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The Impact of Teacher Absenteeism on Student Performance: The Case of the Cobb County School District

Mary Finlayson

Date of Award

Summer 2009

Degree Type

Degree name.

Master of Public Administration (MPA)

Political Science

Common sense that is supported by research tells us that when a teacher is absent from the classroom, student learning is disrupted. When that teacher is repeatedly absent, student performance can be significantly impacted in a negative way. The more days a teacher is out of the classroom, the lower their students tend to score on standardized tests. Nationally, teachers are absent from the classroom on average 10 days per year. Cobb County School District teachers are out of the classroom on average 14 days per year. There are other reasons to be concerned with teacher absenteeism:

• Financial costs to the school system – The Cobb County School District spent approximately $8.5 million dollars to pay for classroom and clinic nurse substitutes during the 2008/2009 school year.

• Students attending school in low socioeconomic areas experience more teacher absences. Research tells us that teachers tend to be absent more often from low-socioeconomic schools, which has a detrimental affect on students who are already struggling.

• Unmonitored usage of leave in a school can affect the absence behavior of employees, leading to more leave usage.

This analysis was conducted in the Cobb County School District, a large suburban school district with a total number of 114 schools, more than 6,800 classroom teachers, and more than 106,000 students. Data was collected on 453 third-grade teachers and 7683 third-grade students from 64 elementary schools. A regression analysis was performed on the variables of all Cobb County third-grade teacher absenteeism rates and their student scores on the math and reading sections on the Criterion Reference Competency Test (CRCT). A regression analysis was also performed on the percentage of students receiving free and/or reduced lunch per school and those students’ scores on the math and reading sections of the CRCT.

The results of the analysis support previous research findings that higher teacher absenteeism leads to lower student math scores on standardized tests. This study also found that students attending low-socioeconomic area schools scored significantly lower on the reading and math sections of the Criterion Reference Competency Test (CRCT).

Recommendations to address this issue include better collection and monitoring of teacher absenteeism data, requiring teachers to make personal contact with the principal or other administrator when reporting absences, and implementing incentive programs to improve teacher attendance.

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Teacher Absenteeism and the Perceived Reasons for its Effect on Student Achievement in Three Barbadian Secondary Schools.

LEWIS, WENDY,SHARON (2020) Teacher Absenteeism and the Perceived Reasons for its Effect on Student Achievement in Three Barbadian Secondary Schools. Doctoral thesis, Durham University.

Abstract This thesis investigated the reasons for teacher absences, and how it has impacted on student achievement in the core subjects at three suburban secondary schools in Barbados using a cross-sectional survey research design which included teachers and students. The study focuses on four research questions: Which reasons do teachers give that contribute most to their being absent from work at three Barbadian Secondary Schools? Are there significant differences in the reasons for absenteeism based on specific teacher characteristics? What are students’ perceptions of teachers’ absenteeism at three Barbadian Secondary Schools? Do teacher absences impact upon student achievement in the core subjects at three Barbadian Secondary Schools? Does the relationship between teacher absenteeism and student achievement differ between teachers with diverse characteristics at three Barbadian Secondary Schools? Data were collected on self-reported paper and pencil questionnaires, teacher absence data and student test scores. There were forty-five closed and one open-ended question on the teacher questionnaire, and twenty-five closed and one open-ended question on the student questionnaire. Open responses by teachers revealed that absences were mainly due to personal circumstantial factors. Students however, believed that their teachers were absent because they did not want to work. Correlation analysis determined that a moderate negative, linear relationship exists between teacher absence and student averages in English, Integrated Science and Spanish at Schools A and C. A moderate, negative relationship also existed between teacher absences and student averages in Social Studies at School A, but a strong positive relationship at School C. A weak negative relationship was discovered for Math at School C, with a moderate relationship at School A. All correlations were statistically significant. These negative statistically significant relationships support previous research by (Brown and Arnell 2012; Bruno, 2002; Obeng-Denteh, Yeboah, Sam, & Monkah, 2011; Scott, Vaughn, Wolfe, & Wyant, 2007; Speas, 2010) and other researchers who also discovered similar relationships. Multivariate regression analysis ascertained that total teacher absence in the core subjects of Integrated Science, Math, Social Studies and Spanish negatively impacted student averages. These findings suggest that the more absent days taken by the teacher in the core subjects, the lower their students’ averages will be. Conversely, teacher absences had a significant positive effect on student averages for English. This finding was not expected and indicates that there are other variables besides teacher absence which contribute to low student achievement.

