egyptian art essay introduction

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Egyptian art and architecture

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• Carleton University - Lifelong Learning Program - Eternal Egypt: Art and Architecture
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Egyptian art and architecture , the ancient architectural monuments, sculptures, paintings, and applied crafts produced mainly during the dynastic periods of the first three millennia bce in the Nile valley regions of Egypt and Nubia . The course of art in Egypt paralleled to a large extent the country’s political history, but it depended as well on the entrenched belief in the permanence of the natural, divinely ordained order . Artistic achievement in both architecture and representational art aimed at the preservation of forms and conventions that were held to reflect the perfection of the world at the primordial moment of creation and to embody the correct relationship between humankind, the king, and the pantheon of the gods. For this reason, Egyptian art appears outwardly resistant to development and the exercise of individual artistic judgment, but Egyptian artisans of every historical period found different solutions for the conceptual challenges posed to them.

For the purposes of definition, “ancient Egyptian” is essentially coterminous with pharaonic Egypt, the dynastic structure of Egyptian history, artificial though it may partly be, providing a convenient chronological framework. The distinctive periods are: Predynastic (c. 6th millennium bce –c. 2925 bce ); Early Dynastic (1st–3rd dynasties , c. 2925–c. 2575 bce ); Old Kingdom (4th–8th dynasties, c. 2575–c. 2130 bce ); First Intermediate (9th–11th dynasties, c. 2130–1939 bce ); Middle Kingdom (12th–14th dynasties, 1938–c. 1630 bce ); Second Intermediate (15th–17th dynasties, c. 1630–1540 bce ); New Kingdom (18th–20th dynasties, 1539–1075 bce ); Third Intermediate (21st–25th dynasties, c. 1075–656 bce ); and Late (26th–31st dynasties, 664–332 bce ).

Geographical factors were predominant in forming the particular character of Egyptian art. By providing Egypt with the most predictable agricultural system in the ancient world, the Nile afforded a stability of life in which arts and crafts readily flourished. Equally, the deserts and the sea, which protected Egypt on all sides, contributed to this stability by discouraging serious invasion for almost 2,000 years. The desert hills were rich in minerals and fine stones, ready to be exploited by artists and craftspeople. Only good wood was lacking, and the need for it led the Egyptians to undertake foreign expeditions to Lebanon, to Somalia, and, through intermediaries, to tropical Africa. In general, the search for useful and precious materials determined the direction of foreign policy and the establishment of trade routes and led ultimately to the enrichment of Egyptian material culture . For further treatment, see Egypt ; Middle Eastern religions, ancient .

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AP®︎/College Art History

Course: ap®︎/college art history   >   unit 4, ancient egypt, an introduction.

• Ancient Egyptian art
• Palette of King Narmer
• Seated Scribe
• The Great Pyramids of Giza
• Pyramid of Khufu
• Pyramid of Khafre and the Great Sphinx
• Pyramid of Menkaure
• King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and queen
• Temple of Amun-Re and the Hypostyle Hall, Karnak
• Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut and Large Kneeling Statue, New Kingdom, Egypt
• Ancient Thebes with its Necropolis (UNESCO/TBS)
• Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Three Daughters
• Tutankhamun’s tomb (innermost coffin and death mask)
• Last Judgement of Hunefer, from his tomb
• Hunefer, Book of the Dead

Consistency and stability

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Ancient Egyptian Art

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The artworks of ancient Egypt have fascinated people for thousands of years. The early Greek and later Roman artists were influenced by Egyptian techniques and their art would inspire those of other cultures up to the present day. Many artists are known from later periods but those of Egypt are completely anonymous and for a very interesting reason: their art was functional and created for a practical purpose whereas later art was intended for aesthetic pleasure. Functional art is work-made-for-hire, belonging to the individual who commissioned it, while art created for pleasure - even if commissioned - allows for greater expression of the artist's vision and so recognition of an individual artist.

A Greek artist like Phidias (c. 490-430 BCE) certainly understood the practical purposes in creating a statue of Athena or Zeus but his primary aim would have been to make a visually pleasing piece, to make 'art' as people understand that word today, not to create a practical and functional work. All Egyptian art served a practical purpose: a statue held the spirit of the god or the deceased; a tomb painting showed scenes from one's life on earth so one's spirit could remember it or scenes from the paradise one hoped to attain so one would know how to get there; charms and amulets protected one from harm; figurines warded off evil spirits and angry ghosts; hand mirrors, whip-handles, cosmetic cabinets all served practical purposes and ceramics were used for drinking, eating, and storage. Egyptologist Gay Robins notes:

As far as we know, the ancient Egyptians had no word that corresponded exactly to our abstract use of the word 'art'. They had words for individual types of monuments that we today regard as examples of Egyptian art - 'statue', 'stela', 'tomb' -but there is no reason to believe that these words necessarily included an aesthetic dimension in their meaning. (12)

Although Egyptian art is highly regarded today and continues to be a great draw for museums featuring exhibits, the ancient Egyptians themselves would never have thought of their work in this same way and certainly would find it strange to have these different types of works displayed out of context in a museum's hall. Statuary was created and placed for a specific reason and the same is true for any other kind of art. The concept of "art for art's sake" was unknown and, further, would have probably been incomprehensible to an ancient Egyptian who understood art as functional above all else.

Egyptian Symmetry

This is not to say the Egyptians had no sense of aesthetic beauty. Even Egyptian hieroglyphics were written with aesthetics in mind. A hieroglyphic sentence could be written left to right or right to left, up to down or down to up, depending entirely on how one's choice affected the beauty of the finished work. Simply put, any work needed to be beautiful but the motivation to create was focused on a practical goal: function. Even so, Egyptian art is consistently admired for its beauty and this is because of the value ancient Egyptians placed on symmetry.

