stress impact on health essay conclusion

Essay on Stress Impact On Health

Students are often asked to write an essay on Stress Impact On Health in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

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100 Words Essay on Stress Impact On Health

What is stress.

Stress is when you feel under too much pressure from something in your life. It’s a normal part of being human. When we’re stressed, our body reacts as if we are in danger, releasing chemicals that make our hearts beat faster and prepare us to react quickly.

Effects on the Body

Effects on behavior.

Being stressed can make us act differently. We might eat too much or too little, have trouble sleeping, withdraw from friends, or get angry easily. Recognizing these signs is important so we can find healthier ways to deal with stress.

Managing Stress

To handle stress better, we can exercise, talk about our feelings, take breaks when needed, and try to stay positive. Learning how to manage stress is a valuable skill that can improve our health and happiness.

250 Words Essay on Stress Impact On Health

Effects of stress on physical health.

Stress can have many effects on your body. It can cause headaches, upset stomach, high blood pressure, chest pain, and trouble sleeping. Stress can also weaken your immune system, making it harder for your body to fight off sickness. Over time, high levels of stress can lead to serious health problems like heart disease and diabetes.

Stress and Mental Health

Stress doesn’t just affect your body; it also impacts your mind. It can make you feel anxious, sad, or unable to focus. Stress can even lead to mental health problems like depression and anxiety disorders. It’s important to find ways to manage stress to keep both your mind and body healthy.

There are many ways to manage stress. Some people find exercise, reading, or spending time with friends and family helpful. Others might need to talk to a doctor or therapist. Finding what works best for you is key to managing stress.

In conclusion, stress is a common experience that can harm both your physical and mental health. Understanding stress and finding effective ways to deal with it can help you lead a healthier, happier life.

500 Words Essay on Stress Impact On Health

Stress is a feeling we get when we are worried or uncomfortable about something. This feeling can come from any event or thought that makes you feel frustrated, angry, or nervous. In short, stress is your body’s way of responding to any kind of demand or threat. When you sense danger, whether it’s real or imagined, the body’s defenses kick into high gear in a rapid, automatic process known as the “fight-or-flight” reaction, or the stress response.

How Stress Affects Your Body

Stress and your emotions.

Stress can also have a big impact on your emotions. You might feel more easily upset, angry, or in a bad mood. You might also feel worried, scared, or sad. These feelings can make it hard to deal with other people or to do well in school. Sometimes, stress can make you feel sick to your stomach or give you a headache.

Long-Term Effects of Stress

If you are stressed all the time and don’t find ways to relax, it can lead to more serious health problems. For example, long-term stress can help cause or make worse problems like heart disease, high blood pressure, diabetes, depression, and anxiety. It can also make it hard for you to sleep, eat well, or get along with others.

How to Deal With Stress

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How stress affects your health

Stress can be brief, situational, and a positive force motivating performance, but if experienced over an extended period of time it can become chronic stress, which negatively impacts health and well-being.

• Chronic Illness

Stress : We’ve all felt it. Sometimes stress can be a positive force, motivating you to perform well at your piano recital or job interview. But often—like when you’re stuck in traffic—it’s a negative force. If you experience stress over a prolonged period of time, it could become chronic—unless you take action.

A natural reaction

Have you ever found yourself with sweaty hands on a first date or felt your heart pound during a scary movie? Then you know you can feel stress in both your mind and body.

This automatic response developed in our ancient ancestors as a way to protect them from predators and other threats. Faced with danger, the body kicks into gear, flooding the body with stress hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol that elevate your heart rate, increase your blood pressure, boost your energy, and prepare you to deal with the problem.

These days, you’re not likely to face the threat of being eaten. But you probably do confront multiple challenges every day, such as meeting deadlines, paying bills, and juggling childcare that make your body react the same way. As a result, your body’s natural alarm system—the “fight or flight” response—may be stuck in the on position. And that can have serious consequences for your health.

Pressure points

Even short-lived, minor stress can have an impact. You might get a stomachache before you have to give a presentation, for example. More major acute stress, whether caused by a fight with your spouse or an event like an earthquake or terrorist attack, can have an even bigger impact.

Repeated acute stress may also contribute to inflammation in the circulatory system , particularly in the coronary arteries, and this is one pathway that is thought to tie stress to a heart attack. It also appears that how a person responds to stress can affect cholesterol levels.

Chronic stress

When stress starts interfering with your ability to live a normal life for an extended period, it becomes even more dangerous. The longer the stress lasts, the worse it is for both your mind and body. You might feel fatigued, unable to concentrate, or irritable for no good reason, for example. But chronic stress causes wear and tear on your body, too.

The long-term activation of the stress response system and the overexposure to cortisol and other stress hormones that come with it can disrupt almost all of your body's processes. This can put you at increased risk for a variety of physical and mental health problems, including anxiety, depression, digestive issues, headaches, muscle tension and pain, heart disease, heart attack, high blood pressure, stroke, sleep problems, weight gain, and memory and concentration impairment.

Chronic stress may also cause disease, either because of changes in your body or the overeating, smoking, and other bad habits people use to cope with stress. Job strain—high demands coupled with low decision-making latitude—is associated with increased risk of coronary disease , for example. Other forms of chronic stress, such as depression and low levels of social support, have also been implicated in increased cardiovascular risk.

Chronic stress also  suppresses the body's immune system , making it harder to recover from illnesses.

What you can do

Reducing your stress levels can not only make you feel better right now, but may also protect your health long-term. Several research studies have demonstrated, for example, that interventions to improve psychological health can have a beneficial impact on cardiovascular health . As a result,  researchers recommend boosting your positive affect—feelings like happiness, joy, contentment, and enthusiasm—by making time for enjoyable activities every day.

Other strategies for reducing stress include:

• Identify what’s causing stress. Monitor your state of mind throughout the day. If you feel stressed, write down the cause, your thoughts, and your mood. Once you know what’s bothering you, develop a plan for addressing it. That might mean setting more reasonable expectations for yourself and others or asking for help with household responsibilities, job assignments, or other tasks. List all your commitments, assess your priorities, and then eliminate any tasks that are not absolutely essential.
• Build strong relationships. Relationships can be a source of stress. Research has found that negative, hostile reactions with your spouse cause immediate changes in stress-sensitive hormones, for example. But relationships can also serve as stress buffers. Reach out to family members or close friends and let them know you’re having a tough time. They may be able to offer practical assistance and support, useful ideas, or just a fresh perspective as you begin to tackle whatever’s causing your stress.
• Walk away when you’re angry. Before you react, take time to regroup by counting to 10. Then reconsider. Walking or other physical activities can also help you work off steam. Plus, exercise increases the production of endorphins, your body’s natural mood booster. Commit to a daily walk or other form of exercise—a small step that can make a big difference in reducing stress levels.
• Rest your mind. To help ensure you get the recommended seven or eight hours of shut-eye, cut back on caffeine, remove distractions such as television or computers from your bedroom, and go to bed at the same time each night. Research shows that activities like yoga and relaxation exercises not only help reduce stress, but also boost immune functioning .
• Get help. If you continue to feel overwhelmed, consult with a psychologist or other licensed mental health professional who can help you learn how to manage stress effectively. They can help you identify situations or behaviors that contribute to your chronic stress and then develop an action plan for changing them.

Recommended Reading

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• Stress effects on the body
• Stress in America

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The impact of stress on body function: A review

Habib yaribeygi.

1 Neurosciences Research Center, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Yunes Panahi

2 Clinical Pharmacy Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Hedayat Sahraei

Thomas p. johnston.

3 Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri, USA

Amirhossein Sahebkar

4 Biotechnology Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran

Any intrinsic or extrinsic stimulus that evokes a biological response is known as stress. The compensatory responses to these stresses are known as stress responses. Based on the type, timing and severity of the applied stimulus, stress can exert various actions on the body ranging from alterations in homeostasis to life-threatening effects and death. In many cases, the pathophysiological complications of disease arise from stress and the subjects exposed to stress, e.g. those that work or live in stressful environments, have a higher likelihood of many disorders. Stress can be either a triggering or aggravating factor for many diseases and pathological conditions. In this study, we have reviewed some of the major effects of stress on the primary physiological systems of humans.

Abbreviations

ACTH: Adrenocorticotropic hormone

CNS: Central nervous system

CRH: Corticotropin releasing hormone

GI: Gastrointestinal

LTP: Long-term potentiation

NMDA : N-methyl-D-aspartate

VTA: Ventral tegmental area

Stress and the Brain Function Complications

For a long time, researchers suggested that hormones have receptors just in the peripheral tissues and do not gain access to the central nervous system (CNS) (Lupien and Lepage, 2001[ 63 ]). However, observations have demonstrated the effect of anti-inflammatory drugs (which are considered synthetic hormones) on behavioral and cognitive disorders and the phenomenon called “Steroid psychosis” (Clark et al., 1952[ 16 ]). In the early sixties, neuropeptides were recognized as compounds devoid of effects on the peripheral endocrine system. However, it was determined that hormones are able to elicit biological effects on different parts of the CNS and play an important role in behavior and cognition (De Kloet, 2000[ 22 ]). In 1968, McEven suggested for the first time that the brain of rodents is capable of responding to glucocorticoid (as one of the operators in the stress cascade). This hypothesis that stress can cause functional changes in the CNS was then accepted (McEwen et al., 1968[ 74 ]). From that time on, two types of corticotropic receptors (glucocorticosteroids and mineralocorticoids) were recognized (de Kloet et al., 1999[ 23 ]). It was determined that the affinity of glucocorticosteroid receptors to cortisol and corticosterone was about one tenth of that of mineralocorticoids (de Kloet et al., 1999[ 23 ]). The hippocampus area has both types of receptors, while other points of the brain have only glucocorticosteroid receptors (de Kloet et al., 1999[ 23 ]).

The effects of stress on the nervous system have been investigated for 50 years (Thierry et al., 1968[ 115 ]). Some studies have shown that stress has many effects on the human nervous system and can cause structural changes in different parts of the brain (Lupien et al., 2009[ 65 ]). Chronic stress can lead to atrophy of the brain mass and decrease its weight (Sarahian et al., 2014[ 100 ]). These structural changes bring about differences in the response to stress, cognition and memory (Lupien et al., 2009[ 65 ]). Of course, the amount and intensity of the changes are different according to the stress level and the duration of stress (Lupien et al., 2009[ 65 ]). However, it is now obvious that stress can cause structural changes in the brain with long-term effects on the nervous system (Reznikov et al., 2007[ 89 ]). Thus, it is highly essential to investigate the effects of stress on different aspects of the nervous system (Table 1 (Tab. 1) ; References in Table 1: Lupien et al., 2001[ 63 ]; Woolley et al., 1990[ 122 ]; Sapolsky et al., 1990[ 99 ]; Gould et al., 1998[ 35 ]; Bremner, 1999[ 10 ]; Seeman et al., 1997[ 108 ]; Luine et al., 1994[ 62 ]; Li et al., 2008[ 60 ]; Scholey et al., 2014[ 101 ]; Borcel et al., 2008[ 9 ]; Lupien et al., 2002[ 66 ]).

Stress and Memory

Memory is one of the important functional aspects of the CNS and it is categorized as sensory, short term, and long-term. Short term memory is dependent on the function of the frontal and parietal lobes, while long-term memory depends on the function of large areas of the brain (Wood et al., 2000[ 121 ]). However, total function of memory and the conversion of short term memory to long-term memory are dependent on the hippocampus; an area of the brain that has the highest density of glucocorticosteroid receptors and also represents the highest level of response to stress (Scoville and Milner, 1957[ 107 ]; Asalgoo et al., 2015[ 1 ]). Therefore, during the past several decades, the relationship between the hippocampus and stress have been hotly debated (Asalgoo et al., 2015[ 1 ]; Lupien and Lepage, 2001[ 63 ]). In 1968, it was proven that there were cortisol receptors in the hippocampus of rats (McEwen et al., 1968[ 74 ]). Later, in 1982, by using specific agonists of glucocorticosteroid and mineralocorticoid receptors, the existence of these two receptors in the brain and hippocampus area of rats was proven (Veldhuis et al., 1982[ 119 ]). It should also be noted that the amygdala is very important to assessing the emotional experiences of memory (Roozendaal et al., 2009[ 91 ]).

The results of past studies have demonstrated the effect of stress on the process of memory (Ghodrat et al., 2014[ 32 ]). Various studies have shown that stress can cause functional and structural changes in the hippocampus section of the brain (McEwen, 1999[ 72 ]). These structural changes include atrophy and neurogenesis disorders (Lupien and Lepage, 2001[ 63 ]). Also, chronic stress and, consequently, an increase in plasma cortisol, leads to a reduction in the number of dendritic branches (Woolley et al., 1990[ 122 ]) and the number of neurons (Sapolsky et al., 1990[ 99 ]), as well as structural changes in synaptic terminals (Sapolsky et al., 1990[ 99 ]) and decreased neurogenesis in the hippocampus tissue (Gould et al., 1998[ 35 ]). Glucocorticosteroids can induce these changes by either effecting the cellular metabolism of neurons (Lawrence and Sapolsky, 1994[ 58 ]), or increasing the sensitivity of hippocampus cells to stimulatory amino acids (Sapolsky and Pulsinelli, 1985[ 98 ]) and/or increasing the level of extracellular glutamate (Sapolsky and Pulsinelli, 1985[ 98 ]).

High concentrations of stress hormones can cause declarative memory disorders (Lupien and Lepage, 2001[ 63 ]). Animal studies have shown that stress can cause a reversible reduction in spatial memory as a result of atrophy of the hippocampus (Luine et al., 1994[ 62 ]). In fact, high plasma concentrations of glucocorticosteroids for extended periods of time can cause atrophy of the hippocampus leading to memory disorders (Issa et al., 1990[ 45 ]). Additionally, people with either Cushing's syndrome (with an increased secretion of glucocorticosteroids), or people who receive high dosages of exogenous synthetic anti-inflammatory drugs, are observed to have atrophy of the hippocampus and associated memory disorders (Ling et al., 1981[ 61 ]). MRI images taken from the brains of people with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have demonstrated a reduction in the volume of the hippocampus along with neurophysiologic effects such as a weak verbal memory (Bremner, 1999[ 10 ]). Several human studies have suggested that even common therapeutic doses of glucocorticosteroids and dexamethasone can cause problems with explicit memory (Keenan et al., 1995[ 49 ]; Kirschbaum et al., 1996[ 53 ]). Thus, there is an inverse relationship between the level of cortisol and memory (Ling et al., 1981[ 61 ]), such that increasing levels of plasma cortisol following prolonged stress leads to a reduction in memory (Kirschbaum et al., 1996[ 53 ]), which improves when the level of plasma cortisol decreases (Seeman et al., 1997[ 108 ]).

Stress also has negative effects on learning. Results from hippocampus-dependent loading data demonstrate that subjects are not as familiar with a new environment after having been exposed to a new environment (Bremner, 1999[ 10 ]). Moreover, adrenal steroids lead to alteration in long-term potentiation (LTP), which is an important process in memory formation (Bliss and Lømo, 1973[ 7 ]).

Two factors are involved in the memory process during stress. The first is noradrenaline, which creates emotional aspects of memories in the basolateral amygdala area (Joëls et al., 2011[ 47 ]). Secondly, this process is facilitated by corticosteroids. However, if the release of corticosteroids occurs a few hours earlier, it causes inhibition of the amygdala and corresponding behaviors (Joëls et al., 2011[ 47 ]). Thus, there is a mutual balance between these two hormones for creating a response in the memory process (Joëls et al., 2011[ 47 ]).

Stress does not always affect memory. Sometimes, under special conditions, stress can actually improve memory (McEwen and Lupien, 2002[ 71 ]). These conditions include non-familiarity, non-predictability, and life-threatening aspects of imposed stimulation. Under these specific conditions, stress can temporarily improve the function of the brain and, therefore, memory. In fact, it has been suggested that stress can sharpen memory in some situations (Schwabe et al., 2010[ 105 ]). For example, it has been shown that having to take a written examination can improve memory for a short period of time in examination participants. Interestingly, this condition is associated with a decrease in the level of cortisol in the saliva (Vedhara et al., 2000[ 118 ]). Other studies have shown that impending stress before learning occurs can also lead to either an increase in the power of memory (Domes et al., 2002[ 27 ]; Schwabe et al., 2008[ 102 ]), or decrease in the capacity for memory (Diamond et al., 2006[ 26 ]; Kirschbaum et al., 1996[ 53 ]). This paradox results from the type of imposed stress and either the degree of emotional connection to the stressful event (Payne et al., 2007[ 83 ]; Diamond et al., 2007[ 25 ]), or the period of time between the imposing stress and the process of learning (Diamond et al., 2007[ 25 ]).

The process of strengthening memory is usually reinforced after stress (Schwabe et al., 2012[ 103 ]). Various studies on animal and human models have shown that administration of either glucocorticosteroids, or stress shortly after learning has occurred facilitates memory (Schwabe et al., 2012[ 103 ]). Also, it has been shown that glucocorticosteroids (not mineralocorticoids) are necessary to improve learning and memory (Lupien et al., 2002[ 66 ]). However, the retrieval of events in memory after exposure to stress will be decreased (Schwabe et al., 2012[ 103 ]), which may result from the competition of updated data for storage in memory in a stressful state (de Kloet et al., 1999[ 23 ]). Some investigations have shown that either exposure to stress, or injection of glucocorticosteroids before a test to assess retention, decreases the power of memory in humans and rodents (Schwabe and Wolf, 2009[ 104 ]).

In summary, it has been concluded that the effect of stress on memory is highly dependent on the time of exposure to the stressful stimulus and, in terms of the timing of the imposed stress, memory can be either better or worse (Schwabe et al., 2012[ 103 ]). Moreover, recent studies have shown that using a specific-timed schedule of exposure to stress not only affects hippocampus-dependent memory, but also striatum-dependent memory, which highlights the role of timing of the imposed stressful stimulus (Schwabe et al., 2010[ 105 ]).