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Teacher Absenteeism in South Africa

A National and International Perspective

• Reference work entry
• First Online: 23 February 2021
• Cite this reference work entry

• Keshni Bipath 2 &
• Linda Naidoo 2  

Part of the book series: Global Education Systems ((GES))

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Teacher absenteeism is a huge concern both internationally and nationally. There have been many studies regarding the reasons teachers get absent and the impact this has on student achievement, among other factors. In South Africa, for instance, the provision of education at all levels is a serious challenge and compels attention. This is exacerbated by high rates of teacher absenteeism. The reasons cited for absenteeism and its effects, it is argued, need to be disseminated more directly to both educators and departments of education so that they inform progress in educational planning and management to counter the resulting dysfunctionality of schools. This chapter offers some understanding, through qualitative enquiry, of what teacher absenteeism is and why it manifests. It presents insights and observations, with statistics, from a selected group of international sites and South Africa, and what effects absenteeism has overall. The chapter includes recommendations and action from different countries, the key one for South Africa being more effective management of teacher absenteeism.

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Bipath, K., Naidoo, L. (2021). Teacher Absenteeism in South Africa. In: Adeyemo, K.S. (eds) The Education Systems of Africa. Global Education Systems. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44217-0_54

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The Impact of Teacher Absenteeism on Student Performance: The Case of the Cobb County School District

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To ensure education quality and student learning, addressing teacher absenteeism must be a top priority in each education system. Absenteeism is defined as ‘any failure of an employee to report for or to remain at work as scheduled, regardless of reason’ (Casio, 2003, cited in Rosenblatt and Shirom, 2006: 371). The reasons for teacher absenteeism can be encompassed in three main categories: authorized leaves, absences due to official duties and those without reason. In the first category, one can find maternity leaves, annual leaves, and medical leaves, among others. In the second one, one can find academic duties such as in-service teacher training ; administrative duties such as submission of reports, marking national examinations or supporting national elections; and absences due to collecting salaries. In the third category, multiple issues are found such as tardiness , truancy , moonlighting , teacher strikes , ‘ abscondment ’, and ‘ ghost teachers ’ (ADEA WGEMPS, n.d.).

Teacher absenteeism is more prevalent in lower-income schools. Studies show that schools that have lower socioeconomic and minority students also have higher teacher absence rates and lower student test scores (Rogers and Vegas, 2009). High levels of absence undermine the quality of schooling and learning, reduce parent confidence in the school, and tend to reduce student attendance.

Key variables that affect teacher absenteeism include work environment, school characteristics such as educational level, size, income level, teacher health and job-related stress, as well as teaching experience. Failure to address teacher absenteeism further lowers teacher morale and sets low standards for other teachers. When teachers are absent without cause, the ability of teacher management systems to respond in an appropriate and timely manner is fundamental.

Promising policy options

Develop a tracking system to monitor teacher absenteeism

Developing a tracking system to monitor teacher absenteeism allows each school to identify patterns of absenteeism, establish a form of accountability and take measures accordingly. Research has found that tracking systems must not rely solely on one authority. For example, a study done in Ecuador highlighted how headteachers reported more than one-quarter of absent teachers as being present (Rogers and Vegas, 2009). Therefore, when possible, it is key to appoint more authorities and various mechanisms to track attendance. For example, the pilot project launched in 2020 by the Sierra Leona’s Teaching Service Commission (TSC), known as the Sierra Leone Education Attendance Monitoring System (SLEAMS), use mobile devices as well as daily self-reporting by school administrators, teacher fingerprint data and monthly visits from district deputy directors to track attendance (Castillo, Adam and Haßler, 2022).