The perfect balance in Egyptian art reflects the cultural value of ma'at (harmony) which was central to the civilization . Ma'at was not only universal and social order but the very fabric of creation which came into being when the gods made the ordered universe out of undifferentiated chaos. The concept of unity, of oneness, was this 'chaos' but the gods introduced duality - night and day, female and male, dark and light - and this duality was regulated by ma'at .

It is for this reason that Egyptian temples, palaces, homes and gardens, statuary and paintings, signet rings and amulets were all created with balance in mind and all reflect the value of symmetry. The Egyptians believed their land had been made in the image of the world of the gods, and when someone died, they went to a paradise they would find quite familiar. When an Egyptian obelisk was made it was always created and raised with an identical twin and these two obelisks were thought to have divine reflections, made at the same time, in the land of the gods. Temple courtyards were purposefully laid out to reflect creation, ma'at , heka (magic), and the afterlife with the same perfect symmetry the gods had initiated at creation. Art reflected the perfection of the gods while, at the same time, serving a practical purpose on a daily basis.

Historical Progression

The art of Egypt is the story of the elite, the ruling class. Throughout most of Egypt's historical periods those of more modest means could not afford the luxury of artworks to tell their story and it is largely through Egyptian art that the history of the civilization has come to be known. The tombs, tomb paintings, inscriptions, temples, even most of the literature , is concerned with the lives of the upper class and only by way of telling these stories are those of the lower classes revealed. This paradigm was already set prior to the written history of the culture . Art begins in the Predynastic Period in Egypt (c. 6000 - c. 3150 BCE) through rock drawings and ceramics but is fully realized by the Early Dynastic Period (c. 3150 - c. 2613 BCE) in the famous Narmer Palette .

The Narmer Palette (c. 3150 BCE) is a two-sided ceremonial plate of siltstone intricately carved with scenes of the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt by King Narmer. The importance of symmetry is evident in the composition which features the heads of four bulls (a symbol of power) at the top of each side and balanced representation of the figures which tell the story. The work is considered a masterpiece of Early Dynastic Period art and shows how advanced Egyptian artists were at the time.

The later work of the architect Imhotep (c. 2667-2600 BCE) on the pyramid of King Djoser (c. 2670 BCE) reflects how far artworks had advanced since the Narmer Palette. Djoser's pyramid complex is intricately designed with lotus flowers, papyrus plants, and djed symbols in high and low relief and the pyramid itself, of course, is evidence of the Egyptian skill in working in stone on monumental artworks.

During the Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2613-2181 BCE) art became standardized by the elite and figures were produced uniformly to reflect the tastes of the capital at Memphis . Statuary of the late Early Dynastic and early Old Kingdom periods is remarkably similar although other art forms (painting and writing ) show more sophistication in the Old Kingdom. The greatest artworks of the Old Kingdom are the Pyramids and Great Sphinx of Giza which still stand today but more modest monuments were created with the same precision and beauty. Old Kingdom art and architecture , in fact, was highly valued by Egyptians in later eras. Some rulers and nobles (such as Khaemweset , fourth son of Ramesses II ) purposefully commissioned works in Old Kingdom style, even the eternal home of their tombs.

In the First Intermediate Period of Egypt (2181 -2040 BCE), following the collapse of the Old Kingdom, artists were able to express individual and regional visions more freely. The lack of a strong central government commissioning works meant that district governors could requisition pieces reflecting their home province. These different districts also found they had more disposable income since they were not sending as much to Memphis. More economic power locally inspired more artists to produce works in their own style. Mass production began during the First Intermediate Period also and this led to a uniformity in a given region's artwork which made it at once distinctive but of lesser quality than Old Kingdom work. This change can best be seen in the production of shabti dolls for grave goods which were formerly made by hand.

Art would flourish during the Middle Kingdom of Egypt (2040-1782 BCE) which is generally considered the high point of Egyptian culture . Colossal statuary began during this period as well as the great temple of Karnak at Thebes . The idealism of Old Kingdom depictions in statuary and paintings was replaced by realistic representations and the lower classes are also found represented more often in art than previously. The Middle Kingdom gave way to the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt (c. 1782 - c. 1570 BCE) during which the Hyksos held large areas of the Delta region while the Nubians encroached from the south. Art from this period produced at Thebes retains the characteristics of the Middle Kingdom while that of the Nubians and Hyksos - both of whom admired and copied Egyptian art - differs in size, quality, and technique.

The New Kingdom (c. 1570 - c. 1069 BCE), which followed, is the best-known period from Egypt's history and produced some of the finest and most famous works of art. The bust of Nefertiti and the golden death mask of Tutankhamun both come from this era. New Kingdom art is defined by high quality in vision and technique due largely to Egypt's interaction with neighboring cultures. This was the era of Egypt's empire and the metal -working techniques of the Hittites - who were now considered allies if not equals - greatly influenced the production of funerary artifacts, weaponry, and other artwork.

Following the New Kingdom, the Third Intermediate Period (c. 1069-525 BCE) and Late Period of Ancient Egypt (525-332 BCE) attempted with more or less success to continue the high standard of New Kingdom art while also evoking Old Kingdom styles in an effort to recapture the declining stature of Egypt. Persian influence in the Late Period is replaced by Greek tastes during the Ptolemaic Dynasty (323-30 BCE) which also tries to suggest the Old Kingdom standards with New Kingdom technique and this paradigm persists into Roman Egypt (30 BCE - 646 CE) and the end of Egyptian culture.

