small essay on domestic violence

Essay On Domestic Violence

500 words essay on domestic violence.

Domestic violence refers to the violence and abuse which happens in a domestic setting like cohabitation or marriage. It is important to remember that domestic violence is not just physical but any kind of behaviour that tries to gain power and control over the victim. It can affect people from all walks of life and it basically subjects towards a partner, spouse or intimate family member. Through an essay on domestic violence, we will go through its causes and effects.

Causes of Domestic Violence

Often women and children are the soft targets of domestic violence. Domestic violence is a gruesome crime that also causes a number of deaths. Some of the most common causes of domestic violence are illiteracy and economical dependency on the menfolk.

The male-dominated society plays an important role in this problem. Further, dowry is also one of the leading causes which have the consequence of violence against newly-wed brides. In many parts of the world, physically assaulting women and passing horrendous remarks is common.

Moreover, children also become victims of this inhuman behaviour more than often. It is important to recognize the double standards and hypocrisy of society. A lot of the times, the abuser is either psychotic or requires psychological counselling.

However, in a more general term, domestic violence is the outcome of cumulative irresponsible behaviour which a section of society demonstrates. It is also important to note that solely the abuser is not just responsible but also those who allow this to happen and act as mere mute spectators.

Types of Domestic Violence

Domestic violence has many ill-effects which depend on the kind of domestic violence happening. It ranges from being physical to emotional and sexual to economic. A physical abuser uses physical force which injures the victim or endangers their life.

It includes hitting, punching, choking, slapping, and other kinds of violence. Moreover, the abuser also denies the victim medical care. Further, there is emotional abuse in which the person threatens and intimidates the victim. It also includes undermining their self-worth.

It includes threatening them with harm or public humiliation. Similarly, constant name-calling and criticism also count as emotional abuse. After that, we have sexual abuse in which the perpetrator uses force for unwanted sexual activity.

If your partner does not consent to it, it is forced which makes it sexual abuse. Finally, we have economic abuse where the abuser controls the victim’s money and their economic resources.

They do this to exert control on them and make them dependent solely on them. If your partner has to beg you for money, then it counts as economic abuse. This damages the self-esteem of the victim.

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Conclusion of the Essay on Domestic Violence

To conclude, domestic violence has many forms which include physical aggression like kicking and biting and it can also be sexual or emotional. It is essential to recognize the signs of domestic violence and report the abuser if it is happening around you or to you.

FAQ of Essay on Domestic Violence

Question 1: Why is domestic violence an issue?

Answer 1: Domestic violence has a major impact on the general health and wellbeing of individuals. It is because it causes physical injury, anxiety, depression. Moreover, it also impairs social skills and increases the likelihood that they will participate in practices harmful to their health, like self-harm or substance abuse.

Question 2: How does domestic violence affect a woman?

Answer 2: Domestic violence affects women in terms of ill health. It causes serious consequences on their mental and physical health which includes reproductive and sexual health. It also includes injuries, gynaecological problems, depression, suicide and more.

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100 Domestic Violence Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Domestic violence is a pervasive issue that affects individuals and families across the globe. Whether it is physical, emotional, psychological, or financial abuse, the impact of domestic violence can be devastating and long-lasting. As a result, it is essential for society to address this issue head-on and work towards creating a safer and more equitable world for all.

If you are tasked with writing an essay on domestic violence, you may find yourself struggling to come up with a compelling topic. To help you get started, here are 100 domestic violence essay topic ideas and examples:

The impact of domestic violence on children's mental health

The role of law enforcement in addressing domestic violence

Cultural factors that contribute to domestic violence

The link between substance abuse and domestic violence

The prevalence of domestic violence in LGBTQ+ relationships

The long-term effects of domestic violence on survivors

How domestic violence affects workplace productivity

The role of social media in perpetuating domestic violence

The intersection of race and domestic violence

How to support a friend or family member experiencing domestic violence

The importance of trauma-informed care for domestic violence survivors

The impact of domestic violence on economic stability

The role of education in preventing domestic violence

How religious beliefs can influence attitudes towards domestic violence

The portrayal of domestic violence in popular media

The effectiveness of restraining orders in preventing domestic violence

The connection between childhood trauma and future domestic violence perpetration

The role of bystanders in preventing domestic violence

The challenges faced by male victims of domestic violence

The impact of domestic violence on healthcare systems

The role of shelters and support services in assisting domestic violence survivors

The prevalence of domestic violence in rural communities

The impact of domestic violence on immigrant populations

How domestic violence affects pregnancy and childbirth

The role of technology in perpetuating domestic violence

The impact of domestic violence on the LGBTQ+ community

The role of schools in preventing domestic violence

The connection between domestic violence and animal abuse

The impact of domestic violence on the mental health of survivors

The effectiveness of therapy in treating survivors of domestic violence

The role of social support in helping survivors of domestic violence

The connection between poverty and domestic violence

The impact of domestic violence on the workplace

The role of substance abuse in domestic violence perpetration

The importance of bystander intervention in preventing domestic violence

The impact of domestic violence on children's academic performance

The connection between domestic violence and homelessness

The role of the legal system in addressing domestic violence

The impact of domestic violence on intimate partner relationships

The connection between childhood trauma and future domestic violence victimization

The effectiveness of counseling in treating survivors of domestic violence

The role of faith-based organizations in preventing domestic violence

The connection between domestic violence and mental health disorders

The role of the media in shaping attitudes towards domestic violence

The impact of domestic violence on the criminal justice system

The connection between domestic violence and human trafficking

The role of technology in helping survivors of domestic violence

The effectiveness of prevention programs in reducing domestic violence

The impact of domestic violence on children's emotional development

The connection between domestic violence and child abuse

The role of healthcare providers in identifying and treating survivors of domestic violence

The impact of domestic violence on the economic well-being of survivors

The connection between domestic violence and self-harm

The role of advocacy organizations in supporting survivors of domestic violence

The effectiveness of mandatory reporting laws in preventing domestic violence

The connection between domestic violence and substance abuse

The role of family dynamics in perpetuating domestic violence

The impact of domestic violence on the mental health of perpetrators

The connection between domestic violence and child custody disputes

The role of peer support in helping survivors of domestic violence

The effectiveness of community-based interventions in preventing domestic violence

The impact of domestic violence on the healthcare system

The connection between domestic violence and reproductive health

The role of employers in supporting employees experiencing domestic violence

The connection between domestic violence and sexual assault

The role of technology in documenting and reporting domestic violence

The effectiveness of restorative justice approaches in addressing domestic violence

The connection between domestic violence and stalking

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Essay on Domestic Violence

Introduction to Domestic Violence

Domestic violence, a prevalent and multifaceted problem, involves a recurring pattern of abusive behavior by one partner in an intimate relationship aimed at gaining and asserting power and control over the other. This form of violence transcends boundaries of age, race, gender, and socio-economic status, affecting individuals worldwide. For example, consider a scenario where a woman, Sarah, endures years of emotional and physical abuse from her husband, leaving her isolated and fearful. Such instances underscore the urgent need to address this societal ill. This essay delves into the various facets of domestic violence, including its types, causes, effects, and preventive measures, aiming to raise awareness and promote action against this deeply entrenched problem.

Importance of addressing domestic violence

Addressing domestic violence is of utmost importance, as it has wide-ranging impacts on individuals, families, communities, and society as a whole. Here are detailed points highlighting its significance:

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Human Rights Violation: Domestic violence is a blatant violation of human rights , depriving individuals of their right to safety, security, and dignity within their own homes.
Health Consequences: Victims of domestic violence often suffer physical injuries, psychological trauma, and long-term health issues. Addressing domestic violence is crucial for mitigating these health risks.
Impact on Children: Children who experience domestic violence are at a heightened risk of experiencing a variety of adverse outcomes, including behavioral issues, academic challenges, and long-lasting psychological difficulties. Intervening in domestic violence can shield children from these detrimental effects.
Cycle of Violence: Addressing domestic violence is key to breaking the cycle of violence. Without intervention, children who witness or experience violence are at an increased risk of becoming either perpetrators or victims themselves in the future.
Economic Consequences: Domestic violence can have significant economic costs, including healthcare expenses, lost productivity, and the need for social services. Addressing domestic violence can help reduce these economic burdens.
Community Well-being: Domestic violence erodes the fabric of communities, leading to increased social isolation, distrust, and fear. By addressing domestic violence, communities can promote safety, trust, and social cohesion.
Gender Equality: Domestic violence is often rooted in unequal power dynamics between genders. Addressing domestic violence is essential for promoting gender equality and empowering women and marginalized genders.
Legal and Social Justice: Domestic violence is a crime that should be addressed through legal and social justice mechanisms. By holding perpetrators accountable and supporting victims, we can uphold principles of justice and fairness.
Prevention of Intergenerational Transmission: Addressing domestic violence can prevent the transmission of violent behaviors from one generation to the next, breaking the cycle of abuse within families.
Public Health Priority: A multi-sectoral approach involving healthcare, social services, law enforcement, and community organizations is required to recognize domestic violence as a public health issue. Addressing domestic violence is essential for promoting public health and well-being.

Types of Domestic Violence

Domestic violence manifests in various forms, each equally destructive and harmful. These are the different types of domestic violence:

Physical Abuse: This encompasses any type of physical harm or injury inflicted upon the victim by the abuser. It may include hitting, punching, kicking, slapping, choking, or using weapons to cause harm.
Emotional/Psychological Abuse: Emotional abuse characterizes behaviors that undermine the victim’s self-worth, confidence, and emotional well-being. This can include verbal threats, insults, intimidation, manipulation, gaslighting, and isolation from friends and family.
Sexual Abuse: Sexual abuse encompasses any unwanted sexual activity or coercion imposed by the abuser. This may include rape, sexual assault, forced sexual acts or coercion to engage in sexual activities against the victim’s will.
Financial Abuse: Financial abuse transpires when the abuser controls or exploits the victim’s financial resources to wield power and control. This can include withholding money, preventing access to bank accounts, sabotaging employment or education opportunities, or coercing the victim into financial dependence.
Digital Abuse: The proliferation of technology has led to an increase in digital abuse. This involves using technology, such as smartphones, social media, or surveillance apps, to monitor, harass, or control the victim. It may include cyberstalking, tracking the victim’s online activity, or spreading humiliating or threatening messages online.
Spiritual Abuse: Spiritual abuse involves the use of religious beliefs or practices to manipulate, control, or justify abusive behavior. This can include using religious teachings to justify violence, coercing the victim to adhere to specific religious practices, or preventing the victim from practicing their own faith.
Reproductive Coercion: Reproductive coercion involves controlling or interfering with the victim’s reproductive choices, such as contraception use, pregnancy, or abortion. This may include sabotaging birth control methods, pressuring the victim to become pregnant or terminate a pregnancy against their will, or refusing to use protection during sexual activity.

Causes of Domestic Violence

Domestic violence is a multifaceted issue with complex causes. Understanding these underlying factors is essential for devising effective prevention and intervention strategies. Here are some key causes of domestic violence:

Historical and Cultural Factors: In many societies, there is a history of gender inequality and patriarchal norms that have normalized the use of violence against women and marginalized genders. Cultural beliefs that condone or justify violence can contribute to its perpetuation.
Social and Economic Factors: Poverty , unemployment, lack of education, and economic stress can contribute to domestic violence. Financial dependence on the abuser can make it difficult for victims to leave abusive situations.
Psychological Factors: Individuals who have experienced trauma, abuse, or neglect in their own lives may be more likely to perpetrate domestic violence. Mental health problems like anxiety, depression, and personality disorders can also contribute to domestic violence.
Substance Abuse: Drug and alcohol abuse can lower inhibitions and impair judgment, leading to an increase in violent behavior. Substance abuse can also exacerbate existing conflicts and tensions within relationships.
Family Dynamics: A family history of violence or exposure to domestic violence in childhood can perpetuate the cycle of violence. Unhealthy family dynamics, such as inadequate communication or boundary-setting, can also contribute to domestic violence.
Lack of Social Support: Isolation from friends, family, and community support networks can make victims more vulnerable to domestic violence. Lack of access to supportive services can also hinder victims from seeking help.
Cultural and Societal Norms: Beliefs and norms that prioritize male dominance and control in relationships can contribute to domestic violence. Media, religion, and social institutions may reinforce these norms.
Lack of Legal and Social Support: Weak or ineffective legal frameworks, lack of access to justice, and stigma surrounding domestic violence can discourage victims from seeking help and enable perpetrators to continue their abusive behavior.

Effects of Domestic Violence

Domestic violence can have profound and enduring effects on individuals, families, and communities. These effects can manifest in diverse ways and permeate every aspect of a person’s life. Here are some of the key effects of domestic violence:

Physical Health Consequences: Domestic abuse victims frequently sustain wounds that range in severity from minor cuts and bruises to more serious ailments like internal injuries, fractured bones, and traumatic brain injuries. In some cases, domestic violence can result in long-term health issues or disabilities.
Psychological Effects: Domestic violence can have severe psychological consequences, including anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and other mental health disorders. Victims may experience feelings of fear, helplessness, and low self-esteem as a result of the abuse.
Impact on Children: Exposure to domestic violence can have negative impacts on children’s behavior, development, and emotions. They may also be at higher risk of experiencing abuse themselves or becoming abusers in the future.
Socio-Economic Effects: Domestic violence can have significant socio-economic consequences, including loss of income, housing instability, and barriers to employment. Victims may also incur medical expenses related to injuries sustained during the abuse.
Isolation and Alienation: Victims of domestic violence often experience social isolation and alienation from friends, family, and community due to shame, fear, or restrictions imposed by the abuser. This can intensify feelings of loneliness and helplessness even more.
Impact on Relationships: Domestic violence can strain relationships with family members, friends, and intimate partners. Victims may have difficulty trusting others or forming healthy relationships in the future.
Disruption of Daily Life: Domestic violence can disrupt every aspect of a person’s daily life, including work, school, and other activities. Victims may struggle to maintain their responsibilities and may experience difficulties in functioning on a day-to-day basis.
Cycle of Violence: Domestic violence can perpetuate a cycle of violence, where victims may become trapped in abusive relationships or become abusers themselves in future relationships.
Legal and Criminal Consequences: Domestic violence is a crime, and perpetrators may face legal consequences, including arrest, prosecution, and incarceration. Victims may also be involved in legal proceedings, such as obtaining protective orders or seeking custody of children.
Impact on Community: Domestic violence can have broader impacts on communities, including increased healthcare costs, strain on social services, and a breakdown of community cohesion.

Prevention and Intervention

Preventing and intervening in domestic violence requires a multi-faceted approach involving individuals, communities, and society as a whole. Here are key strategies for prevention and intervention:

Education and Awareness: Educating individuals about the signs of domestic violence, its impact, and available resources is crucial for prevention. Awareness campaigns can assist in reducing stigma and motivating victims to seek help.
Empowerment Programs: Empowering individuals, especially women and marginalized groups, with knowledge, skills, and resources can help them recognize and resist abusive behavior.
Early Intervention: Early identification and intervention in abusive relationships can help prevent escalation. This can include training professionals to recognize signs of abuse and providing support to victims.
Legal Measures: Strengthening laws and enforcement mechanisms can deter perpetrators and protect victims. This can include criminalizing domestic violence, providing legal aid to victims, and enforcing protective orders.
Support Services: Offering accessible and comprehensive support services, such as shelters, counseling, and hotlines, can assist victims in safely exiting abusive situations and rebuilding their lives.
Counseling and Rehabilitation: Offering counseling and rehabilitation programs for perpetrators can help them address underlying issues and learn non-violent ways of resolving conflicts.
Community Involvement: Engaging communities in prevention efforts can help change attitudes and norms that perpetuate domestic violence. This can include promoting healthy relationships and bystander intervention.
Intersectional Approaches: It is crucial to recognize the nexus between domestic violence and other forms of oppression, such as racism , sexism, and homophobia, to prevent and intervene effectively.
Coordination of Services: Coordinating various stakeholders, including government agencies, non-profit organizations, and community groups, ensures a comprehensive and effective response to domestic violence.
Research and Evaluation: Continuously researching and evaluating prevention and intervention strategies can help identify best practices and improve outcomes for victims and perpetrators.

Challenges and Barriers

Addressing domestic violence is a complex and challenging task due to various barriers and obstacles. Some of the key challenges include:

Lack of Awareness: Many people, including victims, perpetrators, and the general public, may not fully understand what constitutes domestic violence or may underestimate its severity. This can lead to underreporting and a lack of appropriate responses.
Stigma and Shame: Victims of domestic violence often face stigma and shame, which can prevent them from seeking help or disclosing abuse. Cultural norms and societal attitudes that blame or discredit victims can further exacerbate this barrier.
Financial Dependence: Economic factors can make it difficult for victims to leave abusive relationships. Financial dependence on the abuser, lack of access to resources, and fear of losing financial stability can all contribute to victims staying in abusive situations.
Lack of Support Services: In many communities, there is a lack of adequate support services for victims of domestic violence. This includes shelters, counseling, legal aid, and other resources that are essential for helping victims safely leave abusive relationships.
Legal Barriers: The legal system can be complex and intimidating for victims of domestic violence. Legal barriers, such as the cost of legal representation, the need to prove abuse in court, and the lack of protection for undocumented immigrants, can all hinder access to justice for victims.
Cultural and Religious Norms: Cultural and religious beliefs that prioritize family harmony or emphasize male authority can act as barriers to addressing domestic violence. These norms can discourage victims from seeking help or speaking out against abuse.
Lack of Coordination: Addressing domestic violence requires a coordinated response from multiple sectors, including law enforcement, healthcare, social services, and the justice system. Lack of coordination between these sectors can result in service gaps and ineffective responses.
Perpetrator Accountability: Holding perpetrators accountable for their actions can be challenging. Factors like fear of retaliation, insufficient evidence, and lenient legal consequences can all contribute to a lack of accountability for abusive behavior.
Limited Resources: Resources for addressing domestic violence, including funding for support services and prevention programs, are often limited. This can result in inadequate services and long wait times for victims seeking help.
Intersectionality: Domestic violence intersects with other forms of oppression, such as racism, sexism, homophobia, and ableism. Victims who belong to marginalized groups may face additional barriers and challenges in accessing support and services.

Domestic violence is a pervasive and deeply entrenched issue that has devastating consequences for individuals, families, and communities. It constitutes a violation of human rights and represents a substantial public health concern that demands urgent attention and action. Addressing domestic violence necessitates a comprehensive approach encompassing prevention, intervention, support services, and advocacy efforts. By raising awareness, challenging cultural norms, providing support to survivors, holding perpetrators accountable, and promoting gender equality, we can work towards creating safer and more supportive environments for all individuals affected by domestic violence. Together, we must strive to end the cycle of abuse and build a society free from violence and fear.

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Essay on Domestic Violence

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Domestic violence, a critical social issue, plagues numerous households worldwide. It’s a pattern of behavior in any relationship that is used to gain or maintain power and control over an intimate partner. This essay seeks to explore the multifaceted aspects of domestic violence, its psychological underpinnings, and the broader implications for society.

Domestic Violence

Domestic Violence involves physical, sexual, emotional, economic, or psychological actions or threats of actions that influence another person. It includes any behaviors that intimidate, manipulate, humiliate, isolate, frighten, terrorize, coerce, threaten, blame, hurt, injure, or wound someone.

Types of Domestic Violence

Physical Abuse : Hitting, slapping, shoving, grabbing, pinching, biting, hair pulling, etc., are types of physical abuse. It also includes denying a partner medical care or forcing alcohol/drug use.
Emotional Abuse : Undermining an individual’s sense of self-worth and/or self-esteem. This may include constant criticism, diminishing one’s abilities, name-calling, or damaging one’s relationship with their children.
Economic Abuse : Making or attempting to make an individual financially dependent by maintaining total control over financial resources, withholding access to money, or forbidding attendance at school or employment.
Sexual Abuse : Coercing or attempting to coerce any sexual contact or behavior without consent. This includes, but is not limited to, marital rape, attacks on sexual parts of the body, forcing sex after physical violence, and treating one in a sexually demeaning manner.
Psychological Abuse : Causing fear by intimidation; threatening physical harm to self, partner, children, or partner’s family or friends; destruction of pets and property; and forcing isolation from family, friends, or school and/or work.

The Psychology Behind Domestic Violence

Understanding the psychology behind domestic violence is complex. It often involves an intricate interplay of power, control, and deep-seated psychological issues.

Power and Control : Abusers often feel the need to exert dominance over their partner, stemming from deep insecurities and a desire to control.
Cycle of Abuse : Domestic violence usually follows a pattern known as the cycle of abuse, consisting of the tension-building phase, the abusive incident, the honeymoon phase, and calm before the cycle starts again.
Childhood Trauma : Many abusers have histories of traumatic childhoods, including physical or emotional abuse, which can perpetuate a cycle of violence.
Societal Influences : Societal norms and cultural backgrounds that perpetuate gender inequality and glorify aggression can contribute to domestic violence.

The Impact of Domestic Violence

The impact of domestic violence is profound and far-reaching.

Physical and Mental Health : Victims of domestic violence suffer from various physical ailments, mental health issues like depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and in extreme cases, death.
Impact on Children : Children who witness domestic violence are at increased risk for emotional and behavioral problems, and may repeat the cycle of violence in their own relationships.
Societal Cost : Domestic violence impacts society through increased healthcare costs, legal costs, and lost productivity.

Addressing Domestic Violence

Combating domestic violence requires a multifaceted approach:

Awareness and Education : Raising awareness about the signs of domestic violence and educating people about its unacceptable nature is crucial.
Support Systems : Robust support systems including hotlines, shelters, counseling, and legal assistance are vital for victims.
Legal Framework : Strong legal frameworks that protect victims and hold abusers accountable are essential.
Community Involvement : Community education and involvement in prevention programs are necessary to change societal norms and behaviors.

Writing About Domestic Violence

For students writing about domestic violence:

Use a Sensitive Tone : Given the delicate nature of the topic, it’s important to use a tone that is empathetic and respectful.
Incorporate Data and Research : Use statistics, studies, and research to provide a factual basis for the essay.
Personal Stories : While maintaining confidentiality and sensitivity, incorporating stories can provide powerful insights into the issue.
Discuss Solutions and Prevention : Go beyond outlining the problem to propose potential solutions and preventive measures.

In conclusion, Domestic violence is a complex issue that requires deep understanding and concerted efforts to address. It’s imperative to recognize the signs, understand the underlying causes, and work towards effective solutions. For students participating in essay writing competitions, delving into this topic is not only an academic exercise but also an opportunity to contribute to the critical discourse on this pressing social issue. By understanding and articulating the nuances of domestic violence, one can advocate for change and a safer, more equitable society.

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Great Argumentative Essay Topics On Domestic Violence with Prompts

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July 31, 2022
Essay Topics and Ideas , Nursing

One of the most difficult parts of writing an argumentative essay is coming up with a topic and a thesis statement . Here’s a comprehensive list of Argumentative Essay Topics On Domestic Violence with Prompts.

Argumentative Essay Topics On Domestic Violence with Prompts

The consequences of domestic violence. Essay Prompt: Some people consider domestic violence a common thing in a household. What can it lead to? Give examples and suggest solutions.
Should domestic violence be taken seriously? Essay Prompt: Is domestic violence a common thing or a serious problem, which needs an immediate solution? Should women endure it?
Officer-Involved Domestic Violence, Essay Prompt: The number of officer-related domestic violence has been on the rise, which causes concern about the safety of the family members of police officers. The main reason domestic violence has been on the rise is the stressful work environment that police officers go through.
Theoretical Explanations for Domestic Violence Social Research Paper Essay Prompt: Domestic violence is one of the major societal problems experienced around the world. According to Guerin and Ortolan (2017), domestic violence encompasses aspects such as bullying, intimidation, and in extreme cases, murder perpetrated by an individual within a domestic setting.

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How Does Domestic Violence Influence Children’s Education? Essay Prompt: Domestic violence and education: examining the impact of domestic violence on young children, children, and young people and the potential role of schools. Frontiers in psychology. This article explores the adverse effects of domestic violence on children and the role of schools.
Types of domestic violence. Essay Prompt: Point out the ways women can be violated. What are the most dangerous ones? What are their consequences?
Domestic violence: a personal matter or an open problem? Essay Prompt: In this essay, discuss whether domestic violence should be kept in secret or brought out to publicity. Give your reasons.
Domestic violence: who is to blame? Essay Prompt: If a husband beats up his wife, is he a brute or does she really deserve it? Give your reasons.
Why women bear it. Essay Prompt: Try to find an answer to the question: why do women endure violence? Is it the absence of self-respect or the power of love? Give your reasons.
Domestic violence as the echo of the past. Essay Prompt: In the past, violence against women was acceptable and nowadays some men keep to such a stereotype. Is it reasonable to keep this “noble” tradition or should it become a thing of the past?

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Domestic violence argument topics

How to protect yourself from domestic violence? Essay Prompt: In this essay, you should make a research and point out ways to protect yourself from domestic tyranny. You may consult legislative documents.
I’m a victim: what to do? Essay Prompt: If one becomes a victim of domestic tyranny, what measures should be taken? How to punish the offender? Give examples.
Social services protecting victims of domestic violence. Essay Prompt: What are the social services protecting victims of violence? What are their functions? Do they really help?
How to recognize a despot. Essay Prompt: If husband has lifted his hand against wife once, he is sure to do it again and again. How can a tyrant be recognized and avoided? Offer your variants.
Punishment for offender. Essay Prompt: Consult special literature and comment how justice can punish a person blamed in domestic violence.
To forgive or not to forgive? Essay Prompt: Analyze the cases of domestic violence and decide whether tyranny can be forgiven. Decide whether it is reasonable, to give the offender one more chance. Explain why.
Domestic Violence, Child Abuse and Rape Violence Effects on Individual or Community Essay Prompt: Discuss your knowledge of the effects these three crimes have on individuals and society as a whole.
Negative Effects of Domestic Violence on Children Essay Prompt: This essay affirms that domestic violence poses a number of negative effects on children, including social development, brain development, and social behavior. (Domestic violence argument topics)
Why Domestic Violence Victims Don’t Leave Essay Prompt: There were surprising things in the video; for instance, the domestic violence follows predefined steps when the victim is new in the relationship.
Domestic Violence And Sociological Perspective Or Sociological Imagination Essay Prompt: Schools as Training Grounds for Domestic Violence and Sexual Harassment (Domestic violence argument topics)
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Domestic Violence Essay | Essay on Domestic Violence for Students and Children in English

February 13, 2024 by Prasanna

Domestic Violence Essay: Domestic violence is the violence or abuse that is practised in a domestic setting – such as cohabitation or marriage. Domestic violence is not only physical. Domestic violence includes any behaviour that is practised to gain power and control over the victim.

Domestic violence can be affecting people from all walks of life. It can be subjected towards a partner, spouse or intimate family member. Domestic violence is a learned behaviour and is not practised due to any common excuses such as drugs or alcohol, anger or mental problem.

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Long and Short Essays on Domestic Violence for Students and Kids in English

We are providing students with essay samples on a long essay of 500 words and a short essay of 150 words on the topic Domestic Violence for reference.

Long Essay on Domestic Violence 500 Words in English

Long Essay on Domestic Violence is usually given to classes 7, 8, 9, and 10.

Domestic violence also referred to as or intimate partner violence or domestic abuse – takes place in an intimate relationship. Domestic violence can happen in both heterosexual relationships as well as same-sex relationships. Threatening a person is also a type of domestic abuse affecting the person mentally and emotionally. Any abusive relationship involves an imbalance of power and control being practised on the victim. An abuser to exercise control over his or her partner uses harsh and hurtful words and behaviours.

While some relationships are abusive from the outside, it might not be easy to identify domestic violence at first. While some relationships are abusive from the very beginning, abuse often starts subtly, and with time it gets worse. Domestic violence can be taking several forms –such as physical, economic, verbal, religious, emotional sexual and even reproductive.

Acts of domestic violence may include persistent forms of marital rape. Also, violent physical abuse such as beating, choking, female genital mutilation and acid throwing that can lead to disfigurement and in extreme cases, death. Apart from these, calling the victim names to insult or put them down and preventing or discouraging the victim from going to work or school or even stopping them from seeing family members or friends.

They are trying to control how one should spend their money or controlling what one wears. Acting jealous or possessive or even constantly accusing the victim of being unfaithful. These are also a few ways in which domestic violence is practised. On a worldwide basis, women are overwhelmingly the victims of domestic violence. Also, women tend to be experiencing severe forms of violence. In some countries, cases of domestic violence are often seen as justified – especially in cases of suspected or actual disloyalty on the women’s part and are also legally permitted.

Research has shown that there exists a significant and direct correlation between a country’s level of gender equality and domestic violence rates. Countries that experience higher rates of domestic violence have less gender equality. Domestic violence on a worldwide basis is among the most underreported crimes globally for both women and men. Due to the presence of the social stigmas regarding victimization of male, men who are domestic violence victims face an increased likelihood of being overlooked by healthcare providers.