Stress, Cognition and Learning

Cognition is another important feature of brain function. Cognition means reception and perception of perceived stimuli and its interpretation, which includes learning, decision making, attention, and judgment (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Stress has many effects on cognition that depend on its intensity, duration, origin, and magnitude (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Similar to memory, cognition is mainly formed in the hippocampus, amygdala, and temporal lobe (McEwen and Sapolsky, 1995[ 73 ]). The net effect of stress on cognition is a reduction in cognition and thus, it is said that any behavioral steps undertaken to reduce stress leads to increase in cognition (Scholey et al., 2014[ 101 ]). In fact, stress activates some physiological systems, such as the autonomic nervous system, central neurotransmitter and neuropeptide system, and the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, which have direct effects on neural circuits in the brain involved with data processing (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Activation of stress results in the production and release of glucocorticosteroids. Because of the lipophilic properties of glucocorticosteroids, they can diffuse through the blood-brain barrier and exert long-term effects on processing and cognition (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]).

It appears that being exposed to stress can cause pathophysiologic changes in the brain, and these changes can be manifested as behavioral, cognitive, and mood disorders (Li et al., 2008[ 60 ]). In fact, studies have shown that chronic stress can cause complications such as increased IL-6 and plasma cortisol, but decreased amounts of cAMP responsive element binding protein and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which is very similar to what is observed in people with depression and mood disorders that exhibit a wide range of cognitive problems (Song et al., 2006[ 114 ]). Additionally, the increased concentrations of inflammatory factors, like interleukins and TNF-α (which play an important role in creating cognitive disorders), proves a physiologic relationship between stress and mood-based cognitive disorders (Solerte et al., 2000[ 113 ]; Marsland et al., 2006[ 68 ]; Li et al., 2008[ 60 ]). Studies on animals suggest that cognitive disorders resulting from stress are created due to neuroendocrine and neuroamine factors and neurodegenerative processes (Li et al., 2008[ 60 ]). However, it should be noted that depression may not always be due to the over activation of the physiological-based stress response (Osanloo et al., 2016[ 81 ]).

Cognitive disorders following exposure to stress have been reported in past studies (Lupien and McEwen, 1997[ 64 ]). Stress has effects on cognition both acutely (through catecholamines) and chronically (through glucocorticosteroids) (McEwen and Sapolsky, 1995[ 73 ]). Acute effects are mainly caused by beta-adrenergic effects, while chronic effects are induced in a long-term manner by changes in gene expression mediated by steroids (McEwen and Sapolsky, 1995[ 73 ]). In general, many mechanisms modulate the effects of stress on cognition (McEwen and Sapolsky, 1995[ 73 ]; Mendl, 1999[ 75 ]). For instance, adrenal steroids affect the function of the hippocampus during cognition and memory retrieval in a biphasic manner (McEwen and Sapolsky, 1995[ 73 ]). In chronic stress, these steroids can destroy neurons with other stimulatory neurotransmitters (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Exposure to stress can also cause disorders in hippocampus-related cognition; specifically, spatial memory (Borcel et al., 2008[ 9 ]; Sandi et al., 2003[ 96 ]). Additionally, stress can halt or decrease the genesis of neurons in the dentate gyrus area of the hippocampus (this area is one of the limited brain areas in which neurogenesis occurs in adults) (Gould and Tanapat, 1999[ 34 ]; Köhler et al., 2010[ 54 ]). Although age is a factor known to affect cognition, studies on animals have demonstrated that young rats exposed to high doses of adrenal steroids show the same level of decline in their cognition as older adult animals with normal plasma concentrations of glucocorticoids (Landfield et al., 1978[ 57 ]). Also, a decrease in the secretion of glucocorticosteroids causes preservation of spatial memory in adults and has also been shown to have neuroprotective effects (Montaron et al., 2006[ 78 ]). Other studies have shown that stress (or the injection of adrenal steroids) results in varied effects on cognition. For instance, injection of hydrocortisone at the time of its maximum plasma concentration (in the afternoon) leads to a decrease in reaction time and improves cognition and memory (Lupien et al., 2002[ 66 ]).

In summary, the adverse effects of stress on cognition are diverse and depend on the type, timing, intensity, and duration (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Generally, it is believed that mild stress facilitates an improvement in cognitive function, especially in the case of virtual or verbal memory. However, if the intensity of stress passes beyond a predetermined threshold (which is different in each individual), it causes cognitive disorders, especially in memory and judgment. The disruption to memory and judgment is due to the effects of stress on the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Of course, it must be realized that factors like age and gender may also play a role in some cognitive disorders (Sandi, 2013[ 95 ]). Importantly, it should be emphasized that different people may exhibit varied responses in cognition when exposed to the very same stressful stimulus (Hatef et al., 2015[ 39 ]).

Stress and Immune System Functions

The relationship between stress and the immune system has been considered for decades (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]; Dantzer and Kelley, 1989[ 21 ]). The prevailing attitude between the association of stress and immune system response has been that people under stress are more likely to have an impaired immune system and, as a result, suffer from more frequent illness (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]). Also, old anecdotes describing resistance of some people to severe disease using the power of the mind and their thought processes, has promoted this attitude (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]). In about 200 AC, Aelius Galenus (Galen of Pergamon) declared that melancholic women (who have high levels of stress and, thus, impaired immune function) are more likely to have cancer than women who were more positive and exposed to less stress (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]). This may be the first recorded case about the relationship between the immune system and stress. In an old study in the early 1920's, researchers found that the activity of phagocytes in tuberculosis decreased when emotional stress was induced. In fact, it was also suggested that living with stress increases the risk of tuberculosis by suppressing the immune system (Ishigami, 1919[ 44 ]). Following this study, other researchers suggested that the probability of disease appearance increases following a sudden, major, and extremely stressful life style change (Holmes and Rahe, 1967[ 41 ]; Calabrese et al., 1987[ 12 ]).

Over the past several decades, there have been many studies investigating the role of stress on immune system function (Dantzer and Kelley, 1989[ 21 ]; Segerstrom and Miller, 2004[ 109 ]). These studies have shown that stress mediators can pass through the blood-brain barrier and exert their effects on the immune system (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]). Thus, the effect of stress on the immune system is now an accepted relationship or association.

Stress can affect the function of the immune system by modulating processes in the CNS and neuroendocrine system (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]; Kiecolt-Glaser and Glaser, 1991[ 51 ]). Following stress, some neuroendocrine and neural responses result in the release of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), and other stress mediators (Carrasco and Van de Kar, 2003[ 13 ]). However, evidence suggests that the lymphatic system, which is a part of the immune system, also plays a role in releasing these mediators (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]). For instance, thymus peptides, such as thymopentine, thymopoietin, and thymosin fraction-5, cause an increase in ACTH production (Goya et al., 1993[ 36 ]). Additionally, the existence of CRH in thymus has been proven (Redei, 1992[ 87 ]). It has also been proven that interleukin-1 released from phagocytes has a role in ACTH secretion (Berkenbosch et al., 1987[ 4 ]). On the other hand, natural or synthetic glucocorticosteroids (which are the final stress operators) are known as anti-inflammatory drugs and immune suppressants and their role in the inhibition of lymphocytes and macrophages has been demonstrated as well (Elenkov et al., 1999[ 28 ]; Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]). Moreover, their role in inhibiting the production of cytokines and other immune mediators and decreasing their effect on target cells during exposure to stress has also been determined (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]).

In addition to adrenal steroids, other hormones are affected during stress. For example, the secretion of growth hormone will be halted during severe stress. A study showed that long-term administration of CRH into the brain ventricles leads to a cessation in the release of growth hormone (Rivier and Vale, 1985[ 90 ]). Stress also causes the release of opioid peptides to be changed during the time period over which the person is exposed to stress (McCarthy et al., 2001[ 70 ]). In fact, stress modifies the secretion of hormones that play a critical role in the function of the immune system (Khansari et al., 1990[ 50 ]). To date, it has been shown that various receptors for a variety of hormones involved in immune system function are adversely affected by stress. For example, ACTH, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), substance P, growth hormone, prolactin, and steroids all have receptors in various tissues of the immune system and can modulate its function (De la Fuente et al., 1996[ 24 ]; Gala, 1991[ 30 ]; Mantyh, 1991[ 67 ]). In addition, active immune cells are also able to secrete several hormones; thus, some researchers believe that these hormones, as mediators of immune system, play a significant role in balancing its function (Blalock et al., 1985[ 6 ]).

Severe stress can lead to malignancy by suppressing the immune system (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]). In fact, stress can decrease the activity of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells and lead to growth of malignant cells, genetic instability, and tumor expansion (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]). Studies have shown that the plasma concentration of norepinephrine, which increases after the induction stress, has an inverse relationship with the immune function of phagocytes and lymphocytes (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]). Lastly, catecholamines and opioids that are released following stress have immune-suppressing properties (Reiche et al., 2004[ 88 ]).

Stress and the Function of the Cardiovascular System

The existence of a positive association between stress and cardiovascular disease has been verified (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]). Stress, whether acute or chronic, has a deleterious effect on the function of the cardiovascular system (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]; Kario et al., 2003[ 48 ]; Herd, 1991[ 40 ]). The effects of stress on the cardiovascular system are not only stimulatory, but also inhibitory in nature (Engler and Engler, 1995[ 29 ]). It can be postulated that stress causes autonomic nervous system activation and indirectly affects the function of the cardiovascular system (Lazarus et al., 1963[ 59 ]; Vrijkotte et al., 2000[ 120 ]). If these effects occur upon activation of the sympathetic nervous system, then it mainly results in an increase in heart rate, strength of contraction, vasodilation in the arteries of skeletal muscles, a narrowing of the veins, contraction of the arteries in the spleen and kidneys, and decreased sodium excretion by the kidneys (Herd, 1991[ 40 ]). Sometimes, stress activates the parasympathetic nervous system (Pagani et al., 1991[ 82 ]). Specifically, if it leads to stimulation of the limbic system, it results in a decrease, or even a total stopping of the heart-beat, decreased contractility, reduction in the guidance of impulses by the heart stimulus-transmission network, peripheral vasodilatation, and a decline in blood pressure (Cohen et al., 2000[ 17 ]). Finally, stress can modulate vascular endothelial cell function and increase the risk of thrombosis and ischemia, as well as increase platelet aggregation (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]).

The initial effect of stress on heart function is usually on the heart rate (Vrijkotte et al., 2000[ 120 ]). Depending upon the direction of the shift in the sympatho-vagal response, the heart beat will either increase or decrease (Hall et al., 2004[ 38 ]). The next significant effect of stress on cardiovascular function is blood pressure (Laitinen et al., 1999[ 56 ]). Stress can stimulate the autonomic sympathetic nervous system to increase vasoconstriction, which can mediate an increase in blood pressure, an increase in blood lipids, disorders in blood clotting, vascular changes, atherogenesis; all, of which, can cause cardiac arrhythmias and subsequent myocardial infarction (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]; Vrijkotte et al., 2000[ 120 ]; Sgoifo et al., 1998[ 111 ]). These effects from stress are observed clinically with atherosclerosis and leads to an increase in coronary vasoconstriction (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]). Of course, there are individual differences in terms of the level of autonomic-based responses due to stress, which depends on the personal characteristics of a given individual (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]). Thus, training programs for stress management are aimed at reducing the consequences of stress and death resulting from heart disease (Engler and Engler, 1995[ 29 ]). In addition, there are gender-dependent differences in the cardiovascular response to stress and, accordingly, it has been estimated that women begin to exhibit heart disease ten years later that men, which has been attributed to the protective effects of the estrogen hormone (Rozanski et al., 1999[ 93 ]).

Studies have shown that psychological stress can cause alpha-adrenergic stimulation and, consequently, increase heart rate and oxygen demand (Rozanski et al., 1998[ 92 ], 1999[ 93 ]; Jiang et al., 1996[ 46 ]). As a result, coronary vasoconstriction is enhanced, which may increase the risk of myocardial infarction (Yeung et al., 1991[ 124 ]; Boltwood et al., 1993[ 8 ]; Dakak et al., 1995[ 20 ]). Several studies have demonstrated that psychological stress decreases the microcirculation in the coronary arteries by an endothelium-dependent mechanism and increases the risk of myocardial infarction (Dakak et al., 1995[ 20 ]). On the other hand, mental stress indirectly leads to potential engagement in risky behaviors for the heart, such as smoking, and directly leads to stimulation of the neuroendocrine system as part of the autonomic nervous system (Hornstein, 2004[ 43 ]). It has been suggested that severe mental stress can result in sudden death (Pignalberi et al., 2002[ 84 ]). Generally, stress-mediated risky behaviors that impact cardiovascular health can be summarized into five categories: an increase in the stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system, initiation and progression of myocardial ischemia, development of cardiac arrhythmias, stimulation of platelet aggregation, and endothelial dysfunction (Wu, 2001[ 123 ]).

Stress and Gastrointestinal Complications

The effects of stress on nutrition and the gastrointestinal (GI) system can be summarized with two aspects of GI function.

First, stress can affect appetite (Bagheri Nikoo et al., 2014[ 2 ]; Halataei et al., 2011[ 37 ]; Ranjbaran et al., 2013[ 86 ]). This effect is related to involvement of either the ventral tegmental area (VTA), or the amygdala via N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptors (Nasihatkon et al., 2014[ 80 ]; Sadeghi et al., 2015[ 94 ]). However, it should also be noted that nutrition patterns have effects on the response to stress (Ghanbari et al., 2015[ 31 ]), and this suggests a bilateral interaction between nutrition and stress.

Second, stress adversely affects the normal function of GI tract. There are many studies concerning the effect of stress on the function of the GI system (Söderholm and Perdue, 2001[ 112 ]; Collins, 2001[ 18 ]). For instance, studies have shown that stress affects the absorption process, intestinal permeability, mucus and stomach acid secretion, function of ion channels, and GI inflammation (Collins, 2001[ 18 ]; Nabavizadeh et al., 2011[ 79 ]). Stress also increases the response of the GI system to inflammation and may reactivate previous inflammation and accelerate the inflammation process by secretion of mediators such as substance P (Collins, 2001[ 18 ]). As a result, there is an increase in the permeability of cells and recruitment of T lymphocytes. Lymphocyte aggregation leads to the production of inflammatory markers, activates key pathways in the hypothalamus, and results in negative feedback due to CRH secretion, which ultimately results in the appearance of GI inflammatory diseases (Collins, 2001[ 18 ]). This process can reactivate previous silent colitis (Million et al., 1999[ 76 ]; Qiu et al., 1999[ 85 ]). Mast cells play a crucial role in stress-induced effects on the GI system, because they cause neurotransmitters and other chemical factors to be released that affect the function of the GI system (Konturek et al., 2011[ 55 ]).

Stress can also alter the functional physiology of the intestine (Kiliaan et al., 1998[ 52 ]). Many inflammatory diseases, such as Crohn's disease and other ulcerative-based diseases of the GI tract, are associated with stress (Hommes et al., 2002[ 42 ]). It has been suggested that even childhood stress can lead to these diseases in adulthood (Schwartz and Schwartz, 1983[ 106 ]). Irritable bowel syndrome, which is a disease with an inflammatory origin, is highly related to stress (Gonsalkorale et al., 2003[ 33 ]). Studies on various animals suggest the existence of inflammatory GI diseases following induction of severe stress (Qiu et al., 1999[ 85 ]; Collins et al., 1996[ 19 ]). Additionally, pharmacological interventions, in an attempt to decrease the response of CRH to stress, have been shown to result in an increase in GI diseases in rats (Million et al., 1999[ 76 ]).

Altering the permeability of the mucosal membrane by perturbing the functions of mucosal mast cells may be another way that stress causes its effects on the GI system, since this is a normal process by which harmful and toxic substances are removed from the intestinal lumen (Söderholm and Perdue, 2001[ 112 ]). Also, stress can both decrease the removal of water from the lumen, as well as induce sodium and chloride secretion into the lumen. This most likely occurs by increasing the activity of the parasympathetic nervous system (Barclay and Turnberg, 1987[ 3 ]). Moreover, physical stress, such as trauma or surgery, can increase luminal permeability (Söderholm and Perdue, 2001[ 112 ]) (Table 2 (Tab. 2) ; References in Table 2: Halataei et al., 2011[ 37 ]; Ranjbaran et al., 2013[ 86 ]; Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]; Collins, 2001[ 18 ]; Nabavizadeh et al., 2011[ 79 ]; Barclay and Turnberg, 1987[ 3 ]; Million et al., 1999[ 76 ]; Gonsalkorale et al., 2003[ 33 ]).

Stress also affects movement of the GI tract. In this way, it prevents stomach emptying and accelerates colonic motility (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). In the case of irritable bowel syndrome, stress increases the movement (contractility and motility) of the large intestine (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). Previous studies have revealed that CRH increases movement in the terminal sections of the GI tract and decreases the movements in the proximal sections of the GI tract (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). A delay in stomach emptying is likely accomplished through CRH-2 receptors, while type 1 receptors affect the colon (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). The effects produced by CRH are so prominent that CRH is now considered an ideal candidate for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome (Martinez and Taché, 2006[ 69 ]). When serotonin is released in response to stress (Chaouloff, 2000[ 14 ]), it leads to an increase in the motility of the colon by stimulating 5HT-3 receptors (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). Moreover, it has also been suggested that stress, especially mental and emotional types of stress, increase visceral sensitivity and activate mucosal mast cells (Mönnikes et al., 2001[ 77 ]). Stimulation of the CNS by stress has a direct effect on GI-specific nervous system ( i.e. , the myenteric system or plexus) and causes the above mentioned changes in the movements of the GI tract (Bhatia and Tandon, 2005[ 5 ]). In fact, stress has a direct effect on the brain-bowel axis (Konturek et al., 2011[ 55 ]). Various clinical studies have suggested a direct effect of stress on irritable bowel syndrome, intestinal inflammation, and peptic ulcers (Konturek et al., 2011[ 55 ]).