Types of Art, Detail, & Symbol

Throughout all these eras, the types of art were as numerous as human need, the resources to make them, and the ability to pay for them. The wealthy of Egypt had ornate hand mirrors, cosmetic cases and jars, jewelry, decorated scabbards for knives and swords, intricate bows, sandals, furniture, chariots, gardens, and tombs. Every aspect of any of these creations had symbolic meaning. In the same way the bull motif on the Narmer Palette symbolized the power of the king, so every image, design, ornamentation, or detail meant something relating to its owner.

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Among the most obvious examples of this is the golden throne of Tutankhamun (c. 1336-c.1327 BCE) which depicts the young king with his wife Ankhsenamun . The couple is represented in a quiet domestic moment as the queen is rubbing ointment onto her husband's arm as he sits in a chair. Their close relationship is established by the color of their skin, which is the same. Men are usually depicted with reddish skin because they spent more time outdoors while a lighter color was used for women 's skin as they were more apt to stay out of the sun. This difference in the shade of skin tones did not represent equality or inequality but was simply an attempt at realism.

In the case of Tutankhamun's throne, however, the technique is used to express an important aspect of the couple's relationship. Other inscriptions and artwork make clear that they spent most of their time together and the artist expresses this through their shared skin tones; Ankhesenamun is just as sun-tanned as Tutankhamun. The red used in this composition also represents vitality and the energy of their relationship. The couple's hair is blue, symbolizing fertility, life, and rebirth while their clothing is white, representing purity. The background is gold , the color of the gods, and all of the intricate details, including the crowns the figures wear and their colors, all have their own specific meaning and go to tell the story of the featured couple.

A sword or a cosmetic case was designed and created with this same goal in mind: story-telling. Even the garden of a house told a story: in the center was a pool surrounded by trees, plants, and flowers which, in turn, were surrounded by a wall and one entered the garden from the house through a portico of decorated columns. All of these would have been arranged carefully to tell a tale which was significant to the owner. Although Egyptian gardens are long gone, models made of them as grave goods have been found which show the great care which went into laying them out in narrative form.

In the case of the noble Meket-Ra of the 11th Dynasty, the garden was designed to tell the story of the journey of life to paradise. The columns of the portico were shaped like lotus blossoms, symbolizing his home in Upper Egypt, the pool in the center represented Lily Lake which the soul would have to cross to reach paradise, and the far garden wall was decorated with scenes from the afterlife. Every time Meket-Ra would sit in his garden he would be reminded of the nature of life as an eternal journey and this would most likely lend him perspective on whatever circumstances might be troubling at the moment.

The paintings on Meket-Ra's walls would have been done by artists mixing colors made from naturally occurring minerals. Black was made from carbon, red and yellow from iron oxides, blue and green from azurite and malachite, white from gypsum and so on. The minerals would be mixed with crushed organic material to different consistencies and then further mixed with an unknown substance (possibly egg whites) to make it sticky so it would adhere to a surface. Egyptian paint was so durable that many works, even those not protected in tombs, have remained vibrant after over 4,000 years.

Although home, garden, and palace walls were usually decorated with flat two-dimensional paintings, tomb, temple, and monument walls employed reliefs. There were high reliefs (in which the figures stand out from the wall) and low reliefs (where the images are carved into the wall). To create these, the surface of the wall would be smoothed with plaster which was then sanded. An artist would create a work in minature and then draw grid lines on it and this grid would then be drawn on the wall. Using the smaller work as a model, the artist would be able to replicate the image in the correct proportions on the wall. The scene would first be drawn and then outlined in red paint. Corrections to the work would be noted, possibly by another artist or supervisor, in black paint and once these were taken care of the scene was carved and painted.

Paint was also used on statues which were made of wood, stone, or metal. Stonework first developed in the Early Dynastic Period in Egypt and became more and more refined over the centuries. A sculptor would work from a single block of stone with a copper chisel, wooden mallet, and finer tools for details. The statue would then be smoothed with a rubbing cloth. The stone for a statue was selected, as with everything else in Egyptian art, to tell its own story. A statue of Osiris , for example, would be made of black schist to symbolize fertility and rebirth, both associated with this particular god.

Metal statues were usually small and made of copper, bronze , silver , and gold. Gold was particularly popular for amulets and shrine figures of the gods since it was believed that the gods had golden skin. These figures were made by casting or sheet metal work over wood. Wooden statues were carved from different pieces of trees and then glued or pegged together. Statues of wood are rare but a number have been preserved and show tremendous skill.

Cosmetic chests, coffins, model boats, and toys were made in this same way. Jewelry was commonly fashioned using the technique known as cloisonne in which thin strips of metal are inlaid on the surface of the work and then fired in a kiln to forge them together and create compartments which are then detailed with jewels or painted scenes. Among the best examples of cloisonne jewelry is the Middle Kingdom pendant given by Senusret II (c. 1897-1878 BCE) to his daughter. This work is fashioned of thin gold wires attached to a solid gold backing inlaid with 372 semi-precious stones. Cloisonne was also used in making pectorals for the king, crowns, headdresses, swords, ceremonial daggers, and sarcophagi among other items.

Although Egyptian art is famously admired it has come under criticism for being unrefined. Critics claim that the Egyptians never seem to have mastered perspective as there is no interplay of light and shadow in the compositions, they are always two dimensional, and the figures are emotionless. Statuary depicting couples, it is argued, show no emotion in the faces and the same holds true for battle scenes or statues of a king or queen.

These criticisms fail to recognize the functionality of Egyptian art. The Egyptians understood that emotional states are transitory; one is not consistently happy, sad, angry, content throughout a given day much less eternally. Artworks present people and deities formally without expression because it was thought the person's spirit would need that representation in order to live on in the afterlife. A person's name and image had to survive in some form on earth in order for the soul to continue its journey. This was the reason for mummification and the elaborate Egyptian burial rituals: the spirit needed a 'beacon' of sorts to return to when visiting earth for sustenance in the tomb.