Domestic violence often takes place when the abuser believes that the victim is subordinate to them, and it is the abuser’s entitlement, justified and acceptable. Domestic violence may produce a cycle of intergenerational abuse in children and other members of the family – as they feel that this kind of behaviour is normal and acceptable.

In an abusive relationship, there is a cycle of violence and abuse, which is committed by the abuser when there is a rise in tension or an act of violence is committed. It is then followed by a period of calm and reconciliation. Victims of domestic violence are stuck in domestic relationships or situations through the lack of financial resources, power and control, isolation, to protect a child, fear of cultural acceptance, traumatic bonding with the abuser or fear of shame.

Short Essay on Domestic Violence 150 Words in English

Short Essay on Domestic Violence is usually given to classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.

Domestic violence is a part of a relationship between two partners in which the abuser seeks to assert control and power over the victim. The abuser may use different forms of abuse to assert their power. Many individuals fail to identify themselves as abusers or victims as they may consider their abusive and traumatic experiences as a part of family conflicts that got out of control. Definition, perception, awareness and documentation of domestic violence widely differ from country to country.

Traditionally domestic violence was only associated with physical violence. Domestic violence involves not only physical but also emotional, psychological and sexual abuse. Manipulating the victim with the help of his or her children is also a type of domestic violence. The abuser may be isolating the victim from other people who may be assisting. Victims of abuse may experience mental illness, physical disabilities, dysregulated aggression, psychological disorders such as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, chronic health issues and poor ability at creating healthy relationships.

10 Lines on Domestic Violence in English

Domestic violence can be practised in many forms including physical, emotional and sexual abuse.
A purple ribbon symbolizes and promotes the awareness of domestic violence.
Domestic violence, in its broadest sense, also includes violence against parents or the elderly and children.
Domestic violence – more than car accidents, rape and mugging combined – is the leading cause of injury of women.
Domestic violence often happens in cases of child or forced marriages.
Children who grow up in a household with violence often show psychological issues from an early age.
An intimate partner or family member may commit domestic violence.
The abuser may seek to isolate the victim from near and dear ones.
Before the mid-1800s wife-beating valid considered as a reasonable practice, for the husband to exercise control over his wife.
85% of victims of domestic violence are women.

FAQ’s on Domestic Violence Essay

Question 1. What are the different forms of domestic violence?

Answer: Physical, emotional, verbal, economical, religious, sexual or reproductive.

Question 2. How to come out of an abusive relationship?

Answer: The first step of getting out of an abusive relationship is identifying the relationship as abusive.

Question 3. Which country has the highest rate of domestic violence?

Answer: New Zealand has the highest rate of reported domestic violence cases.

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Domestic Violence Essays

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Considering the fact that 1 in 3 women and 1 in 4 men have experienced some type of physical violence at the hands of intimate partners, domestic violence is an incredibly relevant topic, and exploring it in an essay is a great way to raise awareness.

The topic of domestic violence has been getting more attention than ever recently as more and more victims feel empowered to share their stories online and speak out against their aggressors. It often takes victims months and years to even talk about their trauma, but by addressing it, they are addressing the big elephant in the room.

Domestic violence is often a topic shrouded in whispers or downright silence. It’s not easy for victims to talk about their experiences because they don’t feel safe in a society that tends to sweep things under the rug. However, society has been changing and the conversation around domestic violence has become louder, thus emboldening victims to come forward.

Now, there is a lot to be said about domestic violence, so there are many ways you can explore the topic in your essay. For example, you can talk about the consequences of domestic violence and how it affects victims mentally, physically, and emotionally.

Moreover, you can discuss how differently men and women experience domestic violence and are affected by it. In the same line, you can discuss the way victims are often dismissed or disbelieved, especially men, who are less likely to come forward about their experiences with domestic abuse.

Another way to approach the topic of domestic violence in your essay would be to discuss the importance of talking about it in our communities and creating safe spaces for victims. Of course, these are only a few ideas! There are many other ways to explore the topic.

However, you decide to discuss domestic violence in your essay, make sure to adopt a strong position and present good arguments to support it. Leveraging research and statistics is a great way to make your essay more compelling and there’s no shortage of that, so do your due diligence.

If you are stuck or need ideas for an essay on domestic violence, feel free to use samples from this page to ace your paper!

Paragraph on Domestic Violence

Students are often asked to write a paragraph on Domestic Violence in their schools. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 200-word, and 250-word paragraphs on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

Paragraph on Domestic Violence in 100 Words

Domestic violence is when someone hurts their family or partner at home. It is like bullying, but it happens inside the house. Imagine if someone always yells, hits, or scares you at your own home; that’s domestic violence. It is very wrong and can make people feel sad, scared, or hurt. If you see or know such things happening, tell a grown-up you trust, like your teacher or a relative. They can help to stop it. Always remember, everyone deserves to feel safe and loved at home. No one should be scared or hurt by the people they live with.

Paragraph on Domestic Violence in 200 Words

Domestic violence is when someone hurts another person in their own home. It’s like when a family member, like a parent or spouse, is mean or harmful to another in a way that is not right. This can be physical harm, where they might hit or hurt the other person with their hands or objects. Sometimes it can be mental harm, where they say mean things or scare the other person so much that it makes them sad or frightened all the time. It can also be that they control everything the other person does, like what they wear, who they talk to, or where they go. Domestic violence is not good. It makes people feel scared and alone. Every person has the right to feel safe and loved in their own home. If someone is experiencing domestic violence, it’s important to tell a trusted adult like a teacher, a friend’s parent, or a police officer. They can help stop the harm and make sure the person is safe. Everyone deserves to live in a home where they are treated with kindness and respect.

Also check:

Paragraph on Domestic Violence in 250 Words

Domestic violence is a serious issue that affects many households across the globe. This is when someone in a family hurts another person in the family, either physically, emotionally, or financially. Often, the person causing harm is trying to control the other person. For instance, they might hit or threaten them, make them feel bad about themselves, or stop them from having access to money. This isn’t right or fair, and it’s important to talk about it so we can help stop it. Some people may not even realize they’re victims of domestic violence because the harmful actions have become a normal part of their lives. This is why teaching about domestic violence in schools is so important. If students learn about it, they can help themselves or others who may be experiencing it. It’s also important to remember that anyone can be a victim of domestic violence, regardless of their age, gender, or where they come from. If you or someone you know is experiencing domestic violence, it’s crucial to reach out to a trusted adult, like a teacher or a counselor, for help. We all have a right to safety and respect, and understanding domestic violence is a big step towards ensuring that everyone is treated with the dignity they deserve.

That’s it! I hope the paragraphs have helped you.

Explore other popular paragraph topics:

Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .

Happy studying!

Domestic Violence against Women Research Paper

To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
As a template for you assignment

Introduction

The prevalence of domestic violence against women, the effects on child development, the health effects on women, works cited.

Domestic violence against women refers to “any act of gender-based violence that results in or is likely to result in physical, sexual, and mental harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts as coercion” (Renzetti and Bergen 32).

Domestic violence against women is one of the oldest social and public health problems in the history of humanity. It began in the traditional society when women were subordinated to men. The culture of most communities in the pre-modern world considered women to be equal to children. Besides, most communities viewed women as men’s properties (Latchana 17).

As a result, women had very limited rights in the society. Men influenced nearly all aspects of women’s lives including their participation in economic activities, leadership, and social relationships such as marriage. This led to various forms of violence against women such as sexual harassment, deprivation of liberty, and physical abuse. For instance, battering was considered as a means of punishing errant women rather than a form of physical abuse. In the 1870s, men began to change their perception of women (McGee 34).

In the United States, the courts abolished the common-law principle that allowed men to punish their wives. Similarly, men’s right to punish their wives was abolished in the United Kingdom in 1891. The government and the civil society in virtually all countries are constantly campaigning against domestic violence against women. However, the prevalence of the problem is still very high.

The symptoms of domestic violence include insulting or calling a female spouse names, and preventing them from going to work or visiting their families. Other symptoms include inflicting physical pain, controlling how women expend their money, forcing women to have sex, and threatening them with violence. The risk factors associated with domestic violence against women include “low levels of income, witnessing family violence, antisocial personality disorder, and uncontrolled use of alcohol” (WHO).

Other risk factors include past history of violence, low levels of education, marital discord, and poor communication in relationships. Women with low levels of education are likely to tolerate domestic violence because of lack of adequate knowledge about their rights, or the measures that they can take to prevent the violence. Similarly, women with low-income levels are likely to tolerate domestic violence because they depend on men for their financial needs.

In addition, low self-esteem prevents women from reporting violence against them or quitting abusive relationships. Generally, domestic violence affects women in every country, race, ethnicity, and social class. Consequently, domestic violence against women should be taken seriously because it is increasing, it has negative effects on child development, and it adversely affects women’s health.

The prevalence of domestic violence against women is on the rise despite the efforts made by governmental and non-governmental organizations to address it. At least 35% of women worldwide have experienced some or all forms of domestic violence (WHO).

Globally, nearly a “third of women who have been in a relationship have experienced physical and or sexual violence by their intimate partner” (Latchana 72). The fatalities attributed to domestic violence against women is equally on the rise in nearly all parts of the world. Recent studies have indicated that domestic violence is one of the leading causes of murder among women worldwide.

In particular, domestic violence accounts for approximately 38% of the women murdered every year in various parts of the world (WHO). Undoubtedly, the prevalence of domestic violence against women is likely to be much higher than the figures reported in national or worldwide surveys. This perspective is supported by the fact that most women who are in abusive relationships do not report their plight to the police.

Besides, the circumstances under which national surveys are administered make abused women reluctant to admit that they have experienced domestic violence in their lifetime. For instance, during an interview a woman may deny having experienced domestic violence for fear of embarrassment. Domestic violence against women is on the rise because people tend to ignore it. In most societies including the United States, people tend to ignore domestic violence against women due to the following factors.

To begin with, domestic violence manifests itself in several ways that are sometimes difficult to identify. For instance, a simple emotional abuse that is followed by an apology by the man who commits it can easily be ignored even though it is a harmful form of domestic violence against a woman. The toll on women’s self-esteem increases with the longevity of their stay in abusive relationships (Bostock, Plumpton and Pratt 95-110).

In addition, women begin to feel helpless or defeated as they continue to stay in abusive relationships. In some cases, women with problems such as physical disability may feel dependent upon the men who abuse them. In this regard, women are likely to tolerate or fail to report their plight to the police. For women in same sex relationships, the tendency to ignore domestic violence is even more likely (Bostock, Plumpton and Pratt 95-110).

Women who are abused in same sex relationships hardly seek help because of their reluctance to disclose their sexual orientation. Even if they seek help, abused women in same sex relationships are likely to be ignored because of the belief that women cannot be violent to other women (Latchana 78). Generally, domestic violence against women is highly ignored in masculine societies where women are still considered inferior to men.

The prevalence of domestic violence against women has been disputed due to several reasons. People believe that the advancements in the United States’ legal system have adequately addressed the problem of domestic violence in the country (Renzetti and Bergen 112). In particular, the constitution has granted men and women equal rights. Thus, men can no longer dominate or abuse women without being punished through the legal system.

The increased empowerment of women through education, as well as, participation in leadership and economic activities is believed to have led to a decline in domestic violence against women (Bostock, Plumpton and Pratt 84). The gist of this argument is that women with high education and income security are less dependent on men. Thus, they are likely to quit abusive relationships or take legal action against their abusive partners (Enrique 536-537).

The argument that the legal system has adequately addressed the problem of domestic violence against women is misguided. Although the constitution protects women from domestic violence, legal assistance is still out of reach to many women (Latchana 83).

Several women, especially, among the low-income and ethnic minorities cannot afford legal services (Renzetti and Bergen 145). This makes them more vulnerable to domestic violence. Although empowering women is likely to reduce domestic violence, empirical evidence suggests otherwise.

For instance, women with very high educational achievement and financial income have always complained of domestic violence (WHO). Besides, factors such as the need to protect family name, personal image, and children force women to stay in abusive relationships despite their empowerment (Enrique 536-537). This explains the increase in cases of domestic violence despite the efforts made by the society to stop it.

Children are negatively affected by domestic violence against women in several ways. To begin with, children often witness domestic violence directly as their parents engage in physical or verbal confrontations (WHO). In the United States, approximately 15 million children stay in homes where domestic violence occurs at least once a year (WHO). In this regard, children are secondary victims of domestic violence against women.

Consequently, they are likely to experience emotional and psychological harm as a result of living in homes where domestic violence occurs. Children who grow in families where domestic violence is rampant are likely to become abusive in adulthood (McGee 96). To elucidate, the children are likely to believe that violence against women is a normal way of settling differences in relationships. As a result, incidences of domestic violence against women will continue to rise.

Domestic violence against women is one of the major factors that contribute to the displacement of children from their homes. It is also one of the major causes of separation between children and their parents. In the United States, thousands of children are taken every year by organizations that provide shelter services to battered women.

In this case, the shelter services deny the children the opportunity to live with both parents (Latchana 119). Undoubtedly, the presence of both parents is essential for child development. Thus, separating children from one or both of their parents because of domestic violence is detrimental to their development. Several studies have indicated that children who witness domestic violence are vulnerable to psychological disorders (WHO).

To elucidate, the children tend to be fearful and more aggressive than their counterparts who live in families where domestic violence does not occur. In addition, children who witness domestic violence are likely to experience high levels of stress, depression, and anxiety. Children tend to believe that they are the cause of the abuses that occur in their homes. Moreover, they develop fear for their lives and that of their mothers if they cannot stop the violence.

As a result, they feel guilty and develop stress whenever domestic violence occurs in their homes. Children who witness domestic violence often exhibit symptoms of “post-traumatic disorders such as bed-wetting and nightmares” (McGee 103). In addition, the children are likely to develop medical conditions such as asthma, allergies, and migraines.

Children also become victims of domestic violence when their fathers use them to manipulate their mothers. For instance, a man can threaten to take custody or harm the children if his spouse informs the police of the abuse. This is likely to happen in a situation where the mother is likely to lose a legal suit to take custody of the children due to problems such as drug abuse. It also suggests that the fear of ruining children’s future is one of the main reasons why women tolerate domestic violence.

Several arguments have been advanced to counter the claim that domestic violence against women has adverse effects on children. One of the arguments is that the negative effects of child exposure to domestic violence are likely to reduce over time (McGee 121). Once the violence stops, children can be socialized to embrace peace rather than aggression.

