macbeth act 4 scene 1 essay

by William Shakespeare

Macbeth summary and analysis of act 4, act 4, scene 1.

The witches circle a cauldron, mixing in a variety of grotesque ingredients while chanting "double, double toil and trouble; / Fire burn, and cauldron bubble" (10-11). Hecate appears, they sing all together, and Hecate leaves. Macbeth then enters, demanding answers to his pressing questions about the future. The witches complete their magic spell and summon forth a series of apparitions. The first is an armed head that warns Macbeth to beware the Thane of Fife (Macduff). The second apparition is a bloody child, who tells him that "none of woman born / Shall harm Macbeth" (96-97). This news bolsters Macbeth spirits. The third apparition is a crowned child with a tree in its hand, who says that "Macbeth shall never vanquished be until / Great Birnam Wood to high Dunsinane Hill / Shall come against him" (107-09). This cheers Macbeth even more, since he knows that nothing can move a forest. Macbeth proceeds to ask his last question: will Banquo's children ever rule Scotland?

The cauldron sinks and a strange sound is heard. The witches now show Macbeth a procession of kings, the eighth of whom holds a mirror in his hand, followed by Banquo. As Banquo points at this line of kings, Macbeth realizes that they are indeed his family line. After the witches dance and disappear, Lennox enters with the news that Macduff has fled to England. Macbeth resolves that he will henceforth act immediately on his ambitions: the first step will be to seize Fife and kill Macduff's wife and children.

Act 4, Scene 2

At Fife, Ross visits Lady Macduff, who is frightened for her own safety now that her husband has fled. He reassures her by telling her that her husband did only what was right and necessary. After he leaves, Lady Macduff engages her son in a conversation about his missing father. The little boy demonstrates wisdom well beyond his years. A messenger interrupts them with a warning to flee the house immediately. But before Lady Macduff can escape, murderers attack the house and kill everyone including Lady Macduff and her son.

Act 4, Scene 3

Macduff arrives at the English court and meets with Malcolm. Malcolm, remembering his father's misplaced trust in Macbeth, decides to test Macduff: he confesses that he is a greedy, lustful, and sinful man who makes Macbeth look like an angel in comparison. Macduff despairs and says that he will leave Scotland forever if this is the case, since there seems to be no man fit to rule it. Upon hearing this, Malcolm is convinced of Macduff's goodness and reveals that he was merely testing him; he has none of these faults to which he has just confessed. In fact, he claims, the first lie he has ever told was this false confession to Macduff. He then announces that Siward has assembled an army of ten thousand men and is prepared to march on Scotland.

A messenger appears and tells the men that the king of England is approaching, attended by a crowd of sick and despairing people who wish the king to cure them. The king, according to Malcolm, has a gift for healing people simply by laying his hands on them.

Ross arrives from Scotland and reports that the country is in a shambles. When Macduff asks how his wife and children are faring, Ross first responds that they are “well at peace” (180). When pressed further, he relates the story of their death. Macduff is stunned speechless and Malcolm urges him to cure his grief by exacting revenge on Macbeth. Macduff is overcome with guilt and sorrow from the murders that occurred while he was absent. Again Malcolm urges him to put his grief to good use and seek revenge. All three men leave to prepare for battle.

As the act opens, the witches carry on the theme of doubling and equivocation that threads throughout the play. As they throw ingredients into their cauldron, they chant "double, double, toil and trouble"—a reminder that their speech is full of double meanings, paradox, and equivocation (IV i 10). The apparitions that the witches summon give equivocal messages to Macbeth, and they appear to know quite consciously that he will only understand one half of their words. Although Macbeth himself has previously acknowledged that "stones have been known to move and trees to speak" (III iv 122), the apparitions give Macbeth a false sense of security. He takes the apparitions' words at face value, forgetting to examine how their predictions could potentially come true.

The theme of doubling is amplified when the witches summon the "show of kings." Each king who appears looks "too like the spirit of Banquo," frightens Macbeth with their resemblance (IV i 128). For Macbeth, it is as if the ghosts of Banquo have returned to haunt him several times over. In the procession of kings, Macbeth also notes that some carry "twofold balls and treble scepters"—as if even the signs of their power have been doubled.

On a historical note, it is generally thought the eighth king holds up a mirror in order to pander to James I. This last king—the eighth-generation descendant of Banquo—is none other than a figure of James I himself. He thus carries a mirror to signal as much to the real James I, who sits at the forefront of the audience. A similar moment of pandering occurs when Malcolm notes that the king of England has a special power to heal people affected by “the evil” (147). In various subtle ways, Shakespeare complimented King James I—a legendary descendant of Banquo and author of a book on witchcraft ( Daemonologie [1597]).

James I is not the only character who is doubled in Macbeth . Throughout the play, characters balance and complement each other in a carefully constructed harmony. As a man who also receives a prophecy but refuses to act actively upon it, Banquo serves as sort of inverse mirror image of Macbeth. Although he has troubled dreams like Macbeth, his arise from the suppression of ambitions whereas Macbeth's arise from the fulfillment thereof. Other major characters, including Malcolm, Macduff, and Lady Macbeth , can also be seen as foils or doubles for Macbeth. Particularly interesting is the case of Lady Macbeth, who in some sense “switches roles” with Macbeth as the play progresses. Whereas she first advises Macbeth to forget all remorse and guilt, Lady Macbeth becomes increasingly troubled by her own guilt as Macbeth begins to heed her advice.

Another form of doubling or equivocation is found in the theme of costumes, masks, and disguises. While planning Duncan's murder, Lady Macbeth counsels Macbeth to "look like the innocent flower, / But be the serpent under't"—to "beguile the time" by disguising his motives behind a mask of loyalty (I v 61). After the murder, Lady Macbeth paints the bodyguards' faces with a mask of blood to implicate them. Similarly, while preparing to kill Banquo, Macbeth comments that men must "make [their] faces visors to [their] hearts, / Disguising what they are" (III ii 35-36). Thus when Malcolm tests Macduff's loyalty, he begins appropriately by saying that "all things foul would wear the brows of grace" (IV iii 23). Even the most foul of men—perhaps like Macbeth and the murderers—are able to disguise themselves. Just as the witches’ equivocation covers up the true harm within their alluring words, disguises and masks hide the inner world from the outer.