The spirit might not recognize a statue of an angry or jubilant version of themselves but would recognize their staid, complacent, features. The lack of emotion has to do with the eternal purpose of the work. Statues were made to be viewed from the front, usually with their backs against a wall, so that the soul would recognize their former selves easily and this was also true of gods and goddesses who were thought to live in their statues.

Life was only a small part of an eternal journey to the ancient Egyptians and their art reflects this belief. A statue or a cosmetics case, a wall painting or amulet, whatever form the artwork took, it was made to last far beyond its owner's life and, more importantly, tell that person's story as well as reflecting Egyptian values and beliefs as a whole. Egyptian art has served this purpose well as it has continued to tell its tale now for thousands of years.

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Bibliography

• Bunson, M. The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Gramercy Books, 1991.
• David, R. Religion and Magic in Ancient Egypt. Penguin Books, 2003.
• Robins, G. The Art of Ancient Egypt. Harvard University Press, 2008.
• Shaw, I. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press, 2006.
• Silverman, D. P. Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press, 1997.
• Strudwick, H. The Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Metro Books, 2006.
• Van De Mieroop, M. A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
• Wilkinson, R. H. Symbol & Magic in Egyptian Art. Thames & Hudson, 1999.

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Mark, J. J. (2017, May 26). Ancient Egyptian Art . World History Encyclopedia . Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/Egyptian_Art/

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Egypt in the old kingdom (ca. 2649–2130 b.c.).

Wall tiles from the funerary apartments of king Djoser

West wall of the chapel of Nikauhor and Sekhemhathor

False door from the tomb of Metjetji

The King's Acquaintances Memi and Sabu

King Sahure Accompanied by a Divine Figure

Nikare with his Wife and Daughter

Nikare as a scribe

Striding Figure

Sistrum Inscribed with the Names of King Teti

Two Vases in the Shape of a Mother Monkey with her Young

Kneeling captive

Corner of niche from the tomb of Akhtihotep

Statue of Tjeteti in middle age

Statue of Tjeteti as a young man

Tara Prakash Department of Egyptian Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

February 2019

The Old Kingdom (ca. 2649–2130 B.C.) was an incredibly dynamic period of Egyptian history. While the origin of many concepts, practices, and monuments can be traced to earlier periods, it was during the Old Kingdom that they developed into the forms that would characterize and influence the rest of pharaonic history. A number of broad artistic, historical, and religious trends distinguished this period. Yet, the specific elements and manifestations of these overarching commonalities changed dramatically over time, and the end of the Old Kingdom differed remarkably from the beginning. Although several important settlement sites provide some insight into everyday life, our knowledge of Old Kingdom material culture is largely based on funerary evidence.

Dynasty 3 (ca. 2649–2575 B.C.) Dynasty 3 began with king Netjerikhet (r. ca. 2649–2630 B.C.), who would later be called Djoser. Djoser’s funerary complex at Saqqara exemplifies the notable architectural and cultural developments that occurred during his reign. This was the earliest stone structure in Egypt, and at its center stood Egypt’s first pyramid, the Step Pyramid. The complex consisted of multiple cult buildings and an enormous series of underground apartments within a large rectangular enclosure that was oriented from north to south ( 48.160.1 ). Symbolically, it aligned the deceased king with the circumpolar stars and the gods, enabled him to eternally celebrate the rituals of kingship, and provided a place for his funerary cult to be performed.

Dynasty 3 high officials built mud-brick rectangular superstructures, known today as mastabas, above their tombs in Saqqara, continuing the practice of the previous dynasty. In many of these, what had before been offering niches were enlarged into small chapels that were lined with stone and decorated. An offering scene, which depicted the tomb owner seated before a table of bread, with lists of food and other provisions, was usually depicted inside the chapel. This scene magically provided for the deceased in the afterlife, thus guaranteeing his continued existence. Such scenes were ubiquitous for the remainder of Egyptian history ( 08.201.2a–g ; 64.100 ).

Dynasty 4 (ca. 2575–2465 B.C.) Pyramid building reached its height during early Dynasty 4. Snefru (r. ca. 2575–2551 B.C.), who had three massive pyramids constructed in Meidum and Dahshur, transformed the stepped pyramid into a true, smooth-sided one. The Great Pyramid at Giza, which is the largest Egyptian pyramid, belongs to his son and successor, Khufu (r. ca. 2551–2528 B.C.). Around this time, the basic elements of the pyramid complex became standardized. These were aligned along an east-west axis and included the pyramid itself in the west marking the king’s tomb; the pyramid temple (also sometimes referred to as the funerary temple or the mortuary temple), which was directly adjacent to the east side of the pyramid; the valley temple in the east and at the edge of cultivation; and the causeway, which connected the temples and led from the cultivation toward the pyramid in the desert.

While these elements were reproduced with remarkable consistency throughout the rest of the Old Kingdom, the plan of each element could vary widely. The walls of the temples and causeway were covered with painted reliefs, and multiple statues were placed inside. Particularly during the reigns of Khafre (ca. 2520–2494 B.C.) and Menkaure (ca. 2490–2472 B.C.), who built the other two pyramids at Giza, there seems to have been great interest in royal statuary, as both kings had many statues set in their monuments. With smooth, fleshy faces and muscular bodies, their images epitomize the highly idealized artistic style of Dynasty 4 and early Dynasty 5 ( 58.123 ; 48.111 ; 08.201.2a–g ; 18.2.4 ).