In conclusion, the effects of stress on the GI system can be classified into six different actions: GI tract movement disorders, increased visceral irritability, altered rate and extent of various GI secretions, modified permeability of the intestinal barrier, negative effects on blood flow to the GI tract, and increased intestinal bacteria counts (Konturek et al., 2011[ 55 ]).

Stress and the Endocrine System

There is a broad and mutual relationship between stress and the endocrine system. On one hand, stress has many subtle and complex effects on the activity of the endocrine system (Sapolsky, 2002[ 97 ]; Charmandari et al., 2005[ 15 ]), while on the other hand, the endocrine system has many effects on the response to stress (Ulrich-Lai and Herman, 2009[ 117 ]; Selye, 1956[ 110 ]). Stress can either activate, or change the activity of, many endocrine processes associated with the hypothalamus, pituitary and adrenal glands, the adrenergic system, gonads, thyroid, and the pancreas (Tilbrook et al., 2000[ 116 ]; Brown-Grant et al., 1954[ 11 ]; Thierry et al., 1968[ 115 ]; Lupien and McEwen, 1997[ 64 ]). In fact, it has been suggested that it is impossible to separate the response to stress from the functions of the endocrine system. This premise has been advanced due to the fact that even a minimal amount of stress can activate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, which itself is intricately involved with the activation of several different hormone secreting systems (Sapolsky, 2002[ 97 ]). In different locations throughout this article, we have already discussed the effects of stress on hormones and various endocrine factors and, thus, they will not be further addressed.

Altogether, stress may induce both beneficial and harmful effects. The beneficial effects of stress involve preserving homeostasis of cells/species, which leads to continued survival. However, in many cases, the harmful effects of stress may receive more attention or recognition by an individual due to their role in various pathological conditions and diseases. As has been discussed in this review, various factors, for example, hormones, neuroendocrine mediators, peptides, and neurotransmitters are involved in the body's response to stress. Many disorders originate from stress, especially if the stress is severe and prolonged. The medical community needs to have a greater appreciation for the significant role that stress may play in various diseases and then treat the patient accordingly using both pharmacological (medications and/or nutraceuticals) and non-pharmacological (change in lifestyle, daily exercise, healthy nutrition, and stress reduction programs) therapeutic interventions. Important for the physician providing treatment for stress is the fact that all individuals vary in their response to stress, so a particular treatment strategy or intervention appropriate for one patient may not be suitable or optimal for a different patient.

Yunes Panahi and Amirhossein Sahebkar (Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran, P.O. Box: 91779-48564, Iran; Tel: 985118002288, Fax: 985118002287, E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]) contributed equally as corresponding authors.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that have no conflict of interest in this study.

Acknowledgement

The authors would like to thank the "Neurosciences Research Center of Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences" and the “Clinical Research Development Center of Baqiyatallah (a.s.) Hospital” for providing technical supports.

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Effects of Stress on Human Health

1. introduction.

The word "stress" is a term thrown around every day. Everyone experiences stress and everyone has their different definition that makes sense to them. Stress refers to the strain from the conflict between our external environment and us, leading to emotional and physical pressure. However, in psychology, stress is a reaction to a stimulus that disturbs our physical or mental equilibrium. In other words, this is a section to study the effects of stress on our physical and psychological health. We need to determine what causes of stress. There are many different things that can cause stress - called stress factors. These can range from the environment itself, to physical, intellectual, interpersonal and social well-being. There are three types of stress. Depending on how we're using it, the term "stress" can be either a handy psychological concept, a view that stress is a medical condition or bodily disorder, or as a situation that anyone might find stressful. The "medical" definition of stress is a little different. Every type of stress affects our health in different ways, there's no doubt that when we feel any type of stress, our bodies start to make adaptions which help us to continue in our daily lives, from minor problems to major crises. Stress can have many kinds of significant impacts on our health: the muscles in the body contract, blood pressure goes up, the breathing becomes faster, the metabolism starts and the immune system goes down. These changes are caused by a rush of stress hormones but that is good in the short-term but bad in the long-term. High stress can lead to many kinds of health issues such as headaches, stomach pain, sleep problems and depression. Suppression of the immune system and exacerbation of pre-existing health problems. Allostatic load (wear and tear on the body from chronic stress, such as direct effects on the heart and blood vessels). Hormonal changes, especially increases in catecholamines, glucocorticoids and insulin. In the long-term experience of stress, it has also been found that the memory and the learning capability are harmed, in that certain regions of the brain are damaged and shrunk. In any event, 'Homeland' was worth defending. It's also been shown that stress may contribute to the development of mood and anxiety disorders such as depression and general anxiety. Some early papers found that exposure to stress not only has nervous systems and the endocrine systems been subjected to your memory and your ability to remember particular things has subsequently been impaired. On top of that, stress can lead to changes in the menu. This could be a problem for people who already suffer. For example, smoking and alcohol continue use can often be expected temporary release from the discomfort of the stress and the stress itself. Also, in the long run - since the health of your blood pressure and the type of cholesterol level may increase it's a wake-up call at this point hoping to avoid your risk of any coronary heart disease if you're actually doing something about it. High stress level and an increased rate of lapse accidents have been known. This is reflected in how many mistakes and accidents are attributed in the way of stress compared to other factors. So, the focus of this paper will be predominantly on the biological aspect of the body and how stress affects not just the physical health but also our way of life. It's apparent psychological health issues such as depression and general anxieties can develop including cognitive functions that will be impacted. Stress can also cause us to change our lifestyle and develop bad habits, and also change the biochemistry of the brain and the body that makes the person more prone to heart attack, certain cancer and respiratory system.

1.1 Definition of Stress

Furthermore, there is no universal agreement on what work stress is, since different people have different perceptions of stress. But, whatever the cause, stress has a profound and great impact on life. First of all, stress can affect an individual's health. In fact, health-related illnesses that are brought or made worse by stress sum up to about. Also, stress can cause an individual to be more accident-prone, as it is a way of reducing our attention span to one particular thing over a period of time. So, different areas of our brain that we are not using for that particular thing that we are giving our attention to will shut down, and by doing so, we are not too quick to respond to things as we would normally when we do not give our brain the time to rest at all. This, in turn, can lead, and eventually will lead to more accidents as impulses that we receive from our senses to our brain do not travel as fast as it should be. Last but not least, stress can lead to a lack of motivation. Diseased as much as we physically manifest harm to the body, we can also emotionally and psychologically harm. Overexposure to the hormones that are released during the stress response, for a long period of time, can make us lose our sense of motivation because the body and mind become so fatigued, which is prolonged. It is no longer a normal type of tiredness that rest can easily fix. Instead, it becomes a complete and total lack of willingness to work, to go on, or to be. It is a shutdown of our whole being, both physically and emotionally, and as a result, everyday lives and work can take a big hit. Scientists have found, in many studies, a direct link between psychological problems and the most common illnesses now that are caused by stress, which are heart disease and cancer. Mental illness can be heavily attributed to stress, such as acute anxiety and depression. The information, in fact, is now reaching the level that the only thing that is limiting the discovery of the opposite, of the mind's effect on the body, is how fast our society can be. This is due to the advances in our technology; for example, the so-called mega-science x-ray synchrotron that a lot of people are using today. But still, limited acceptance from the public about stress and the mind's effect dishash most of the research that tries to link the two is very likely to take quite a while yet for such new ideas to trickle into the public consciousness. Nowadays, as our society grows and our understanding in science and technology also has grown, we as a society need to share and expand our perceptions and attitudes towards the reality of stress, its effects, and that the evidence should no longer be thought of as dubious, but as concrete and well-supported facts, not fiction. So, such as in fields like medicine and psychiatry, more finds of the link between stress and illness and even the mind's healing processes will open the way to new and emerging fields as disciplines like molecular psychology and psycho neuro-immunology. This is important as these new health science research fields provide a platform for another level of knowledge, a deeper knowledge and understanding between the physical and mental effects of life, and how stress can very much be a large part of this, be it good or bad.

1.2 Types of Stress

Stress can be broadly classified into two main categories: acute stress and chronic stress. Acute stress is the most common form of stress. It comes from demands and pressures of the recent past and of the anticipated future. Acute stress is thrilling and exciting in short bursts. For example, it's the type of stress you might feel before a presentation, an important meeting, or a job interview. But luckily, the body's natural fight-or-flight response to acute stress is self-limiting, and when the stressor goes away, so does the adrenaline and other physiological responses. You get the picture: You're a caveman outrunning a saber-toothed tiger. The resulting psychological effects of chronic stress can be seen not only as a result of the continued output of stress hormones, but also due to the fact that people who suffer from this form of stress often find themselves eschewing some of life's most basic healthy activities, such as exercise. With chronic stress, those same life-saving reactions in the body can disturb the immune, digestive, cardiovascular, sleep, and reproductive systems. The results of chronic stress - those that occur when a threat is always present - can seriously impact long-term health. This is why it is so important to manage stress and keep it in check - when your body shows signs of stress, take the appropriate action to return to a state of relaxation, as research suggests that over time, the effects of stress may begin to diminish leading to a reduction in the risk of stress-related health concerns. Also, while acute stress can be thrilling and exciting, chronic stress is not. A new fulfilled life is waiting.

1.3 Impact of Stress on Health

The study focuses on the impact of stress on an individual's physical and psychological health. The findings show that immediate changes in the heart's rhythm may be triggered by stress. In the long term, frequent exposure to stress can lead to serious cardiovascular problems. It was found that stress brought about by things such as social rejection or work pressure can reduce the immune response to inflammatory challenges and that mental stress could lead to prolonged constriction of blood vessels in the heart. This is important when we consider modern mental health therapy which is increasingly leaning towards holistic approaches and elements of complementary therapies in treating patients. Stress was found to exacerbate the symptoms of conditions like Alzheimer's and accelerate the process of cognitive decline. Furthermore, it was found that brain region connectivity in patients who also have a genetic predisposition for Alzheimer's is negatively affected by stress. This is a significant finding when we consider that those under stress often lose their temper with family and friends and start to withdraw from activities they once enjoyed - in turn, this can lead to the worsening of relationships and the withdrawal of the support networks that help reduce the effects of stress. Some continue to indulge in unhealthy and stress-relieving behaviors such as smoking and social withdrawal, just to get away from the source of stress, whatever that may be. These can then lead to many problems in the long-run such as addiction - and relieve stress through these methods, rather than more healthy and beneficial methods, actually increases the risk of stroke because the stress on the body heightens. A harmful lifestyle and spiraling extra stress in comparison to more severe cases can lead to serious problems with major organs and risk of development of other diseases, and this creates massive strains on the body's functionality, leaving it very weak and medically unstable. Stress sufferers might escape stress temporarily by such acts but will never develop any long-term ability of dealing with stress, in any form, throughout life. This is why stress management is really important. In the context of the SE model, it is found that individual differences in psychophysiological reactivity - that is, cardiovascular adaptations to stress, can account for some of the variance in the prediction of diagnosis, severity and reporting of essential hypertension. Also, it appears that behavioral responses to stress, such as the tendency to use substances or drugs as a coping mechanism, can play a crucial role in triggering high blood pressure levels. Whether someone expresses their anger either actively or passively may also link to how stress affects the likelihood of developing essential hypertension.

2. Physical Effects of Stress

Stress does a lot more than make the body feel uncomfortable. The release of stress hormones itself can prevent the body from producing other necessary hormones that regulate growth, sleep, metabolism, and the reproductive system. Abnormal levels of stress and the inability to recover from it can lead to serious health problems. The specific problems include increased risk for diabetes and blood pressure. One of the most common physical signs of long-term stress is the frequent or long-term headaches. The chronic muscle tension commonly leads to migraines. Researchers know that the common illnesses of the immune system are autoimmune diseases, viral-linked disorders and simple colds and flus. These are affected by long-term stress. When the immune system fails to work properly various parts of the body can suffer, particularly the stomach, adrenal glands, and hair follicles, and chronic stress not only makes the body more vulnerable to illnesses and infections, but it is also a contributing factor to the development of serious diseases. For instance, stress can have serious repercussions on the stomach's ability to defend against infections, including inflammation, poor immune response, ulcerations and the untreated infection can, in turn, lead to kidney failure and septicemia. Another very common sign of long-term stress is unexplained or constant jaw pain, neck pain, and chin twitching because when a person is under high levels of stress, they wake up every morning with a headache, the chances are they are grinding their teeth during the night. This can lead to chipping or cracking the teeth, and even the jaw joint disorder called TMJ. High levels of stress can lead to miscarriages and low sperm count and sex drive. Every day, new studies are coming about how stress is hurting the health of the society.

2.1 Cardiovascular Health

Chronic stress can have a significant impact on the cardiovascular system. When stressed, the body's natural response is to elevate blood pressure and increase heart rate - this is a normal and adaptive reaction that occurs in the face of an immediate stressor. However, when the stress response is constantly triggered by the various stressors of modern life, this can put a significant strain on the heart and blood vessels. High blood pressure and increased heart rate can in turn increase the risk of heart disease and the likelihood of blood clots. Stress hormones such as cortisol and adrenaline are released when the stress response is triggered. These hormones can be harmful if they are present in the body at an elevated level for a prolonged period of time. Too much cortisol can damage the arteries and the heart while excessive adrenaline can make the arteries constrict and restrict blood flow. Furthermore, the tendency for those under stress to adopt unhealthy coping mechanisms such as smoking, drinking excessively or acting angrily, all contribute to the increased likelihood of developing heart disease. Studies have shown that people who are frequently angry or irritable are three times more likely to have a heart attack or require coronary artery bypass surgery. Collectively, this evidence demonstrates the extensive impact that chronic stress can have upon the heart and wider cardiovascular system. It is imperative that individuals recognize the potential harm that stress can cause and seek suitable strategies to manage it effectively. For example, mindfulness and meditation are recommended as effective ways to alleviate stress with a growing body of evidence supporting this theory.

2.2 Immune System Function

However, experiencing long-term stress can contribute to a variety of health problems that are distinctly psychological in nature, such as increased risk for depression. Chrousos describes that over time, stress hormones will adapt the way that they are released so that the body can become more energy efficient. Unfortunately, the immune system will suffer as a result. The energy is kept at the ready for a potential life or death situation, Chrousos says, and the body learns to adapt to what it construes as decreased vital energy for health-maintaining systems. This change in energy allocation will activate resources in the short term that are necessary to restore equilibrium, but a prolonged stress response and the continued reactivity of the immune system can take a toll on the body's tissues over time. The functional capacity is eventually diminished, Chrousos notes, and this can make the patient more vulnerable to outside threats. This, in turn, can lead to longer healing times or an increased possibility that illnesses will progress and increase in intensity. There are many long-term illnesses that are associated with a dysfunctional immune system. Every patient will experience a different outcome based on that person's genetics, age, gender, and the current health issues that are being dealt with. However, it is notable that conditions such as autoimmune diseases, atherosclerosis, and rheumatoid arthritis have been correlated with the systemic chronic inflammation that results from a long-term stress response. Marni L. Hall et al., who conducted research in conjunction with the University College London and St. Mary's Hospital Medical School, found such adverse effects of stress on the immune system and that this weakening of immune response is especially marked in persons who experience high levels of stress as a function of gender: men, it seems, who reported high levels of work stress and showed signs of work stress-related insulin and systolic blood pressure variability, had immune system functions that were lower in comparison to their female counterparts. It is clear that the relationship between stress and the immune system, although very complex and multifaceted, has very real health implications. He goes on to say that therapy centered on restoring equilibrium, such as mindfulness meditation and relaxation, has been found to be beneficial for the immune system. Professionally led interventions in stress management, such as cognitive therapy or drug treatment for depression, Chrousos adds, are also likely to be excellent methods of maintaining the capacity for a strong immune system response.

2.3 Digestive System Disorders

The effect of stress on the digestive system is focused on in this section. It explains that the nervous system, endocrine and immune systems release signals during stress. Chronic stress has the ability to produce long-term inflammation in the digestive tract and can even start to damage the body's tissues. It is not just everyday stress and anxiety that have been shown to have an impact of the immune system and the digestive tract; even isolated incidents of acute stress can be detrimental to the digestive system. It is noticed that when people are stressed they are more likely to report abnormal bowel habits such as diarrhea or constipation and abdominal pain. Personally, whenever I am stressed or anxious I always encounter severe and sharp pains in the abdomen. We also find that many overeat when they are stressed and what they choose to eat may not be the healthiest option. High fat, high sugar foods are usually the most popular and are deemed 'comfort foods' for many. However, with stress, people are more at risk of developing obesity as a result of emotional eating. 'Obesity and stomach weight can contribute to the development of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), due to the lower esophageal sphincter being weakened by the extra weight', the article states. Overall, the article provides a groundbreaking insight into the impact that stress can have on digestive system disorders. Stress behaves as a major risk factor in the development of new and inducing the presence of pre-existing diseases in the digestive tract. The digestive system communicates the state of the body whereby the brain constantly assesses internal and external surroundings. It is a clear example of the correlation between mind and body. I felt that this section helped provide an array of scientific evidence to prove the theory that stress can worsen and induce disorders in the digestive system.