Local education offices should support the monitoring of teacher attendance in schools (UNCEN, UNIPA, SMERU, BPS, UNICEF, 2012). Regular supervision in schools can be performed by local authorities and appointed stakeholders to reduce teacher absenteeism, just as highlighted in the Sierra Leone example mentioned above. This support provided to schools and the monitoring of teacher attendance is particularly relevant in remote, rural schools (UNCEN, UNIPA, SMERU, BPS, UNICEF, 2012). In addition to recognising teachers’ absence, monitoring and supervision can also help identify issues such as ‘ghost teachers’ (paying teachers that do not exist), moonlighting (teachers holding more than one job), and ‘abscondment’ (teachers who leave their posts for other posts without any formal notification) (ADEA and WGEMPS, n.d.).

Empowering students, parents, and community members to monitor and report teacher absence is an effective strategy (Karamperidou et al. , 2020; UNCEN, UNIPA, SMERU, BPS, UNICEF, 2012). Indeed, research has shown that community and parents’ participation in monitoring teacher attendance, as well as effective school-based management (SBM) reforms, have increased teacher attendance (Karamperidou et al. , 2020; UNCEN, UNIPA, SMERU, BPS, UNICEF, 2012). For instance, this was highlighted by the EDUCO programme in El Salvador, as well as School-based management projects in Honduras, Chile, Mexico and Nicaragua (Rogers and Vegas, 2009). To institutionalise parents’ and community members’ monitoring roles, community-based monitoring systems can be created (UNCEN, UNIPA, SMERU, BPS, UNICEF, 2012).

Monitoring depends highly on the degree of community’s involvement as well as the capacity and power that they have to take action against excessive absenteeism. Thus, it is key to raise awareness on the issue and build community members’ capacity to ensure effective monitoring (UNCEN, UNIPA, SMERU, BPS, UNICEF, 2012). It is also important to keep in mind the difficulties of implementing community monitoring in practice. For example, through the programme META –Mejor Educación a través de más Tiempo en el Aula– implemented in Peru in 2004, parents voluntarily monitored teacher attendance in schools three times a day. Although the research found that the programme was giving the expected results it was discontinued two years later because of logistical challenges (Cueto et al ., 2008).

Disciplinary action to decrease absenteeism

Research shows that most school systems prefer ‘low-stakes’ disciplinary interventions to real disciplinary sanctions which might lead to dismissal (Mulkeen, 2010). For example, teachers’ pay could be based on the number of days that they were present or require them to pay a fine when they exceed the admitted leave days (Mulkeen, 2010). The latter is the case in Liberia, where teachers who are absent more than three days per month must pay a fine (Mulkeen, 2010). Another example is the programme implemented in Rajasthan, India, by the NGO Seva Mandir, where teachers earned bonuses for every day they attended above the required minimum and were fined for every day they did not attend below the required minimum (Duflo, Hanna and Ryan, 2012). Findings revealed that teachers’ absenteeism in Rajasthan decreased by half and students’ scores improved (Duflo, Hanna and Ryan, 2012).

Other important recommendations to combat teacher absenteeism are (NCTQ, 2014; Smith, n.d.; UNCEN, UNIPA, SMERU, BPS, UNICEF, 2012):

• restrict leave on specific dates, such as ‘before or after holidays and vacations, during the first and last week of the school year, during state testing and/or on professional development days’ (NCTQ, 2014: 12);
• demand medical certification to recognise sick leave;
• conduct workshops explaining to teachers the effect of their absenteeism rates on students’ outcomes; and
• design and implement a code of conduct (or review an existing one) to regulate teachers’ attendance misconducts as well as develop attendance guidelines.

To explore further

For more information on how to design and use teachers’ codes of conduct consult:

Pecuniary and non-pecuniary incentives to complement monitoring and supervising systems

Research has found that pecuniary incentives can increase teacher attendance, as highlighted by the META programme implemented in Peru (Guerrero et al ., 2012) and the programme implemented by the NGO Seva Mandir in Rajasthan, India (Duflo, Hanna and Ryan, 2012). Pecuniary incentives can include paying teachers their ‘unused sick leave’ at the end of each school year or at retirement (NCTQ, 2014: 12). Another strategy is to provide bonuses to teachers with exemplary attendance (NCTQ, 2014; Miller, Murnane, and Willett, 2008; Rogers and Vegas, 2009).