Finally, during the scene in which the murders occur, Lady Macduff reflects the bird symbolism that began in Act 1. When Lady Macduff complains to Ross about the abrupt departure of Macduff, she states: "the poor wren / The most diminutive of birds, will fight, / Her young ones in her nest, against the owl" (IV ii 9-11). Her metaphor comes to life when she and her son are attacked by Macbeth's men. Macbeth, as earlier established, is identified with the owl; so Lady Macduff, trying to protect her son, becomes the wren in a realization of her own figure of speech. It is with particular pathos that the audience sees Macduff’s precocious son fall prey to the swords of Macbeth’s ruthless murderers.

Macbeth Questions and Answers

The Question and Answer section for Macbeth is a great resource to ask questions, find answers, and discuss the novel.

Of what importance are the bleeding Sergeant and Ross? Why does Shakespeare introduce two messengers?

There are two pieces of information here, hence the two messengers. The bleeding sergeant is meant to inform Duncan, and the audience, of Macbeth's valor in battle. Ross is meant to inform about the Thane of Cawdor being a traitor. Both pieces of...

The third which says that Banquo's sons shall be kings, Thou shalt get kings, though thou be none. So all hail, Macbeth and Banquo!

Macbeth Act 1 Scene 3 questions

What is significant about the first words that Macbeth speaks in the play?

A motif or recurring idea in the play is equivocation. There is the balance of the dark and the light, the good and the bad. Macbeth's first line reflects this. It...

Study Guide for Macbeth

Macbeth study guide contains a biography of William Shakespeare, literature essays, a complete e-text, quiz questions, major themes, characters, and a full summary and analysis.

• About Macbeth
• Macbeth Summary
• Macbeth Video
• Character List

Essays for Macbeth

Macbeth essays are academic essays for citation. These papers were written primarily by students and provide critical analysis of Macbeth by William Shakespeare.

• Serpentine Imagery in Shakespeare's Macbeth
• Macbeth's Evolution
• Jumping the Life to Come
• Deceptive Appearances in Macbeth
• Unity in Shakespeare's Tragedies

Lesson Plan for Macbeth

• About the Author
• Study Objectives
• Common Core Standards
• Introduction to Macbeth
• Relationship to Other Books
• Bringing in Technology
• Notes to the Teacher
• Related Links
• Macbeth Bibliography

E-Text of Macbeth

Macbeth e-text contains the full text of Macbeth by William Shakespeare.

• Persons Represented
• Act I, Scene I
• Act I, Scene II
• Act I, Scene III
• Act I, Scene IV

Wikipedia Entries for Macbeth

• Introduction

'Macbeth': an exploration of Act 4, Scenes 1 to 3

I can explain what happens in Act 4, Scenes 1 to 3 of ‘Macbeth’ with a focus on the character of Macbeth and the setting, Scotland.

Lesson details

Key learning points.

• Scotland is unstable under Macbeth’s leadership
• In Act 4, Scene 1, the witches give Macbeth further prophecies
• Macduff is a loyal Scottish Thane whose family is killed by Macbeth
• Macbeth feels the witches’ prophecies make him invincible
• Malcolm and Macduff prepare to go to war with Macbeth in order to restore Scotland to strength and stability

Common misconception

Malcolm is an immoral person.

Malcolm pretends he is filled with lust and greed, but this is to test Macduff's loyalty.

Precarious - If something is precarious, it is insecure or unstable.

Malevolent - If you are malevolent, you want to do harm to others.

Contrast - Contrast is a synonym for difference.

Stable - Something stable is secure or solid. It is the opposite of something precarious.

Invincible - If someone is invincible, they can’t be defeated or killed.

You need access to William Shakespeare's 'Macbeth'.

Content guidance

• Depiction or discussion of serious crime
• Depiction or discussion of violence or suffering

Supervision

Adult supervision required

This content is © Oak National Academy Limited ( 2024 ), licensed on Open Government Licence version 3.0 except where otherwise stated. See Oak's terms & conditions (Collection 2).

Starter quiz

6 questions.

Act 4, Scene 1 -  

Macbeth seeks the witches; they give further prophecies.

Act 4, Scene 2 -  

Lady Macduff and her son are killed by hired murderers.

Act 4, Scene 3 -  

Malcolm and Macduff prepare an army to overthrow Macbeth.

Macbeth Act 4 Scene 1

Macbeth act 4 scene 1 lyrics.

How to Format Lyrics:

• Type out all lyrics, even repeating song parts like the chorus
• Lyrics should be broken down into individual lines
• Use section headers above different song parts like [Verse], [Chorus], etc.
• Use italics ( <i>lyric</i> ) and bold ( <b>lyric</b> ) to distinguish between different vocalists in the same song part
• If you don’t understand a lyric, use [?]

To learn more, check out our transcription guide or visit our transcribers forum

We’re at the witches' cavern. The witches are chanting their “recipes”, and their cooking forms a contrast with the royal banquet from 3.4. The Second Witch utters the immortal line “Something wicked this way comes”, and sure enough, Macbeth arrives, demanding answers from the witches.

They give him three, via apparitions. The first is simply “beware Macduff”; the second, that “None of woman born / shall harm Macbeth”. Macbeth decides to have Macduff killed, just in case.

He’s then told that he won’t be “vanquish’d” until “great Birnham wood” marches to high Dunsinane Hill, which sounds as safe as not having to fear anyone who was born from a woman. Macbeth is warned not to ask any more questions, but he does anyway: he’s desperate to know if Banquo’s children will ever be kings. The witches reveal a procession of eight kings, the last holding a mirror to reveal even more. The witches taunt him for his reaction, then disappear.

Lennox arrives with the news that Macduff has fled to England, probably to raise an army to fight Macbeth. In a transformative moment, he throws all morality out the window and decides to murder all of Macduff’s innocent family.

The location of the witches' cavern isn’t apparent, and there seems to be something of a narrative disconnect with the previous scene, possibly as a result of textual corruption or later insertions. Most modern scholars believe that Hecate’s part in this scene was added by the younger dramatist Thomas Middleton.

For a look at the historical Macbeth, see this article.