The changes in the layout and structure of the royal funerary complex reflected the sun god’s increased prominence and evolving beliefs of kingship. The pyramid was a solar symbol, thought to mimic the sacred benben stone in Heliopolis, where the solar cult was centered. The close relationship between the king and the sun god was further emphasized in a new royal epithet that asserted the king as the sun god’s son. The king was essentially a living god, who held all power and was at the apex of a highly stratified society. Indeed, the administration was extremely centralized, and most top-level high officials were close relatives of the king, often his own sons. Many officials were buried within two vast cemeteries of stone mastabas that the state planned out and constructed around Khufu’s pyramid, and their afterlife may have been dependent on the king’s.

Dynasty 5 (ca. 2465–2323 B.C.) The solar cult’s importance continued to increase during early Dynasty 5. Six kings had sun temples in Abusir. This was a new type of monument that these kings built in addition to their pyramid complexes. While the worship of the sun god was the primary purpose of these temples, they were also closely connected to the cult of the deceased, and possibly the living, king.

Already by the reign of Menkaure, pyramid size had declined and become less significant. During Dynasties 5 and 6, kings invested in other aspects of their monuments, particularly the decoration of the associated temples, which became larger. The pyramid complex of Sahure (r. ca. 2458–2446 B.C.) is particularly well preserved and offers an excellent example of the types of reliefs that usually covered the temple walls. These depicted the king triumphing over foreign enemies, interacting with deities, and receiving long lines of offering bearers.

In the middle of Dynasty 5, several major social and cultural changes mark an important turning point in Old Kingdom history. For example, the wealth and power of high officials seem to have increased around this time. Unlike during the previous dynasty, Dynasty 5 high officials were usually drawn from elite private families, and the increased size of their mastabas reflect their growing influence. These tomb complexes, erected in Saqqara, Giza, and Abusir, had more rooms, expanded relief decoration with new scene types, and multiple statues of the deceased representing him in different compositions, poses, or materials ( 52.19 ; 48.67 ). Scenes of daily life, which could depict hunting, agricultural activities, or butchering, became extremely common and ensured that the deceased successfully transitioned to and was provided for in the afterlife ( 08.201.2a–g ).

The artistic style changed dramatically toward the end of Dynasty 5, and this is likely linked to other contemporaneous cultural developments. The expressionistic late Old Kingdom style, or the so-called Second Style, which features large eyes, slightly upturned lips, narrow shoulders, and a lack of musculature, was common throughout Dynasty 6 ( 64.100 ; 64.260 ).

By the end of Dynasty 5, the cult of the new god Osiris had gained momentum. The last two kings chose not to build sun temples, and the royal cemetery was moved back to Saqqara. Perhaps most significantly, Unis (r. ca. 2353–2323 B.C.) had Pyramid Texts carved on the walls of the funerary apartments inside his pyramid. Although these texts and spells include solar and stellar references, the Osirian religion is dominant, and thus they epitomize the decline in the prominence of the sun god and the rise of Osiris within the funerary realm.

Dynasty 6 (ca. 2323–2150 B.C.) and the End of the Old Kingdom The funerary apartments of all subsequent Old Kingdom kings were inscribed with Pyramid Texts, and by the end of Dynasty 6, queens’ pyramids had them as well. This is one sign of the changing role of the king, which further evolved over Dynasty 6 as the men and women who surrounded him became increasingly wealthy and powerful. Both Pepi I (r. ca. 2289–2255 B.C.) and Pepi II (r. ca. 2246–2152 B.C.) seem to have married an unusually large number of women, probably between six and eight, with many being from outside the royal family. At the same time, the status of kings’ wives seems to have increased. Their funerary temples became larger and more complex, and they could be buried under pyramids, a practice that had formerly been limited to queen mothers.

The state’s interest in the provinces grew throughout Dynasty 6, and the wealth and influence that had previously been localized among high officials at the capital spread across the country as the prominence of officials residing in and governing the provinces increased. By the reign of Merenre I (ca. 2255–2246 B.C.), many of these men were choosing to be buried there, often in rock-cut tombs. While Upper Egyptian officials had used this type of architecture before, the size and decoration of late Dynasty 6 provincial tombs was greatly expanded. Scholars debate whether this trend was a sign of a weak central government with high officials acting on their own outside of the king’s grasp, or part of the state’s effort to extend its authority by sending agents to establish its presence in the countryside. However, to some degree, it could reflect a gradual decline in central power and influence during Dynasty 6 even as the state maintained control over these regions and attempted to exploit provincial resources.

Effectively, the last king of Dynasty 6 was Pepi II, who, according to tradition, ruled for more than ninety years. Though recent scholars have questioned this, his reign was undoubtedly long, and it is often cited as a primary reason for the subsequent breakdown of the central government. Yet, while dynastic issues may have played a role in the collapse of the Old Kingdom, there were many contributing factors, including increasing decentralization, provincial policies, growing hostility and pressure from Nubian populations to the south, and climate change and the desiccation of the region. Several ephemeral kings followed Pepi II and comprise Dynasties 7 and 8 (ca. 2152–2100 B.C.), but the degree to which the capital retained control of the rest of the country during this time is debatable. As the governors of the provinces became autonomous, the Old Kingdom came to an end.

Prakash, Tara. “Egypt in the Old Kingdom (ca. 2649–2130 B.C.) .” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/oking/hd_oking.htm (February 2019)

Further Reading

Arnold, Dorothea, Krzysztof Grzymski, and Christiane Ziegler, eds. Egyptian Art in the Age of the Pyramids . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1999. See on MetPublications

Lehner, Mark. The Complete Pyramids . London: Thames & Hudson, 2008.

Malek, Jaromir. In the Shadow of the Pyramids: Egypt during the Old Kingdom . Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986.

Robins, Gay. The Art of Ancient Egypt . Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997.