In addition, emotional and psychological therapies can be used to help the children to manage the post-traumatic symptoms of domestic violence (Renzetti and Bergen 151). Babies and very young children lack the capacity to understand the significance of domestic violence (Latchana 65).

As a result, they are not likely to be affected even if they witness domestic violence against women in their homes. Understanding the effect of domestic violence on children is also difficult. For instance, several cases have been identified where children love their fathers and opt to stay with them despite abusing their mothers (McGee 124). This suggests that children either do not understand the significance of domestic violence or support their abusive fathers’ actions.

The argument that the effects of child exposure to violence reduces with time is not always true. Boys who live in homes where domestic violence is rampant tend to be abusive in adulthood irrespective of the time at which the violence stopped in their families (WHO).

This suggest that the passage of time and psychological therapies are not effective in helping children to cope with the effects of being exposed to violence at an early stage of development (Bostock, Plumpton and Pratt 95-110). In addition, the impacts of domestic violence on children tend to persist. Children are likely to remember traumatic domestic violence incidences in adulthood.

As a result, they are likely to develop stress or become abusive. Although babies and very young children lack the capacity to understand the significance of domestic violence, they are likely to learn the undesirable behaviors of their parents. Children often learn through imitation of their significant others. Consequently, they can adopt the violent acts of their fathers without understanding their significance.

The claim that children who opt to stay with their abusive fathers approve their abusive behaviors is misguided. Children can always be manipulated to love their parents through different ways such as giving them gifts (McGee 145). Thus, it is not correct to conclude that children approve their fathers’ violent behaviors by opting to live with them during separation.

Domestic violence is one of the major causes of poor health among women worldwide. Apart from physical injuries, domestic violence can lead to chronic pain, and psychosomatic disorders. Domestic violence also causes several mental health problems among women. These include anxiety, depression, and stress (WHO).

Mental health problems such as depression often reduce the quality of life and women’s lifespan. They also reduce women’s productivity at work by causing severe mental and physical tiredness. The vulnerability of women to domestic violence increases during their pregnancy because of their perceived helplessness. For instance, a pregnant woman may opt to stay with an abusive partner for fear of losing the financial support that she requires to take care of the infant after delivery.

Domestic violence during pregnancy leads to medical complications and deaths. Several obstetric problems have been linked to domestic violence against women. In particular, women in abusive relationships have high chances of contracting sexually transmitted infections (STI) (WHO). They are also vulnerable to vaginal, cervical and kidney infections (Renzetti and Bergen 156). These infections often lead to complications such as excessive bleeding during pregnancy.

The emotional imbalance associated with abuse during pregnancy often leads to delayed prenatal care and little or no postnatal care among women. This puts the lives of the pregnant women and their unborn babies at risk. The risk of miscarriage also increases with the increase in the severity of mental and emotional health problems such as stress and depression.

The high prevalence of sexually transmitted infections among abused women is attributed to their lack of sexual autonomy (Latchana 114). Some men believe that marriage grants them unlimited access to sex with their spouses. Consequently, they use violence when their wives resist their sexual demands. Unfortunately, lack of sexual autonomy forces women to have unprotected sex with their spouses, thereby exposing them to sexually transmitted infections.

Moreover, lack of sexual autonomy leads to unwanted pregnancies, which in turn necessitate abortion. Women who are not able to afford medical services often procure unsafe abortion, which normally leads to reproductive health problems such destruction of the uterus. Unsafe abortion also leads to death among pregnant women. Generally, domestic violence is likely to cause death if it is repeated over a long time.

Physical injuries are the main causes of domestic violence related fatalities (Enrique 536-537). For instance, strangulation has been found to be the most preferred form of physical violence against women since it leaves little or no incriminating evidence on the victim. Unfortunately, strangulation increases the chances of death significantly.

Some scholars often dispute the severity of the health effects of domestic violence against women. They claim that emotional or psychological torture is the most common form of domestic violence against women (Renzetti and Bergen 172). Proponents of this perspective opine that psychological or emotional harm can hardly cause fatalities.

In addition, emotional problems such as stress are considered to be common in every relationship. This argument is based on the claim that every couple experiences some form of disagreements that may lead to stress (Bostock, Plumpton and Pratt 95-110). Consequently, the emotional problems caused by domestic violence against women can be addressed through the interventions that are commonly used to reduce normal stress.

Furthermore, women have always been blamed for worsening the health effects of domestic violence by failing to seek medical attention in time (Latchana 186). Women who feel embarrassed to discuss the causes of their injuries hardly seek medical attention. Consequently, their chances of dying because of the injuries caused during domestic violence increase.

The severity of the health effects of domestic violence against women has been illustrated in several studies. In the last three decades, medical research has showed that psychological torture is as harmful as physical injuries to women (Renzetti and Bergen 213). Since domestic violence can occur over a long period, abused women tend to experience very high stress.

Although stress and depression might not cause death directly, they increase the chances of its occurrence. Several studies have established a link between depression and non-communicable diseases such as high blood pressure, stroke, and heart attack (McGee 193).

Consequently, the emotional harm caused by domestic violence can easily lead to death through the aforementioned diseases. The claim that the emotional effects of domestic violence can easily be addressed through readily available interventions is not always true. Psychological therapies can be very ineffective in circumstances where the victim is regularly abused during and after the therapy.

Besides, not all women can access psychiatric services and other interventions to help them cope with the emotional effects of domestic violence. Women should not be blamed for their failure to report domestic violence for fear of being embarrassed (WHO). It is natural to be embarrassed of being in an abusive relationship. Thus, abused women should be encouraged to articulate their plight and to seek medical help in time.

In sum, domestic violence against women is a major problem because of the negative health and child development effects that are associated with it. Domestic violence against women is on the rise because people tend to ignore it. People often ignore the violence because its prevalence is underreported and some of its symptoms are difficult to identify. However, the effects of domestic violence are real and devastating.

In particular, it causes physical, emotional, and reproductive health problems among women. Additionally, domestic violence causes emotional harm to children and increases their chances of being abusive in adulthood. Since the prevalence of domestic violence is on the rise, the suffering of women and children in the hands of unruly men is bound to increase in future. Consequently, the government and the society in general should use legal, social, and cultural interventions to stop domestic violence against women.

Bostock, Jan, Maureen Plumpton and Rebekah Pratt. “Domestic Violence against Women: Understanding Social Processes and Women’s Experiences.” Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology 19.2 (2009): 95-110. Print.

Enrique, Gracia. “Unreported Cases of Domestic Violence against Women: Towards an Epidemiology of Social, Tolerance, and Inhibition.” Journal of Epidemiol Community Health 10.7 (2004): 536-537. Print.

Latchana, Karen. Domestic Violence . Edina: ABDO Publishing, 2011. Print.

McGee, Caroline. Childhood Experinces of Domestic Violence. London: Jessica Kingsley Publsihing Group, 2000. Print.

Renzetti, Claire and Raquel Bergen. Violenec against Women. Rowman and Littlefield: London, 2005. Print.

WHO. Violence against Women: Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence against Women . World Health Organization, 13 Oct. 2013. Web.

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How Does ‘It Ends With Us’ Approach Domestic Violence? An Expert Explains the Impact

Professor Hayat Bearat, interim director of Northeastern Law’s Domestic Violence Institute, comments for Northeastern Global News on the portrayal of domestic violence in ‘It Ends with Us’: “There’s a lot of room for improvement and without criticizing it then we can’t make movies in the future that are not better.”

Domestic Violence Institute

How Does ‘It Ends With Us’ Approach Domestic Violence? An Expert Explains the Impact

Appointments at Mayo Clinic

Adult health

Domestic violence against women: Recognize patterns, seek help

Domestic violence is a serious threat for many women. Know the signs of an abusive relationship and how to leave a dangerous situation.

Your partner apologizes and says the hurtful behavior won't happen again — but you fear it will. At times you wonder whether you're imagining the abuse, yet the emotional or physical pain you feel is real. If this sounds familiar, you might be experiencing domestic violence.

Recognize domestic violence

Domestic violence — also called intimate partner violence — occurs between people in an intimate relationship. Domestic violence can take many forms, including emotional, sexual and physical abuse and threats of abuse. Abuse by a partner can happen to anyone, but domestic violence is most often directed toward women. Domestic violence can happen in heterosexual and same-sex relationships.

Abusive relationships always involve an imbalance of power and control. An abuser uses intimidating, hurtful words and behaviors to control a partner.

It might not be easy to identify domestic violence at first. While some relationships are clearly abusive from the outset, abuse often starts subtly and gets worse over time. You might be experiencing domestic violence if you're in a relationship with someone who:

Calls you names, insults you or puts you down
Prevents or discourages you from going to work or school or seeing family members or friends
Tries to control how you spend money, where you go, what medicines you take or what you wear
Acts jealous or possessive or constantly accuses you of being unfaithful
Gets angry when drinking alcohol or using drugs
Threatens you with violence or a weapon
Hits, kicks, shoves, slaps, chokes or otherwise hurts you, your children or your pets
Forces you to have sex or engage in sexual acts against your will
Blames you for his or her violent behavior or tells you that you deserve it

If you're in a same-sex relationship or if you're bisexual or transgender, you might also be experiencing abuse if you're in a relationship with someone who:

Threatens to tell friends, family, colleagues or community members your sexual orientation or gender identity
Tells you that authorities won't help you because of your sexuality or gender identity
Justifies abuse by questioning your sexuality or gender identity

Pregnancy, children, family members and domestic violence

Sometimes domestic violence begins — or increases — during pregnancy. Domestic violence puts your health and the baby's health at risk. The danger continues after the baby is born.

Even if your child isn't abused, simply witnessing domestic violence can be harmful. Children who grow up in abusive homes are more likely to be abused and have behavioral problems than are other children. As adults, they're more likely to become abusers or think abuse is a normal part of relationships.

You might worry that telling the truth will further endanger you, your child or other family members — and that it might break up your family. But seeking help is the best way to protect yourself and your loved ones.

Break the cycle

If you're in an abusive situation, you might recognize this pattern:

Your abuser threatens violence.
Your abuser strikes.
Your abuser apologizes, promises to change and offers gifts.
The cycle repeats itself.

The longer you stay in an abusive relationship, the greater the physical and emotional toll. You might become depressed and anxious, or you might begin to doubt your ability to take care of yourself. You might feel helpless or paralyzed.

You may also wonder if the abuse is your fault — a common point of confusion among survivors of domestic abuse that may make it more difficult to seek help.

Don't take the blame

You may not be ready to seek help because you believe you're at least partially to blame for the abuse in the relationship. Reasons may include:

Your partner blames you for the violence in your relationship. Abusive partners rarely take responsibility for their actions.
Your partner only exhibits abusive behavior with you. Abusers are often concerned with outward appearances and may appear charming and stable to those outside of your relationship. This may cause you to believe that his or her actions can only be explained by something you've done.
Therapists and health care providers who see you alone or with your partner haven't detected a problem. If you haven't told your health care provider about the abuse, they may only take note of unhealthy patterns in your thinking or behavior. This can lead to a misdiagnosis. For example, survivors of intimate partner violence may develop symptoms that resemble chronic disorders such as irritable bowel syndrome or fibromyalgia. Exposure to intimate partner violence also increases your risk of mental health conditions such as depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
You have acted out verbally or physically against your abuser, yelling, pushing or hitting your partner during conflicts. You may worry that you are abusive, but it's much more likely that you acted in self-defense or intense emotional distress. Your abuser may use such incidents to manipulate you, describing them as proof that you are the abusive partner.

If you're having trouble identifying what's happening, take a step back and look at larger patterns in your relationship. Then review the signs of domestic violence. In an abusive relationship, the person who routinely uses these behaviors is the abuser. The person on the receiving end is being abused.

Unique challenges

If you're an immigrant , you may be hesitant to seek help out of fear that you will be deported. Language barriers, lack of economic independence and limited social support can increase your isolation and your ability to access resources.

Laws in the United States guarantee protection from domestic abuse, regardless of your immigrant status. Free or low-cost resources are available, including lawyers, shelter and medical care for you and your children. You may also be eligible for legal protections that allow immigrants who experience domestic violence to stay in the United States.

Call a national domestic violence hotline for guidance. These services are free and protect your privacy.

If you're an older woman , you may face challenges related to your age and the length of your relationship. You may have grown up in a time when domestic violence was simply not discussed. You or your partner may have health problems that increase your dependency or sense of responsibility.
If you're in a same-sex relationship , you might be less likely to seek help after an assault if you don't want to disclose your sexual orientation. If you've been sexually assaulted by another woman, you might also fear that you won't be believed.

Still, the only way to break the cycle of domestic violence is to take action. Start by telling someone about the abuse, whether it's a friend, a loved one, a health care provider or another close contact. You can also call a national domestic violence hotline.

At first, you might find it hard to talk about the abuse. But understand that you are not alone and there are experts who can help you. You'll also likely feel relief and receive much-needed support.

Create a safety plan

Leaving an abuser can be dangerous. Consider taking these precautions:

Call a women's shelter or domestic violence hotline for advice. Make the call at a safe time — when the abuser isn't around — or from a friend's house or other safe location.
Pack an emergency bag that includes items you'll need when you leave, such as extra clothes and keys. Leave the bag in a safe place. Keep important personal papers, money and prescription medications handy so that you can take them with you on short notice.
Know exactly where you'll go and how you'll get there.

Protect your communication and location

An abuser can use technology to monitor your telephone and online communication and to track your location. If you're concerned for your safety, seek help. To maintain your privacy:

Use phones cautiously. Your abuser might intercept calls and listen to your conversations. An abusive partner might use caller ID, check your cellphone or search your phone billing records to see your call and texting history.
Use your home computer cautiously. Your abuser might use spyware to monitor your emails and the websites you visit. Consider using a computer at work, at the library or at a friend's house to seek help.
Turn off GPS devices. Your abuser might use a GPS device on your vehicle or your phone to pinpoint your location.
Frequently change your email password. Choose passwords that would be difficult for your abuser to guess.
Clear your viewing history. Follow your browser's instructions to clear any record of websites or graphics you've viewed.

Where to find help

In an emergency, call 911 or your local emergency number or law enforcement agency. The following resources also can help:

Someone you trust. Turn to a friend, loved one, neighbor, co-worker, or religious or spiritual adviser for support.
National Domestic Violence Hotline: 800-799-SAFE (800-799-7233; toll-free). Call the hotline for crisis intervention and referrals to resources, such as women's shelters.
Your health care provider. A health care provider typically will treat injuries and can refer you to safe housing and other local resources.
A local women's shelter or crisis center. Shelters and crisis centers typically provide 24-hour emergency shelter as well as advice on legal matters and advocacy and support services.
A counseling or mental health center. Counseling and support groups for women in abusive relationships are available in most communities.
A local court. A court can help you obtain a restraining order that legally mandates the abuser to stay away from you or face arrest. Local advocates might be available to help guide you through the process.

It can be hard to recognize or admit that you're in an abusive relationship — but help is available. Remember, no one deserves to be abused.

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Intimate partner violence. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/intimatepartnerviolence/index.html. Accessed March 4, 2022.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Committee Opinion No. 518. Intimate partner violence and women's health. Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2012; doi:10.1097/AOG.0b013e318249ff74. Reaffirmed 2019.
Frequently asked questions about domestic violence. National Network to End Domestic Violence. https://nnedv.org/content/frequently-asked-questions-about-domestic-violence/. Accessed March 5, 2022.
Domestic and intimate partner violence. Office on Women's Health. https://www.womenshealth.gov/relationships-and-safety/domestic-violence. Accessed March 4, 2022.
AskMayoExpert. Intimate partner violence. Mayo Clinic; 2021.
Goldman L, et al., eds. Intimate partner violence. In: Goldman-Cecil Medicine. 26th ed. Elsevier; 2020. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed March 5, 2022.
Ferri FF. Intimate partner violence. In: Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2022. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed March 5, 2022.
Internet & computer safety. National Network to End Domestic Violence. https://nnedv.org/content/internet-computer-safety/. Accessed March 5, 2022.
Technology safety & privacy: A toolkit for survivors. Technology Safety. https://www.techsafety.org/resources-survivors. Accessed March 5, 2022.
Intimate partner violence: A guide for psychiatrists treating IPV survivors. American Psychiatric Association. https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/cultural-competency/education/intimate-partner-violence/women. Accessed March 5, 2022.
Domestic violence and lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender relationships. National Coalition Against Domestic Violence. http://www.mmgconnect.com/projects/userfiles/File/DCE-STOP_NOW/NCADV_LGBT_Fact_Sheet.pdf. Accessed March 5, 2022.
Bakes K, et al. Intimate partner violence. In: Emergency Medicine Secrets. Elsevier: 2022. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed March 5, 2022.
What is domestic violence? National Coalition Against Domestic Violence. https://ncadv.org/learn-more. Accessed March 5, 2022.
Intimate partner abuse and relationship violence. American Psychological Association: Working Group on Intimate Partner Abuse and Relationship Violence. https://www.apa.org/about/division/activities/partner-abuse.pdf. Accessed March 5, 2022.
The myth of mutual abuse. National Domestic Violence Hotline. https://www.thehotline.org/resources/the-myth-of-mutual-abuse/. Accessed March 5, 2022.
Final recommendation statement: Intimate partner violence, elder abuse, and abuse of vulnerable adults. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf/recommendation/intimate-partner-violence-and-abuse-of-elderly-and-vulnerable-adults-screening. Accessed March 5, 2022.
Information on the legal rights available to immigrant victims of domestic violence in the United States and facts about immigrating on a marriage-based visa fact sheet. U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services. https://www.uscis.gov/archive/information-on-the-legal-rights-available-to-immigrant-victims-of-domestic-violence-in-the-united. Accessed March 5, 2022.
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August 22, 2024

A small town in Texas addresses domestic violence with combined efforts from police, courts and local businesses

By Gretel Kaufman for Rural Health Information Hub

The End Domestic Violence Task Force was recognized by the Rural Justice Collaborative in 2023. (Photo via RHIhub)

The rural community of Kingsville, Texas, developed a task force of combined support from law enforcement, courts and local businesses to help domestic violence victims safely ask for and receive help. The initiative began when "pastors in the Kingsville Ministerial Alliance realized that there were gaps in services and a lack of support for agencies working with victims of abuse," reports Gretel Kaufman for Rural Health Information Hub . "The nearest shelter, operated by regional domestic violence organization The Purple Door, was 50 miles from Kingsville — a distance that proved prohibitive for people without transportation, or whose jobs or school-aged children required them to stay closer to home." Although domestic violence isn't necessarily an urban or rural problem, rural victims face more challenges in accessing immediate help and ongoing support. "Rates of emergency department visits due to abuse tend to be higher in rural areas — perhaps, experts suggest , because rural survivors tend to have fewer resources available to them to prevent or escape an abusive situation," Kaufman explains. "In some cases, violence escalates beyond hospitalization: homicide due to intimate partner violence is also more prevalent in rural areas , studies have shown." Once the Kingsville Ministerial Alliance identified the town's resource gaps, it contacted community partners for additional support, "local agencies including The Purple Door, law enforcement, and the county attorney's office came together to form the End Domestic Violence Task Force," Kaufman reports. "A community-wide initiative that provides enhanced support for domestic violence survivors and spreads public awareness of the issue." Kathy Kimball, who serves as President of the task force, told Kaufman, "We are not immune [from domestic violence] being in a small Texas town." The Task Force also has small business partners, which provide a place for victims to ask for help. "An estimated 15 to 20 businesses and organizations in the community have been designated as 'Trusted Locations' — places where a person experiencing domestic violence can go to confide in someone and learn about their options," Kaufman writes. "To signal that they are a Trusted Location, businesses will typically display a small sticker on their door or in a more discreet location inside." Additional supportive measures the community's task force has developed include hotel vouchers and court accompaniment options. The task force "asks that anybody who utilizes the hotel voucher program then gets in touch with an advocate at the Purple Door for an explanation of available services," Kaufman reports. "Any person who opts into the court accompaniment program can have a group of task force members sit behind them, on their side of the courtroom, during protective order hearings."

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Is India a Safe Place for Women? Another Brutal Killing Raises the Question.

The rape and murder of a trainee doctor at her own hospital has brought up, once again, uncomfortable truths about a country that wants to be a global leader.

Young women protesting with raised fists and holding a banner saying “we want justice”

By Anupreeta Das and Sameer Yasir

In December 2012, a 23-year-old physiotherapy student boarded a bus in New Delhi a little after 9 p.m., expecting it would take her home. Instead, she was gang-raped and assaulted so viciously with an iron rod that her intestines were damaged. She died days later as India erupted in rage.

Nearly 12 years later, the nation is convulsing with anger once again — this time, over the ghastly rape and murder of a 31-year-old trainee doctor in a Kolkata hospital, as she rested in a seminar room after a late-night shift. Since the Aug. 9 killing, thousands of doctors have gone on strike to demand a safer work environment and thousands more people have taken to the streets to demand justice.

For a country desperate to be seen as a global leader, repeated high-profile cases of brutal sexual assaults highlight an uncomfortable truth: India, by many measures , remains one of the world’s most unsafe places for women. Rape and domestic violence are relatively common, and conviction rates are low.

This week, the Supreme Court of India took up the Kolkata case as one of fundamental rights and safety, questioning how hospital administrators and police officers had handled it and saying new protective measures were needed. “The nation cannot wait for another rape and murder for real changes on the ground,” Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud said.

Gender-related violence is hardly unique to India. But even as millions of Indian women have joined the urban work force in the past decade, securing their financial independence and helping to fuel the country’s rapid growth, they are still often left to bear the burden of their own safety.

Longstanding customs that both repress women and in many cases confine them to the home have made their safety in public spaces an afterthought. It can be dangerous for a woman to use public transportation, especially at night, and sexual harassment occurs frequently on the streets and in offices. Mothers tell their daughters to be watchful. Brothers and husbands drop their sisters and wives off at work.

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Home — Essay Samples — Law, Crime & Punishment — Domestic Violence — Breaking Free from Abusive Relationship: Domestic Violence

Breaking Free from Abusive Relationship: Domestic Violence

Categories: Domestic Violence Relationship Victim

About this sample

Words: 1738 |

Published: Jun 5, 2019

Words: 1738 | Pages: 4 | 9 min read

Introduction, understanding domestic violence: a complex web of abusive relationships, escaping domestic violence: a complex process, preventing further violence: predictive tools, forms of abuse in abusive relationships.

Physical Abuse: This form of abuse involves physical harm inflicted upon the victim. It includes acts such as hitting, kicking, slapping, choking, or any other form of bodily violence. Often, the physical scars are visible, serving as a grim reminder of the trauma endured.
Sexual Abuse: Sexual abuse within abusive relationships involves non-consensual sexual activities imposed upon the victim. This may range from unwanted sexual advances and coercion to sexual assault. Victims often grapple with profound feelings of violation and shame.
Psychological and Emotional Abuse: Psychological and emotional abuse is insidious, leaving no visible marks but causing severe psychological harm. It encompasses tactics like manipulation, verbal threats, humiliation, isolation, and control. The scars of emotional abuse run deep, eroding the victim's self-esteem and sense of self-worth.
Financial Abuse: Abusers often exercise control over their victims' financial resources, leaving them financially dependent and powerless. This form of abuse may involve withholding money, preventing employment, or sabotaging the victim's financial stability.
Digital Abuse: In the digital age, abusers have found new avenues to exert control. Digital abuse includes actions like cyberbullying, stalking on social media, or using technology to monitor and intimidate the victim.

The Complex Dynamics of Abusive Relationships

Cycle of Abuse: Abusive relationships often follow a cyclical pattern. The cycle typically begins with a period of tension building, characterized by escalating conflict and tension. This tension culminates in an acute abusive incident, such as physical violence. Following the abusive episode, an abuser may display remorse and offer apologies, initiating a phase of reconciliation. However, this reconciliation phase is often short-lived and eventually gives way to renewed tension, perpetuating the cycle.
Isolation: Abusers frequently isolate their victims, cutting them off from friends and family. Isolation serves to control the victim's social interactions and limit their support network, making it harder for them to seek help or escape the relationship.
Gaslighting: Gaslighting is a manipulative tactic used by abusers to make victims doubt their reality. Abusers may deny their actions, trivialize the abuse, or shift blame onto the victim, causing them to question their perception of events.
Dependency: Abusers often foster financial and emotional dependency, making it challenging for victims to imagine a life outside the relationship. This dependency can be a significant barrier to leaving the abuser.
Emotional Bonding: Paradoxically, abusive relationships may involve moments of intimacy and affection. These intermittent displays of love can create a strong emotional bond that keeps victims attached to their abusers, hoping for change.
Patterns of Escalation: Recognizing patterns of escalating abuse is essential. Victims and their support networks should be vigilant about increases in the frequency or severity of violence, as this can signal a heightened risk.
Isolation and Control: Assess the extent to which the abuser isolates and controls the victim. Isolation tactics and increased control can indicate a greater risk, as they may signify the abuser's desperation to maintain dominance.
Access to Weapons: Determine the abuser's access to weapons. The presence of firearms or other deadly weapons can significantly elevate the risk of lethal violence.
History of Violence: Consider the abuser's history of violence. If they have a documented history of violent behavior, including previous arrests or restraining orders, this should be taken seriously as a predictive factor.
Escalation of Threats: Monitor any escalation in threats made by the abuser. Expressions of intent to harm the victim or themselves should be treated as urgent warning signs.
Support System: Assess the strength of the victim's support system. A robust support network can be a protective factor, potentially reducing the risk of further violence.
Legal Intervention: Evaluate whether legal interventions, such as restraining orders, have been sought or granted. Understanding the legal measures in place can provide insights into the victim's safety.
Campbell, J. C. (2003). Danger assessment: Validation of a lethality risk assessment instrument for intimate partner femicide. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 18(11), 1153-1176.
Adams, D. M. (2016). Why do they kill? Men who murder their intimate partners. Vanderbilt University Press.
Babcock, J. C., Green, C. E., & Robie, C. (2004). Does batterers' treatment work? A meta-analytic review of domestic violence treatment. Clinical Psychology Review, 23(8), 1023-1053.
Stark, E. (2007). Coercive control: How men entrap women in personal life. Oxford University Press.
Golding, J. M. (1999). Intimate partner violence as a risk factor for mental disorders: A meta-analysis. Journal of Family Violence, 14(2), 99-132.
Johnson, M. P. (2008). A typology of domestic violence: Intimate terrorism, violent resistance, and situational couple violence. Northeastern University Press.
National Domestic Violence Hotline. (n.d.). Danger assessment. https://www.thehotline.org/identify-abuse/danger-assessment/

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Murdered woman's parents speak out as domestic violence plagues small towns

ABC Capricornia

Topic: Domestic Violence

Man and a woman stand in front of their house, they are holding a vigil for their daughter who was murdered.

Glenn and Linda hold a vigil for their daughter every Domestic and Family Violence Prevention month. ( ABC News: Freya Jetson )

It was a regular evening for Glenn and Linda Watson, until police knocked on their door in 2008 to tell them their daughter had been murdered.

WARNING: This story contains details readers may find distressing.

"When you see the detective standing there, you know, something's not right," Ms Watson said.

That detective told the parents their 23-year-old daughter, Joelean, had been stabbed and murdered by her ex-partner in the regional Queensland town of Calliope.

"When he said that our daughter had been taken from domestic violence, I just collapsed," she said.

They went on to raise Joelean's daughter, who was just two at the time of the attack.

Her ex-partner was convicted of murder in 2012 and sentenced to life in prison.

The Watsons hope sharing their story will increase awareness of domestic violence in regional areas, and bring more support for victims and services.

Man and a woman stand and look back to their house, they are wearing purple shirts.

Glenn and Linda Watson's daughter was murdered by her ex-partner when she was 23 years old. ( ABC News: Freya Jetson )

A national problem

A few kilometres away in Gladstone, the Gladstone Women's Health Centre is dealing with increased demand.

Tara Perkins from the centre said it was a result of a national increase in family and domestic violence .

"We've certainly had to grow within our practice team and frontline to meet those increases," Ms Perkins.

"We have expanded our team and we've had to cross-train other staff members."

She said metro areas had more accessibility, such as after-hours services.

"I know some of the larger centres in the metro areas have a different model where they're able to offer after-hours services and things like that, so that's definitely more accessible for the community," she said.

Ms Perkins said there were added issues specifically in regional areas, where residents often could not travel far without seeing a familiar face.

She said it made trying to safely escape domestic and family violence complex.

"Social isolation is a factor. The more isolated that a woman and her children are definitely exacerbates domestic and family violence," she said.

Both Joelean's parents and Ms Perkins echoed the same sentiment, saying there needed to be more resources in regional areas.

"You just never forget that the knock at the door — it just never goes away," said Ms Watson.

Resources harder to access in small towns

Out west, the quiet streets of Longreach put up a peaceful front.

There is rarely any crime in this western Queensland town of around 3,000 people.

A dark picture of a sunset in Longreach.

Longreach is a regional town with about 3,000 residents. ( ABC News: Hannah Walsh )

But Georgina Sutton from Catholic Care Central Queensland said that could make it harder for people to acknowledge issues happening behind closed doors.

"There's a lot of different layers here that probably aren't an issue in Brisbane," Ms Sutton said.

Woman standing on street in front of houses.

Georgina Sutton says some Longreach residents are forced to travel to access emergency accommodation. ( ABC News: Hannah Walsh )

As the domestic and family violence services manager, she said staff had assisted 19 women in Longreach this year and successfully moved seven out of town.

The closest women's refuge is some 700km away in Rockhampton.

"Please don't think it doesn't happen in Longreach because it does," she said.

If someone does wants to stay in town, Ms Sutton said the service would work with them to provide emergency accommodation like a motel.

"Another added complexity in the bush is that a lot of places of employment, your job comes with your house," Ms Sutton said.

"We have people living on properties … it's their home, it's where their children live, it's their employment.

"Where is the safest place for this person to escape to, or if they're going to stay how do we empower them?"

Deciding to tell their story

Mr and Ms Watson acknowledged all the support they had received from local services in their community, and hoped telling Joelean's story could encourage others to reach out for support.

"If we can save one life, it's worth it," Mr Watson said.

"I don't know if there's an answer to it, but all we can do is try and educate and get out there as much as we can," Ms Watson said.

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Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Exploring the prevalence of childhood adversity among university students in the United Kingdom: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Contributed equally to this work with: Jackie Hamilton, Alice Welham

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom

Roles Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Depatment of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom

Roles Supervision, Writing – review & editing

¶ ‡ GM and CJ also contributed equally to this work.

Roles Formal analysis, Supervision

Jackie Hamilton,
Alice Welham,
Gareth Morgan,
Christopher Jones

Published: August 28, 2024
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308038
Reader Comments

The focus of this review was to systematically review and meta-analyse the prevalence of ACEs among university students in the UK.

The systematic searching of six electronic databases (conducted February 2024) identified ten relevant articles (peer-reviewed articles of a quantitative nature that included ACE prevalence). PROSPERO reference: CRD42022364799.

Pooled prevalence for number of ACEs endured was 55.4% (95% CI: 32.4% - 78.4%; I 2 > 99.5%) for one or more, and 31.6% (7.5% - 55.6%; I 2 > 99.5%) for three or more. Pooled prevalence was: 15.9% (7.0% - 24.7%; I 2 > 94.5%) for physical abuse; 27.0% (18.1% - 35.9%; I 2 > 94.5%) for emotional abuse; 12.1% (5.2% - 19.0%; I 2 > 94.5%) for sexual abuse; 8.4% (1.7% - 15.1%; I 2 > 95.4%) for physical neglect, and 30.0% (21.5% - 38.5%; I 2 > 95.4%) for emotional neglect. Pooled prevalence for household dysfunction categories were: 34.4% (22.8% - 46.0%) for parental separation; 18.4% (10.1% - 26.8%) for domestic violence; 35.2% (23.6% - 46.8%) for mental health difficulties; 21.4% (12.9% - 29.9%) for substance use; and 5.7% (2.3% - 9.1%) for incarceration (I 2 > 88.8% for all household dysfunction items). Significant heterogeneity was observed between studies for most categories of adversity, and it was not possible to explain/reduce this variance by removing small numbers of influential/discrepant studies. Further analyses suggested potential influences of measurement tool used, country of data collection, and age and sex of participants.

Results demonstrate considerable, largely unaccounted-for, heterogeneity in estimates of the prevalence of ACEs, impeding confidence in any summary statistics. Conclusions must be tentative due to analyses being underpowered given small numbers of papers, as well as potential confounds, meaning results may not be truly representative. However, results do suggest high prevalence rates which warrant further investigation, with appropriate support offered to students.

Citation: Hamilton J, Welham A, Morgan G, Jones C (2024) Exploring the prevalence of childhood adversity among university students in the United Kingdom: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 19(8): e0308038. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308038

Editor: Inga Schalinski, Universitat der Bundeswehr München: Universitat der Bundeswehr Munchen, GERMANY

Received: September 10, 2023; Accepted: July 17, 2024; Published: August 28, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 Hamilton et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files.

Funding: The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

The concept of childhood adversity has received international attention, partly stemming from a large epidemiological study conducted in the US [ 1 ]. This study focused on the prevalence of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), finding that thirty-five percent of the US population ( N = 9,508) reported three or more types of ACEs. Following this, further research exploring the prevalence of ACEs has been conducted worldwide, with a study in the UK demonstrating that 47% of people experienced at least one ACE and 9% of the population report experiencing four or more ACEs [ 2 ].

Due to considerable variability in the literature, it has proved difficult to find a universal definition of childhood adversity, despite the substantial body of research examining childhood adversity. McLaughlin and colleagues refer to childhood adversity as environmental experiences that require adaptation by a child, and that represent a deviation from what is expected [ 3 ]. They argue that for experiences to be considered as adversity, the threat or deprivation must be chronic (e.g., ongoing emotional abuse from caregivers, ongoing separation from caregivers), or include single events that are severe enough to have an emotional, cognitive, or neurobiology impact on the child (e.g. sexual abuse, [ 3 ]). This is broadly congruent with the definition provided by the American Psychological Association [ 4 ], who define trauma as events that result in significant threat to the safety of an individual or their loved ones/friends.

Adverse childhood experiences are thought to encompass a wide range of early traumatic events or chronic stressors (such as sexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional abuse, neglect, as well as areas of household dysfunction (such as alcohol and substance abuse, parental separation, domestic violence, parental mental health difficulties), deprivation, bullying, and peer, community, and collective violence [ 3 , 5 ]).

Adverse childhood experiences are one of the strongest predictors of poor health and social outcomes during adulthood [ 6 ], and is thought to impact a child’s physical, behavioural, and cognitive development [ 7 , 8 ]. Research suggests that the impact of ACEs exposure may be greatest during very early and early childhood, when it may coincide with vital childhood developmental timeframes [ 9 ]. Research demonstrates that ACEs can be associated with a range of later physical health difficulties (including heart disease, diabetes, asthma, cancer, and other chronic conditions; [ 1 , 6 , 7 , 10 ]), and elevated distress (including sleep difficulties, low mood, anxiety, post-traumatic stress reactions, difficulties with substance use; and difficulties with social functioning; [ 7 , 11 – 14 ]). It has been argued that it is advantageous to recognise and offer support for trauma as early as possible, as mental health needs may become harder to manage if intervention is sought later in life [ 15 , 16 ].

Conversely, research also highlights that not all children who are exposed to ACEs experience heightened distress [ 17 , 18 ]. This is thought to be linked to the presence of protective factors that may mediate the relationship between ACEs and distress, as they nurture so-called ‘resilience’ and diminish the potential negative impacts of ACEs [ 2 , 19 ]. These factors include having a strong sense of purpose in life, a high education level, good levels of social support, and being male; factors which are sometimes considered to be associated with ‘resilience’ and ‘recovery from’ adversity [ 17 , 20 , 21 ]. However, others have recognised that such factors can be linked to differing levels of privilege and access to social and material resources; conceptualising resilience as a character trait of an individual is problematic as it depoliticizes resilience from the wider socio-political context [ 22 , 23 ].

Childhood trauma is thought to have a negative impact on an individual’s academic performance, suggesting that individuals who experience childhood adversity may be less likely to progress into higher education [ 24 ]. Thus, it may be plausible to propose that the prevalence of ACEs may be lower among university students compared to the general population; however, some studies demonstrate a high prevalence among university students in the UK (79% - 84%; [ 25 , 26 ]).

As pointed out by Davies et al. [ 25 ], most prevalence studies have, justifiably, focused on general populations or populations of people accessing mental health services. However, it has been argued that university students form a unique population who are going through an important life transition, whereby the impact of ACEs may influence their social and/or academic performance [ 25 – 27 ].

The transition to university involves moving away from family and friends, navigating a new environment, academic pressures, financial pressures, new social relationships, and making decisions about risky health behaviours [ 20 , 28 – 30 ]. These factors may impact on an individual’s wellbeing and are likely to result in heightened distress for most students [ 31 ]. The mental health of university students has received a lot of attention over the recent years and is a major health concern [ 32 – 34 ], as over a third of students report problems with low mood and/or anxiety within their first year of university [ 35 ]. The transition to university also occurs alongside the challenges of transitioning to adulthood, coinciding with the peak risk of being assigned a mental health diagnosis before the age of 24 years old [ 36 ].

The transition to university may be a challenging time for most students; however, individuals who have experienced ACEs may find this adjustment even more difficult [ 37 ]. Individuals who experience ACEs tend to report greater distress [ 38 ], and research has found an association with high-risk behaviours, physical diseases, and poorer academic performance [ 24 , 39 , 40 ]. Sheldon et al. [ 41 ] suggest that ACEs are an important risk factor that could enable universities and healthcare services to identify and provide support to those in need.

Some researchers argue that students who have experienced ACEs are an important but often overlooked subgroup [ 42 ]; therefore, it is important that this population are given distinct research attention. Questions remain about both the prevalence of ACEs and the impact for students. Internationally, this has begun to be explored; Fu et al. [ 42 ] conducted a systematic review (of five relevant databases) and meta-analysis which explored the prevalence of childhood maltreatment among university students in China. They included ACEs that related to childhood maltreatment only (physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, physical neglect, and emotional neglect) which were measured using validated measurement tools. The pooled prevalence results indicated that 64.7% of university students experienced childhood maltreatment; however, high levels of heterogeneity were observed for the overall estimate and for all subtypes of childhood maltreatment, thus, results must be interpreted with caution. Additionally, Sheldon et al. [ 41 ] conducted a systematic review (of four relevant databases) and meta-analysis which explored risk factors for distress among university students in the UK. This review focused on undergraduate students only, and the inclusion criteria specified that studies needed to contain longitudinal observations of cohorts or case-control samples. Although the study found that ACEs were predictive of suicidality, due to the focus being on risk factors, the prevalence of ACEs among this population were not explored. Similar findings were reported as above regarding high levels of heterogeneity between studies and caution associated when interpreting these findings.

To the best of our knowledge, there is no systematic review or meta-analysis on the prevalence of ACEs among university students in the UK. Quantifying the prevalence of ACE exposure may contribute to understanding the needs of this unique population to inform better policies, support, and services at universities. Thus, this review aims to systematically review and meta-analyse the prevalence of ACEs among university students in the UK. To assess any potential sources of heterogeneity, possible confounding factors were considered, including the type of participants, measurement tool used, number of ACEs measured in study, and the country of study. The potential impact of the following moderators were also included in meta-regression analyses: age, sex, and risk of bias score.

For consistency with the wider literature on ACEs and ease of understanding, ACEs were considered in the categories that have previously been defined in the literature [ 6 ]: childhood abuse (consisting of physical abuse [PA], emotional abuse [EA] and sexual abuse [SA]), childhood neglect (consisting of physical neglect [PN] and emotional neglect [EN]), and household dysfunction (consisting of parental separation [PS], domestic violence [DV], mental health problems [MHP], substance abuse [Sub], incarceration [Inc]). Any additional ACEs which were reported but did not fit in these categories were also explored (such as peer-victimisation and deprivation).

Search strategy and sources

This review was written in line with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [ 43 ]. This study is registered on the PROSPERO database (CRD42022364799).

A systematic literature search was conducted between 26 th February– 8 th March 2024 using the following six databases: Allied and Complementary Medicine (AMED); British Education Index (BEI); Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL); Education Resources Information Center (ERIC); PubMed; and PsycINFO. These databases provide a comprehensive search of research related to psychology, education, health, and medicine. Reference lists of identified articles and relevant review articles were examined to ensure all suitable articles were included.

Search terms relating to the areas of interest for this review–adversity (e.g. ‘trauma’, ‘abuse’), university students (e.g. ‘student’, ‘university’), and location (e.g. ‘United Kingdom’, ‘Britain’)–were generated and used in the literature search ( S1 Appendix ). Search terms were used on all databases to search titles, abstracts and keywords, excluding PsycINFO (due to circa 40,000+ results being identified, therefore, following consultation with a research services specialist from the library, results were narrowed by searching for the ‘location’ search term in author affiliation and location only). The selection of search terms was guided by previous systematic reviews in similar areas [ 42 , 44 , 45 ] and consultation with librarians.

The initial literature search was done by one reviewer (JH), who then also retrieved full-text articles, and two reviewers screened these full-text articles (JH and AW). Any conflicts over inclusion were resolved through discussion between JH and AW. Date were extracted by JH and checked over by AW.

Selection criteria

Search limits..

Search limits include papers published in peer-reviewed journals, papers published in English language, and papers published since the millennium (2000–2022).

Inclusion criteria (all criteria must be met for inclusion).

Inclusion criteria include university student sample (or identifiable sub-sample of university students, with separate data reported), location of student sample in United Kingdom only, assessment/reporting of exposure to childhood adversity (adverse childhood experience before the age of 18 years old), quantitative methodology, and prevalence of adverse childhood experience data available (or directly calculable from the paper).

Exclusion criteria.

Exclusion criteria include non-peer reviewed journals, letters to the editor, proceedings, theses, qualitative data, non-university sample, non-UK location, prevalence of overall adverse experiences (where separate childhood adversity data was not available).

Article selection summary

In total, 6376 articles were identified across the six databases. Duplicates were removed (n = 2109), and a further 4204 papers were removed after screening of abstracts revealed papers did not meet inclusion criteria. The remaining 63 articles were read in full. Two additional articles were identified through reviewing the reference lists for other relevant research. Of these 65 articles, 13 were found to report prevalence data on ACEs among university students in the UK. There were five instances where articles met the inclusion criteria; however, they included the same data set as another study included in the review. They were excluded at this point if they did not add any additional ACE prevalence data above and beyond the article already included [ 46 – 51 ].

Where prevalence data was not available in the published article, study authors were contacted for further information. Four papers provided only mean and standard deviation data which was not convertible to prevalence (%) data [ 14 , 52 – 54 ] and one paper included the total ACE score into regression models, but no details regarding individual ACEs was available [ 55 ]. These papers were excluded at this point.

Where two or more papers reported prevalence data on any particular category of ACE, meta-analysis was carried out [ 56 ]. Only one paper reported the prevalence rate of peer-victimisation [ 57 ], one paper reported on childhood threat [ 58 ], and one paper provided the prevalence rate for deprivation [ 59 ]; thus, it was not possible to meta-analyse these categories of ACEs. Ten papers were consequently included in the meta-analyses [ 25 , 26 , 60 – 67 ] exploring ten types of adverse childhood experiences (PA [n = 7]; EA [n = 8]; SA [n = 9]; PN [n = 6]; EN [n = 5]; PS [n = 3]; DV [n = 5]; MHP [n = 4]; Sub [n = 4]; Inc [n = 2]), as well as the prevalence of one or more ACE (n = 5) and three or more ACEs (n = 4). A PRISMA flowchart summarises the article selection process ( Fig 1 ).

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Note: AMED = Allied and Complementary Medicine; BEI = British Education Index; CINAHL = Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature; ERIC; Education Resources Information Center.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308038.g001

Data extraction

Information was collated regarding year of publication, location of university students from whom data were collected, aims of the study, sample size, population type, mean age, sex, ethnicity, assessment tool(s), and prevalence data.

Quality/bias appraisal tool

Studies were rated on risk-of-bias criteria (Table A in S2 Appendix ) relating specifically to prevalence estimates for the purposes of the current meta-analyses. Criteria were based on (i) sample/recruitment, (ii) consistency of definition of ACE with agreed standard definition (Table B in S2 Appendix ), and (iii) quality of ACE assessment tool. Criteria were bespoke for the current review, but informed by the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool [ 68 ] and previous similarly-informed tools for pooled prevalence meta-analyses [ 69 ]. Risk-of-bias appraisal was completed for each paper included in the meta-analyses, and for each category of ACE that was being meta-analysed. These criteria specifically focus on the individual ACE and key threats to validity for this current review; therefore, scores should not be taken as ‘quality’ ratings of the papers in general. All studies included in the meta-analyses were rated by the first author (JH) using the criteria, and these were used in the analysis. However, agreement with blind ratings from a second rater (AW) was also assessed for the RoB ratings for (i) sample/recruitment, as well as ratings for (ii) definition of ACE, (iii) ACE assessment tool, and overall ROB rating for sexual abuse (the category involving the most papers). Weighted kappa indicated perfect agreement on the assessment tool (1.0), and was substantial for overall ROB rating (.68) and definition of ACE (.64). For the sample/recruitment measure, percentage agreement was 80% (lack of variability in the primary rater’s measurements on this criterion precluded calculation of weighted kappa).

Meta-analysis of prevalence

Pooled prevalence meta-analyses were conducted for each ACE where two or more papers reported prevalence data. Ten ACEs were covered within these papers and are discussed and presented in the three over-arching categories that have previously been defined in the literature: childhood abuse (PA, EA, SA), childhood neglect (PN and EN), and household dysfunction (PS, DV, MHP, Sub, Inc), as well as overall prevalence of adversity (one or more ACEs and three or more ACEs; categories based on available data within papers).

Random-effects models were used to allow for potential variability between studies, using the generic inverse variance method [ 69 , 70 ]. The DerSimonian and Laird method (DL; [ 71 ]) was used where initial Q-Q plots did not denote deviations from normality for prevalence estimates (one or more ACEs; three or more ACEs; EN, PS, DV, MHP, Inc); however, for those that did show deviations from normality (PA, EA, SA, PN, Sub), the restricted maximum likelihood estimator (REML) was used instead due to its robustness with violations of normality [ 72 ]. Due to low n of studies within the meta-analyses (and so caution in concluding adherence to normality assumptions), meta-analyses were also run using the REML method, but minimal differences were found. Heterogeneity was explored using the I 2 statistic and Cochran’s chi-squared test (Cochran’s Q), whereby values of I 2 > 75% indicated considerable heterogeneity [ 73 ].

A leave-one-out analysis was used to explore the influence of individual studies on the results, and publication bias and small study effects were examined through the use of funnel plots (with caution employed when fewer than ten studies were included in the meta-analyses; [ 56 , 74 ]). A quality effects model was also utilised with adjusted weightings according to studies’ overall risk of bias ratings.

To identify possible sources of heterogeneity, subgroup analyses were used to assess the possible impact of the following categorical variables: type of participants (all university students vs psychology students only), measurement tool used to assess ACE, number of ACEs measured in study (fewer than ten vs ten or more) and country of study. Meta-regression analyses were used to explore the potential impact of the following continuous/ordinal variables: mean age of participants, proportion of females in sample, and overall quality/risk of bias score. Subgroup analyses are considered a core component of meta-analyses, particularly when heterogeneity is present, as recommended by the Cochrane Handbook [ 56 ]. However, Pigott [ 75 ] highlights that a problem of subgroup analyses is that they have low power, with Cuijpers, Griffin, and Furukawa [ 76 ] reporting that in comparison to an ‘average’ meta-analysis, a subgroup analysis requires 3–4 times the number of studies to have sufficient power, and this number of studies increases with higher heterogeneity and unequal numbers of studies in the subgroups. Therefore, results are interpreted with caution. Meta-analyses were conducted in R (version 4.0.4), using the Metafor package, version 3.6.2.

Study characteristics

The characteristics of studies included in the meta-analyses are presented in Table 1 . The ten articles were published between 2001 and 2022; the majority were conducted in England ( n = 5), followed by Northern Ireland ( n = 3), Wales ( n = 1), and Scotland ( n = 1). Most studies collected data from one university site only.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308038.t001

Participant characteristics

The total number of participants was n = 4,968, with samples ranging from 142 [ 64 ] to 1029 [ 67 ]. Most studies included males and females in their samples; however, two papers included exclusively female samples [ 64 , 66 ] and one [ 26 ] did not collect this data. The total sample was comprised of 79% females (out of 9 studies with data available), with 70% identifying as coming from a White ethnic background (from 4 papers that reported this data). The age of participants ranged from 17–57 years (weighted mean 22.7 years: all studies included participants that were attending a university in the UK). Five studies reported that their sample comprised a general sample of university students, two focused on psychology students only, one focused on undergraduate students only, and one focused on first year students only ( Table 1 ).

Adversity types and measures

Of the ten studies included in the meta-analyses, five reported the prevalence of one or more ACEs (3,448 participants), in which sexual abuse (SA) was the most explored ACE (nine papers; 4,740 participants), and incarceration of a household member was the least (three papers; 1,779 participants; Table 2 ). Several measurement tools were adopted in the selected studies, including the Adverse Childhood Experiences Scale (ACE scale), the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), the Child Abuse and Trauma Scale (CATS), the Traumatic Life Events Questionnaire (TLEQ), and other miscellaneous tools ( Table 1 ).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308038.t002

Quality/bias appraisal

The studies were rated on risk-of-bias criteria (Table A in S2 Appendix ) relating to the: (i) representativeness of sample; (ii) consistency of definition of ACE with agreed standard definition (Table B in S2 Appendix ); and (iii) quality of ACE assessment tool. Criteria were scored as either unclear (0—red), poor (0—yellow), adequate (1—amber), or good (2—green). A quality effects model was utilised with adjusted weightings according to studies’ overall risk of bias ratings (calculated by dividing the total quality score by the maximum possible total of six).

Caution was taken with studies that received a quality weighting score <0.33; two studies [ 62 , 65 ] scored a quality weighting of 0.17, thus, additional meta-analyses were run with these studies removed, and results are presented for comparison. The bias appraisal scores for all meta-analysed studies are included in S3 Appendix .

Pooled prevalence meta-analyses

Pooled prevalence meta-analyses are presented below for overall prevalence of ACEs, and each category of ACE (presented under categories of ‘childhood abuse’ [consisting of PA, EA, and SA], ‘childhood neglect’ [consisting of PN and EN], and ‘household dysfunction’ [consisting of PS, DV, MHP, Sub, Inc]).

Overall number of ACEs.

Random effects models suggested a weighted prevalence of 55.4% (95% CI: 32.4% - 78.4%) and 31.6% (95% CI: 7.5% - 55.6%) for one or more, and three or more, ACEs respectively ( Fig 2(A) and 2(B) . Significant heterogeneity was observed between studies for each of these analyses (in both cases, I 2 > 99.5%; p < .0001). A leave-one-out analysis was conducted for each meta-analysis ( S4 Appendix ); however, no single study demonstrated an outsized effect on the pooled estimates. The quality effects models gave similar results, and even after removing Lagdon et al. [ 62 ] minimal differences were detected (Section A of S5 Appendix ).

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To explore the potential sources of heterogeneity, subgroup and meta-regression analyses were conducted (see Table 3 ). Results tentatively suggest the possibility that studies which use the ACE measurement tool (n = 4) reported significantly higher prevalence of one or more, and three or more ACEs. In addition, studies which measured ten or more ACEs (n = 3) resulted in a higher prevalence of one or more, and three or more ACEs. A significant negative association was found between the percentage of females in the sample and the prevalence of one or more, and three or more ACEs.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308038.t003

For the prevalence of three or more ACEs, a significant effect was found for the country the study was conducted in, with studies conducted in England ( n = 2) reporting a higher prevalence of three or more ACEs than studies conducted in Northern Ireland ( n = 2). Separately, the two studies conducted in England showed acceptable heterogeneity (I 2 = 0.0%; p = 0.8) and a pooled prevalence of 51% (95% CI: 48.0–54.0%; Section A of S6 Appendix ).

Childhood abuse.

Random effects models suggested a weighted prevalence of 15.9% (95% CI: 7.0% - 24.7%), 27.0% (95% CI: 18.1% - 35.9%), and 12.1% (95% CI: 5.2% - 19.0%), and for PA, EA, and SA, respectively ( Fig 2C–2E ). Significant heterogeneity was observed between studies (I 2 > 94.5%; p < .0001) for all meta-analyses. Leave-one-out analyses revealed no single study demonstrated an outsized effect on any of the pooled estimates ( S4 Appendix ). Quality effects models gave similar results, and even after removing Lagdon et al. [ 62 ] minimal differences were detected (Section B of S5 Appendix ).

Tentative results are reported for country and measurement tool ( Table 3 ) for SA and EA. Further subgroup analyses were conducted between the groups ( S1 Table ), in which for SA, they suggest that studies conducted in England ( n = 4), Scotland ( n = 1), and Wales ( n = 1), reported significantly higher prevalence rates of SA compared to Northern Ireland ( n = 3), and for EA, results show Scotland ( n = 1) reports significantly higher prevalence rates of EA compared to Northern Ireland ( n = 3).

In relation to the measurement tool, for SA, the CASE ( n = 1) was associated with higher prevalence rates of SA compared to the CTQ ( n = 1), questions developed by Christoffersen et al ([ 77 ]; n = 1), and questions developed by Oaksford and Frude ([ 66 ]; n = 1). Questions developed by Christoffersen et al. [ 77 ] and Oaksford and Frude [ 66 ] also showed significantly higher rates of SA compared to the CTQ. For EA, questions by Christoffersen et al. ([ 77 ]; n = 1) resulted in significantly higher rates of EA compared to the TLEQ ( n = 1) and CTQ ( n = 1). Given that the I 2 value for subgroup analyses remained above 90%, and the low number of studies in each subgroup, results should be interpreted with caution.

Childhood neglect.

Regarding the prevalence of childhood neglect (PN and EN), random effects models suggested a weighted prevalence of 8.4% (95% CI: 1.7% - 15.1%), and 30.0% (95% CI: 21.5% - 38.5%) for PN and EN, respectively ( Fig 2(F) and 2(G) . Significant heterogeneity was observed between studies (I 2 > 95.4%; p < .0001) for both variables. Leave-one-out analyses revealed that no single study demonstrated an outsized effects on the pooled estimates ( S4 Appendix ). No appreciable differences were found when the quality effects models were run.

Regarding subgroup analyses, tentative significant effects were found for both PN and EN and the country the study was conducted in ( Table 3 ). Further subgroup analyses ( S1 Table ) revealed that Scotland ( n = 1) reported significantly higher PN and EN compared to Northern Ireland ( n = 1). For PN, significant results are also reported for the type of students used in the research and the measurement tool used, whereby a higher prevalence of PN was found among a sample of Psychology students ( n = 1) compared to a more general sample of university students from a range of disciplines ( n = 5). Questions by Christoffersen et al. ([ 77 ]; n = 1) resulted in significantly higher rates of PN compared to the TLEQ ( n = 1). Additionally, there were positive associations between the percentage of female participants and PN, and the age of participants and EN.

Household dysfunction.

Random effects models suggested a weighted prevalence of 34.4% (95% CI: 22.8% - 46.0%), 18.4% (95% CI: 10.1% - 26.8%), 35.2% (95% CI: 23.6% - 46.8%), 21.4% (95% CI: 12.9% - 29.9%), and 5.7% (95% CI: 2.3% - 9.1%) for PS, DV, MHP, Sub, and Inc, respectively ( Fig 2H-2L ). Significant heterogeneity was observed between studies (I 2 > 88.8%; p < .0001) for all. No appreciable differences were found when quality effects models were run, and even after removing O’Neil et al. [ 65 ] minimal differences were detected (Section C of S5 Appendix ).

Leave-one-out analyses for PS and DV revealed that no single study demonstrated an outsized effect on the pooled estimates ( S4 Appendix ). For MHP and Sub, leave-one-out analyses revealed that one study [ 26 ] was having an outsized effect on the pooled estimates ( S4 Appendix ). Leaving this study out resulted in a pooled prevalence of 29.5% (95% CI: 26.2% - 32.8%; Section A of S7 Appendix ) and 17.3% (95% CI: 15.1% - 19.5%; Section B of S7 Appendix ) for MHP and Sub, respectively. Acceptable heterogeneity was also observed between studies for MHP (I 2 = 69.9%; p = .04) and Sub (I 2 = 52.2%; p = .12). Furthermore, for Inc, a leave-one-out analysis revealed that one study [ 63 ] was having an outsized effect on the pooled estimate ( S4 Appendix ). Leaving this study out resulted in a pooled prevalence of 7.5% (95% CI: 3.6% - 11.5%; Section B of S7 Appendix ), with acceptable heterogeneity between studies (I 2 = 62.7%; p = .10).

Regarding subgroup analyses, tentative results are reported for the country the study was conducted in ( Table 3 ) and the prevalence of PS, DV, and Inc, whereby England ( n = 2; n = 3; n = 2, respectively) reported higher prevalence rates compared to Northern Ireland ( n = 1; n = 2; n = 1, respectively). For DV, the three studies conducted in England showed acceptable heterogeneity (I 2 = 0.0%; p = 0.5) and a pooled prevalence of 24.0% (95% CI: 22.0–26.0%; Section B of S6 Appendix ), and for Inc, the two studies conducted in England showed acceptable heterogeneity (I 2 = 63.0%; p = 0.1) and a pooled prevalence of 8.0% (95% CI: 4.0–11.0%; Section C of S6 Appendix ). Positive associations were found between the age of participants and PS, DV, Sub, and Inc.

Publication bias.

Publication bias is usually assessed via visual inspection of the funnel plot and statistical tests for asymmetry [ 56 ]. It is recommended that statistical tests are used when there are at least ten studies included in the meta-analysis, due to a lack of power when fewer studies are included [ 78 ]. Given that there were less than ten studies in each of the meta-analysis, the statistical tests for funnel plot asymmetry were not deemed applicable. Funnel plots for each meta-analysis all visually suggest a degree of asymmetry ( S8 Appendix ); however, results should be taken with caution as low power makes it difficult to distinguish chance from real asymmetry [ 56 ].

The current systematic review and meta-analysis examines the prevalence of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) among university students in the UK. Ten studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in the meta-analyses. High prevalence of ACEs were found among university students in the UK; however, results indicate high levels of uncertainty due to the degree of unexplained variability in the estimates of prevalence of ACEs among this population. Thus, the results should be taken with caution and are discussed tentatively.

Main findings

This review suggests there may be a high prevalence of ACEs among university students in the UK (with the–albeit highly heterogeneous–data suggesting a pooled prevalence of over half (55.4%) reporting one or more ACE), although, the central tendency estimates cannot currently be interpreted with confidence. The high levels of heterogeneity and disparity echo findings for university students in China [ 42 ] with the pooled prevalence estimated for university students–also based on highly heterogeneous data–is even greater, at 64.7%. Confident interpretation of any differences between these estimates is not possible, but one might tentatively postulate geographical and cultural differences, as well as differences in inclusion criteria (as only studies which used a validated measure of childhood adversity were included in the previous review), as potential sources of difference.

The prevalence of at least one ACE in a general population sample in the UK has been estimated at 44.5% [ 6 ]. Again, conclusions must be highly tentative, but there is little in the current analysis to support the contention that those who attend university may be less likely than the general population to report ACEs, due to protective factors [ 19 , 79 ]. These results provide support for the argument that university students should be given distinct research attention regarding the prevalence of ACEs [ 42 ], and further studies are required to explore this, as there appears to be no consensus within the literature at present.

This review also suggests high prevalence rates of childhood abuse and neglect among university students in the UK. The heterogeneous data suggests a pooled prevalence of 30.0%, 27.0%, 15.9%, 12.1%, and 8.4% for emotional neglect, emotional abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, and physical neglect, respectively. In comparison to a general population sample in the UK (emotional abuse—23%, physical abuse—14%, sexual abuse—6%; [ 6 ]), the prevalence of childhood abuse is higher among university students in the UK. Although tentative, these results further corroborate that those who attend university may be no less likely than the general population to report ACEs.

Regarding the prevalence of household dysfunction, the results suggest a pooled prevalence (albeit with highly heterogenous data) of 34.4% and 18.4% for parental separation and domestic violence, respectively. Despite the majority of ACEs being highly heterogenous, following a leave-one-out analysis, three ACEs relating to household dysfunction (mental health problems, substance use, and incarceration [among adults living in family home]) demonstrated acceptable heterogeneity. The pooled prevalence for these analyses were 29.5%, 17.3%, and 7.5% for mental health problems, substance use, and incarceration, respectively.

For mental health problems and substance use (among adults living in family home) removing the article by Martin-Denham and Donaghue ([ 26 ]; which represented the highest prevalence) resulted in acceptable heterogeneity. Despite the study with the highest prevalence being removed, the pooled prevalence of mental health problems and substance use were still higher than what was found in a general population sample in England (11% for mental health problem, 11% for alcohol use, and 4% for drug use; [ 6 ]). These results tentatively suggest that university students are no less likely to experience these ACEs than the general population, and that a sizeable proportion of university students in the UK may have grown up in an environment with parents/carers who struggled with their own mental health difficulties and may have used substances as a coping mechanism to manage their distress. Thus, it may be important for university support services to be aware of this when designing support services for students.

The high prevalence of mental health problems and substance use in the Martin-Denham and Donaghue [ 26 ] paper may be reflective of the location that data were collected, as although the authors are not aware of which specific university students attended, if data was collected from the authors’ affiliated university (Sunderland University) or other local universities in the North East, the high prevalence may link to the North-West of England reportedly having the highest rate of child poverty in the UK [ 80 ].

Regarding incarceration, removing the outlying paper with the lowest prevalence [ 62 ] also resulted in acceptable heterogeneity. The remaining papers [ 25 , 26 ] potentially collected data from locations which had high rates of child poverty in the UK (Sunderland [39.7%] and Newham [49.5%; borough with the highest rate of child poverty in London]; [ 80 ]), whereas, McGavock & Spratt [ 63 ] collected data from Northern Ireland in 2010, which at that time reported lower child poverty rates of 21.4% [ 81 ]. It is therefore possible that the location from which data is collected underlies some of the heterogeneity found between studies, resulting in it being difficult to find overall prevalence rates of ACEs among the whole of the UK due to such disparities found among different areas.

This was further explored via subgroup analyses by including country of location as a factor. Potential location-related differences, particularly between England and Northern Ireland, and Scotland and Northern Ireland, were found for several ACEs. However, please note that this often involved pooling the England-based papers discussed above [ 25 , 26 ]; thus, the same limitations apply here regarding the disparity between different areas. Additionally, in some instances, the Northern Ireland and Scotland samples consisted of only one paper/university, so may not be truly representative of each country. The one study conducted in Scotland [ 64 ] included female psychology students only and is therefore unlikely to be fully representative. These results must, of course, be taken only as potential indications that location may be a factor for consideration in future research/analysis, since the potential for confounds in the context of such small numbers of studies is extremely high.

Subgroup analysis also revealed that for three or more ACEs, domestic violence, and incarceration, acceptable heterogeneity was demonstrated for studies conducted in England. The pooled prevalence was 51%, 24.0%, and 8.0% for three or more ACEs, domestic violence, and incarceration, which are higher than prevalence rates among a general population sample in England ([ 6 ]; 17%, 16%, and 3%, respectively). Tentatively again, these results provide little evidence that those who attend university in England are less likely than the general population to report multiple ACEs, domestic violence, and incarceration. However, the limitations discussed above regarding papers by Davies et al. [ 25 ] and Martin-Denham and Donaghue [ 26 ] should be held in mind here.

Interestingly, the results showed that females reported lower prevalence of one or more, and three or more ACEs, which contradicts previous research that demonstrates females tend to report higher levels of ACEs in comparisons to males [ 82 ]. Haahr-Pedersen et al. [ 83 ] report that females are more likely to report a range of ACEs and were more likely than males to report childhood adversity related to a dysfunctional home life, which may help to explain this anomaly finding within this study. Of the studies which were included in the analyses, two of the studies [ 62 , 67 ] had the highest percentage of females present in the sample, and the lowest prevalence rates of ACEs. However, these papers only included ACEs relating to childhood maltreatment and neglect; they did not account for household dysfunction or any other ACE. Thus, the range of ACEs were limited, and this result may be confounded by the number of ACEs measured, the measurement tool used, as well as location differences.

Strengths and limitations

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first meta-analysis to consider a wide range of ACEs (including household dysfunction) among university students in the UK, as well as internationally, as the meta-analysis by Fu et al. [ 42 ] predominantly focused on childhood abuse and neglect among university students in China. Thus, this review and meta-analysis provides an initial glance into the prevalence of ACEs among university students in the UK, and demonstrates the needs for further research.

However, it is important to highlight that this meta-analysis does not come without its limitations. As discussed throughout, there are high levels of uncertainty among the results due to the degree of unexplained variability in the estimates of prevalence of ACEs among university students in the UK. Thus, the central tendency estimates cannot be interpreted with confidence and must be taken with caution.

Another limitation is regarding all subgroup and meta-regression analyses, as the low number of studies should be borne in mind. One difficulty with subgroup analyses is low power [ 75 ], particularly when there are low numbers of studies in the subgroups, unequal numbers within subgroups, and high heterogeneity between studies [ 76 ], all of which are relevant to the current analyses. It has been suggested that 3–4 times the number of studies of ‘average’ meta-analyses are required to have sufficient power within subgroup analyses [ 76 ]; however, some of the subgroups within these analyses contained only one study, and therefore should be taken with caution. Not only do subgroup analyses with insufficient power risk inflating Type 2 errors, they also potentially increase the risk of Type 1 errors due to several subgroup analyses being run for multiple different moderators [ 76 ], which could potentially result in chance findings [ 84 ]. Where study numbers are low, it becomes impossible to de-confound potentially relevant factors which could contribute to heterogeneity, including the location of data collection, age and sex of participants, assessment tool used, and many more, including inevitable idiosyncrasies at specific-study level.

More broadly, another possibly important factor in the discrepancies within the literature and difficulties analysing the data is a lack of universal agreement on the standard definition of childhood adversity, and the multiple different types of ACEs that are explored. For example, the results highlight that emotional neglect and emotional abuse may be important factors for further exploration among university students in the UK; however, there is a lack of clarity in the literature regarding the definition and measurement of emotional neglect and emotional abuse, with some research grouping them together [ 85 ]. Sheldon and colleagues [ 41 ] emphasise that such inconsistencies make it difficult to meaningfully synthesise and compare datasets. It has been argued that these discrepancies in definition may, in part, be linked to the lack of systematic measurement of ACEs and childhood trauma (and vice versa), which may have implications for screening and assessing ACEs [ 86 , 87 ].

The variety of different measurement tools used to assess ACEs, and in some instances the lack of validation and/or psychometric properties reported, are important factors when considering the studies included in this meta-analysis and the limitations of the analyses. For example, some measures ask only one question for a particular ACE, which is thought to lead to underestimates of prevalence [ 88 ]. Measures (such as the ACE scale) which use dichotomous responses and count the total number of ACEs ignore variability in responses, as well as the timing, duration, impact, severity, and the meaning these experiences have for individuals [ 89 , 90 ], in which concerns have been raised regarding the ACE score being misused as a screening or diagnostic tool [ 91 ].

The breadth of possible ACEs was limited in these meta-analyses due to inadequate data available for some areas, such as bullying and deprivation. Furthermore, the majority of measurement tools included did not take into account other experiences of adversity, such as discrimination, hate crime, racism, poverty etc. The self-report and retrospective nature of ACE measurement tools is another criticism of these tools, as people may underestimate the significance of the event, have memory biases, fail to correctly recall memories, or choose not to share such private information [ 92 – 94 ]. There was some evidence in the current analyses that the measurement tool used may affect reported prevalence, with the ACE scale reporting higher prevalence rates of overall ACEs, and multiple discrepancies between questions developed by authors and some of the more validated scales (such as the CTQ and TLEQ) for the prevalence of individual ACEs. However, again, with so few studies, it is impossible to de-confound factors relating to this variable from others of potential importance (e.g. location).

Another important limitation of this systematic review and meta-analysis (and of the studies included in the meta-analyses) is the conceptualisation of the transition to university, and how this is underpinned by potentially outdated views of university students transitioning to university and moving away from home. Although this may be the case for some students, it may not reflect the experience of around a quarter of students who are thought to live at home and commute to university [ 95 ], with the concept of hybrid/blended learning becoming more prevalent since COVID-19; [ 96 ]). Students from minoritised-racial groups, lower social class groups, and deprived areas are more likely to commute to university and have poorer outcomes than their counterparts [ 95 ]. Thus, when exploring the prevalence of ACEs among this population, it seems imperative to understand some of the wider systemic and societal factors surrounding students, and whether they stay at or commute to university.

Implications for practice, policy, and research

Despite the aforementioned limitations, the findings have important implications for practice, policy, and research. One of the main difficulties when trying to synthesise ACE data is the discrepancies in definitions of childhood adversity and individual ACEs; therefore, a more unified and universally agreed definition would be beneficial for future research, as well as more cohesive and validated measurement tools to allow for better insights into the prevalence and impact of ACEs.

Whilst high levels of heterogeneity preclude confident interpretation of single central summary estimates, there were indications of high prevalence of ACEs within this current meta-analysis, implying that these are common experiences among university students in the UK. There was little evidence for the assumption that ACEs may be lower among this population, thus, consideration should be given by universities, policymakers, and researchers to further understand the prevalence and impact of ACEs among this population, and to offer support as early as possible to help minimise the detrimental impact of ACEs, support their mental well-being, and support academic studies [ 15 , 16 ]. It may be useful for support services in universities to explore ACEs during assessment and formulation sessions with students, to help gain further understanding of some of their early life experiences, and to help conceptualise their current distress as useful and adaptive survival strategies as a result of their earlier experiences [ 97 ].

Additionally, there were tentative suggestions in the data of high prevalence of childhood emotional abuse and neglect among university students in the UK; however, emotional neglect is a largely under-represented area in the scientific research [ 98 ]. Therefore, given the detrimental impact that emotional neglect can have (including loneliness, a failure to thrive, low mood, low self-esteem, substance use, suicidal ideation; [ 99 , 100 ]), it may be important for future research to explore the prevalence and impact of this among UK university students, and to consider these areas when designing and providing support services.

In conclusion, the results suggest high prevalence rates of ACEs among university students in the UK, with little evidence in the current analyses supporting the contention that those who attend university may be less likely than the general population to report ACEs due to protective factors. However, this systematic review and meta-analysis demonstrates difficulties in provision of any “true” prevalence estimates of ACEs due to currently unexplained variability in estimates. Potential sources of heterogeneity, including measurement tools and location, should be considered in future work. Clearer universal definitions of childhood adversity and unified measurement tools may allow for better assessment, understanding, and synthesis of the prevalence and impact of ACEs among university students in the UK. These findings should spur future research into the prevalence and impact of ACEs among this population and for universities and policymakers to consider how best to support students with lived experience of ACEs to help minimise any detrimental impact on their mental well-being and academic studies.

Supporting information

S1 appendix. search strategy..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308038.s001

S2 Appendix. Risk of bias appraisal tool.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308038.s002

S3 Appendix. Risk of bias appraisal score.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308038.s003

S4 Appendix. Leave-one-out analyses.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308038.s004

S5 Appendix. Additional analyses.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308038.s005

S6 Appendix. Forest plots from subgroup analyses.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308038.s006

S7 Appendix. Forest plots from leave-one-out analyses.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308038.s007

S8 Appendix. Funnel plots.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308038.s008

S9 Appendix. Prospero protocol.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308038.s009

S10 Appendix. PRISMA checklist.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308038.s010

S1 Table. Additional sub-group analyses.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308038.s011

S1 Data. Meta-analysis data set.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308038.s012

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