are also universal.

Although for Izard, basic emotions are innate, the development of dependent emotions such as guilt and shame that emerge around the age of 2 to 3 years, is a result of social experiences and the maturation of socio-cognitive systems (Buss et al., 2019).

2. Theory of self-conscious emotions

Michael Lewis (2022) describes the emergence of a set of self-conscious emotions. Development of embarrassment, empathy, and jealousy are dependent on the development of self-awareness during the second year of life (Camras, 2022).

For example, jealousy may appear in a child when their mother gives attention to a younger sibling. The child has conscious self-awareness that someone else has what they want.

The next set of self-conscious emotions — pride, shame, and guilt — develops between the ages of 2 and 3, when children begin to understand social rules and goals and evaluate themselves against them (Camras, 2022).

It is here that differences in children’s social experiences can influence the expression of these emotions (Lewis, 2022). For example, a child may experience guilt if they spill their milk because messes aren’t tolerated in the home, whereas another child may not experience guilt.

3. Theory of constructed emotion

The theory of constructed emotion developed by Lisa Feldman Barrett posits that emotions are abstract concepts rather than innate capacities. Emotional development is essentially the development of emotion concepts (Hoemann et al., 2019).

Children construct emotions using the same processes they use to construct all abstract concepts that are not directly tied to physical objects or experiences, such as freedom, intelligence, and beauty (Hoemann et al., 2019).

Barrett and colleagues hypothesize that the process of labeling emotions by caregivers is particularly relevant for the construction of emotion concepts. Children hear and observe caregivers using emotion words incidentally across different instances. For example “I’m so angry I could scream,” “Look at my happy baby,” and “You are so grumpy; time for a nap.”

The hypothesis is that children learn to use these emotion words to construct emotion categories and concepts (Hoemann et al., 2019).

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It is nearly impossible to imagine emotional development as separate from changes in cognitive development that occur in the first two decades of life. As memory and thinking become more complex and abstract, emotional development changes as well.

Similarly, markers of emotional development are intimately linked to a child’s social experiences. The following examples are major markers of change in emotional development as they occur within a social context.

• Social smile (2 to 3 months) While breastfeeding, the infant shares a gaze with mom. Mom responds with a smile using infant-directed speech. “You are a hungry little fellow!” The infant smiles in response (Pagano & Parnes, 2022).
• Attachment (6 to 12 months) Baby is distressed when mom is absent and is comforted with her return (Pagano & Parnes, 2022).
• Social referencing (8 to 10 months) Baby looks to the caregiver to make a decision or know how to respond emotionally (Walle et al., 2017).
• Theory of mind (3 to 5 years) Children progress in their understanding of the thoughts and emotions of others. Progression occurs from understanding that two people (oneself and another) can have different desires and beliefs about the same thing to understanding hidden emotions; a person may look happy on their face and body but feel angry inside (Wellman et al., 2011).
• Emotional competence (7 to 10 years) Emotion expressions are used to manage relationship dynamics, such as smiling at a new friend (Saarni & Camras, 2022).
• Emotion regulation (infancy through adulthood) Emotion regulation strategies are processes used to monitor, evaluate, and modify our emotional reactions in order to achieve a goal. Strategies become more sophisticated from extrinsically based regulation in infancy to more intrinsically based regulation from preschool-age through adulthood (Eisenberg et al., 2010; Thompson & Goodvin, 2007).
• 4 to 6 months: Infants shift their attention away from stressful stimuli.
• 1 to 2 years: Young toddlers crawl or walk away from stressful stimuli.
• 2 to 3 years: Older toddlers begin to show beginnings of self-regulation of emotion.
• 8 to 9 years: Cognitive emotion regulation strategies emerge, and children begin to use thoughts and feelings about themselves and others to control their emotions (Garnefski et al., 2007).

The ability to regulate our emotions is one of the most important skills for learning, social relationships, and mental health. This video by James Gross is an easy-to-follow introduction to the development of emotion regulation and interventions to improve it.

Once self-conscious emotions such as guilt, embarrassment, and shame emerge in middle childhood, very few new emotions develop. Adolescents’ cognitive skills to reason about abstract concepts improve their ability to manage and reason about their own emotions and improve emotional competence in relationships (Rosenblum & Lewis, 2006).

Research on adolescent emotional development shows how emotions change during this time of rapid physical development.

Emotion expression

Emotion expression in adolescence differs from that in childhood and adulthood. Adolescents report experiencing greater extremes of emotion and more negative mood states than adults. Adolescent emotional experiences are reported to include less happiness than during childhood (Rosenblum & Lewis, 2006).

Emotional dissemblance

Emotional dissemblance is the ability to separate one’s emotional expressions from one’s internal feelings. Children learn how to control the emotions they display in order to avoid negative outcomes.

During adolescence, teens begin to display expressions according to the norms of adult interaction (Rosenblum & Lewis, 2006); for example, the ability to outwardly display a facial expression of congratulations to a competitor immediately after a tough loss, while feeling intense emotion internally.

Emotional competence

A successful transition to adulthood is associated with increased emotional competence across several skills during adolescence; for example, learning to regulate intense emotions, knowing how to attend to emotions without becoming overwhelmed by them, and learning how to manage interpersonal relationships in the midst of intense emotions (Rosenblum & Lewis, 2006).

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Research on adult emotion regulation strategies and their relationship to psychological wellbeing provides evidence that emotional development continues into adulthood.

You may think of emotion regulation as a milestone of early childhood that facilitates learning and socio-emotional development. However, the ability to maintain or change one’s emotions, which actively continues to improve with age, is a lifelong skill that predicts positive life outcomes in adulthood (Compas et al., 2014; Martin & Ochsner, 2016).

Cutuli (2014, p. 1) provides an overview of two common emotion regulation strategies in adulthood:

• Cognitive reappraisal “the attempt to reinterpret an emotion-eliciting situation in a way that alters its meaning and changes its emotional impact”
• Expressive suppression “defined as the attempt to hide, inhibit or reduce ongoing emotion-expressive behavior”

A review article including both experimental and individual differences studies in adults provides converging evidence that cognitive reappraisal strategies are associated with better psychological health, lower symptoms of depression, higher self-esteem, and better interpersonal relationships (Cutuli, 2014).

Adults who use expressive suppression strategies tend to show poorer coping abilities, lower self-esteem, and a lack of close social relationships (Cutuli, 2014).

These findings have significant implications for the development of clinical interventions focused on the improvement of positive reappraisal skills.

17 Exercises To Develop Emotional Intelligence

These 17 Emotional Intelligence Exercises [PDF] will help others strengthen their relationships, lower stress, and enhance their wellbeing through improved EQ.

Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

Here at PositivePsychology.com, we have a wide variety of resources to support the understanding and development of emotions, and these include worksheets and excellent articles. Here are a few examples:

Recommended reading

Read our blog to review the Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion with three simple examples.

Do you want to overcome and stop negative emotions? Check out our article What Are Negative Emotions and How to Control them?

Do you want to improve the emotional IQ of the teens in your life? Our blog Teaching Emotional Intelligence to Teens and Students includes helpful lesson plans, a slide presentation for teachers, and fun emotional intelligence games.

Use our Telling an Empathy Story worksheet to improve empathy and emotional perspective-taking skills.

When working with young children, use our Emotion Mask worksheet, which encourages children to identify hidden emotions through drawing.

This Skills for Regulating Emotions worksheet provides four easy-to-use emotion regulation activities to add positive experiences to your daily routine and reverse negative emotional responses.

Test your ability to identify emotion from facial expression in this Emotional Labeling Activity from Paul Ekman’s facial affect coding system.

Make it easier to track your mood throughout the day with our simple-to-use Daily Mood Tracker .

Use this Emotional Regulation Worksheet for Adults to help recognize and analyze adult emotions using real-life examples.

If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others develop emotional intelligence, check out this collection of 17 validated EI tools for practitioners . Use them to help others understand and use their emotions to their advantage.

In this article, we’ve taken a deep dive into the emergence of emotions in infancy and the enormous changes that occur in emotional development from early childhood through adulthood.

We’ve learned that emotional experiences in the first few years of life, both positive and negative, become embedded in the architecture of our brain with lifelong consequences.

This body of research is extremely valuable to each of us as we advocate for improvements in policy and funding allocation for early intervention.

The human brain is plastic and ever-changing based on our individual experiences. Emotional development is no different. It is never too late to make the investment in improving emotional development of our children and, importantly, ourselves!

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Emotional Intelligence Exercises for free .

Emotional development is the process of change in emotion states, expressions, reasoning, and competency that occurs across the lifespan.

Emotional development is important for neural development, learning, healthy interpersonal relationships, positive wellbeing, and lifelong health.

Improve your emotional development by practicing self-awareness through journaling, practicing daily meditation, and developing a breathwork practice to manage stress.

Emotions develop throughout the lifespan in combination with changes in cognitive development and within social experiences.

• Barrett, L. F. (2022, Feb 28). The big idea: Is it time to stop talking about “nature vs nurture”? The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/books/2022/feb/28/the-big-idea-is-it-time-to-stop-talking-about-nature-versus-nurture.
• Buss, K. A., Cole, P. M., & Zhou, A. M. (2019). Theories of emotional development: Where have we been and where are we now? In V. LoBue, K. Pérez-Edgar, & K. A. Buss (Eds.), Handbook of emotional development (pp. 7–25). Springer.
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• National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2004). Children’s emotional development is built into the architecture of their brains . https://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/childrens-emotional-development-is-built-into-the-architecture-of-their-brains/
• National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2010). Early experiences can alter gene expression and affect long-term development. https://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/early-experiences-can-alter-gene-expression-and-affect-long-term-development/
• National Scientific Council on the Developing Child. (2020). Connecting the brain to the rest of the body: Early childhood development and lifelong health are deeply intertwined . https://developingchild.harvard.edu/resources/connecting-the-brain-to-the-rest-of-the-body-early-childhood-development-and-lifelong-health-are-deeply-intertwined/.
• Pagano, M., & Parnes, M. (2022). Emotional development and attachment . OER Commons. Retrieved December 20, 2023, from https://pressbooks.cuny.edu/infantandchilddevelopmentcitytech/chapter/emotional-development-and-attachment/.
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