Roman Polanski included an abridged version of this scene in his 1971 adaptation of the play.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WtdZyZYg0n0

Find answers to frequently asked questions about the song and explore its deeper meaning

• 1. Macbeth (Characters of the Play)
• 2. Macbeth Act 1 Scene 1
• 3. Macbeth Act 1 Scene 2
• 4. Macbeth Act 1 Scene 3
• 5. Macbeth Act 1 Scene 4
• 6. Macbeth Act 1 Scene 5
• 7. Macbeth Act 1 Scene 6
• 8. Macbeth Act 1 Scene 7
• 9. Macbeth Act 2 Scene 1
• 10. Macbeth Act 2 Scene 2
• 11. Macbeth Act 2 Scene 3
• 12. Macbeth Act 2 Scene 4
• 13. Macbeth Act 3 Scene 1
• 14. Macbeth Act 3 Scene 2
• 15. Macbeth Act 3 Scene 3
• 16. Macbeth Act 3 Scene 4
• 17. Macbeth Act 3 Scene 5
• 18. Macbeth Act 3 Scene 6
• 19. Macbeth Act 4 Scene 1
• 20. Macbeth Act 4 Scene 2
• 21. Macbeth Act 4 Scene 3
• 22. Macbeth Act 5 Scene 1
• 23. Macbeth Act 5 Scene 2
• 24. Macbeth Act 5 Scene 3
• 25. Macbeth Act 5 Scene 4
• 26. Macbeth Act 5 Scene 5
• 27. Macbeth Act 5 Scene 6
• 28. Macbeth Act 5 Scene 7
• 29. Macbeth Act 5 Scene 8 (Final Scene)
• 30. Out, Damned Spot!
• 31. Tomorrow, and Tomorrow, and Tomorrow

Genius is the world’s biggest collection of song lyrics and musical knowledge

• TOP CATEGORIES
• AS and A Level
• University Degree
• International Baccalaureate
• Uncategorised
• 5 Star Essays
• Study Tools
• Study Guides
• Meet the Team
• English Literature
• Shakespeare

Macbeth - Act 4 Scene 1: Discuss the Dramatic Potential in this scene.

BHAVIK SAMANI

Act 4 Scene 1: Discuss the Dramatic Potential in this scene

“Macbeth” is a play that revolves initially round a brave warrior, who is loyal to his king. This can be seen, as he fights for his king with so much courage and bravery. He fights his way through a whole army on his own. The king thanks him, and promotes him to Thane of Cawdor. After this battle, he meets three witches. During this meeting he is with Banquo, a good friend. The witches tell Macbeth, that he will become Thane of Cawdor and then king. They predict that Banquo’s children shall become king.

Quote: ‘All hail, Macbeth! Hail to thee, Thane of Cawdor!..... All hail, Macbeth! that shalt be King hereafter / Thou shalt get kings, though thou be none:’

At the time this play was written. People really believed in witches. They would have run away, however Macbeth and Banquo stayed. The audience watching this play at the time it was written would have found this unusual. After hearing the news, Macbeth changes. He is filled with ambition. He wants to know more. Soon after he writes a letter to his wife telling her about the witches. She thinks of a plan, to make Macbeth king. When Duncan (the king), comes to stay at Macbeth’s castle, Lady Macbeth drugs the guards and Macbeth kills Duncan while he is sleeping. The next morning after hearing about their father’s death, Duncan’s two sons run away to England. They fear for their lives, however people start to point the finger at them, for Duncan’s murder. As there are no heirs to the throne, Macbeth crowns himself king. Macbeth then tries to find the witches, and meets up with them. This is the start Act 4 Scene 1. The fact that Macbeth has actually gone to find the witches makes this scene different from any other. At the time of Shakespeare, people would have been afraid of witches and they would have run away.

The play, Macbeth, is dramatic. To build up the drama and make Macbeth appear dramatic, Shakespeare has had to twist the story and use things that would have been shocking to the audience, such as witches. Act 4 Scene 1 is based on the witches and the apparitions. Shakespeare has built up the tension by using thunder, witches, chanting and the potion making. The thunder has been used only when the witches appear. The audience realizes that something evil is going to take place and the witches will enter the stage. It is all to do with the fact that thunder is associated with evil. Shakespeare has also hinted that something wicked was going to take place through the chanting.

Quote: ‘In the poisoned entrails throw...... Sweltered venom sleeping got,’

The words poisoned entrails, and venom indicate evil content and this helps to build up the tension of the play. After chanting and making the potion, a fourth witch, Hecate refers to music and song. This helps to build impact, as music and song are rhythmic, and people believed that rhythm was also associated with evil. More drama has been added to the scene, when Macbeth enters. The entrance of Macbeth would have been a shock to the audience. Straight away, the audience would think differently of Macbeth. As witches were thought of as supernatural, people would have been scared of them. However, Macbeth has gone looking for them. As soon as he enters, he doesn’t ask the witches anything, he demands. This can be seen as he says, ‘How now you secret, black, and midnight hags! What is’t you do?’ However he does not seem fearful. A reaction such as this one would make Macbeth’s behaviour very dramatic. This dramatic behaviour is shown through his actions and words. He commands them to tell him about his future. He doesn’t seem to care what happens, but he wants to know. Macbeth goes to such an extreme, that he says, ‘Even till destruction sicken: answer me.’ After hearing this, the audience would be put to the edge of their seats. They would begin to think that these words will come back to haunt Macbeth and that this will lead to disaster. There would be a sense of fear in what is to come as the play progresses.

The tension that has been building throughout the scene still builds as the scene carries on. The witches begin to entice Macbeth to come to them.

Quote: First Witch  ‘Speak’

            Second Witch  ‘Demand’

            Third Witch  ‘We’ll answer’

            First Witch  ‘Say, if thou’dst rather hear it from our mouths, Or from our

                                masters’?’

The above quote shows that they want him to come to them and go deeper in to evil by hearing it from their master. This increases the drama of the play as the audience becomes increasingly curious and scared that there is a bigger evil than the witches. Macbeth then replies to the witches, by saying, ‘ Call’em, let me see ’em.’ If an audience watching the play in the olden days when Shakespeare was still alive, heard this, they would be very frightened about the events that will take place afterwards, and how the story will twist. This is because Macbeth is now showing absolutely no fear and he is not even shaken by the fact that he is about to witness the ultimate evil.  