Non-pecuniary incentives can also help reduce teacher absenteeism, it is key to ensure that all teachers are accessing them, particularly those located in marginalised and remote areas. For instance, establishing a motivating career structure where attendance plays a key role in teacher’s evaluations and promotions can help reduce teacher absenteeism (Crehan, L. 2016; NCTQ, 2014; UNCEN, UNIPA, SMERU, BPS, UNICEF, 2012). Other innovative ideas, such as providing ticket vouchers for events or conferences to teachers respecting attendance goals, can also be implemented (NCTQ, 2014). Providing food assistance is also a common incentive (UNCEN, UNIPA, SMERU, BPS, UNICEF, 2012). Recognising and rewarding teachers who have excellent attendance rates has also been found successful in reducing absenteeism (Knoster, 2016 as cited in Akyeampong, 2022).

Providing quality housing near or within schools is a key strategy, ‘highly associated with teachers’ capacity to report to school without fail and on time’ (Karamperidou et al ., 2020). Through the research project Time to Teach (TTT), implemented in eight countries and territories in Eastern and Southern Africa, researchers found that ‘[t]eachers who cited distance to school as a reason for absenteeism were 1.5 times more likely to be absent from school and 2.8 times more likely to arrive to school late or leave school early than teachers who did not report distance to school as a reason for being absent’ (Karamperidou et al ., 2020: 37). Various countries such as Papua New Guinea, Uganda, and Rwanda have thus constructed and provided housing facilities to teachers nearby schools (Rogers and Vargas, 2009; Karamperidou et al ., 2020). Ministries of Education must ensure that teachers in remote, rural areas are benefiting in particular from this type of strategy (UNCEN, UNIPA, SMERU, BPS, UNICEF, 2012). When housing provision is not possible, providing adequate transportation to teachers is key, particularly to those serving remote, rural areas (Karamperidou et al ., 2020; ACDP, 201; Rogers and Vegas, 2009).

Providing quality school infrastructure, particularly WASH facilities and electricity, has also been found to be a determinant factor for teacher attendance (Barrett et al ., 2019.; UNCEN, UNIPA, SMERU, BPS, UNICEF, 2012). Research in Bangladesh, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Peru and Uganda showcased how ‘moving from a school with the lowest infrastructure index score to one with the highest (that is, from a score of zero to five) is associated with a 10-percentage point reduction in teacher absence’ (Chaudhury et al . 2006 as cited in Barrett et al ., 2019: 17). It is key to pay particular attention to school infrastructure serving marginalised populations to ensure they are not doubly disadvantaged.

*For more on this subject, see Policy page School infrastructure .

Teacher motivation and satisfaction

Teacher motivation is a substantial factor in increasing teacher attendance, with several factors contributing to high morale in a work environment. All teachers must be treated fairly and equally and they should be valued, appreciated and recognized for their work.

Fair wages and career structures also play an essential role in teachers’ motivation.

• For specific information on career structures consult IIEP-UNESCO teacher careers research project .
• For information on salary policies consult the following Policy pages Teacher incentives ; Logistical constraints in paying teachers ; and Financial constraints in paying teachers .

It is also key to improve work conditions for employees and implement supporting measures, such as granting small salary increases, providing assistance in specific tasks, such as student discipline, and giving feedback on classroom practices and performance, among others (Smith, n.d.). It is also key to provide adequate teaching and learning materials, as ‘limited TLMs are associated with classroom absenteeism and reduced time on task’ (Karamperidou et al ., 2020).

Improving the school environment overall is key to haul teachers’ intrinsic motivation and commitment to the profession. This can be done, for instance, by letting teachers have autonomy over their work and encouraging good relationships and collaboration opportunities between colleagues, among others (Crehan, L. 2016). (For more information consult Policy page School climate ).

Concerning teachers who are returning from their leave, they should be welcomed back and recognized for being back. Teacher burnout can contribute to teacher absenteeism, so when absenteeism is related to this issue, the following can be considered (according to Leithwood, 1998 as cited in Smith, n.d.):

• Support teachers to identify and meet short-term individual progress goals as well as the school’s improvement goals.
• Alternate teachers’ classroom duties.
• Provide adequate financial and material resources.

Strong local or central management system

Develop a strong local or central management system to regulate teacher absenteeism and create mechanisms to place substitute teachers when needed (ADEA and WGEMPS, n.d.).