3. Psychological Effects of Stress

Stress can sometimes manifest in a variety of mental health disorders such as anxiety and depression. In fact, "The Lifelong Effects of Early Childhood Adversity and Toxic Stress," an article published on the Harvard University Center on the Developing Child's website, states that toxic stress from recurrent physical or emotional abuse can lead to lifelong mental illness. According to the National Institute of Mental Health, anxiety disorders are the most common type of mental illness. They are often associated with intense feelings of fear or a sense of impending doom, which can be virtually paralyzing. On the contrary, depression is characterized by profound and prolonged feelings of sadness and hopelessness, often coupled with a lack of drive or pleasure in activities. In addition, chronic stress can also impair cognitive function and decrease our ability to concentrate. According to an article titled "Neurobiology of Stress" that was published on ScienceDirect.com, the prefrontal cortex is significantly affected by the presence of stress hormones. This portion of the brain is responsible for processing cognitive information. The reduction of its normal activities leads to the deficit of cognitive logic as well as irrational anxiety. Moreover, it has also been found that prolonged exposure to stress hormones can actually kill the white matter in the brain, which can eventually alter the brain circuitry that affects mood and other brain activities. White matter is fatty tissue that surrounds the axons of certain neurons, helping these neurons to transmit signals. When the white matter is diminished or destroyed, the brain's ability to communicate and coordinate with parts of the body is affected. Next, stress can be the stimulus that encourages certain unhealthy activities. For example, "Fundamentals of Abnormal Psychology" mentions that some individuals may begin to abuse nicotine or illicit drugs because of an excessive stress load. Similarly, "The Link Between Stress and Obesity," a WebMD article, explains that the long-term exposure to stress can increase the desire for pleasurable substances such as sweet foods. It has also been proved by "Nature Neuroscience" that the hormone that raises stress also promotes an enzyme which hampers the process that controls the brain's resilience to the bad effect of the indulgence in pleasurable substances. As a result, people suffering stress tend to find comfort from eating those substances, leading to overweight or obesity. Furthermore, sleep can be disrupted by many things, and stress is one of them. Evidently, stress can cause numerous psychological effects, most notably mental health disorders. All of the sources investigated seemed to agree that not only does stress act as an incentive for the development of anxiety and depression, but it can also exacerbate the symptoms of pre-existing mental illnesses. Cognitive impairment as a result of chronic stress was also consistently supported by research. The selected sources have all identified the negative effects that stress hormones have on the white matter in the brain and the cognitive logic that is governed by the prefrontal cortex. The idea that stress can bring on behavioral changes, such as unhealthy eating, was also widely supported. All sources agreed that long-term exposure to stress can increase the chances of engaging in pleasurable, unhealthy habits like overeating. Whether it be a physical effect, like being more susceptible to illness, or a psychological one, like the development of anxiety, stress can impact human health in a variety of ways. However, the conclusion can be made that a large portion of these effects of stress can be combated by the personal practice of healthy habits such as regular exercise, good time management, and seeking an efficient support system.

3.1 Mental Health Disorders

Furthermore, stress not only causes a variety of physical problems, but also can increase the risk of developing mental health disorders such as anxiety and depression, and in the worst case, Alzheimer's disease. Anxiety is a normal part of life; it is a kind of feeling of being nervous about something. Because it's a normal emotion, everybody feels it from time to time. When a person feels or senses danger or when danger is near, anxiety might be felt. But sometimes anxiety is experienced for no reason at all and it becomes which starts to make a person nervous and uneasy, my family burden told me. Depression is a serious condition which has been experienced by everyone, however, if it lasts longer than two weeks, it should be taken seriously. By clinical trials and through the study of scientists, it has been proven that stress can damage the brain and lead to depression. When stress is experienced, certain hormones (e.g cortisol) are released in the brain. The effect of releasing cortisol is to link to the accumulation of beta-amyloid, which is a kind of protein and which is considered to be the cause of forming plaques in the brain, and when plaques start to form in the brain, it will then lead to nerve damage and finally depression. Last but not least, the condition of stress has a particular impact on the brain, which will lead to other risks in developing Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimer's disease is marked by a gradual loss of memory, decline in the ability to perform routine tasks, and impairment of judgment and reasoning. It is majorly a disease for old people, where the risk of getting it increases with age. However, work has shown that the risk of getting Alzheimer's at the age of 40 increases threefold and it gets more than 20 times at the age of 65. This is because stress can change the brain structure and there are cumulative effects in parts of the brain that are related to feelings and responding to strong emotions, which give rise to anxiety and depression. In the long-term situation, the memory and learning ability of the person are impaired, and it is easier for the person to feel frustration and anger. As a result, the person will be more stressed, which will increase the risk of getting Alzheimer's disease. Even we have learned that stress has psychological impacts on us, and we have a strong will to evade high levels of stress, but in reality, sometimes it is just not possible to avoid stress. This is because stress can be experienced with positive emotions. For example, going to be married or taking an overseas job, the feeling of happiness and uncertainty can lead to stress as well. However, the stress from happiness and the stress from anger should be treated differently. It is believed that everyone has got a sense of dealing with a short period, which is the so-called acute stress. Such short-term stress is fine, the body, mind, and behavior can return to normal quickly after the pressure is gone. But if the stress is going to prolong, the risk of developing mental health disorders will increase exponentially. Through recent research, we have noticed that successful prevention of stress-related diseases can be reached by changing the lifestyle and it has been suggested that stress could be kept to a minimum by taking regular exercise.

3.2 Cognitive Impairment

The term cognitive refers to our ability to think, learn and remember. Cognitive functions are the mechanisms in our brain that control these abilities. They include (but are not limited to) things like language and reasoning, memory and attention, and the ability to plan and organize. 'Impairment' means something that is not working properly or correctly. So cognitive impairment is when a person's brain is not functioning as well as it did before, affecting their ability to think and properly process information. People who experience cognitive impairment report different symptoms - these could include, but are not limited to: struggling to remember things, feeling a lack of mental clarity, difficulty in completing tasks, and problems with being able to fully understand or make decisions. Cognitive impairment can be as a result of many things, such as neurological and neuropsychiatric disease or disorders. The diagnosis of cognitive impairment has to be made by a medical professional, who will often use a combination of medical history, physical examination and a number of thinking and memory tests when making an assessment. It can be quite a long process but if cognitive impairment is caught early, it is often possible to slow down or prevent any further damage to someone's cognitive functions. Scientists have found that experiencing chronic stress can change the brain's structure and function. Studies have found that when people have been exposed to long periods of stress in their life, they had less grey and white matter in the prefrontal cortex (the part of the brain that regulates cognitive behaviour) compared to people who had little or no stress. White matter acts like the brain's circuitry, helping different regions communicate with one another. Grey matter houses the main functional areas of the brain, such as the areas which control muscles and senses. These changes can cause cognitive functions and the ability to perform mental tasks to become impaired. People who experience stress have been shown in studies to perform cognitive tasks less effectively than those who have not been under consistent stress.

3.3 Behavioral Changes

The article discusses that there are a number of changes in behavior which are attributed to stress. One of the main behavioral changes is the increased intake of substances such as alcohol and drugs. Many people will turn to drinking or taking recreational drugs as a way of coping with their stress. However, alcohol and drugs do not get rid of the stress and eventually dependence on these substances will increase the stress. This becomes a vicious circle which has serious implications not only for the individual's health but also for society as a whole. Alcohol is often linked with an increase in aggressive, antisocial behavior and is a common factor in domestic violence. On the other hand, there are many people who eat more as a result of stress and this in itself can lead to health problems. The intake of too many sugary or high-fat snacks is also popular in helping to alleviate stress. It has been suggested that overeating for this reason is not so much about the satisfaction of hunger but the pleasure derived from eating. This behavior can be seen to have consequences in the development of diseases related to obesity. In addition, research has shown that obesity, which is linked to the intake of a high-fat diet, can have an effect on the cognitive functions of the brain. It has also been suggested that stress plays a major role in contributing to the obesity pandemic among the worldwide population today. Lastly, one other behavioral change as a result of stress is a state of continuous arousal. Stress is like a car alarm that goes off with every touch of a door handle. The door handle represents the challenges and frustrations of daily life while the alarm is the body's emergency response to those challenges. Turning the alarm off becomes a full-time job and then fatigue and lack of energy seems to set in. People who become chronically aroused by stress are at a far greater risk of serious health problems. One study found a direct and significant relationship between people suffering from continual stress in work and the consumption of analgesics or tranquilizers. Another study also suggested that individuals who are exposed to a high level of stress as a result of caring for a sick person.

3.4 Sleep Disturbances

Insomnia, defined as the difficulty to initiate or maintain sleep, is the most common sleep disorder reported among people with high stress levels. Alternatively, terminal insomnia, which is the condition whereby an individual wakes up early and is unable to sleep again, can also occur. Doctors have attributed these symptoms to the over-activation of the HPA axis. Realizing a threat, the brain, through the hypothalamus, instructs the pituitary gland and adrenal cortex to release stress hormones. By doing so, the body is in a state of readiness, as flab and sugar are cleared from the circulation and sent to imminently active muscles. This survival response, which is desired from an evolutionary standpoint, becomes maladaptive when the stress response is constantly activated. Cortisol - a stress hormone which follows a 24-hour pattern (high in the morning and low at night) - elevates at night in those under chronic stress and acts as a 'counter regulatory' substance to insulin. This means that high cortisol at night can elevate blood sugar levels and hence disturb sleep. High cortisol levels can also interfere with the function of natural killer cells and affect rapid eye movement sleep, which is the deep sleep where it is vital for regeneration of the mind and body. Besides these, stress can increase the likelihood of distractions before bed time (e.g. phone notifications). Heightened senses can occur as the brain is on alert for any stimuli and any abrupt interruptions to sleep, such as blue light emitted from smart phones, can make it more difficult for one to enter the 'rest and digest' parasympathetic state. Additionally, racing thoughts about the day's events or the amount of sleep one will get and even the resultant effect of no sleep, such as no focus and conducive day ahead, can lead to sleep-onset insomnia. This type of insomnia is a common sign of anxiety and depression, and evidence supports that individuals with insomnia have a tenfold risk of developing depression and a seventeenfold risk for developing anxiety. Crazy as it seems, the anxiety of not being able to sleep can actually inhibit sleep. In an attempt to help the issue of sleep disturbances, sleeping pills may be readily at our disposal. Nevertheless, one must take into consideration its side effects, as well as the potential for addiction and dependence. Cognitive behavioral therapy, many may claim, has the most conclusive benefits in treating chronic insomnia because it targets the thoughts and the behaviors that prevent good sleep patterns; many do not see lasting improvement from sleeping tablets. It has been found that the most effective treatment for both depression and insomnia together is a combination of cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia and an antidepressant medication. A commentary at the American College of Physicians indicates that the combination treatment comes with the least risk, compared with the use of antidepressants alone.

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Effects of Stress on Health, Essay Example

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The editors of the Harvard Health letter maintain that there is evidence that individuals who are chronically stressed possess an increased risk of cancer and heart disease.  Although concrete evidence may not be available to substantiate this claim, other researchers and medical professionals continue to argue that the negative effects of stress are quite harmful on the human body.  “Stress is known to significantly alter one’s health, affecting such areas as immune function, heart disease, and susceptibility to cancer” (“Effects of Stress”, 2009, p. 9).  It is clear that stress can dangerously lower the immune system and force the body to be ill equipped to defend itself against harmful disease-causing agents.  Furthermore, research also shows that “stress decreases uterine receptivity by a pathway that is independent of the ovary in infertile women, state researchers in Japan” (“Effects of Stress”, 2009, p. 9).  In other words, it has been proven that stress can make women infertile or at least make the process of conceiving a child much more difficult than in ideal circumstances.  These negative health effects caused directly or indirectly by stress are clear examples that stress does harm the health of human beings each and every day.

However, a study by Coventry et al. (2009) showed marked results that the addition of stress had no negative or positive impact in males or females upon contracting cases of depression (p. 487).  This could be a case to support the claims of author Christopher Caldwell who argues that no one including doctors, can come to an agreement on what stress is, so stress can not be blamed as the cause of disease.  On the other hand, this is a separate case study designed only to examine the impact that stress has on contracting, maintaining and advancing cases of depression.  The case does not support that stress is not a causal agent for other health defects including those mentioned above such as chronic heart disease, immune deficiency and cancer.

I believe that stress is a definite causal factor for health problems in everyday life.  We live a hectic lifestyle that forces many people to get little sleep and have heightened stressful experiences.  I have had a case on Mono and brief period of back spasms that the doctors always told me were caused directly by stress.  When stress increases, I get tired and sometimes even exhausted.  Exhaustion reduces the immune system and can allow for harmful bacteria and viruses to enter the body and cause great damage.  Sometimes people with healthier immune systems are more likely to not experience these effects rather than people with unhealthier lifestyles that reduce the immune system.  Nobody can tell for sure when someone will become ill due to stress; however, it is clear that under the right circumstances stress can cause much damage to the human body.

To avoid stress, I do whatever I can to try to have a healthy outlet for any stress that I experience in everyday life.  For instance, I try to work out at least three times a week.  I know that we are supposed to work out more than that, but with a busy lifestyle it is difficult to fit exercise in each day.  Nevertheless, exercise is a great productive outlet for stress that reduces the stress levels significantly and keeps the body healthy, which also keeps the immune system strong.  I also make it a point to resolve any issues that I experience in my life as much as possible.  When people have stressful issues in their lives that go unresolved, it can continue to increase the stress levels and be very unhealthy.  If I have arguments with friends or feel disrespected, I try to have a constructive conversation to resolve any problems and keep my stress levels low.  This is great when I do not have to constantly worry about situations and problems in my life.  We have enough to worry about; I would much rather not become a victim of stress because of a hectic lifestyle and increased stress levels due to my own inaction.

(2009). Effects of Stress. Fertility Weekly , 9. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.

(2009). Stress Adds to Overweight Worries. Tufts University Health & Nutrition Letter , 27 (8), 8. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.

Coventry, W., Medland, S., Wray, N., Thorsteinsson, E., Heath, A., & Byrne, B. (2009). Phenotypic and Discordant-Monozygotic Analyses of Stress and Perceived Social Support as Antecedents to or Sequelae of Risk for Depression. Twin Research & Human Genetics , 12 (5), 469-488. doi:10.1375/twin.12.5.469.

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Understanding stress management

The effects of chronic stress on the body, cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure (hypertension), gastrointestinal disorders, stress and your health.

Chronic stress can take a damaging toll on your mental and physical health and contribute to many serious health conditions. Here’s how stress management can help fight disease.

Adapted with permission from Stress Management: Enhance your well-being by reducing stress and building resilience , a special health report published by Harvard Health Publishing.

Skeptics have long believed that meditation and other stress reduction techniques are nice but ineffectual practices that do little for you. Nothing could be further from the truth—and now we have the science to prove it.

There is little doubt that chronic stress has harmful effects on the body, and it acts in multiple ways. To begin with, the ripple effects of stress undermine healthy behavior. If you’ve ever powered your way through a taxing day on a fistful of candy bars and cigarettes, you understand the issue firsthand. But over and above such impacts on behavior, stress affects the body directly.

Abundant evidence shows that chronic stress chips away at physical health, pushing blood pressure to dizzying heights and harming the heart. It plays a role in diabetes, asthma, and gastrointestinal disorders. High levels of stress may even speed up the aging process.

By contrast, people exhibiting less stress tend to be in better health, and now we’re starting to understand why. Stress management can benefit the entire body, right down to your genes.

Health problems linked to stress

Stress may contribute to or exacerbate health problems from A to Z (or at least to U). Among them:

• allergic skin reactions
• constipation
• gum disease
• heart problems, such as angina (chest pains), arrhythmias, heart attack, and palpitations (pounding heart)
• high blood pressure
• infectious diseases, such as colds or herpes
• insomnia and resulting fatigue
• irritable bowel syndrome
• menopausal symptoms, such as hot flashes
• “morning sickness,” the nausea and vomiting of pregnancy
• nervousness
• pain of any sort, including backaches, headaches, abdominal pain, muscle pain, joint aches, postoperative pain, and chronic pain caused by many conditions
• Parkinson’s disease
• postoperative swelling
• premenstrual syndrome (PMS)
• side effects of AIDS
• side effects of cancer and cancer treatments
• slow wound healing

To the extent that stress worsens the above ailments, the relaxation response (a state of profound rest) and other stress management methods can be healing.

Cardiovascular disease encompasses a range of ailments that affect the heart or blood vessels. Chronic stress contributes to three of the most common ailments: atherosclerosis (the accumulation of fatty deposits on artery walls), heart attacks, and high blood pressure. Stress can also trigger atrial fibrillation, palpitations, premature ventricular contractions, and other arrhythmias (abnormal heart rhythms). An intense physical or emotional experience—such as surgery or the death of a loved one—can cause an uncommon condition known as stress cardiomyopathy.

Many psychological factors—including depression, anxiety, anger and hostility, and loneliness— contribute to stress. So do social factors, such as challenges related to work, family, and finances. Acting alone, each of these factors heightens the chances of developing heart trouble. When combined, their power increases exponentially.

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Can stress management help?

Yes. The strongest evidence for the benefits of stress management springs from heart disease studies. One Medicare-sponsored study published in the American Heart Journal examined two nationally recognized programs—the Cardiac Wellness Program of the Benson-Henry Institute for Mind Body Medicine and the Dr. Dean Ornish Program for Reversing Heart Disease. Both programs aim to improve heart health through lifestyle modifications, including stress management, exercise, and nutrition counseling.

At the end of the three-year study, participants (who all had heart disease at the outset) had lost weight, reduced their blood pressure levels, improved cholesterol levels, and reported greater psychological well-being. Both programs also appeared to improve cardiac function. What’s more, participants in the Benson-Henry program also had lower death rates and were less likely to be hospitalized for heart problems, compared with controls.

Even after you’ve had a heart attack or heart surgery, stress management can help by bolstering the benefits of cardiac rehabilitation—a supervised program to help people recover after such an event.

Stress management seems to be especially effective for lowering high blood pressure. Blood pressure fluctuates throughout the day, spiking when you exercise or get upset and dipping when you rest quietly or sleep.

The release of stress hormones causes your heart to beat faster and your blood pressure to rise. Often, this increase is temporary, and your heartbeat slows and your blood pressure drops once a threat has passed. But if the stress response is triggered repeatedly, blood pressure may remain consistently high.

High blood pressure forces the heart to pump harder to circulate blood, which eventually causes heart muscle to thicken. But in the heart, a bigger muscle doesn’t necessarily translate into added strength. Often the blood supply to the heart muscle doesn’t increase to the same degree, and, over time, the heart weakens, becoming less effective as a pump—a condition known as heart failure.