During the time Macbeth is with the witches, he is also shown three apparitions. These apparitions are hinting Macbeth about what is going to happen in the future. However the apparitions can be interpreted in many different ways. The three apparitions reinforce the evil doings of the witches, and add to the tension of the play. The audience would start to try to interpret the apparitions themselves. As this would be the case, they could start to build a picture of they think might happen in the remainder of the play. Even whilst seeing the apparitions, Macbeth seems to be demanding and fearless, as he quotes: ‘Tell me, thou unknown power.’ This reinforces the fact that he is no longer the loyal and brave person he was before. The audience would find this frightening, because they know that Macbeth has changed forever. The audience will start to feel that Macbeth is not scared of evil, because he has been transformed from a good person to an evil one by the witches. This would grip the audience, as they might start to think that if the witches can turn Macbeth in to a bad person, they will try to do the same to everyone. The whole world would be doomed.

This is a preview of the whole essay

The first apparition is of an armed head. This would seem dramatic to the audience and would make them curious, as to what is meant by the armed head. The second apparition is of a bloody child. This would not seem very dramatic to an audience watching Macbeth now, but it would have seemed dramatic to an audience of Shakespeare’s time. This is because, now they would show such things in films, however in those days it would have been rare to see such things. The second apparition tells Macbeth that a man who is not born of a woman can only harm him. Again we see a glimpse of Macbeth’s changing attitude and character. He quotes:

‘Then live Macduff, what need I fear of thee?’

This shows that Macbeth has also become very arrogant. This adds to the drama of the play, because it reinforces the fact that Macbeth is changing and that the power of being king has been too much for him to handle. He has now been weakened. The apparitions, help in making the audience guess the rest of the play. This is what grips the audience and makes the play successful. The third apparition is a child crowned, with a tree in his hand. This apparition tells Macbeth that he cannot be vanquished until, Great Birnam Wood, will come to High Dunsinane Hill. The apparition will again grip the audience, as it has many interpretations. The audience would start to think about how this apparition will affect Macbeth’s reign as king, and how Shakespeare will use it to twist the storyline. However Macbeth is again arrogant, and refuses to think that this could happen. He therefore ignores it. Instead he asks the witches to tell him more about Banquo’s sons. When he is shown that eight generations of Banquo will become king, he starts to show his anger and fears for his throne. The apparition, and what it has indicated to Macbeth would excite an audience watching the play. This is because the audience knows that Macbeth the weaknesses in Macbeth are beginning to show, and that these weaknesses could lose him his throne.  

Nearing the end of the scene, Macbeth theatens to kill Macdufff’s family.

Quote: ‘Seize upon Fife; give to th’edge o’th’sword

             His wife, his babes, and all unfortunate souls

             That trace him in his line.

As this is the most dramatic part of the scene, it comes nearer to the end. This is because, the tension being built up throughout the scene, was made to lead up to this threat to Macduff’s family. This also shows, the change in Macbeth’s character. It is showing the audience that he has become ruthless, and he feels that killing is the only way out. The tension is being built up through the apparitions and the witches, and also Macbeth’s behaviour. The apparitions can be interpreted in many different ways and Macbeth is changing constantly with a very fearless approach to the witches.  

Firstly, looking at the language of the witches it can be seen, that, at the beginning of the scene, they are chanting in rhyme. However, this is the way that the witches speak throughout the scene, and this makes them different to any other person, because of the way they speak. They also mention ‘poisoned entrails’ and ‘venom’ at the start of the scene. This indicates that there is evil content going in to the potion. A lot of the ingredients for the witches’ potion are of animals, humans, plants, and what we call myths today. The second witch concentrates on the animal contents. The animals parts mentioned are, ‘Eye of newt’ ‘toe of frog’ ‘wool of bat’ ‘tongue of dog’ ‘adder’s fork’ ‘blind-worm’s sting’ ‘lizards leg’ and ‘howlet’s wing.’

For an audience watching the play, this would have seemed very gruesome. The third witch gives reference to animals, plants, humans, and mythical animals, or animals that are hard to capture. The animals mentioned are ‘wolf’ ‘shark’ and ‘goat.’ The plants used are ‘hemlock’ and ‘Yew.’ There is human content too, such as, ‘Jew’ ‘Turk’ ‘Tartar’ ‘babe’ ‘drab’. It would have been shocking for an audience to hear about some of the things that the witches were putting in the potion. However, some of the things mentioned, would not seem very horrible to the audience watching the play at the time of Shakespeare. These include the use of, Jews, Turks and Tartars, because they are all non Christians. At the time Shakespeare wrote the play, people were very racist. However the witches didn’t believe in any religion because they were evil. This meant that they could have been made to use parts of a Christian. However if Shakespeare had done this, the play wouldn’t have been successful. The other ingredients, however, would have seemed very horrible to the audience. As the audience already believed in witches, they would have begun to grow scared about, what the witches were going to do.

When Macbeth enters the scene, and asks the witches to tell him about what will happen in the future, they tempt him to go further in to evil.

First Witch        Speak

Second Witch                Demand

Third Witch                             We’ll answer

First Witch         Say, if thou’dst rather hear it from our mouths,

                     Or from our masters’?

The above quote shows that the witches are trying to turn Macbeth from a good person to an evil one. The witches tell Macbeth about his future through the apparitions. These apparitions are equivocations, and are shown to Macbeth. The second and third apparitions are presented to Macbeth in the form of riddles. The three apparitions are ‘invitations to exercise you imagination. No one knows for sure quite what they look like.’ This shows that the apparitions are open to more than one interpretation, and have more than one meaning. They are combined with equivocal statements that twist the apparition and are in the form of a riddle to create confusion. In Macbeth’s case, it can be seen that the witches have misled him, as the witches know that Macbeth will interpret the apparitions in the easy way. If he thinks that what is being shown to him is not possible, then he won’t consider it a threat. An example of this would be, when the second apparition, tells him, ‘The power of man, for none of woman born, Shall harm Macbeth.’ It is trying to say that any man that has been born through caesarian can harm Macbeth. However, in the olden days, caesarean was very rare, and Macbeth thought that it was impossible. By the end of the play, Macbeth and the audience, come to realize that the witches have been evil and misled Macbeth. They didn’t tell him what was going to happen, but they hinted it. However this shows that they had misled him.