Teacher management systems must minimise official administrative absences, for instance by ensuring that professional development opportunities occur outside teaching hours or that substitute teachers are present if done during school hours (Karamperidou et al ., 2020; UNCEN, UNIPA, SMERU, BPS, UNICEF, 2012).

Teacher management systems must also ensure teachers’ adequate payment, as this is a high determinant factor to teachers’ absenteeism (Karamperidou et al ., 2020). Different payment methods for teachers, particularly for those in remote rural areas, have to be explored and provided, and existing barriers must be removed (such as obliging teachers to travel long distances to collect their salary) (Karamperidou et al ., 2020; Niang, 2017). For instance, alternative, innovative solutions such as electronic or mobile banking platforms, or implementing a traditional paycheck system can be explored (Karamperidou et al. , 2020; ADEA and WGEMPS, n.d.). For more on this subject, see Policy page Logistical constraints in paying teachers .

In addition to management systems, it is crucial to create ‘a stable pool of substitutes to reduce the detrimental impacts of unexpected teacher absences’ (Miller, Murnane and Willett, 2008: 196). Although this is a costly measure, and it would be best to address teacher absenteeism, it is also key to provide quality teacher substitutes so that children’s learning is not impaired in the absence of the regular teacher (Miller, Murnane and Willett, 2008; Karamperidou et al ., 2020; UNCEN, UNIPA, SMERU, BPS, UNICEF, 2012). This measure must be complemented by ensuring that regular teachers leave quality lesson plans to their substitutes (Miller, Murnane and Willett, 2008).

Ensure good leadership within the school

Headteachers’ leadership is essential to control and reduce teacher absenteeism. Headteachers should explain attendance expectations to teachers at the beginning of the school year (Knoster, 2016). They should also involve teachers in developing clear absence guidelines as well as attendance improvement plans (Smith, n.d.).

Requiring teachers to speak directly to headteachers –or attendance improvement coordinators– for sick leaves can also help to reduce teacher absenteeism (NCTQ, 2014; Finlayson, 2009; Miller, Murnane, and Willett, 2008). Even though this might increase headteachers’ workload, it is found to be very effective in reducing teacher absenteeism, much more than through centralised reporting system (NCTQ, 2014; Miller, Murnane, and Willett, 2008).

Other policy options

Information and communication technologies

Use information and communication technologies (ICT) to report teacher absenteeism on a daily basis in schools. For instance:

• Cameras can be used to provide date- and time-stamped photographs. This strategy was implemented in Rajasthan, India (Duflo, Hanna and Ryan, 2012).
• Cell-phones can be used to track absenteeism. This strategy was implemented in The Gambia where a mobile platform was developed to track teacher absenteeism (ADEA WGEMPS, n.d.).
• Electronic systems can also be developed for that purpose. An example is the Human Capital Leave Management System HC-LMS implemented in South Africa (ADEA WGEMPS, n.d.).
• Biometric fingerprint controls can be implemented instead of traditional logbooks. This strategy was put in place in Gujarat, India (Cooper, Jeeva, and Honeyman, 2017; Cooper, 2013).

Although research has found that using ICT to monitor teacher absenteeism has increased teacher attendance, they still pose multiple challenges, the most important one being teacher unions’ resistance (e.g. South Africa’s HC-LMS program was rejected by teacher unions (ADEA WGEMPS, n.d.)). Additionally, logistical conditions such as internet availability, electricity supply, cameras and phones available also pose a problem. Lastly, with limited budgets, the costs that represent the implementation of such methods may make their implementation unfeasible.

A study in New York City found evidence that teacher mentoring might reduce absence, however, further exploration of this topic is needed (Rockoff, 2008, as cited in Rogers and Vegas, 2009).

Shorter school week

Implementing a 4-day (or 4.5 days) school week has been found to increase teacher attendance rates as it gives additional time for professional development opportunities and teacher planning. It also decreases the need for substitute teachers. Nevertheless, such arrangements can be considered controversial, which is why further research and context-based solutions are needed (e.g. France’s four-week day controversy). It is also necessary to keep in mind that this type of arrangement might imply including extra time to the remaining school days to meet annual instruction time requirements. For instance, in the United States, around 560 districts in 25 states have included extra time to the remaining four days in school. The OECD points out an average of 799 hours of compulsory instruction time per year in its member states (OECD, 2018: 334).