High blood pressure also damages artery walls in a way that promotes atherosclerosis. In fact, the higher your blood pressure, the greater your risk for a heart attack, heart failure, stroke, and even kidney disease.

Yes. Eliciting the relaxation response helps lower blood pressure. A variety of techniques are effective. For example, according to a 2013 scientific statement from the American Heart Association, a number of studies show that meditation can modestly lower blood pressure.

Practicing the relaxation response may even lessen the amount of medication you need to take to control your blood pressure, according to one randomized, controlled trial of older adults on an eight- week program of relaxation response plus other stress management techniques.

The gastrointestinal system is very sensitive to emotions—and anger, anxiety, sadness, and elation can all trigger symptoms in the gut. That’s not surprising when you consider the close connection and similarities between the nerves in the brain and the gut. The gut is controlled by the enteric nervous system, a complex system of about 100 million nerves that oversees every aspect of digestion and is strongly influenced both by the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) and by the gut microbiome—an extensive ecosystem of microbes that inhabit your gastrointestinal tract.

Over a decade ago, an influential paper published in the journal Gut reported that a combination of psychological and physical factors can trigger gastrointestinal pain and other bowel symptoms. Severe life stress, the report also noted, often precedes the onset of functional bowel disorders for people being treated in gastrointestinal clinics. Laboratory experiments show the digestive system responds to emotional arousal and mental stress. Stomach acid secretion can increase, which may lead to heartburn and inflammation of the esophagus. Stress may play a role in the development of ulcers, too. Stress can also cause abnormal contractions in the small intestine and colon and influence the pace at which food travels through the gastrointestinal tract, exacerbating irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).

Quite possibly, yes, if you suffer from IBS. Along with IBS medications, dietary changes, exercise, and probiotics , the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases recommends trying stress management strategies, such as meditation and mindfulness, hypnotherapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, and other forms of psychotherapy.

Nearly 26 million Americans are estimated to have diabetes. Some know it; some don’t. The vast majority—90% to 95%—have type 2 diabetes, which is often triggered by obesity, poor diet, and inactivity. Another 79 million Americans are skating close to that edge with higher-than-normal blood glucose (sugar) levels, a condition called prediabetes.

While chronic stress isn’t thought to cause diabetes, it can make blood sugar harder to control, a problem that compounds if you’re using unhealthy behaviors to relieve pressure. Keeping blood sugar levels within certain parameters set by your doctor can help you prevent, or slow down, the many complications that stem from diabetes. Heart disease (the No. 1 cause of death in people with diabetes), nephropathy (kidney damage or disease), and psychosocial distress (depression, negative outlook, and similar issues) are among them.

Possibly. The best evidence so far is for the effects of yoga on type 2 diabetes. A 2016 review in the Journal of Diabetes Research that pooled findings from 25 different trials suggests that yoga may help improve blood sugar control, lipid levels (such as cholesterol and tri- glyceride levels), and body composition, including a reduction in fat leading to weight loss.

Cancer is not a single disease, but many diseases. What they have in common is the uncontrolled spread of abnormal cells. Currently, there is no evidence to suggest that stress by itself causes cancer. But whether long-term stress may change a tumor’s microenvironment and play a role by tampering with immune defenses is a question that bears closer scrutiny.

One theory about how cancer develops suggests that cancerous changes in cells occur frequently for a variety of reasons, but the immune system recognizes the cells as aberrant and destroys them. Only when the immune system becomes ineffective are the cancer cells able to multiply. Since chronic stress can hamper certain types of immune response, this might affect the body’s ability to head off the uncontrolled proliferation of cancerous cells.

It’s too early to say, but there are promising hints. In the meantime, stress management could help people deal with some of the emotional and physical effects of cancer. According to the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, practicing mindfulness meditation can help relieve anxiety and stress in people with cancer, as well as ease fatigue and overall mood and sleep disturbances.

Stress clearly plays a role in many cases of asthma. Normally, as you breathe in, air passes through the bronchioles (small airways inside the lungs) to air sacs called alveoli, where oxygen from the incoming air is passed into the bloodstream. Meanwhile, blood returning to the lungs gives up carbon dioxide, which collects in the alveoli and is drawn back through the bronchioles to be expelled as you breathe out.

The autonomic nervous system, which constricts and dilates the bronchioles, is highly sensitive to stress. Strong arousal—whether from a perceived threat, upsetting news, or an emotional confrontation—can provoke the bronchioles to constrict, which makes it more difficult to move air in and out. As a result, stress and intense emotions, such as fear or anger, can trigger asthma attacks (bouts of breathlessness and wheezing) in some people who have asthma. Of course, physical stressors, such as cold weather and exercise, can do the same.

The extent of stress’s role in the development of asthma is still being debated. Intense family stress early in life has been proposed as one of several key risk factors. However, genetic predisposition, exposure to certain allergens, viral infections, and raised levels of certain allergy markers in the blood are also considered important.

Possibly. In 2016, an article published in the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews summarized findings from 15 randomized trials of yoga in people with asthma. The authors found some evidence that yoga may offer small improvements in quality of life and symptoms. But yoga’s effects on lung function and medication use remain uncertain.

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Stress - List of Essay Samples And Topic Ideas

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Stress is an ever-present companion, affecting students and individuals alike. Stress management helps us overcome difficulties in life. Highlighting this opinion can serve as a good thesis statement in your paper. It is also a good idea to create a meaningful outline before writing. This way, you will be sure what exactly you want to cover and what arguments you need to provide. It’s better to think about an intriguing introduction and a thought-provoking essay conclusion in advance.

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Essay About Stress Stress is something that has been in this world since Adam and Eve first ate the fruit from the tree. It is something that everyone experiences in their lives at some point and is not very fun to go through. Stress can also be something that is good but is hard for a person to handle. There are many causes of stress and these things can be a life-changing moment or even some small events as well. There are some things in life that are good things that happen to people, but still, stress them out because it is something new that they are learning to deal with. For example, one of these things actually happens to be married. Marriage is something good in this world, but for most people, it is stressful because it is something new and they plan to live with that person for the rest of their life. There are also many more stressful things to marriage and those things happen to vary per couple. Another cause of a type of good stress would be moving to a new house. Moving could be a good thing if it is something that is needed in someone’s life but could still be stressful in the process of moving. It is hard to explain because the main point in people’s lives is good, but the process of getting to these things is stressful. That is probably the best way to describe it. To add to that, these things are good things that happen to people but still can still be stressful. The next causes of stress are things that happen to people and some are not so good things. Some of these things include divorce, the death of a loved one, and can even include loud random noises. With the first cause, divorce is something that happens to many people in the world. There are different things that cause divorce, but that is another topic. Divorce is stressful for everyone. If kids are included in that, the kids may get stressed out as well. Divorce is not a good thing and no one expects it to happen when they first get married. The next cause is the death of a loved one. Death, in general, is really hard and is really stressful. No one wants someone in their life to pass away and leave them. Being sad from having someone pass away could cause stress. It is something that can be really stressful and can cause even more things like depression as well. The last cause would be random loud noises. This is something that a lot of people get stressed out about more than people think it does. This cause is a smaller one than divorce or death but is something that can stress people out just as much. All of these things are causes to stress and are some not-so-good things. It is really hard having stress in people’s lives. No one likes stress and it is something that drags a lot of people down. Stress has many causes that can be good and can be bad. There are a lot more causes of stress in life that are not mentioned in this essay. If all of the causes were mentioned here, it would probably be a thousand-page paper. There are endless possibilities to stress and it ranges anywhere from small things to life-changing things.

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• A-Z Publications

Annual Review of Psychology

Volume 72, 2021, review article, stress and health: a review of psychobiological processes.

• Daryl B. O'Connor 1 , Julian F. Thayer 2 , and Kavita Vedhara 3
• View Affiliations Hide Affiliations Affiliations: 1 School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom; email: [email protected] 2 Department of Psychological Science, School of Social Ecology, University of California, Irvine, California 92697, USA; email: [email protected] 3 Division of Primary Care, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UH, United Kingdom; email: [email protected]
• Vol. 72:663-688 (Volume publication date January 2021) https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-062520-122331
• First published as a Review in Advance on September 04, 2020
• Copyright © 2021 by Annual Reviews. All rights reserved

The cumulative science linking stress to negative health outcomes is vast. Stress can affect health directly, through autonomic and neuroendocrine responses, but also indirectly, through changes in health behaviors. In this review, we present a brief overview of ( a ) why we should be interested in stress in the context of health; ( b ) the stress response and allostatic load; ( c ) some of the key biological mechanisms through which stress impacts health, such as by influencing hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis regulation and cortisol dynamics, the autonomic nervous system, and gene expression; and ( d ) evidence of the clinical relevance of stress, exemplified through the risk of infectious diseases. The studies reviewed in this article confirm that stress has an impact on multiple biological systems. Future work ought to consider further the importance of early-life adversity and continue to explore how different biological systems interact in the context of stress and health processes.

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Stress and Its Effects on Human Health Essay

Introduction

Stress refers to events, situations or conditions that put pressure on human beings. This may be at times when people have a lot to attend to and think about, or have little or no control over what happens to them or around them. Stress also refers to people's reaction(s) to being placed under pressure: The feelings that arise when many demands are placed on us as humans that we are unable or find it difficult to cope with. Being in situations that pressurize us is normal in life and this can help an individual to take the necessary action. The problem comes when feelings of stress start to develop (Allan et al., 2016). Stress has many effects both positive and negative. Stress can cause mental health problems and worsen the existing health conditions in a human being. On the other hand, mental health problems can cause stress. This essay, therefore, aims at explaining how stress can affect our health, and whether stress has positive effects on individuals.

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How Stress Affects Our Health

It's common for individuals to find themselves with sweaty hands on the first date, or have one's heart pound when watching a scary movie. This implies that stress can be felt both in one's body and mind. Stress is, therefore, a natural reaction to external stimuli. When one encounters a threatening situation or danger, the body is flooded with hormones that increase the heart rate, boosts the body's energy levels to deal with the problem. People face different situations such as meeting deadlines, paying utility bills and parenting duties all of which make the body to react similarly. All these circumstances may cause your body response system to be stuck and cause serious health problems (Lovallo, 2015).

It's important to note that even the minor stress can have significant impacts on an individual, for instance, one may develop some stomach ache before giving a presentation. Natural occurrences like earthquakes, landslides and other earth movements as well as terrorist attacks or even a fight have a bigger effect on an individual as a result of the stress they cause. Sudden emotional stresses like anger trigger serious health effects like heart attacks, arrhythmias and even sudden death (de Frias & Whyne, 2015). This is accelerated by people who have pre-existing conditions of heart disease. This is realized when the stress is acute and has caused a heart attack or a worse situation like sudden death.

Stress is said to have reached a chronic level when it starts to interfere with a person's normal life. The longer the stress is in an individual, the worse it becomes both in the mind and body of the victim. Someone feels fatigued, irritated and unable to concentrate on a particular task more often. Chronic stress a lot of wear and tear on the body. This becomes worse when the victim has had a pre-existing health condition which is worsened by the stress (McEwen et al., 2015).

Stress also makes it difficult for one to visit the toilet. Chronic stress impacts on the hormones released by the thyroid glands, which regulates the body metabolism. When these hormones are interfered with, it may lead to constipation. In some instances, an individual may lose her hair. The hair sheds more than usual in a period of three to six months after an experience of a super stressful event. Stress causes a backache. When a person is stressed, the heart rate and the blood pressure rise and the body respond by pumping out hormones that help the individual to fight or fright. This may cause the muscles to tighten up and magnify the aches one gets while sitting on a working desk. This will lead to a severe backache. Lastly, stress messes up with one's libido. Chronic stress has the effect of impacting on the body's production of estrogen, which keeps a woman's reproductive system in working order. This will negatively impact on the sex drive of the affected individual (Amsten, 2015).

Other forms of chronic stress like depression and low levels of social support are associated with increased chances of cardiovascular risks. Once a person is sick, stress makes it harder for that person to recover.

Positive Effects of Stress

Stress is motivating when it is well applied to our day to day life experiences. For instance, some students prepare for exams very early while others wait until the very last night of the exam. Some students may also opt to skip the revision part and just hope to remember concepts from classroom discussion with teachers and lecturers (Dhabhar, 2014). The students who revised harder and longer would be expected to perform better and are the ones more affected by stress. Stress makes one try and fix the problem through prior preparation. A famous psychologist Hans Seley is regarded as the father of stress due to his extensive research and contributions towards this topic. He referred to the small amounts of stress as eustress.

Stress also enhances our cognitive abilities. Stress can work to boost several aspects of individual's mental prowess and help them in their professional and academic capabilities. This is because stress helps human brain to be focused. Stress helps the individual to focus on the issue at hand and deal with it conclusively. In some instances, stress helps increase memory and recall, so some stress when revising will help a student to remember what he or she studied before the exam. This is attributed to slightly higher levels of cortisone, in moderate levels (Nakos & Whiting 2018).

Stress can increase an individual's physical performance and endurance. Stress causes the release of adrenaline, which increases a person's heart rate and metabolism. These results into increased reactions and reflexes, making one have more endurance. This can still help people in activities like sports. Some levels of adrenaline for an athlete is good because it helps to fight tiredness and fatigue (Silva et al., 2018).

Experts in stress related issues argue that stress is a burst of energy that advises an individual what to and what not to. When the stress is mild, it has a couple of benefits. To start with, stress can help the victim to meet day to day challenges and meet daily challenges. Further research has found out that stress can help someone accomplish tasks more efficiently and effectively. Stress acts as a memory booster. This only works when the stress is in small doses or mild.

Stress also acts as a critical warning system, accelerating the fright or fight response. This happens when the brain perceives some stress; the brain starts flooding the body with some chemicals like epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol. This then creates a series of reactions like an increase in blood pressure and heart rate. This makes the senses develop a laser-like focus so that the individual avoids the physically stressful situations and be on the safer side.

In conclusion, therefore, it is important to note that stress has both positive and negative consequences. Stress yields positive results when it is moderate or in mild forms. When it is accelerated to high levels or when it becomes chronic, it has many effects that are harmful to an individual's health. Stress can also be controlled. This is done by identifying what is causing the stress. The causes are analyzed by examining the events of the day and writing them down, and once you get them, develop a plan to address them. Also, build strong relationships that will impact positively in your life.

Bibliography

Allan, B.A., Douglass, R.P., Duffy, R.D. and McCarty, R.J., 2016. Meaningful work as a moderator of the relation between work stress and meaning in life. Journal of Career Assessment, 24(3), pp.429-440.

Lovallo, W.R., 2015. Stress and health: Biological and psychological interactions. Sage publications.de Frias, C.M. and Whyne, E., 2015. Stress on health-related quality of life in older adults: The protective nature of mindfulness. Aging & mental health, 19(3), pp.201-206.

McEwen, B.S., Gray, J.D. and Nasca, C., 2015. Recognizing resilience: Learning from the effects of stress on the brain. Neurobiology of stress, 1, pp.1-11.

Arnsten, A.F., Raskind, M.A., Taylor, F.B. and Connor, D.F., 2015. The effects of stress exposure on prefrontal cortex: Translating basic research into successful treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder. Neurobiology of stress, 1, pp.89-99.

Dhabhar, F.S., 2014. Effects of stress on immune function: the good, the bad, and the beautiful. Immunologic research, 58(2-3), pp.193-210.

Nakos, G. and Whiting, A., 2018. The role of frequent short exams in improving student performance in hybrid global business classes. Journal of Education for Business, pp.1-7.

Silva, J.A.S., Bahamondes-Avila, C., Hernandez-Mosqueira, C. and Navarrete, L.A.S., 2018. Biology of Stress and Physical Performance. In Sport and Exercise Science. InTech.

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Home / Essay Samples / Health / Mental Health

Essays on Mental Health

Mental health vs. physical health.

The debate over whether mental health or physical health is more important has long been a topic of discussion in the fields of medicine, psychology, and public health. This essay will explore the complexities of this issue, considering various perspectives, and ultimately argue that both...

Psychology in Everyday Life: Understanding the Mind's Influence

Psychology plays a profound role in shaping our perceptions, decisions, and interactions in everyday life. This essay explores the ways in which psychology impacts our daily experiences, from influencing our behavior to enhancing our communication skills, and delves into the practical applications of psychological principles...

Stress and Its Effects on Youngsters

In today's fast-paced world, stress has become an ever-present companion for people of all ages. Among the most vulnerable are youngsters, who grapple with the pressures of academic, social, and personal challenges. This essay explores the causes and consequences of stress on young individuals and...

Relationship Between Mental Illness and Crime

The intricate interplay between mental illness and crime has been a subject of intense study and debate, delving into the multifaceted connections between psychological well-being and criminal behavior. This essay explores the complex relationship between mental health conditions and criminal activities, examining the key factors...

Relationship Between Social Media and Depression

In today's interconnected world, social media platforms have become integral parts of our lives. These platforms offer a plethora of opportunities for communication, sharing, and self-expression. However, beneath the glossy façade of curated feeds and engaging content lies a darker reality – the potential link...

Audism Unveiled: Understanding the Challenges

Audism, a term coined by Tom Humphries in the late 1970s, refers to the discrimination, marginalization, or prejudice against individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing. As we delve into the topic of "Audism Unveiled," it is essential to explore the complexities surrounding this...

The Importance of Mental Health: Prioritizing Well-being

Mental health is a topic that bursts with significance and perplexity. It is an integral aspect of our overall well-being, influencing how we think, feel, and interact with the world around us. In this essay, we explore the complexities of mental health and the burstiness...

Mental Health in Hispanic Culture

Mental health is an essential aspect of overall well-being, and its perception and treatment vary across different cultures. In Hispanic culture, attitudes towards mental health are influenced by a combination of traditional beliefs, family dynamics, and cultural norms. This essay explores the unique characteristics of...

Effects of Sleeping Disorders and Quality Sleep on Mental Health

Sleep is a fundamental biological function that plays a crucial role in maintaining our physical, mental, and emotional well-being. However, many individuals experience sleeping disorders, which can have a profound impact on their overall health and quality of life. Understanding sleeping disorders and recognizing the...

How to Prevent Suicidal Behavior: Ecological Momentary Assessment

As of today, suicide is one of the most important public health issues sieging among the top twenty causes of deaths in the world and reaching second place in the 15-29 age group. It leads to more deaths than war, breast cancer or homicide. With...

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• Stress Management
• Eating Disorders
• Schizophrenia
• Bipolar Disorder
• Sleep Deprivation
• Antisocial Personality Disorder
• Major Depressive Disorder
• Hearing Loss
• Postpartum Depression
• Sleep Disorders
• Borderline Personality Disorder
• Cognitive Dissonance
• Dissociative Identity Disorder
• Narcissistic Personality Disorder
• Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
• Mental Illness
• Down Syndrome
• Music Therapy
• Psychological Disorders
• Obsessive Compulsive Disorde
• Mindfulness
• Teenage Suicide
• Anxiety Disorder
• Health Care
• Reproductive Health

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What is a Cause and Effect Essay?

A cause and effect essay is a type of essay writing that explores the relationship between events, actions, or phenomena (causes) and their outcomes or consequences (effects) . 

In this type of essay, the writer analyzes how one event leads to another, providing insights into the underlying causes and the resulting effects. Cause and effect essays aim to explain the connections between various occurrences and explain the reasons behind certain outcomes. 

They often require critical thinking, careful analysis, and the use of evidence and examples to support arguments.

You may confuse cause-and-effect essays with compare and contrast essays . While cause and effect essays focus on analyzing the relationship between events, compare and contrast essays examine similarities and differences between two or more subjects or ideas.

How to Structure a Cause and Effect Essay

There are two main structural types commonly used to write a cause and effect essay: the block structure and the chain structure.

Block Structure

In the block structure, the writer first discusses all the causes of the event in one section, followed by a separate section dedicated to discussing all the effects.

This cause and effect essay format allows for a clear separation between the causes and effects, making it easier for the reader to understand the relationships between them.

Use the block structure when:

• There are multiple causes and effects to discuss, and you want to provide a comprehensive overview of each.
• You prefer a clear separation between causes and effects for easier understanding.

Chain Structure

In the chain structure, each cause is followed immediately by its corresponding effect(s), creating a chain-like sequence of events.

This structure emphasizes the direct relationship between each cause and its effect, providing a more immediate and interconnected narrative.

Use the chain structure when:

• You want to emphasize the direct relationship between each cause and its effect.
• You're discussing a series of events that occur in a linear or chronological order.

Cause and Effect Essay Outline

Creating an outline is essential for organizing your thoughts and structuring your cause and effect essay effectively. 

Here's a basic outline to guide you through the writing process:

Need a detailed outline guide? Be sure to check out our blog on " Cause and Effect Essay Outline " for a comprehensive breakdown of how to organize your essay.

How to Write a Cause and Effect Essay

Writing a cause and effect essay involves examining the reasons (causes) and outcomes (effects) of a particular event, phenomenon, or situation. Here's a step-by-step guide to help you craft an effective cause and effect essay:

Step 1: Choose a Topic

Start by selecting a topic that interests you and has clear cause-and-effect relationships. It could be a social issue, scientific phenomenon, historical event, or any other subject with identifiable causes and effects. 

For example, "The Effects of Climate Change on Wildlife Populations" or "Causes of Obesity in Developed Countries."

Step 2: Conduct Research

Gather relevant information and evidence to support your thesis statement . Look for credible sources such as academic journals, books, government reports, and reputable websites. 

Ensure you have a thorough understanding of both the causes and effects related to your chosen topic.

Step 4: Develop a Thesis Statement

Craft a clear and concise thesis statement that outlines the main causes and effects you will discuss in your essay. Your thesis should provide a roadmap for the reader and clearly state your position on the topic. 

For instance, "The rise in carbon emissions from human activities is leading to severe consequences for global ecosystems."

Step 5: Outline your Essay

Create a structured outline that organizes your ideas and arguments logically. Divide your essay into introduction , body paragraphs (each discussing a specific cause or effect), and conclusion . 

Each body paragraph should focus on one cause or effect and provide supporting details and evidence.

Step 6: Write the Introduction

Begin with an engaging introduction that provides background information on the topic and introduces your thesis statement. 

Hook the reader's attention with an interesting fact, statistic, or anecdote related to your topic. Clearly state the purpose of your essay and preview the main points you will discuss.

Step 7: Body Paragraphs

In the body paragraphs, explore the causes or effects of the topic in detail. Start each paragraph with a topic sentence that introduces the cause or effect you will be discussing. 

Then, provide evidence and examples to support your claim. Use data, statistics, expert opinions, and real-life examples to strengthen your arguments. Make sure to explain the causal relationship between the factors you're discussing.

Step 8: Transition Between Paragraphs

Use transition words and sentences to smoothly transition between paragraphs and maintain coherence throughout your essay. 

These transitions help guide the reader through your arguments and ensure a logical flow of ideas.

Step 9: Write the Conclusion

Summarize the main points of your essay in the conclusion and restate your thesis statement. Reflect on the significance of your findings and emphasize the importance of understanding the causes and effects of the topic. 

Avoid introducing new information in the conclusion; instead, offer insights or suggestions for further research or action.

Step 10: Revise and Edit

Review your essay for clarity, coherence, and grammatical accuracy. Make sure each paragraph contributes to the overall argument and that your ideas are well-supported by evidence.

Once you've made revisions and edits, finalize your essay by formatting it according to the guidelines provided by your instructor or publication. 

Double-check citations and references to ensure they are accurate and properly formatted according to the required citation style (e.g., APA, MLA).

Cause and Effect Essay Examples

When writing a cause and effect essay for the first time, it is recommended to go through a few examples. It will help you understand the structure and how to use a method effectively.

The following are some of the great cause and effect examples free to use.

Cause and Effect Essay

Cause and Effect Essay Sample

Climate Change Cause and Effect Essay

Poverty Cause and Effect Essay

Air Pollution Cause and Effect Essay

Cause and Effect Essay Topics

Here are some cause and effect essay topics:

• The Impact of Climate Change on Extreme Weather Events
• The Rise of Mental Health Disorders Among Adolescents
• The Effects of Social Media on Political Polarization
• The Consequences of Deforestation on Biodiversity Loss
• The Relationship Between Income Inequality and Social Mobility
• The Impact of Technology on Human Relationships
• The Causes and Effects of the Global Obesity Epidemic
• The Effects of Air Pollution on Public Health
• The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Employment
• The Causes and Consequences of Refugee Crises

These topics reflect current societal concerns and offer opportunities for in-depth analysis of cause-and-effect relationships. If you need more such ideas check out our cause and effect essay topics  blog!

Tips for Writing a Cause and Effect Essay

Here are additional tips for writing a cause and effect essay:

• Establish Clear Connections: Clearly establish the causal relationships between different factors to help readers understand the cause-and-effect dynamics of the topic.
• Avoid Oversimplification: Recognize that most events have multiple causes and effects, so avoid oversimplifying complex phenomena by considering various factors and their interactions.
• Consider Chronology: When discussing historical events, consider the chronological sequence of causes and effects to provide a clear narrative structure.
• Focus on Significance: Highlight the significance of your findings by discussing the broader implications of the causes and effects you've identified.
• Reflect and Synthesize: In the conclusion, reflect on the insights gained from analyzing the causes and effects and synthesize your findings to provide a cohesive understanding of the topic.

To conclude, writing a cause and effect essay can be a rewarding experience that allows you to look into complex issues. By following the guidelines outlined in this guide and applying your critical thinking skills, you can create compelling essays that inform and engage your audience. 

But if you are in a time crunch do not hesitate to take professional help. CollegeEssay.org provides a top cause and effect essay writing service for those students who are having a hard time meeting deadlines. We'll help you with your cause and effects essays for the best grades. 

Reach out to avail amazing discounts and get our custom essay writing help in no time. As a plus, you can use our AI writing tool if you need a quick fix to beat the deadline stress!

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Effect of Endurance Exercise on Markers of Oxidative Stress: A Systematic Review

• Review Article
• Published: 20 August 2024

Cite this article

• Gregg S. Mallett   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0075-4999 1 &
• Kim McGrath 2  

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The aim of this review was to methodically consider oxidative stress biomarkers in endurance performance events. The health benefits of exercise come at the cost of reactive oxygen species production. Reactive oxygen species and the continued development of oxidative stress may bring about muscular damage and inflammation, ultimately impairing exercise performance.

A search for applicable articles was performed using PubMed/Medline, Scopus, and ScienceDirect with dates of January 1, 2010, to April 30, 2023. Inclusion criteria consisted of (1) original, peer-reviewed studies with human participants; (2) studies written in English; (3) studies available as full free text. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses checklist and flow-chart were followed.

Thirty studies were included in the final review. Four studies collected blood and urine samples, while 26 studies collected blood samples only for assessment. Thirteen studies on ultramarathons, seven on military training and survival, four on Ironman and endurance running, and one on running/cycling and swimming were discovered throughout the course of the research. Well-trained, elite, recreational, amateur, moderately active, ultra-marathon runners, triathletes, cadets/soldiers, physical education students, and untrained individuals comprised the study subjects.

According to the evidence, extended duration events do not always induce supraphysiological oxidative stress and muscle damage which are indicated by the presence of absence of reactive oxygen species and inflammatory biomarkers. Still, more importantly, oxidative damage markers of lipids, proteins, and different enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants develop depending on the individual’s level of training.

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Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no data sets were generated or analyzed.

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Mallett, G.S., McGrath, K. Effect of Endurance Exercise on Markers of Oxidative Stress: A Systematic Review. J. of SCI. IN SPORT AND EXERCISE (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42978-024-00305-9

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Stress: causes and effects Report

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Psychology is one of the most dynamic studies in academia. Generally, psychology is concerned with the study of human behavior in the environment, factors that influence behavior change and other behavior determinants. Psychology involves research activities because it is concerned with finding out.

There are several research methods that are used in psychology to assist in the explanation of different behaviors among human beings. Research methods used in psychology use different methods of data collection, sampling and analysis process. Basically, the different techniques used determines the respective methods used in psychological research.

There are different methods due to diverse needs in research. Furthermore, the methods used also depend on whether they are used to collect qualitative or quantitative data. There are two major types of psychological research, for instance, qualitative and quantitative psychological research.

However, these are further subdivided into correlational, descriptive and experimental research methods. This study report highlights the causes and effects of stress using qualitative psychological research method. Furthermore, the report discusses the research methods and their applicability in psychology.

Psychology is a challenging field of study. This is due to the research methods used in the process of analyzing and finding solutions to the global psychological challenges and problems. Considering the analysis and study of the research methods, I decided to use the qualitative psychology research method.

This is one of the commonly used research methods because it’s easy to understand and implement (Fossey, Harvey, McDermott, & Davidson 2002). Furthermore, the methods used in the data collection and analysis are easy to learn hence increases the chances of drawing reliable and realistic conclusions. Research is conducted in psychology to provide solutions to the social problems that can be solved psychologically.

Before designing the research, I will have to fully understand the concepts used in qualitative psychology research method. Generally, qualitative research findings are naturalistic. This method enables researchers to understand behavior in a natural setup.

Qualitative psychology research uses data collection methods such as interviews and questionnaires among others. My main aim is to report on a study using qualitative psychology research, and I will use a questionnaire to collect data that I will use for analysis and determination of results thereafter (Nesbit & Hadwin 2006).

Stress is a state of instability mentally. This is one of the most common psychological challenges that several people face around the globe. There are different factors that are believed to cause stress and their effects on individuals.

However, these factors differ based on the environment where individuals operate or conduct their daily activities (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelestein, 1983). Stress may affect an individual negatively, which will be discussed in this report.

Methodology

The research method that I have decided to use for the study is the qualitative research method in psychology. There are different methods of data collection used in qualitative research process.

However, I will use a questionnaire to collect data that I will use in the study. Using questionnaires is advantageous because it enables a researcher to collect reliable information that can be used in analysis and drawing of realistic and reliable conclusions. I will design an open ended questionnaire based on the research topic, which is ‘what are the causes and effects of stress’ (Butler 2006).

Generally, the questionnaire will also have multiple choice questions. The multiple choice questions will test the ability of the respondents to determine the effects and causes of stress based on the presented information.

On the other hand, open ended questions will be used to give the respondents the opportunity to provide extensive and detailed information on the causes and effects of stress, and their individual experience (Lincoln & Guba 2003).

The questionnaires will be distributed to individuals in different areas. The research will target students and professionals. This is aimed at analyzing the causes and effects of stress in a working environment and learning institutions. Questionnaires will be distributed to students from different learning institutions and individual professionals from different companies producing different goods and offering different services.

The target groups are students and professionals because stress is common in learning institutions and working environments. Moreover, there are different causes and effects of stress on students and practicing professionals in different working environments (Leech & Onwuegbuzie 2007).

The questionnaires will enable me to determine the most common causes of stress among students. Furthermore, the questionnaire will enable me to determine causes of stress among working individuals and individuals despite their employment status.

Furthermore, it will enable me to discuss and highlight the most common causes of stress and their effects on the development and execution of duties and responsibilities in the workplace and at the family level. The questionnaires will be distributed to students in three higher learning institutions around my school, and other institutions in different industries. In schools, the questionnaires will be distributed to students and staff.

This will enable me to receive responses from students in different learning environments and professionals working under different conditions. Generally, this will enable me to collect diverse data, which will enable the presentation of reliable and realistic conclusions.

600 questionnaires will be supplied to cover for any responses that might not be received within the specified time for data collection. I intend to collect data within 30 days and targets 450 respondents. This is the sample size that I will use for my analysis (Fossey, Harvey, McDermott, & Davidson 2002).

Data analysis

The questionnaire will be used in the analysis of data. The questions contained in the questionnaire addresses several the research questions. However, conclusions will be based on the responses received.

After receiving the expected number of responses, I will summarize the responses on the questionnaires based on the area of data collection, for instance, per institution where the questionnaires were supplied and other companies or organizations from other industries. Thereafter, I will generalize the summary as per different categories, for instance, learners and practicing professionals.

This will give me an easy time of presenting findings based on the views and preferences of students and practicing individuals. It will also enable me to determine the causes and effects of stress among students and individuals in the job market (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelestein 1983).

Stress is a psychological problem that affects the normal operation of individuals. Individuals may be stressed due to several reasons irrespective of where they work, study or live. Stress is part of human life, which must be managed to promote quality living. It is perceived that employed individuals are prone to stress that the unemployed individuals.

However, after extensive research on the causes and effects of stress, I came to realize that any individual can be stressed due to different reasons. Although there are several causes of stress, there are five major causes that were pointed out as a cause of stress by most respondents.

The most common causes of stress according to most respondents are workplace stress or tension, financial problems, health, personal relationships and irritants. Furthermore, most respondents reported that the effects of stress are mental instability, headache, lack of motivation and poor performance.

According to the data obtained, 80% of employees perform poorly because of stress, while 70% of students are not able to accomplish their academic goals due to stress.

Furthermore, 65% of stress among students is caused by financial strain, personal relationships, irritants and poor health. 73% of the respondents in the working environment are stressed due to financial problems, personal relationships, irritants, tension in the workplace and poor health status.

Stress is a psychological challenge that can be caused by different factors in the global environment. Learners and working individuals may be stressed due to several reasons. It is believed that stress is caused by external factors and individual attitude and perceptions.

Stress has compromised the quality of life because it leads to adverse health effects such as coronary heart attack and respiratory diseases among others. There are several causes of stress according to this study. However, there are five common or major causes of stress according to responses received (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelestein, 1983).

Financial problems

Individuals require money to acquire several products or goods. Furthermore, money is essential in accessing different services in the global environment. Money is a basic need because it is used in the acquisition of basic needs. Financial problems such as debts and inability to acquire or afford basic needs may cause stress. This is a problem that working individuals and students face.

Basically, employed individuals are expected to provide fullness to their families and ensure they are comfortable (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelestein 1983). This is not possible in case an individual is faced with need to cut down on expenditures due to the increasing cost of education, payment of credits and high cost of health services.

This may also stress the family of the respective person, especially students because they might not be able to afford their basic needs in school due to limited funding support from their parents or guardians facing the same situation (Tennant, et al. 2007).

Considering the number of respondents who identified financial problems as a cause of stress, it is true that financial problems or strain may be the major cause of stress among individuals.

Workplace stress

There are several factors that may cause stress at the workplace. Workplace stress is also caused by tension due to several reasons, for instance, anticipation of promotion, retrenchment, demotion and termination of employment among others. Uncertainties in the workplace may lead to stress. Junior employees may also be stressed incase they are working under strict bosses or those who bully them among others.

Change is part of business operation. Change introduction in an organization may affect individual employees positively or negatively. Employees are stressed in case an organization where they work plans to introduce changes that might cause them the position or lead to demotion. This has led to change resistance among employees in an organization.

However, whether employees resist change or not, it must be implemented according to the strategies of the respective organization (Tennant, et al. 2007). This stresses several employees and affects their way of life.

Organizations are divided into departments; individual departments are assigned specific objectives or goals that should be achieved within a specific time to aid in the achievements of the overall goals and objectives of the respective organization. Employees must be determined to achieve these goals because failure may render them incompetent, and lead to demotion or termination of employment.

This leads to tension because most objectives have strict deadlines. Employees work to achieve the stated goals and any sign that shows inability to achieve the set goals and objectives within the stated deadline cause stress at the workplace (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelestein 1983).

Personal relationships

Personal relationships may also be a source of stress although it is a source of comfort. Personal relations include parents, children, relatives and spouses. Studies of children may cause stress to their parents because they have to provide finances despite the high cost of living and education. The number of children seeking education may also determine the intensity of stress.

Sickness of a family member, spouse or relative may also cause stress because they require finances to access medical services (Tennant, et al. 2007). Furthermore, high dependence from relatives may also cause stress because individuals have to balance between the relatives’ needs and their family and personal needs, which require financing.

Personal relationships may also cause stress to students due to instable relationships. Currently, several students are engaging in affairs, which might cause them stress due to the unstable nature of most relationships of students. Moreover, infidelity in the family or relationship may also cause stress in case an individual is not able to handle it or encourage his or her partner to be faithful (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelestein 1983).

Health is a major concern for several people. Leading a healthy life requires finances, for instance, controlling hypertension, losing weight, maintaining good health or gaining weight among others. Individuals are concerned with the status of their health because productiveness requires healthy living.

An individual may not perform if his or her health is poor. Therefore, maintaining healthy lifestyles is a cause of stress to both working individuals and students (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelestein, 1983).

Apart from the cases mentioned and discussed above, other causes are irritants that compromise daily activities. Factors that irritate individuals are commuting to work, balancing education and family life, balancing work and family responsibilities, discussing family challenges, parents meeting on children’s school and lack of relaxation time among others (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelestein, 1983).

Effects of stress

Stress affects individuals negatively. There are several effects of stress according to the study, for instance, poor health. Stress may lead to poor health because it may lead to contraction of diseases such as hypertension among others.

The poor health may affect performance of employees at the workplace hence lead to demotion or termination of employment. It may also hinder students from achieving their academic goals. Furthermore, stress may lead to instable families and relationships, which lead to breakups, fights and suicides among others (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelestein, 1983).

Stress is a challenge that individuals face, but must continue living. The research has revealed that stress is caused by poor health, workplace stress, irritants, financial problems and personal relationships.

Furthermore, stress may aggravate hypertension and other chronic diseases, lead to marriage or relationship breakups and fights. Stress can also lead to suicide and demotion or termination of employment due to poor performance in the workplace.

List of References

Butler, D. L 2006, Frames of Inquiry in Educational Psychology: Beyond quantitative-Qualitative Divide, Handbook of Educational Psychology , vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 903-927.

Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelestein, R 1983, A global Measure of Perceived stress, Journal of Health and Social Behavior , vol. 6 no. 5, pp. 386-396.

Fossey, E., Harvey, C., McDermott, F., & Davidson, L 2002, Understanding and Evaluating qualitative research, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry , vol. 13 no. 9, pp. 717-732.

Leech, N., & Onwuegbuzie, A 2007, An array of qualitative data analysis tools: A call for data analysis triangulation, School of Psychology Quarterly , vol. 6 no. 4, pp. 557-584.

Lincoln, Y., & Guba, G 2003, Paradigmatic controversies, contradictions, and emerging confluences, Sage Publications, Thousands Oaks.

Nesbit, J. C., & Hadwin, A 2006, Methodological Issues in Educational Psychology, Handbook of educational psychology , vol. 35 no. 7, pp. 825-847.

Tennant, R., Hiller, L., Fishwick, R., Platt, S., Joseph, S., Weich, S., et al. 2007, The Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (WEMWBS): Development and UK validation, Health and Quality of Life Outcomes , vol. 3 no. 4, p. 5.

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Direct and indirect effects of economic sanctions on health: a systematic narrative literature review

• Vahid Yazdi-Feyzabadi 1 ,
• Atefeh Zolfagharnasab 2 ,
• Soheila Naghavi 3 ,
• Anahita Behzadi 1 ,
• Maysam Yousefi 4 &
• Mohammad Bazyar   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2543-1862 5  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  2242 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Metrics details

Economic sanctions are defined as restrictions imposed by other countries against individuals, groups, or governments of other countries. These sanctions have a detrimental impact on the economies of countries and can also limit access to healthcare services for people as a secondary consequence. This study aims to systematically review the literature to examine the direct and indirect effects of economic sanctions on health through a narrative synthesis.

This systematic literature review was limited to papers published between January 1990 and July 2023. Relevant documents published in English and Persian were searched for in databases including Cochrane Library, PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, SID, Magiran, and Irandoc. The direct and indirect effects of sanctions on health were classified using two frameworks proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO): the Health System Building Blocks and “Social Determinants of Health”.

Out of a total of 18,219 articles, 59 were selected based on inclusion criteria. The effects of sanctions were divided into direct and indirect groups. Direct effects encompassed seven main themes: access to essential medicine, medical products, vaccines and technologies; financing; health workforce; service delivery; research and health information systems; health outcomes; and financial risk protection. Indirect effects also were classified into six main themes: socioeconomic status; food and agricultural products; stress; early life conditions; high-risk behaviors and addiction; and transport. Most studies focused on the access to medicines, food, economic and social status.

Conclusions

Economic sanctions have had profoundly negative impacts on all aspects of the healthcare system. The international community must address these effects on health and take necessary measures to prevent or mitigate them, particularly in ensuring the provision of basic and essential healthcare needs for individuals and communities.

Peer Review reports

Sanctions are purposeful and determined restrictions imposed by one or more countries against another individual, group or countries’ government. Sanctions are usually imposed by international organizations as a pressure tool for responding to the course of actions of any country that opposes them [ 1 ].

Economic sanctions are the most common type of these restrictions. The two main types of these sanctions are trade and financial restrictions. Trade sanctions restrict imports to and exports from the countries under sanctions while financial sanctions are closely related to economic ones, but their focus is on banning the money flows and financial resources into or out of the country. These sanctions can include blocking government assets, restricting access to financial markets, loans and credits limitations, restricting international financial exchange, and also sales and trade abroad [ 2 ].

Economic sanctions reduce people’s access to basic necessities of life by debilitating the economic situation, decreasing welfare and weakening the functions of the target country’s social systems. One of the most important areas affected through these boycotts is health. Due to the expansion of health scope, these limitations affect different parts of health system itself and as a result endanger people’s life [ 3 , 4 ].

Studies in various countries, including Iran, Iraq, Cuba, Yugoslavia and Haiti, discussed the effects of sanctions on health. In Haiti, economic sanctions have reduced incomes, increased unemployment and poverty along with mortality by 1 to 4 years, and destroyed families [ 5 ]. In Iran, especially in healthcare area, sanctions have resulted in increasing the cost of essential procedures and drugs such as diagnostic procedures for cancers and chemotherapy drugs. The difficulties in getting required licenses for financial transactions and transportation insurance due to sanctions has left the country with a shortage of drugs and health equipment [ 6 ].

Sanctions have devastating effects on the health of vulnerable patients or health systems customers too. Patients who are suffering from diseases such as asthma, thalassemia, hemophilia, chronic diseases, blood disorders, multiple sclerosis and HIV/AIDS have limited access to drugs [ 7 ]. While comparing, in developed countries mortality rates decreased using appropriate drugs [ 8 , 9 ].

Different countries may use broad policies to prevent or adjust the negative effects of economic problems on health systems, although these policies may not be successful in ensuring continued access to health services [ 10 , 11 ].

Although sanctions may be designed for excluding medical products from the list, they can still have an inevitable impact on access to health services. Thus, the imposition of economic sanctions can threaten public health directly [ 12 ].

Furthermore, economic sanctions suppress the health indirectly by adversely impacting on other related parts known as social determinants of health (SDH) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Economic sanctions impact all aspects of the social determinants of health (SDH) framework, leading to negative effects on health equity and well-being. Sanctions can alter social and political systems, such as governance, labor markets, education, trade, housing, and redistributive policies, influencing people’s health. Structural determinants like income, education, and occupation are affected by sanctions, changing health opportunities and status, especially for the economically disadvantaged. Intermediary determinants, including material and psychosocial circumstances, are also influenced negatively by sanctions. For instance, housing quality declines post-sanctions due to increased costs of land and materials, while food consumption patterns shift towards cheaper, less nutritious options. Sanctions create psychosocial stressors like job insecurity and uncertainty, leading to frustration and stress [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ].

Continued sanctions may hinder countries’ progress towards achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG-3 for healthy lives and well-being. Economic stability is crucial for meeting health-related SDGs, and any failures in this regard would disproportionately impact citizens in targeted countries. In the context of developing countries, where progress toward SDGs is often hindered by limited resources and systemic disparities, the impact of economic sanctions on health systems and overall well-being is profound. SDGs, with their emphasis on health (Goal 3) and the overarching aim of leaving no one behind, seek to address disparities and ensure equitable access to healthcare services. Economic sanctions, however, disrupt this delicate balance, exacerbating existing inequalities and impeding the ability of nations to meet the health-related targets outlined in the SDGs [ 13 ].

Given that, the effects of sanctions depend on the situation of countries and vary from one to another, there is no complete evidence of a comprehensive impact of sanctions on different part of society’s system especially in health despite of its importance. To comprehensively address these issues, a rigorous examination of evidence through narrative systematic reviews becomes imperative. This study aims to provide a detailed narrative synthesis of the direct and indirect effects of economic sanctions on health system building blocks and public health focusing on social determinants of health, thereby contributing to a better understanding of the broader consequences of such measures.

The following steps were taken to review literature systematically [ 17 , 18 ].

Research question

The main question that we wanted to answer in this study was to investigate and categorize the effects that economic sanctions impose on health directly and indirectly.

Search strategy and identifying literature

This systematic review was carried out according to the latest version of PRISMA guidelines [ 19 , 20 ]. For the purposes of the study, following databases were searched by one of the authors experienced in systematic research: Cochrane Library, PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, SID, Magiran, Irandoc. The search strategy (see Additional file 1 for an example) was first devised for use in PubMed and subsequently adapted for the other databases. The search was limited to papers published between January 1990 and July 2023 and to studies involving economic sanctions independently as a hard power exercise. Other hard power exercises to achieve foreign policy goals such as war and conflicts were excluded. We selected the appropriate keywords from studying similar studies, discussion among research team and intended frameworks for extracting the data. The search term “sanctions” and “public health” were used for PubMed; terms associated with “economic sanctions” and “public health” were used for the title or abstract in the other databases if required (MeSH term; major focus and/or exploded depending on the database). In brief the following terms were searched using Boolean operators: sanction, embargo, health, human resource, medical instrument, medicine, pharmaceutics, disease, mortality, medical equipment, medical devices, drug, health care, Taskforce, health personnel, health workers, morbidity, illness, and food.

Screening and article selection criteria

Duplicate results were removed after searching the databases using Endnote software version X8. After removing the duplications, a screening of publications, based on titles and abstracts was performed by two researchers independently. In second screening, then, the suspected documents were re-examined by a third person from the research team to decide whether to enter or not.

As the final step of screening, the full texts of the remaining publications were independently assessed for inclusion by pairs of reviewers once more and any potential disagreements were resolved through consensus and if necessary by the third opinion from the research team.

The articles not meeting the below criteria were excluded:

Articles published in languages other than English and Persian.

Articles available in preprint servers.

Articles did not match the question and objectives of the research like those related to the effects of wars and conflict on health.

Conference abstracts, books, reports and dissertations.

Records not in line with the quantitative, qualitative and mixed-method original articles including letter to Editor, commentary, opinion/viewpoint/perspective.

Articles published before 1990.

After reaching the final list of studies to be reviewed thoroughly, we supplemented our database search by screening bibliographic of chosen articles to identify any additional relevant publications. The bibliographic of other relevant systematic articles were also searched actively for retrieving other missing articles.

Data extraction

After finalizing the final list of articles, the full text of the selected articles were studied precisely and required information was extracted. In order to capture the maximum available evidence regarding the effects of economic sanctions, no quality assessment was employed in our systematic literature review. This approach allowed us to include a wide range of studies, regardless of their methodological quality, thus providing a comprehensive overview of the existing literature. This method is consistent with approaches used in narrative synthesis where the primary aim is to summarize broad evidence on a topic rather than critically appraise each study’s quality. The extracted information was divided into two sections. The first one, consisting the bibliographic information included the title of article, the year of publication, the first author, and the title of the journal and the second section reports the frequency of articles according to the main topics addressed in their results.

Data analysis and presenting results

For identifying key concepts and main themes, each of selected articles studied carefully. After completing the data extraction table, the researchers shared the concepts with other members of the research team, and agreement was reached. As many other factors outside the borders of health system affects the health, generally known as social determinants of health (SDH), we applied two common popular frameworks to categorize the direct and indirect effects impacts of sanctions on health system and public health. To address the direct impact of sanctions on health, Health System Building Blocks framework proposed by World Health Organization (WHO) was proposed which consists of six key components including “service delivery”, “health workforce”, “health information systems”, “access to essential medicines”, “financing” and “government/ leadership”. This framework also covers intermediate (e.g. access, coverage, quality and safety) and four final goals including Improved health (level and equity), Responsiveness, Social and financial risk protection, and Improved efficiency [ 21 , 22 ].

To cover other effects of sanctions occurring in other sections beyond the health system but affecting health indirectly, the approach of “Social Determinants of Health” was applied which comprises of the following 10 elements, “The social gradient”, “Stress”, “Early life conditions”, “Social exclusion”, “Work”, “Unemployment”, “Social support”, “Addiction”, “Food”, and “Transport“ [ 23 ].

Search process

A total number of 18,219 articles were identified, which after removing the overlaps, 12,838 articles remained. Following the initial review of the title and abstract of all retrieved articles, a further 12,439 articles were excluded. Out of 399 records, the full text of 390 articles were retrieved and evaluated for eligibility.

After a final review, 331 articles were excluded due to not intended study design or not addressing the question and aims of the current research. Finally 59 research articles were included in the study (Fig.  1 ). A summary of included studies’ features is reported in Table  1 .

The PRISMA algorithm of study selection process

Study features

The study information collected from 11 countries which included Iran, Iraq, Cuba, Syria, Haiti, Yugoslavia, Lebanon, Serbia, Nicaragua, Sri Lanka, Russia and South Africa. Iraq [ 4 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 ] and Iran [ 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 ] had the maximum number of studies. Most of the studies were descriptive or analytical. Four were qualitative and also three studies were designed as a mix-method. The share of different regions from economic sanctions studies is shown in Fig.  2 .

The different regions share of economic sanctions studies

Study areas

Included studies have examined the impact of sanctions in various areas. The amount of available and accessible information about the effect of sanctions varied from one area to another. Most studies addressed the impact of economic sanctions on access to medicine or food and also socioeconomic status.

Almost half of studies mentioned the effect of sanctions on access to drugs, these studies covered approximately all countries targeted by sanctions. More than a quarter, discussed the socioeconomic situation. Food access and malnutrition were also explained in about another quarter of the articles. According to studies, the vulnerable groups which affected most by sanctions were the poor, patients, women and children. The proportion of different parts of health system and different social health determinants affected by economic sanctions is reported in Table  2 ; Fig.  3 .

The proportion of different parts of health system and social determinants of health mentioned in retrieved studies which are affected by economic sanctions

The Table  2 provides an overview of the frequency of direct and indirect effects of sanctions on health, based on findings from 59 selected articles. The data is categorized into direct effects on the health system and indirect effects on population/public health, highlighting both the immediate and broader consequences of sanctions. The most frequently mentioned direct effect was the impact on access to essential medicine, medical products, vaccines, and technologies, with 22 documents, accounting for 37.3% of the papers. On the other hand, the most frequently cited indirect effect was on the socioeconomic situation, mentioned in 9 documents (15.2%).

Themes and sub-themes

The effects of sanctions on health were categorized into two broad direct and indirect groups. Following the WHO’ Health System Building Blocks, direct effects include 7 main themes as followed: access to essential medicine, medical products, vaccines and technologies; financing; health workforce; service delivery; research and health information systems; health outcomes; and financial risk protection (Table  3 ). Indirect effects also were summarized in 6 main themes consisting: socioeconomic status; food and agricultural products; stress; early life conditions; high-risk behaviors and addiction; and transportation (Table  4 ).

Direct effects

Access to medicines, medical products, vaccines, and technologies.

Access to medicine is one of the main goals of health systems. Numerous studies have been reported on drug shortages and public concerns about patients’ difficulties for getting their essential’s [ 46 ]. The findings related to access to medicine were divided further into three sub-themes: reduced access to imported raw materials, decreased access to imported or foreign drugs, and increased drug prices.

There are some findings indicated that sanctions prevent the import of essential medical supplies [ 29 , 36 , 44 , 47 , 48 ]. Therefore, the manufacture of local drugs is affected and access to them is reduced.

For example, Iran experienced a significant decrease in access to asthma drugs which produced locally in Iran, because of local producers relied on imported raw materials [ 36 ]. In Yugoslavia, as a result of imposing restrictions on pharmaceutical industry, the available essential drugs decreased by more than 50% [ 47 ]. Syria also faced a shortage of raw materials for producing domestic drugs for heart disease, cancer and diabetes [ 48 ]. In a similar way, in Iraq, the provision of laboratory services reduced because of raw chemicals shortage [ 29 ].

Limited access to imported drugs was another direct effect [ 49 ]. The shortage of essential medicines in countries suffering from sanctions was a main concern and access to such medicines including chemotherapy, chronically illness treatments, psychiatric services, MS and antiepileptic drugs was limited considerably [ 29 , 31 , 36 , 37 , 40 , 42 , 44 , 47 , 50 ]. Access to hemophilia and thalassemia drugs was severely affected too [ 39 ]. Problems caused by economic sanctions also affected the pharmaceutical market which as a result, lead to an sharp increase in the prices [ 5 , 42 , 51 ].

Studies showed that economic sanctions reduced the import of and access to medical equipment to great extent [ 3 , 24 , 29 , 52 ]. In Cuba, the number of X-rays decreased by 75% [ 3 ]. Many American companies refused to sell drugs or medical equipment assigned for Nicaragua. Severe shortage of medical products in health system became apparent in 1985 and worsened in 1986 [ 24 ].

Also, studies revealed that economic sanctions have reduced access to vaccines and caused less immunization against infectious diseases [ 25 , 53 ].

In case of Cuba, the country’s ability to produce chlorine decreased and the number of populations with no access to safe drinking water increased, therefore population covered by chlorine water systems decreased from 98% in 1988 to 26% in 1994 [ 3 ].

Health financing

Health financing counts as essential ability of health systems to maintain and improve the community well-being. The economic crisis is affecting the financial capacity of health care system and has hampered the financial support for providing health services [ 52 , 54 ]. During the economic sanctions, budget constraints also prevented some health care programs from being fully implemented [ 31 ].

Health workforce

A study done in Iraq showed that economic sanctions resulted in widespread expulsions of health care professionals, while many of them were belong to foreign nationals. Also, physicians had to do a lot of extra work, along with increasing pressures which caused them.

leave their jobs behind [ 29 , 31 ].

Health services delivery

The imposition of economic sanctions, resulted in labor shortages, limited access to medical equipment, affecting the process of providing health services and made it worse. This imposed much more pressure on the ability of health system as whole particularly during crises like the COVID-19 pandemic [ 55 ]. Meanwhile various studies showed a reduction in quantity and quality of provided services too [ 5 , 29 , 31 , 52 , 56 , 57 ]. A study in Iran showed that due to economic sanctions, from 18 brachytherapy centers in 2018, only two centers were usable since 2015 and also the gap between Iran’s available facilities for radiation therapy and international standards deepened [ 58 ]. According to the Program of Action for Cancer Therapy, sanctions have disrupted Iran’s National Cancer Control Program (NCCP) as they have influenced all phases of treatment from prevention, to diagnosis/treatment, palliative care, monitoring, and also technology and drug availability [ 59 ].

Research and health information systems

The effects of economic sanctions on research and health information systems were divided into three sub-themes: reduced access to scientific resources and virtual sites, disruption of international interactions and conferences, and restricted research activities. Sanctions also limited access to scientific magazines and books [ 29 , 52 ]. Specialists were unable to get visas and travel abroad to attend international conferences, which reduced scientific exchanges [ 52 ].

The severe financial pressure of sanctions intensified restrictions of scientific travels and communications with the outside world led to a lack of access to educational materials and global medical advances [ 31 ].

Economic sanctions also had negative effects on both research and science production activities, including smaller scientific communication, difficulties in research processes, and consequently, decline in the quality along with quantity of research and science development activities [ 14 , 45 , 60 ].

Health outcomes and financing risk protection

International evidence about the UN sanctions indicates that they reduces life expectancy by about 1.2–1.4 years on average. It was also shown that this reduction is much more severe in vulnerable groups of society like women. This lower life expectancy in the studied countries occurred to great extent due to higher child mortality and Cholera deaths and also spending less amount of public budget on health care [ 61 , 62 ]. Studies from Iran show that multiple sclerosis patients faced higher out-of-pocket payments, catastrophic health expenditures and the poverty index [ 63 ]. Similarly, studies from other countries show higher mortality rate from infectious diseases and more difficulties for optic and neuropathic patients [ 64 , 65 ]. Physical rehabilitation experts in Iran also concern about high price that people with physical problems have to pay for prostheses which in turn have negative consequences for practitioners themselves [ 66 ].

Indirect effects

The effects of economic sanctions are not targeted and they also influence sectors other than health which can affect general health indirectly. These effects can be categorized under a general concept as social determinants of health (SDH). The main SDHs extracted from the retrieved studies are as follows:

Economic and social status

The main target of economic sanctions is the economy and money flows of countries which had negative consequences for countries’ economy themselves and other related areas [ 67 ]. The indirect outcomes in the area of Economic and Social Status were categorized into 6 sub-themes including: rising unemployment, decreasing income, declining welfare, increasing poverty, trade barriers, rising prices and decreasing purchasing power.

Majority of studies in Iran, Iraq, Cuba, Haiti, Syria, South Africa addressed the effects of sanctions on the socioeconomic situation [ 4 , 5 , 29 , 44 , 47 , 48 , 52 , 68 ]. These sanctions banned and reduced the exports of products which in turn caused unemployment among those who relied on importing such products to make money. Unemployment rose sharply in Haiti with the cessation of mango exports, on which many poor people depended [ 47 ]. Also, in this country some of factories such as clothing, sports and assembly, reduced the number of workers, which was accompanied by rising the rate of job loss [ 5 ].

Continuing this situation, economic problems became more and more prevalent. In Haiti, many people lost their main source of income [ 5 ]. In Iraq, wage fell and there was hardly enough to buy the necessities of daily life [ 29 ]. A review of studies during this period revealed that the reason of increasing social problems and the disintegration of many family structures was the fall in incomes [ 5 , 44 ].

On the other hand, poverty increased as soon as economic problems intensified. Some of the middle classes’ families were forced to sell their houses and apartments [ 29 ]. Also, school enrollment declined due to the poverty [ 5 ].

Another important effect was trade barriers so that reduced the rate of investment and the number of foreign companies. The number of active American companies in South Africa fell from 267 in 1986 to 104 in 1991 [ 47 ]. Loss of markets, credits, and favorable trade conditions, devaluation of the national currency against the US dollar, the oil exports stoppage, alongside the reduction of basic goods imports were among the other effects [ 29 , 47 , 48 ]. On the other hand, prices increased while purchasing power decreased [ 4 , 5 , 48 , 52 ].

Food and agriculture

Numerous studies in Iran, Cuba, Iraq, and Haiti have shown that economic sanctions reduced food imports while increased their prices, and restricted proper diet 41) [ 3 , 5 , 24 , 29 , 47 ]. In Cuba, food imports decreased by almost 50% from 1989 to 1993 as a result of falling rate of imports while shifting to low-quality protein products which posed serious threats on population’s health. In Haiti, staple food prices increased fivefold from 1991 to 1993 [ 47 ]. Likewise, the prices of all food groups increased significantly in Iran in 2018 due to the limitations in international financial exchanges, right after the re-imposition of sanctions. The price increase was higher in vegetable, meat, and fruit groups which made it nearly impossible to follow a healthy diet [ 69 ].

Prices of basic commodities such as wheat, rice and sugar rose in Iraq, too [ 29 ]. On the other hand, the lack of foods containing B vitamins group in Cuba led to the epidemic of neuropathy [ 47 ]. Poor nutrition among pregnant women in Iraq increased anemia [ 24 ]. Meal and per capita protein intake decreased [ 3 , 5 ]. At the same time malnutrition also increased during restrictions [ 5 , 35 , 47 , 70 ] and furthermore caused reduction in crop production and agricultural support [ 5 , 71 ]. Other studies also revealed that availability and stability were the most affected dimensions of food security following imposing economic sanctions [ 72 ]. A study about the impact of the UN and US economic sanctions on the environment in Iran found that while these sanctions initially improved Iran’s environment in the short term, they had long-term damaging effects [ 73 ].

Economic sanctions exacerbate stressful conditions. According to studies, increased fear and uncertainty, and increased mental health problems are among the negative effects of sanctions in this category [ 5 , 31 , 48 , 53 , 74 ].

Early life conditions

A good start in life means supporting mothers and young children. A study found the exposure to adverse economic conditions in infancy and early childhood was effective in long-term negative health outcomes [ 75 ].

High-risk and addictive behaviors

People turning to high-risk behaviors and addiction along with their consumption patterns can be affected and intensified by economic and social conditions. According to the findings, the effects of economic sanctions in case of risky and addictive behavior were categorized into two sub-groups consist of increasing high-risk behaviors and addiction.

As evidences revealed, economic sanctions increased suicide and violence. Studies shown that the rate of deaths caused by violence and suicides have increased in Yugoslavia and Cuba during limitation periods [ 3 , 47 ]. In Haiti, charges against children, criminal conspiracy, robbery, and drug use were much more serious [ 5 ] and this happened along with another important result which was changing in drug use patterns and increased drug abuse problems.

The common use of syringes for drug injection has increased, posing a risk to abusers. Due to economic problems, people entered mass drug distribution networks and drug trafficking to make money; tried steal or other illegal ways to earn money for buying or supplying drugs. Rising drug prices have led to the neglect family economic basket and reduced attention to the factors such as education and health care, which have resulted in low quality of life for consumers and their families [ 41 ].

According to the studies, economic sanctions in different countries affected communities’ health in different ways. Economic sanctions are supposed to force a country’s government to reconsider its policies by putting and imposing economic pressure. Although they should not target humanitarian goods, studies in various countries have revealed their direct and indirect effects on community’s health and threats for people’s right to health. The most important effects were found in the access to medicine and change in socio-economic conditions, while ensuring access to medicines for people who needed them, is one of the most emphasized goals of health systems all around the world [ 76 ]. Clearly economic sanctions suppress economic growth of the targeted countries in different ways and the lower economic situation can influence all aspects of the whole community and people’ life including their health status directly and indirectly. The World Bank data confirm that sanctions reduced Iran’s economic growth by 38% within three years, as GDP per capita dropped from US$ 7833 in 2012 to US$ 4862 in 2015. Moreover, unemployment increased from 10.4% in 2013 to 13.1% in 2017, and the economic inequality in household expenditure, measured by Gini coefficient, increased from 37 to 41%, since 2012, due to economic sanction. Clearly this economic inequality can lead to health inequity in population [ 77 ]. When the economic situation worsens in general, the financial capacity of health system and also the financial power of people will be affected. Evidence from different studies proved that the general budget of health decreased and out-of-pocket payments increased especially for those patients who depend on foreign and imported drugs [ 54 , 63 ].

In the present study, surveys in different countries showed that economic sanctions through devaluing the national currency, affected access to health goods and services, including drugs and medical equipment. Countries depending on drug technology, requiring the imported raw materials, experienced a severe restriction for accessing to medicine and drugs. On the other hand, these limitations caused a sudden increase or inflation in the prices of medicine and equipment. This effect would be worse for people who suffer from chronic diseases and are unable to purchase or use health care services [ 16 ]. For example, sanctions in 2011 caused a 14 times increase in the price of formula in Iran for infants suffering from food allergies. Besides that, uncertainty about the availability of drugs following sanctions also changes the behavior of people as the stored formula for infants not needing a specific formula which was enough for 2 months was distributed only within 4 days in September, 2018 [ 78 ].

This is while the economic sanctions reducing the power of supporting health services by limiting budgets and funds. Health financing is essential for the ability of health systems to maintain and improve human health through keeping them capable to fund and provide health services. Without the necessary funding, no health workers will be hired, no medication will be available, and as the same way, no health promotion or prevention will take place [ 23 ]. As a result, considering the negative impact of sanctions, the financing system faces serious problems in three main functions of resource collection, pooling, and purchasing. The ability of countries to achieve health system’s goals largely depends on the knowledge, skills, motivation and deployment of individuals to organize and provide health services [ 23 ]. Numerous studies showed evidence of a direct relationship between health human resource and population outcomes [ 79 , 80 ].

Sanctions made it impossible to strengthen service delivery for achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) related to health by reducing the rate of occupied health workforce and forcing them to migrate. Studies assessed the impact of economic crises shown that these restrictions affected the health sector by increasing public vulnerability as same as the inability to meet public needs and expectations due to limited resources [ 81 , 82 , 83 ]. The findings from Iran show that sanctions can influence health care delivery adversely during health pandemics like COVID-19 disease in various direct and indirect ways [ 55 ]. Therefore, if sanctions continue, the reduction of inputs will hinder the improvement of service delivery and access to them. On the other hand, they disrupt access to health services even though with minimum quality standards.

About the research, sanctions limited and disqualified research activities by banning the access to most scientific and valid resources and disrupting international interactions and conferences. The small and isolated scientific communication has slowed down the health promotion progresses and limited the access to standards and protocols for promoting public health based on scientific evidence [ 31 , 45 ].

At the same time, economic sanctions affected on social determinants of health in various dimensions. Loss of markets, credits and favorable trading conditions reduces the value of the national currency and the ability to import goods. While, the cost of basic goods is strongly affected and prices increased [ 47 , 48 ]. Thus, sanctions forced severe negative effects on people’s health status by reduction of income, welfare, along with increasing unemployment and poverty [ 5 , 29 , 84 ]. This negative impact is more evident on the poor. These people cannot access or buy high or even sometimes low quality health care services.

Another effect of sanctions is reducing access to the food. Sanctions will restrict access to enough food for countries which import their agricultural products. Countries producing their own food products have better resilience. Limitation on access to basic material and food, as well as the economic pressures and declining incomes, affect the pattern of food consumption. Increasing the price of all kinds of food, turning to poor quality and unhealthy foods, as well as buying cheaper, low-nutrient ones, exacerbate malnutrition and make following a healthy diet impossible [ 69 , 70 , 85 ]. It should be noted that imposing sanctions are not always bad and sometimes they force countries to redesign their internal processes. The experience of Russian shows that although sanctions adversely influence agriculture to some extent but instead they played as the new momentum and help its dairy and milk sector to devise positive changes and increase the volume of inter-regional trade in milk and dairy products [ 86 ].

From a psychological point of view, the poor and fragile economic situation reduces the value of assets as same as the loss of purchasing power, which leads to increased frustration and stress in people. Frustration and despair cause and exacerbate various diseases [ 87 ]. Stressful situations also make people feel anxious, worried and unable to cope with. Psychosocial risks accumulate throughout life and increase the likelihood of poor mental health and premature death [ 23 ]. Findings from Iran proved that sanctions also affect mental health adversely. According to the WHO’ data, sanctions led to an increase in death due to self-harm and interpersonal violence in Iran (from 5.9 to 6.1 and from an average of 2.0 to 2.7 per 100,000 persons respectively) during the 2011–2014 period. Interestingly the self-harm related death reduced again in 2016, a year after lifting the sanctions [ 77 ].

Risky behaviors and addiction are taking as new behaviors patterns as a result of economic hardships and raised prices. Drug abuse has devastating effects on human health, while increase the rates of crime and mortality [ 88 ]. The highest incidence rate of HIV is among drug abusers and their sexual partners [ 89 ]. Thus, sanctions intensify these behaviors and patterns with a growing trend, which counts as a great threat to society and especially health system. A review of literature provides many evidence of sanctions effects on health while evidence was provided for most affected areas.

Many studies looked at the effects on access to medicines and medical equipment, research and health information systems, the socioeconomic situation, food and agriculture, and provided a clear picture of consequences. Although some others, focused on one specific area, the others discussed about the issues such as government or leadership, early life conditions, social isolation, social support, transportation which were less in number with no complete and clear evidence that needs further investigation. The most studies in our review examined the effects of sanctions using data and their analysis, or the pre- and post-sanctions situation. Therefore, according to our methodology and included studies, the extracted evidence is very valuable and reliable.

Understanding the impact of economic sanctions on health systems and social determinants of health is crucial for policymakers, highlighting the importance of collaborative global health governance. To address these challenges, a comprehensive approach is needed to minimize harm to vulnerable populations and promote a more equitable and resilient global health environment. Policymakers must reevaluate the effectiveness and unintended consequences of sanctions on health systems, prioritizing humanitarian concerns and ensuring that public health is not disproportionately affected. It is essential to explore alternative diplomatic strategies that allow for humanitarian exemptions within sanctions to guarantee the continued access to essential medical supplies for affected populations. Global health diplomacy should be leveraged to advocate for the removal or modification of sanctions hindering progress towards health-related Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Dialogue and negotiation should be prioritized to address underlying tensions while safeguarding the health and well-being of impacted communities. Establishing robust monitoring systems to track the impact of sanctions on health outcomes and social determinants is crucial. Strengthening multilateral collaborations and partnerships to address the health effects of sanctions is imperative, with international organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations (UN) playing a pivotal role in promoting global cooperation and finding solutions.

Strengths and limitations of the study

One of our limitations was the lack of access to the full text of some articles due to their publication time. Other studies may have been published in other languages about sanctions are excluded because of inclusion criteria. Other limitations may include losing articles about the impact of sanctions on various aspects of the health system that have lost their chance to be published due to political reasons.

Although the present study examined the impact of sanctions on the health system based on the Health System Building Blocks framework of the World Health Organization and using the approach of European SDH, it seems that in some areas the effects are not clear and further studies need to be done. However, given that the impact of sanctions varies from one country to another, the study has provided comprehensive evidence of the impacts along with consequences on health. The present evidence provides guide and helps with the adoption of international policies considering the goals of the WHO and the promotion of peace all around the world.

The results showed that economic sanctions imposed on different countries, directly and indirectly have strong negative impacts on health. Escalation of sanctions will be a severe threat and barrier for achieving the goal of global health coverage for everyone and everywhere. The international communities must work and focus on reducing the negative effects of these restrictions. They must anticipate the human effects and use whatever means are needed to prevent them. Some of these negative effects like disability and death, are irreversible. Therefore, it seems better for decision makers to recommend an international prescriptive to prevent such irreparable effects on the population of target countries before imposing sanctions.

Data availability

All data generated during the current study would be available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Social Determinants of Health

Sustainable Development Goals

World Health Organization

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Acknowledgements

We are thankful to Kerman University of medical Sciences for preparing the required fund to do the study.

This study was supported financially by Institute for Futures Studies in Health, affiliated with Vice-Chancellery for Research and Technology of Kerman University of Medical Sciences.

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Vahid Yazdi-Feyzabadi & Anahita Behzadi

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Atefeh Zolfagharnasab

Soheila Naghavi

Research Center of Tropical and Infectious Diseases, Kerman University of medical sciences, Kerman, Iran

Maysam Yousefi

Faculty of Health, Health Management and Economics Department, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam City, Iran

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VYF proposed the topic, VYF and MB designed the study; AZ did the search strategy and identified articles. MB and SN screened the articles and extracted and classified the data; AB and MY supervised and contributed in classifications of findings. VYF and AB supervised the whole process of study from literature review to data extraction. MB and AB prepared and finalized the manuscript. All authors read and approved the manuscript for submission.

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Yazdi-Feyzabadi, V., Zolfagharnasab, A., Naghavi, S. et al. Direct and indirect effects of economic sanctions on health: a systematic narrative literature review. BMC Public Health 24 , 2242 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19750-w

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Received : 22 February 2024

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Published : 17 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19750-w

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