Through the language, it can be seen that Macbeth has changed throughout the scene. At first Macbeth seems to be very demanding, and fearless. He starts off by saying, ‘I conjure you.’ This shows that Macbeth is trying to conjure evil, and shows no fear. He does not seem scared of the fact that he is meeting up with the witches. This also indicates to the audience that he could be evil himself. Macbeth also gives a whole lot of destructive and horrible things that could happen, and if these did he would not care but he wanted to know about his future. He quotes, ‘Even till destruction sicken: answer me.’ This reinforces that he is fearless of the witches, demanding and he has been taken over by ambition. However it also shows that he is desperate and fearful of his throne. He does not want to lose it. Macbeth demands even more when the first apparition appears. He says, ‘Tell me, thou unknown power -’ It can be seen that there are no question marks, indicating that it is not a question. This means that it is an imperative (command). The second apparition calls Macbeth three times. He replies, ‘Had I three ears, I’d hear thee.’ This shows change in his character. He seems to be arrogant. When he is told that only a man not born of a woman can harm him, Macbeth replies, ‘Then live Macduff, what need I fear of thee?’ This is a rhetorical question, however it reinforces the fact that he has changed and has now become very arrogant. Straight after he shows a sign of ruthlessness. He quotes:

But yet I’ll make assurance double sure

And take a bond of fate: thou shalt not live,

That I may tell pale-hearted fear it lies.

And sleep in spite of thunder.’

He is saying that he will make sure that Macduff will not live and be a threat to him and his throne.

The third apparition is also given in the form of a riddle. It has many interpretations. However he still thinks that all the apparitions are good. He thinks that they are impossible, as he quotes:

That will never be:

Who can impress the forest, bid the tree

Unfix his earthbound root? Sweet bodements, good.’

The quote above shows that Macbeth feels that the forest can never move to the hill. It can also be seen that Macbeth is sure that it will not happen. The first line of the quote is declarative. Further on, he asks to be told about Banquo’s issue. Quote:

‘Can tell so much, shall Banquo’s issue ever

Reign in this kingdom?’

It can be seen that a question mark has been used. It shows that Macbeth’s character is changing again. He has become less demanding, as he is now beginning to ask the witches to tell him about the future.

When Macbeth is shown the eight kings he changes completely. He reacts differently to when he saw the other apparitions. On page 101, line 59, he quotes, ‘Even till destruction sicken, answer me.’ When he sees the eight kings, he quotes, ‘I’ll see no more.’ This shows that near to the beginning of the scene, he was eager to know about the future, and now that he is seeing it, he does not like it and wants it to go away. There is a great difference in his personality, and he is contradicting himself. When Macbeth responds, to the image of the eight kings, his reaction is intended to be different. This can be seen as a lot of exclamation marks, question marks and dashes have been used. It can also be seen, that when Macbeth sees something that he thinks is bad, he cannot take it. This is his downfall and it is also his weakness. Macbeth says that he does not like the sight of the eight kings. He refers to it as a ‘Horrible sight!’ He also says that ‘The crown does sear mine eyeballs.’ This indicates to the audience, that he cannot take the sight of the eight kings, because he knows they are all related to Banquo, and that his reign will not last for long. It shows that Macbeth cannot accept defeat. During the apparition, Macbeth also shows signs of fear for his throne. He is scared that Banquo’s children will reign forever. This can be seen as he quotes:

‘What, will the line stretch out to the crack of doom?’

Near to the end of the scene, Macbeth shows a change in character. He quotes:

‘From this moment,

The very firstlings of my hand.  

By this, he means that the first things he thinks of he will do. He will not give anything a second thought. It shows that he has become more focused on keeping his throne. He then goes on to show another sign of ruthlessness. He quotes:

‘Seize upon Fife; give to th’edge o’th’sword

His wife, his babes, and all unfortunate souls

That trace him in his line.’

It can be seen that he is threatening to kill anyone who is in Macduff’s castle, even his wife and children. This is dramatic and shocking to the audience and shows that Macduff has changed forever and will remain with evil. The witches have succeeded in making him evil. It also shows that he has become ruthless, and feels that the only way out is to kill everyone who comes in his path.

During the course of the play, it can be seen that Macbeth has changed. His mood and personality change. It seems as though he is a totally different person. At the start of the play, Macbeth can be seen as a loyal, calm, controlled and truthful soldier, who fights for the right reasons and for his king during battle. It looks as if he is unbeatable and has no weaknesses. However, after meeting the witches for the first time he changes. He is overcome with ambition. The words of the witches fill his mind with thoughts, and how he will become king. The ambition, he is filled with, is like a power. He cannot control it and this, leads to Macbeth killing the king. This again, is another turning point in Macbeth’s behaviour. His weaknesses can start to be seen. He becomes depressed and distressed. This makes his mental state of mind unstable. Once Macbeth became king, there was another change in his behaviour. Macbeth was overwhelmed by his new power as king. He was focused on keeping his throne. As a result of this, he became violent and ruthless. He knew that Banquo, was with him, the first time they met the witches. Banquo was a threat, to Macbeth and his throne. Macbeth’s ruthlessness was shown when he arranged for Banquo’s and his son’s death. However, he now began to feel scared. He was conscious about what he had done to Banquo. His ghost haunted him. Again Macbeth showed signs of mental instability. However after killing Banquo, Fleance, his son, fled and got away. This leads to Macbeth trying to seek out the witches again, to find out what the future holds. His actions show the audience that he now has no fear of the witches. This is dramatic for the audience because witches were thought to be evil, and as a result of this, the audience would start to think that Macbeth has turned evil.

The scene where Macbeth goes to meet the witches for a second time is actually scene 4. During this scene a lot of changes in Macbeth’s behaviour begin to show. When he first enters, he is demanding and angry, as he demands to know about the future. Also no fear is shown. As the scene progresses, he shows signs of confidence. This is when he is shown the apparitions. This is because the apparitions are in form of verbal riddles. They can be interpreted in any which way, and Macbeth chooses to interpret them in the way that will suit his throne. As the apparitions seem impossible, Macbeth feels confident that nothing will harm his throne. However, Macbeth’s anger is once more unleashed, at the site of future kings, all related to Banquo. Macbeth’s, weakness is exposed. The thought of losing his throne frightens him. Macbeth feels that he must do something to keep his title as king. By the end of the scene, it can be seen that he resorts to violence again. He shows another glimpse of ruthlessness. This is shown through a death-threat that is made to Macduff and his family. Throughout scene 4, the witches have developed the feeling of darkness, emptiness and the cold. This contributes to the feeling of wrongdoing, as witches are associated with evil. This feeling has developed from the start of the scene, from the potion to the disappearance at the end. After hearing what the witches have put in the potion, the audience would realise that something bad is going to happen, and something evil is already taking place. The witches’ disappearance also adds to the feeling of wrongdoing. This is because, disappearing in to thin air is said to be physically impossible. It expresses the fact that witches are associated with evil.