Hire ‘para-teachers’

‘Para-teachers’ or ‘contract teachers’ are teachers ‘who are hired on short, flexible contracts to work in primary schools and in non-formal education centres (NFEs) that are run by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and local governments’ (Duflo E.; Hanna R.; Ryan, S.P. 2012:1241). ‘Para-teachers’ can be easily monitored and supervised as they ‘do not form an entrenched constituency, they are already subject to yearly renewal of their contract, and there is a long queue of qualified job applicants.’ (2012:1242). Therefore, by employing them and providing them with incentives, teacher absenteeism could be reduced. Yet, keep in mind that this type of policy poses significative parallel challenges, for instance, it can lead to tensions with regular teachers –civil servants–  and affect the quality of education, as much as the respect given to the teaching profession.

Policy options for improving Equity and Inclusion

Gender-responsive policies.

All of the policies and strategies previously recommended apply for this category. However, when designing and implementing the aforementioned policies, educational planners, policymakers and school managers should analyse if there are underlying gender issues affecting and leading to higher absenteeism rates and thus target policy options accordingly. In some contexts, female teachers’ absenteeism rates are higher than males’ (Bennell et al., 2002 cited by Guerrero et al ., 2012; Chaudhury et al., 2006, cited by Nedungadi, Mulki and Raman, 2017) while in other contexts, male teachers’ absenteeism rates are higher than females’ (Indonesia, 2014).

Policies for children with disabilities

Children with disabilities are one of the most marginalized and vulnerable members of society (UNICEF, 2013). Teacher absenteeism affects every student’s learning process, but especially that of students with disabilities, who already face multiple barriers in schooling and learning. Particular attention should be therefore given to this issue. Policy-makers, educational planners, school management and teachers themselves must make sure that every minute that a student with disability spends in the classroom is used to its fullest potential.

In order to tackle the issue, all of the previously recommended policies and strategies apply.

Policies for displaced populations

While there is no specific literature on reducing absenteeism of teachers serving displaced populations, it is a very relevant issue to ensure adequate learning processes for these already vulnerable members of society. All the policies and strategies recommended in the general section of the present Policy page apply to this category. In addition, gathering knowledge on ‘the unique challenges these teachers face’ is key to ‘better understand the idiosyncratic factors that may affect their attendance’ (Karamperidou et al ., 2020: 49). For instance, research highlighted that in West and Central Africa, the ‘the lack of training and difficult employment conditions’ lead to frequent teacher absenteeism (UNHCR RBWCA, 2021: 5). Thus, improving teachers’ working conditions, delivering adequate teacher training, as well as providing incentives and adequate salaries is essential to boost their motivation and ensure their attendance (for more information consult Policy page Appropriate teacher candidates and Teacher incentives). Moreover, displaced community members and students can be empowered to hold teachers accountable for their absence or tardiness, which can in turn help decrease their absenteeism rates (UNICEF, 2014). This strategy was implemented in Nepal’s programme Schools as Zone of Peace (SZOP), where child clubs within the schools ‘worked to minimize teacher absenteeism and increase teachers’ regularity in school by pointing out to them if they were late or absent’ (UNICEF, 2014: 22).

Provide counselling and mental health support to reduce teacher absenteeism

Providing mental health support to teachers in crisis-settings is of key importance. Indeed, research has shown that the ‘threat of violence reduces educators’ intrinsic motivation and affects their school presence’ (Karamperidou et al ., 2020: 9). Through a strong collaborative approach with the health sector, ministries of education can provide the required mental health support to all school staff, particularly teachers, and students. This can have positive effects on teacher attendance and on their classroom practices (Karamperidou et al ., 2020).

Policies for minority populations

A wide number of studies have highlighted that minority populations, particularly those living in poor, rural, remote areas, are the most exposed and affected by teacher absenteeism (Karamperidou et al ., 2020: Cheng and Moses, 2016; ACDP, 2014; NCTQ, 2014; Miller, 2012; UNCEN, UNIPA, SMERU, BPS, UNICEF, 2012; Rogers and Vegas, 2009; Miller, Murnane, and Willett, 2008; Clotfelter, Ladd, Vigdor, 2007). From an equity standpoint, it is key that educational policies address teacher absenteeism while paying particular attention to those serving minority populations. For this purpose, all of the different policies and strategies recommended in the general section of the present Policy page apply to this category. In addition, to address teacher absenteeism issues, decision-makers and educational planners must ensure equitable teacher recruitment and allocation, so that sufficient quality teachers are allocated to marginalised, poor, remote and rural areas where the majority of minority populations dwell (Clotfelter, Ladd, Vigdor, 2007; Karamperidou et al ., 2020; UNCEN, UNIPA, SMERU, BPS, UNICEF, 2012).

* For more information consult Policy pages Equitable teacher distribution .

Policies for OVCs and HIV affected populations

Comprehensive HIV/AIDS education sector workplace policy and programs

HIV/AIDS work place policies should be developed with key stakeholders, such as teacher unions, HIV positive teacher networks, civil society, and community organizations. In line with the ILO Code of Practice on HIV/AIDS and the workplace, these policies should cover issues including:

• medical support, including prevention and treatment services. (Crucially, access to ARVs, and VCTs );
• care services including counseling and psychological support (counsellors can make regular school visits);
• deployment and transfers (provisions for teachers needing closer access to health care services);
• teaching coverage, sickness, absence provisions and reintegration into work after leave;
• recruitment, promotion and retirement provisions (there should be no requirement of HIV screening);
• alternative working arrangements (such as increased flexibility in working hours, changing responsibilities); and
• protection from discrimination, addressing issues of HIV status disclosure, and confidentiality.

Teachers should be made widely aware of these policies and all of the services available to them. In some cases, countries that have had grants available for treatment costs were underutilized because teachers’ did not know that they existed (UNESCO, 2008b). Teacher unions can aid the Ministries of Education in disseminating policies and relevant information about services available.

Implementation of HIV/AIDS workplace policy can be supported by:

• sufficient training and capacity development of headteachers and school leaders;
• institutional framework, especially concerning the management of human and financial resources;
• a functioning grievance mechanism, with no fear of retribution;
• collaboration with teacher unions, Ministry of Labor, and HIV positive teacher networks; and
• consideration of the specific needs of teachers, considering factors such as sex, location, and level of access to services.

Teacher training institutions educate on HIV/AIDS issues, provide support and access to services

A key preventative measure is supplying teachers with HIV knowledge and support services during pre-service training, which also helps in reducing the discrimination and stigma surrounding HIV/AIDs, which can later affect teacher’s school environments as well as the values that they pass on to their students.

Mainstream HIV/AIDS into TTC institutional policies and programs by partnering with clinics, NGOs, civil society organizations to strengthen capacity, and utilize free training and ARV and VCT services. Facilitate access to VCT centers with free testing and counselling, condoms and reproductive and health services (usually health clinics provide referrals to local services). Get HIV/AIDS prevention integrated into curriculum, and tested in examinations.

Foster regional cooperation, such as regional inter-country information network to share best practices, funding financial assistance and scholarships to prevent teaching students from turning to transactional sex. Ministry of Education or regional office can reward model TTCs in their responses to HIV/AIDS, and share their best practices with other institutions.

Planning for the effects of HIV/AIDS on teacher supply and absenteeism

Strengthen EMIS to assess the impact of HIV related absenteeism, mortality and attrition and apply data in planning by having decentralized information systems monitoring teacher absenteeism, and attrition.

Raise the capacity of teacher training institutions based on projected supply constraints. For example, Guinea increased the output of its teacher training colleges tenfold, by shortening the duration of training courses (World Bank, 2006). However, attention must be paid to the effects on training quality.

Policies for pastoralist and nomadic populations

All of the policies and strategies previously recommended apply for this category. While there is no specific literature on reducing absenteeism in pastoralist/nomadic schools, it is a very relevant issue for these populations, especially in poorly resourced areas, and underfunded alternative schools. Inadequate compensation for teachers in pastoralist/nomadic areas fuels the situation, as well as the lack of recognition of some alternative school teachers by the formal education system.

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