Verner, Miroslav. Abusir: The Necropolis of the Sons of the Sun . Cairo: American University in Cairo, 2017.

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The world of ancient Egypt

Few civilizations have enjoyed the longevity and global cultural reach of ancient Egypt. Their distinct visual expressions, writing system, and imposing monuments are instantly recognizable by viewers all around the world even today—put simply, their branding was on point. 

Pyramid of Khafre, Egypt (photo: MusikAnimal, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Despite portraying significant stability over a vast period of time, their civilization was not as static as it may appear at first glance, particularly if viewed through our modern eyes and cultural perspectives . Instead, the culture was dynamic even as it revolved around a stable core of imagery and concepts. The ancient Egyptians adjusted to new experiences, constantly adding to their complex beliefs about the divine and terrestrial realms, and how they interact. This flexibility, wrapped around a base of consistency, was part of the reason ancient Egypt survived for millennia and continues to fascinate.  

Read an introductory essay about ancient Egypt

Ancient Egypt: an introduction

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The Natural World of Egypt

View of the Nile River, Egypt (photo: Badics, CC BY-SA 3.0)

With the blazing sun above, flanked by vast seas of shifting sand, and fed by the life-giving Nile River (which hid frightening creatures beneath its dark waters), the natural world of Egypt was inherently beautiful but also potentially deadly. Outside the lush river valley, there was little protection from the ever-dominant sun, whose intensity was both feared and revered. The deserts were home not only to many dangerous creatures, but the sands themselves were also unpredictable and constantly shifting. The clear night skies dazzled with millions of stars, some of which seemed to move of their own accord while others rose and fell at trackable intervals. The Nile, with its annual floods, brought fertility and renewal to the land, but could also overflow and wreak havoc on the villages that lined its banks. Careful observers of their environment, the Egyptians perceived divine forces in these phenomena and many of their deities, such as the powerful sun god Ra, were connected with elements from the natural world.

Hieroglyphs, detail from the White Chapel, Karnak (photo: Dr. Amy Calvert)

The perception of divine powers existing in the natural world was particularly true in connection with the animals that inhabited the region. There was an array of creatures that the Egyptians would have observed or interacted with on a regular basis and they feature heavily in the culture. One of the most distinctive visual attributes of Egyptian imagery is the myriad deities that were portrayed in hybrid form, with a human body and animal head. In addition, a wide range of birds, fishes, mammals, reptiles, and other creatures appear prominently in the hieroglyphic script —there are dozens of different birds alone.

Nebamun fowling in the marshes, Tomb-chapel of Nebamun, c. 1350 B.C.E., 18th Dynasty, paint on plaster, 83 x 98 cm, Thebes (© Trustees of the British Museum)

The Nile was packed with numerous types of fish, which were recorded in great detail in fishing scenes that became a fixture in non-royal tombs. Most relief and painting throughout Egypt’s history was created for divine or mortuary settings and they were primarily intended to be functional. Many tomb scenes included the life-giving Nile and all it’s abundance with the goal of making that bounty available for the deceased in the afterlife. In addition to the array of fish, the river also teemed with far more dangerous animals, like crocodiles and hippopotami. Protective spells and magical gestures were used from early on to aid the Egyptians in avoiding those watery perils as they went about their daily lives.

Hunefer (center) flanked by two deities: the ibis-headed Thoth (left) and the falcon-headed Horus (right), from Hunefer’s Judgement in the presence of Osiris, Book of the Dead of Hunefer, 19th Dynasty, New Kingdom, c. 1275 B.C.E., papyrus, Thebes, Egypt (British Museum)

The desert, likewise, was full of potentially dangerous creatures. Lions, leopards, jackals, cobras, and scorpions were all revered for their attributes and feared for their ferocity. Soaring above were birds of prey, like falcons who were sharp-eyed hunters, and massive vultures that consumed decaying flesh and fed it to their young. Scarab beetles also seemingly brought new life from decay and the sacred ibis with their curved beaks found sustenance hidden in the muddy banks of the Nile. All of these creatures (and many others) became closely associated with different deities very early in Egyptian history. The Egyptians did not worship animals; instead, certain animals were revered because it was believed that they were related to particular gods and thus served as earthly manifestations of those deities.

Model scene of workers ploughing a field, Middle Kingdom, late Dynasty 11, 2010–1961 B.C.E., wood, 54 cm (MFA Boston)

Even domesticated animals, such as cows, bulls, rams, and geese, became associated with deities and were viewed as vitally important. Cattle were probably the first animals to be domesticated in Egypt and domesticated cattle, donkeys, and rams appear along with wild animals on Predynastic and Early Dynastic votive objects , showing massive herds that were controlled by early rulers, demonstrating their wealth and prestige. Pastoral scenes of animal husbandry appear in numerous private tomb chapels and wooden models, providing detailed evidence of their daily practices. Herdsmen appear caring for their animals in depictions that include milking, calving, protecting the cattle as they cross the river, feeding, herding, and many other aspects of their day-to-day care.

The Battlefield Palette , c. 3100 B.C.E., mudstone, found at el-Amarna, Egypt, 19.6 x 32.8 cm (© Trustees of the British Museum)

Already in the Predynastic period the king was linked with the virile wild bull, an association that continues throughout Egyptian history—one of the primary items of royal regalia was a bull tail, which appears on a huge number of pharaonic images. An early connection between the king and lions is also apparent. One scene on a Predynastic ceremonial palette ( The Battlefield Palette), shows the triumphant king as a massive lion devouring his defeated foes. First Dynasty kings appear to have kept lion cubs as pets.

The Great Sphinx (photo: superblinkymac, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)

In addition, lions (among other animals) were associated with the burials of some early rulers. One of the most iconic images from ancient Egypt is the massive Great Sphinx at Giza, which was sculpted from the living rock of the plateau. This fused form, with the body of a lion and the head of the king, became a common visual expression of royal power. 

Historical Setting

While many of the religious and cultural characteristics of ancient Egypt were evident from very early on and continued all the way through the Roman era (contributing to overall cultural stability), sweeping conceptual developments and adoptions of external elements are also evident. Throughout ancient Egypt’s long history, periods of unified control were interspersed with moments of instability where parts of the country were controlled by different authorities. These repeated waves of political and cultural development create a decidedly complex history that  spans thousands of years.

Read essays to understand the historical setting and basic characteristics of each era

Ancient Egyptian chronology and historical framework: an introduction

Predynastic and Early Dynastic:  an introduction

Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period: an introduction

Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period: an introduction

New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period: an introduction

Late Period and the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods: an introduction

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Social Organization

Conceptually, the Egyptian state was an absolute monarchy where the office of pharaoh itself was considered divine. The pharaoh (king) was viewed as the earthly manifestation of the god Horus, and was responsible as the supreme commander for making all decisions affecting the nation. In reality, the king stood at the head of a hierarchical administrative structure with layers of civil officials that oversaw various systems and were responsible to the king for their success. 

Seated Scribe​ , c. 2500 B.C.E., c. 4th Dynasty, Old Kingdom, painted limestone with rock crystal, magnesite, and copper/arsenic inlay for the eyes and wood for the nipples, found in Saqqara (photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Most Egyptians followed the careers of their fathers and were taught by apprenticeship. Only the children of the higher classes, destined to become officials, were taught in schools and learned to read and write. Money in the modern sense did not exist in Egypt until the mid-fourth century B.C.E., so wages were usually paid in grain that could then be exchanged for copper or silver. Agriculture was the basis of the Egyptian economy and the foundation of the state, and produce was delivered to central storehouses to be administered and distributed.

Read essays about the various social strata in Egyptian society

Egyptian Social Organization: The Pharaoh

Egyptian Social Organization: Administrative officials, priests, ranks of the military, and the general population

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Art and Function

Large Kneeling Statue of Hatshepsut , c. 1479–1458 B.C.E., Dynasty 18, New Kingdom (Deir el-Bahri, Upper Egypt), granite, 261.5 x 80 x 137 cm (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)

Egyptian art is sometimes viewed as static and abstract when compared with the more naturalistic depictions of other cultures (ancient Greece for example). Much of Egyptian imagery—especially royal imagery—was governed by decorum (a sense of what was appropriate), and remained extraordinarily consistent throughout its long history. This is why their art may appear unchanging—and this was intentional. For the ancient Egyptians, consistency was a virtue and an expression of political stability, divine balance, and clear evidence of ma’at and the correctness of their culture. The Egyptians even had a tendency, especially after periods of disunion, towards archaism where the artistic style would revert to that of the earlier Old Kingdom which was perceived as a “golden age.”

Read essays about art and function

Ancient Egyptian art: an introduction its function and basic characteristics

Materials and techniques in ancient Egyptian art: an introduction

Consistency and balance

The canon of proportions grid is clearly visible in the lower, unfinished register of the Stela of Userwer, and the use of hieratic scale (where the most important figures are largest) is evident the second register that shows Userwer, his wife and his parents seated and at a larger scale than the figures offering before them. Detail of the stela of the sculptor Userwer, 12th dynasty, limestone, from Egypt, 52 x 48 cm wide (© Trustees of the British Museum)

Consistency in representation was closely related to a fundamental belief that depictions had an impact beyond the image itself. This belief led to an active resistance to changes in codified depictions. Even the way that figures were planned and laid out by the artists was codified. During the Old Kingdom, the Egyptians developed a grid system, referred to as the canon of proportions, for creating systematic figures with the same proportions. Grid lines aligned with the top of the head, top of the shoulder, waist, hips, knees, and bottom of the foot (among other body joints). 

King Menkaura (Mycerinus) and Queen, 2490–2472 B.C.E., Old Kingdom, Dynasty 4, greywacke, Menkaura Valley Temple, Giza, Egypt, 142.2 x 57.1 x 55.2 cm, 676.8 kg (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; photo: Steven Zucker, CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

The grid aided the artist in ensuring that the proportions of their figures were correct, but those proportions shifted over time. For example, although 18 squares was the standard used for much of Egypt’s history, in the Amarna period 20 squares were used, resulting in figures with more elongated proportions. 

Thutmose, Model Bust of Queen Nefertiti , c. 1340 BCE, limestone and plaster, New Kingdom, 18th dynasty, Amarna Period (Egyptian Museum and Papyrus Collection/Neues Museum, Berlin)

Below are several examples of Egyptian art that demonstrate their primary stylistic characteristics. These include:

• the use of hierarchical scale
• the use of registers
• use of the canon of proportions (described above)
• a preference for balance
• the integration of perspectives.  

Read essays and watch videos about consistency and balance

Stela of the sculptor Userwer: The lower part is still covered with the grid used for ensuring that the proportions of the figures were correct.

King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and queen: They both look beyond the present and into timeless eternity, their otherworldly visage displaying no human emotion whatsoever.

Thutmose, Model Bust of Queen Nefertiti : This stunning bust exemplifies a change in style.

The Seated Scribe: This painted statue differs from the ideal statues of pharaohs.

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Creative details

Nude figure of the Seal Bearer Tjetji, 2321 B.C.E.–2184 B.C.E. (6th Dynasty), from Akhmim, Upper Egypt, wood, obsidian, limestone, and copper, 75 cm high (© Trustees of the British Museum)

Although much Egyptian art is formal, many surviving examples of highly expressive depictions full of creative details prove that the ancient Egyptian artists were fully capable of naturalistic representations. Note, for example, the sensitive modeling of the musculature and close attention paid to realistic physical detail evident in a wood statue of a high official (the Seal Bearer Tjetji) from a Late Old Kingdom tomb. These very unusual and enigmatic statuettes of nude high officials, which are depicted in a standard pose of striding forward with left leg advanced and holding a long staff, were often painted and had eyes of inlaid stone set in copper. 

Musicians and dancers (detail), A feast for Nebamun, Tomb-chapel of Nebamun, c. 1350 B.C.E., 18th Dynasty, paint on plaster, whole fragment: 88 x 119 cm, Thebes © Trustees of the British Museum

Nebamun’s tomb, with its spectacular paintings, includes several examples that demonstrate a careful observation of the natural world—especially notable in the energetic hunting cat and the sinuous dancing of the entertainers at the banquet. A marvelous wooden head of Queen Tiye presents a woman of strong personality with details that hint at her formidable character. 

Portrait Head of Queen Tiye with a Crown of Two Feathers , c. 1355 B.C.E., Amarna Period, Dynasty 18, New Kingdom, Egypt, yew wood, lapis lazuli, silver, gold, faience, 22.5 cm high (Egyptian Museum and Papyrus Collection at the Neues Museum, Berlin)

Read essays about creative details

Wooden tomb statue of Tjeti: T he sculptor of this example has carefully modeled the muscles on the torso and legs, and paid close attention to the detail of the face.

Paintings from the Tomb-chapel of Nebamun: He is shown hunting birds from a small boat in the marshes of the Nile with his wife Hatshepsut and their young daughter.

Portrait Head of Queen Tiye: She was a powerful figure, but her royal life was complicated, as demonstrated through this changing statue.

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Metalworking Traditions

Scene showing the manufacture of valuable items, such as jewelry. Wall-painting, probably from the tomb of Sobekhotep, Thebes, c. 1400 B.C.E., New Kingdom, reign of Thutmose IV, painted stucco, 60 x 58.5 (© Trustees of the British Museum)

Egyptian artisans were highly skilled metalworkers from early times; although few metal sculptures have survived, those that are preserved show an incredible level of technical achievement. As with other types of craft, like woodworking, preserved images of artisans in their workshops found in private tombs provide information about the processes of production For instance, we can see a group of jewelers at work in a painting from the tomb of Sebekhotep.

Pectoral and Necklace of Sithathoryunet with the Name of Senwosret II, Middle Kingdom, Dynasty 12, reign of Senwosret II, c. 1887–1878 B.C.E., Egypt, Fayum Entrance Area, el-Lahun (Illahun, Kahun; Ptolemais Hormos), Tomb of Sithathoryunet (BSA Tomb 8), EES 1914, Gold, carnelian, feldspar, garnet, turquoise, lapis lazuli

The most beautifully crafted pieces of jewelry display elegant designs, incredible intricacy, and astonishingly precise stone-cutting and inlay, reaching a level that modern jewelers would be hard-pressed to achieve. The jewelry of a Middle Kingdom princess, found in her tomb at el-Lahun in the Fayum region is one spectacular example.  

Statuette of Thutmose IV, 1400–1390 B.C.E., 19th Dynasty, ancient Egypt, bronze, silver, calcite, 14.7 x 6.4 cm (© Trustees of the British Museum)

The metal statues that survive demonstrate a high level of skill in both sheet working/metal forming and casting in copper and bronze. This marvelous hollow-cast bronze statuette of a kneeling Thutmosis IV, presenting an offering of wine, provides a peek into the abilities of Egypt’s craftsmen. Note that the arms were created separately and joined to the body on tenons and the eyes were originally inlaid.

Read essays and watch a video about metalworking traditions

Paintings from the tomb of Sebekhotep: Images show jewelers at work.

Pectoral and necklace of Sithathoryunet: Fashioned delicately in gold, carnelian, feldspar, garnet, turquoise, and lapis lazuli.

Bronze statuette of Thutmose IV:  Very few metal statues survive that date from before the Late Period, though the Egyptians did have the technology to make large copper statues as early as the Old Kingdom.

This brief glimpse at the world of ancient Egypt is just a springboard for gaining an understanding of this compelling and complex culture. 

A final note

The wonder of the internet is the astonishing access to information; one of the big problems with the internet is that anyone, regardless of knowledge or training, can post whatever they like and that information is presented at the same level as content put out by the experienced and trained. Information about ancient Egypt should always come from a well-vetted source, as there is a great deal of misinformation. The culture is astonishing enough on its own. Egypt remains highly influential across different areas of culture and vast swaths of time and space—Egyptian glass beads have been excavated in Viking tombs and revivals of Egyptian style still happen on an almost cyclical basis, even millenia later. We are surrounded by Egyptian imagery and concepts even if we don’t realize it; those emojis we use with such abandon are decidedly hieroglyphic. The more we know about what came before, the better we can grasp everything that has happened since. Only by understanding the past can we really envision the possibilities of the present and plan for the future.   

Key questions to guide your reading

How did the annual flooding of the nile help form the egyptian view of the world, how might the regular behavior of certain animals—like falcons, vultures, snakes, and scarab beetles— suggest "heavenly wisdom" to the careful observer, how would you want to be depicted for eternity what identifying symbols would you want to include, terms to know and use.

canon of proportions

hierarchical scale

Need teaching images?  Here is a  Google Slideshow with many of the primary images in this chapter

Read a chapter about Ancient Egyptian religious life and afterlife

Collaborators

Dr. Amy Calvert

Dr. Beth Harris

Dr. Steven Zucker

The British Museum

The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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