Macbeth on the Estate and the Polanski version of Macbeth, are both video versions of the play, ‘Macbeth.’ This part of the essay will be comparing the two video versions and looking at which one was most successful and why.

Looking at the Polanski version of the play of Macbeth, it can be seen that as it is a video version, the drama can be expressed in many ways. Cinematography can be used to put across a certain aspect of the play, and add extra drama. For example, music can be used to build tension within the audience. In this version of Macbeth at the start of the video, dark, scary music, with humming has been used. This music would have warned an audience that something bad is going to happen. It is also has been set in a hillside that is the desolate place. It has portrayed the witches as old naked women. This is a stereotype of witches, and during the time this play was written, this is how witches would have been thought of. Also, there is a witch with no eyes and one with no teeth. This is again, a traditional view of witches. The Polanski version is very effective, when it comes to the witches making the potion. The audience can see little things being put in to the cauldron, and once again; people thought that this is how witches spent their time, making potions and chanting. Another special effect used in the Polanski version, is the reflection of the apparitions in the water. The drinking of the potion has triggered these apparitions. This is vital when looking at the dramatic potential of a video version. This is because on a stage, it would not have been possible to create such an effect. When Macbeth is shown the 8 kings through the mirror, a number of different effects have been used. Firstly the sound has an echo and a harsh discord. There is a wobbly camera effect as it closes in to each mirror, which is projecting the future rather than the past. This is significant, as it helps to create an everlasting vision of the future. This adds to the drama, as does the speeding up of the music. However once the apparitions are finished, the music stops and Macbeth wakes up. When he does so, the witches are gone. Right throughout this scene, the setting is dark, and dark is also traditionally associated with evil.

In comparison to the Polanski version of Macbeth, there is a modern version, called Macbeth on The Estate. In this version of the play, it can be seen that Act 4 Scene 1, has been shown in a different way. Macbeth On the Estate is set in a modern run down city. This particular scene is set in a run down flat. Unlike the Polanski version, Macbeth on the Estate has used three children as the witches. This seems very unusual, as children would normally be the good and innocent human beings in a film. There are two boys and a girl. It can also be seen that instead of Macbeth seeing the apparitions in the reflection of the water, he sees them through a net curtain. In this modern video version of Macbeth, nothing has been used to trigger the apparitions, unlike in the Polanski version, where he drinks the potion. In fact, this video version does not show the witches making a potion. During these apparitions, there is music playing in the background. This music sounds like a clock ticking. It is intended to build tension within an audience. Each apparition fades in and fades out. There are close ups of the children’s faces, who are telling him the apparitions. The camera zooms in and out of Macbeth’s face. Candles have been used as lighting, and children’s toys have been used between the apparitions.

Witches are and were normally associated with cauldrons and the making of potions, however in the Macbeth on the Estate version of the play, the making of potions in a cauldron, has not been used. This is different in comparison to the Polanski version of the play. Also, by the end of the scene, Macbeth pulls back the curtain, and sees that the witches are gone and so are all the candles and toys. Looking back at the Polanski version, it can be seen that he wakes up to find everything gone. This adds to the tension of the play by making the audience want to more about the apparitions, and makes them worried about what the witches will do next.

After analysing the two versions of the play, I think that the Polanski version of the play is more successful. This is because it is more traditional and gets the audiences attention by portraying the witches in a way that they would be seen, for example, one eye and no teeth. I feel that it was more effective than the modern version, because of the effects used. The contrast has been kept low and in the Polanski version, the scene is set in a big cave with a lot of space outside of it. These factors affect the mood and tone of the scene. The music in the background is loud and has a sharp discord. This gives an increasing haunted feel to the play.

Another factor affecting the successfulness of the scene is the witches. They play a big role in the play and must have affect on the audience. I think that in the Polanski version, the use of old women, with no teeth or an eye, was more effective than the Macbeth on the Estate version, which used children as witches. Children are normally considered as the innocent people; however, using them to create horror and drama does not work too well as an audience would find it hard to believe.

The above reasons are the main reasons why I feel the Polanski version was more successful than Macbeth on the Estate.

After looking back at Act 4 Scene 1, have learned a lot about the way Shakespeare has added drama to the play through this scene. During the course of scene 1, Macbeth’s character has changed a lot, and by the end of it, it continues to change. This shows the audience, that Macbeth is not psychologically stable, and this will have great affect on what is about to happen. The scene is also aimed at adding drama, by using witches and their evil doings. The person who is affected most is Macbeth, and his involvement in evil, gives a hint to the audience that something tragic will happen as the play progresses.

The purpose of Act 4 Scene 1 is to add drama to the play, and it is the turning point. It is like a link between the beginning and end, because it shows how much Macbeth has changed, and it also is the scene that revolves round the witches and witchcraft. It includes the apparitions and shows how these visions affect Macbeth’s character. As a result of this, it can be shown in a number of different ways; either on stage or for a film, using several techniques to build the drama.    

Document Details

• Word Count 5054
• Page Count 6
• Level AS and A Level
• Subject English

Related Essays

Context Question Macbeth Act 4 Scene 1

The Dramatic Impact and Significance of Act 1 Scene 1 and Act 3 Scene 3 of...

Macbeth Coursework - Act 1 Scene 5

Explore the dramatic effectiveness of Act 1, scene iii in presenting Macbet...

Website navigation

Macbeth - Act 4, scene 2

Download macbeth.

Last updated: Fri, Jul 31, 2015

• PDF Download as PDF
• DOC (for MS Word, Apple Pages, Open Office, etc.) without line numbers Download as DOC (for MS Word, Apple Pages, Open Office, etc.) without line numbers
• DOC (for MS Word, Apple Pages, Open Office, etc.) with line numbers Download as DOC (for MS Word, Apple Pages, Open Office, etc.) with line numbers
• HTML Download as HTML
• TXT Download as TXT
• XML Download as XML
• TEISimple XML (annotated with MorphAdorner for part-of-speech analysis) Download as TEISimple XML (annotated with MorphAdorner for part-of-speech analysis)

Navigate this work

Act 4, scene 2.

Ross visits Lady Macduff and tries to justify to her Macduff’s flight to England, a flight that leaves his family defenseless. After Ross leaves, a messenger arrives to warn Lady Macduff to flee. Before she can do so, Macbeth’s men attack her and her son.

Stay connected

Find out what’s on, read our latest stories, and learn how you can get involved.

Macbeth Act 4 Short Summary

Table of Contents

In a witches’ house, the three witches are performing witchcraft by chanting and mixing strange things in a large boiling pot. Hecat enters and chants after which the second witch says, “ something wicked this way comes ” hence Macbeth enters.

The third apparition is a crowned child with a tree in his hand. It assures Macbeth of his invincibility until Birnam Wood starts moving towards Dunsinane Hill. These three apparitions falsely lessen the deep fears of Macbeth.

The witches dance and vanish and then Lennox enters and convey the message that Macduff has fled to England. Macbeth orders to attack his castle and kill his wife, babies and rest of all.

Lady Macduff with her son wonders whether her husband is dead against which her son argues. A messenger enters to warn them and asks them to go away. While she is wondering, the murderers enter and kill the son and run after her.

Ross arrives and conveys the condition of Scotland. He falsely assures the wellbeing of Macduff’s family and asks Malcolm to return and fight against Macbeth. Unable to restrain any longer, he confesses the murder of Macduff’s family and the ravage in his castle.

24/7 writing help on your phone

To install StudyMoose App tap and then “Add to Home Screen”

Macbeth - Act 4 Scene 1: Discuss the Dramatic Potential in this scene

Save to my list

Remove from my list

Macbeth - Act 4 Scene 1: Discuss the Dramatic Potential in this scene. (2020, Jun 02). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/macbeth-act-4-scene-1-discuss-dramatic-potential-scene-new-essay

"Macbeth - Act 4 Scene 1: Discuss the Dramatic Potential in this scene." StudyMoose , 2 Jun 2020, https://studymoose.com/macbeth-act-4-scene-1-discuss-dramatic-potential-scene-new-essay

StudyMoose. (2020). Macbeth - Act 4 Scene 1: Discuss the Dramatic Potential in this scene . [Online]. Available at: https://studymoose.com/macbeth-act-4-scene-1-discuss-dramatic-potential-scene-new-essay [Accessed: 5 Sep. 2024]

"Macbeth - Act 4 Scene 1: Discuss the Dramatic Potential in this scene." StudyMoose, Jun 02, 2020. Accessed September 5, 2024. https://studymoose.com/macbeth-act-4-scene-1-discuss-dramatic-potential-scene-new-essay

"Macbeth - Act 4 Scene 1: Discuss the Dramatic Potential in this scene," StudyMoose , 02-Jun-2020. [Online]. Available: https://studymoose.com/macbeth-act-4-scene-1-discuss-dramatic-potential-scene-new-essay. [Accessed: 5-Sep-2024]

StudyMoose. (2020). Macbeth - Act 4 Scene 1: Discuss the Dramatic Potential in this scene . [Online]. Available at: https://studymoose.com/macbeth-act-4-scene-1-discuss-dramatic-potential-scene-new-essay [Accessed: 5-Sep-2024]

• Discuss the dramatic significance of Hamlet Scene 1 Act 1 Pages: 5 (1424 words)
• How does Shakespeare present Lady Macbeth in Act 1 Scene 5 and Act 1 Scene 7? Pages: 17 (4831 words)
• With specific reference to Act 1, Scene 2 and Act 3, Scene 5 Pages: 11 (3226 words)
• Analyse the dramatic qualities of Act 1 scene 5 Pages: 9 (2534 words)
• Romeo and Juliet: Explore the dramatic impact of act 3 scene 1 Pages: 6 (1652 words)
• How does Shakespeare create dramatic tension in Act 4: Scene 3? Pages: 6 (1706 words)
• Shakespeare's Dramatic Effect in Act Scene : Analysis Pages: 3 (849 words)
• Discuss the importance of Act One Scene Five in Romeo and Juliet Pages: 3 (811 words)
• Discuss how Elizabethan audiences would have reacted to the first Act of Macbeth Pages: 5 (1376 words)
• Act 3 scene 3 is a Pivotal Scene In The Play Othello Pages: 13 (3843 words)

👋 Hi! I’m your smart assistant Amy!

Don’t know where to start? Type your requirements and I’ll connect you to an academic expert within 3 minutes.

• Ask LitCharts AI
• Discussion Question Generator
• Essay Prompt Generator
• Quiz Question Generator

• Literature Guides
• Poetry Guides
• Shakespeare Translations
• Literary Terms

William Shakespeare

Ask LitCharts AI: The answer to your questions

• Quizzes, saving guides, requests, plus so much more.

Macbeth (Act 1 Scene 4): ISC Class 11 workbook answers

Get notes, workbook solutions, summary, questions and answers, and pdf of the drama/play Macbeth (Act 1 Scene 4) by William Shakespeare which is part of  ISC  Class 11 English. However, the notes should only be treated for references and changes should be made according to the needs of the students.

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

Context questions, essay type questions.

Act 1, Scene 4 of Macbeth takes place at King Duncan’s palace, where Duncan is waiting for the return of the executioners who have been sent to kill the Thane of Cawdor. His son, Malcolm, reports that the Thane of Cawdor died repentantly. Duncan expresses his surprise, as he had completely trusted the Thane of Cawdor.

Macbeth, Banquo, Ross, and Angus then arrive at the palace. Duncan warmly greets Macbeth, expressing his deep gratitude for Macbeth’s bravery in battle and his loyalty. He feels he has not rewarded Macbeth enough for his deeds. Macbeth responds by saying that serving Duncan is its own reward.

Duncan then announces that he will pass his kingship to his eldest son, Malcolm, naming him the Prince of Cumberland. This announcement shocks Macbeth, who had hoped to be named as Duncan’s successor. He sees Malcolm’s appointment as a major obstacle to his ambition of becoming king.

Duncan then invites Macbeth to his castle at Inverness, expressing his eagerness to meet Lady Macbeth. Macbeth leaves to deliver the news to his wife, but not before expressing his dark thoughts in a soliloquy. He contemplates the need to “o’erleap” the obstacle that is Malcolm and asks the stars to hide their light so that his “black and deep desires” will not be seen.

The scene ends with Duncan praising Macbeth’s valiance and deciding to follow Macbeth to Inverness, unaware of the danger that awaits him there.

Select the correct option for each of the following questions:

1. King Duncan along with his sons, Lords and attendants is waiting to receive

Answer: a. Macbeth and Banquo

2. Malcolm is

Answer: b. King Duncan’s son

3. Duncan’s visit to Inverness in reality is

Answer: b. a fatal visit

Read the extracts given below and answer the questions that follow:

1. MALCOLM: My leige, They are not yet come back; but I have spoke With one that saw him die; who did report That very frankly he confess’d his treason, Implored your highness pardon, and set forth, A deep repentance.

a. Who is ‘him’ in the extract? How did he die? What made him implore pardon from his highness?

Answer: ‘Him’ in the extract refers to the Thane of Cawdor. He was executed for his treasonous acts against the King. He implored pardon from the King after confessing his crime and showed deep repentance.

b. Who has not yet returned back? What work was assigned to them?

Answer: The people who have not yet returned back are the messengers who were sent to the Thane of Cawdor to inform him about his punishment.

c. What did King Duncan regret about? What is the irony involved here?

Answer: King Duncan regrets that he trusted the Thane of Cawdor, who betrayed him. The irony here is that he is unaware that he will soon be betrayed by Macbeth, whom he trusts.

d. Who enters after the extract? How are they welcomed by Duncan?

Answer: Macbeth and Banquo enter after the extract. They are welcomed by Duncan with great honour and respect.

2. O worthless cousin! The sin of ingratitude even now Was heavy on me. Thou art so far before, That swiftest wing of recompense is slow To overtake thee:

a. Who is the speaker? Who is he talking to?

Answer: The speaker is King Duncan. He is talking to Macbeth.

b. Why does the speaker feel that he suffers from the sin of ingratitude? What has the person spoken to done for the speaker to feel this way?

Answer: King Duncan feels the sin of ingratitude because he believes he has not thanked Macbeth enough for his services. Macbeth has done a lot for King Duncan, including winning battles for him and showing loyalty, which has made Duncan feel indebted to him.

c. Is the speaker correct in his assessment of the person? Give reasons to justify your answer.

Answer: At this point in the play, King Duncan’s assessment of Macbeth as a loyal and worthy kinsman is correct. Macbeth has shown bravery in battle and loyalty to the king. However, as the play progresses, Macbeth’s ambition leads him to commit regicide, proving Duncan’s initial assessment wrong.

d. Explain-“the swiftest wing of recompense”.

Answer: “The swiftest wing of recompense” is a metaphor used by King Duncan to express that even the fastest possible repayment or reward is too slow to match Macbeth’s deserving deeds. It’s a way of saying that no matter how quickly he tries to reward Macbeth, it will never be enough to truly compensate for what Macbeth has done for him.

e. What had the person done to be awarded in such a great way?

Answer: Macbeth had shown great bravery and skill in battle, leading to significant victories for King Duncan. His loyalty and service to the king were the reasons for his high regard and reward.

f. What evil intentions did the person have? What made them develop in his heart?

Answer: Macbeth develops the evil intention of usurping the throne from King Duncan. This ambition is sparked when he is named Thane of Cawdor and further fueled by the witches’ prophecy that he will become king. He contemplates the idea of murdering King Duncan to expedite his rise to the throne.

3. MACBETH: (aside) The Prince of Cumberland!- That is a step On which I must fall down, or else o’erleap, For in my way it lies.

a. What has caused Macbeth to develop feelings of animosity towards the Prince of Cumberland?

Answer: Macbeth develops feelings of animosity towards the Prince of Cumberland, who is Malcolm, because King Duncan has named Malcolm his successor. This is a hurdle for Macbeth, who has ambitions of becoming king himself, as predicted by the witches.

b. What does Macbeth implore the stars to do just after this extract?

Answer: Macbeth implores the stars to hide their light so that no one can see his dark and deep desires. He doesn’t want his evil intentions of usurping the throne to be seen or known.

c. Who has been bestowed with the title of ‘Prince of Cumberland”?

Answer: The title of ‘Prince of Cumberland’ has been bestowed upon Malcolm, King Duncan’s eldest son.

d. Where has Macbeth gone to and to do what which makes Duncan describe him to be ‘a peerless kinsman’?

Answer: Macbeth has gone to his castle at Inverness to prepare for King Duncan’s visit and to inform his wife about the king’s arrival. Duncan describes Macbeth as a ‘peerless kinsman’ due to his loyalty, bravery in battle, and his hospitality in welcoming the king to his home.

e. Was King Duncan right in his assessment regarding Macbeth? Give reasons to justify your answer.

Answer: Initially, King Duncan’s assessment of Macbeth as a loyal and brave warrior was correct. However, as the play progresses, Macbeth’s ambition leads him to murder King Duncan to seize the throne. Therefore, in hindsight, King Duncan’s assessment was incorrect, as he failed to see Macbeth’s ambition and potential for treachery.

Q. Comment on the soliloquy of Macbeth when he hears of the nomination of Malcolm as heir to the throne.

Answer: King Duncan’s decision to name Malcolm as the Prince of Cumberland is a crucial moment in Macbeth’s internal monologue. By this point, Macbeth is deeply involved in his criminal plans and has lost touch with his emotions. He has decided to eliminate any obstacles in his path. When Malcolm is announced as the heir to the throne, Macbeth realizes that he has no chance of becoming king because in Scotland, the throne doesn’t necessarily pass to the king’s son but to the most capable person. Macbeth is determined to overcome this obstacle, even if it means resorting to murder. He decides to kill Duncan and asks the stars to hide their light so no one can see his dark desires.

This situation is an example of the play’s irony or mockery of fate. The witches’ prophecy has raised Macbeth’s hopes so high that he won’t allow Malcolm to be the heir to the throne. Yet, he decides to leave the third prophecy to chance. But when he hears about Malcolm’s nomination as the Crown Prince, he sees it as a major obstacle to his ambition, as evident in his soliloquy, “The Prince of Cumberland! That is a step On which I must fall down, or else o’erleap, For in my way it lies.” Thus, Duncan’s proclamation ends Macbeth’s indecision and leads him to commit a deed that he had previously decided to leave to chance. This is referred to as the ‘Irony of action’ by Prof Moulton, and it permeates the play.

Ron’e Dutta is a journalist, teacher, aspiring novelist, and blogger. He manages Online Free Notes and reads Victorian literature. His favourite book is Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte and he hopes to travel the world. Get in touch with him by sending him a friend request.

Get notes of other boards, classes, and subjects

Leave a Comment Cancel Reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *