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Social media influence on students’ knowledge sharing and learning: an empirical study.

1. Introduction

• To investigate the extent to which document exchange facilitates knowledge sharing among students.
• To examine the relationship between knowledge formation and knowledge sharing.
• To investigate the impact of student engagement on knowledge sharing in educational settings.
• To explore the relationship between reputation and learning performance among students.

2. Literature Review

2.1. document exchange’s impact on knowledge sharing, 2.2. knowledge formation’s impact on knowledge sharing, 2.3. student engagement impact on knowledge sharing, 2.4. impact of reputation on the performance of learning.

3. Research Methodology

3.1. instrumentation, 3.2. data collection techniques and steps, 3.3. common method bias or variance, 4. results and analysis, 4.1. reliability, 4.2. respondents profile, 4.3. exploratory factor analysis, 4.4. confirmatory factor analysis, 4.5. path diagram, 4.6. structural equation model, 4.7. interpretation for structural equation model, 5. discussion and implications, 6. conclusions, implication for future research, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Sivakumar, A.; Jayasingh, S.; Shaik, S. Social Media Influence on Students’ Knowledge Sharing and Learning: An Empirical Study. Educ. Sci. 2023 , 13 , 745. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13070745

Sivakumar A, Jayasingh S, Shaik S. Social Media Influence on Students’ Knowledge Sharing and Learning: An Empirical Study. Education Sciences . 2023; 13(7):745. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13070745

Sivakumar, Arunkumar, Sudarsan Jayasingh, and Shahenaz Shaik. 2023. "Social Media Influence on Students’ Knowledge Sharing and Learning: An Empirical Study" Education Sciences 13, no. 7: 745. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13070745

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CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS article

The effect of social media on the development of students’ affective variables.

• 1 Science and Technology Department, Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Nanjing, China
• 2 School of Marxism, Hohai University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
• 3 Government Enterprise Customer Center, China Mobile Group Jiangsu Co., Ltd., Nanjing, China

The use of social media is incomparably on the rise among students, influenced by the globalized forms of communication and the post-pandemic rush to use multiple social media platforms for education in different fields of study. Though social media has created tremendous chances for sharing ideas and emotions, the kind of social support it provides might fail to meet students’ emotional needs, or the alleged positive effects might be short-lasting. In recent years, several studies have been conducted to explore the potential effects of social media on students’ affective traits, such as stress, anxiety, depression, and so on. The present paper reviews the findings of the exemplary published works of research to shed light on the positive and negative potential effects of the massive use of social media on students’ emotional well-being. This review can be insightful for teachers who tend to take the potential psychological effects of social media for granted. They may want to know more about the actual effects of the over-reliance on and the excessive (and actually obsessive) use of social media on students’ developing certain images of self and certain emotions which are not necessarily positive. There will be implications for pre- and in-service teacher training and professional development programs and all those involved in student affairs.

Introduction

Social media has turned into an essential element of individuals’ lives including students in today’s world of communication. Its use is growing significantly more than ever before especially in the post-pandemic era, marked by a great revolution happening to the educational systems. Recent investigations of using social media show that approximately 3 billion individuals worldwide are now communicating via social media ( Iwamoto and Chun, 2020 ). This growing population of social media users is spending more and more time on social network groupings, as facts and figures show that individuals spend 2 h a day, on average, on a variety of social media applications, exchanging pictures and messages, updating status, tweeting, favoring, and commenting on many updated socially shared information ( Abbott, 2017 ).

Researchers have begun to investigate the psychological effects of using social media on students’ lives. Chukwuere and Chukwuere (2017) maintained that social media platforms can be considered the most important source of changing individuals’ mood, because when someone is passively using a social media platform seemingly with no special purpose, s/he can finally feel that his/her mood has changed as a function of the nature of content overviewed. Therefore, positive and negative moods can easily be transferred among the population using social media networks ( Chukwuere and Chukwuere, 2017 ). This may become increasingly important as students are seen to be using social media platforms more than before and social networking is becoming an integral aspect of their lives. As described by Iwamoto and Chun (2020) , when students are affected by social media posts, especially due to the increasing reliance on social media use in life, they may be encouraged to begin comparing themselves to others or develop great unrealistic expectations of themselves or others, which can have several affective consequences.

Considering the increasing influence of social media on education, the present paper aims to focus on the affective variables such as depression, stress, and anxiety, and how social media can possibly increase or decrease these emotions in student life. The exemplary works of research on this topic in recent years will be reviewed here, hoping to shed light on the positive and negative effects of these ever-growing influential platforms on the psychology of students.

Significance of the study

Though social media, as the name suggests, is expected to keep people connected, probably this social connection is only superficial, and not adequately deep and meaningful to help individuals feel emotionally attached to others. The psychological effects of social media on student life need to be studied in more depth to see whether social media really acts as a social support for students and whether students can use social media to cope with negative emotions and develop positive feelings or not. In other words, knowledge of the potential effects of the growing use of social media on students’ emotional well-being can bridge the gap between the alleged promises of social media and what it actually has to offer to students in terms of self-concept, self-respect, social role, and coping strategies (for stress, anxiety, etc.).

Exemplary general literature on psychological effects of social media

Before getting down to the effects of social media on students’ emotional well-being, some exemplary works of research in recent years on the topic among general populations are reviewed. For one, Aalbers et al. (2018) reported that individuals who spent more time passively working with social media suffered from more intense levels of hopelessness, loneliness, depression, and perceived inferiority. For another, Tang et al. (2013) observed that the procedures of sharing information, commenting, showing likes and dislikes, posting messages, and doing other common activities on social media are correlated with higher stress. Similarly, Ley et al. (2014) described that people who spend 2 h, on average, on social media applications will face many tragic news, posts, and stories which can raise the total intensity of their stress. This stress-provoking effect of social media has been also pinpointed by Weng and Menczer (2015) , who contended that social media becomes a main source of stress because people often share all kinds of posts, comments, and stories ranging from politics and economics, to personal and social affairs. According to Iwamoto and Chun (2020) , anxiety and depression are the negative emotions that an individual may develop when some source of stress is present. In other words, when social media sources become stress-inducing, there are high chances that anxiety and depression also develop.

Charoensukmongkol (2018) reckoned that the mental health and well-being of the global population can be at a great risk through the uncontrolled massive use of social media. These researchers also showed that social media sources can exert negative affective impacts on teenagers, as they can induce more envy and social comparison. According to Fleck and Johnson-Migalski (2015) , though social media, at first, plays the role of a stress-coping strategy, when individuals continue to see stressful conditions (probably experienced and shared by others in media), they begin to develop stress through the passage of time. Chukwuere and Chukwuere (2017) maintained that social media platforms continue to be the major source of changing mood among general populations. For example, someone might be passively using a social media sphere, and s/he may finally find him/herself with a changed mood depending on the nature of the content faced. Then, this good or bad mood is easily shared with others in a flash through the social media. Finally, as Alahmar (2016) described, social media exposes people especially the young generation to new exciting activities and events that may attract them and keep them engaged in different media contexts for hours just passing their time. It usually leads to reduced productivity, reduced academic achievement, and addiction to constant media use ( Alahmar, 2016 ).

The number of studies on the potential psychological effects of social media on people in general is higher than those selectively addressed here. For further insights into this issue, some other suggested works of research include Chang (2012) , Sriwilai and Charoensukmongkol (2016) , and Zareen et al. (2016) . Now, we move to the studies that more specifically explored the effects of social media on students’ affective states.

Review of the affective influences of social media on students

Vygotsky’s mediational theory (see Fernyhough, 2008 ) can be regarded as a main theoretical background for the support of social media on learners’ affective states. Based on this theory, social media can play the role of a mediational means between learners and the real environment. Learners’ understanding of this environment can be mediated by the image shaped via social media. This image can be either close to or different from the reality. In the case of the former, learners can develop their self-image and self-esteem. In the case of the latter, learners might develop unrealistic expectations of themselves by comparing themselves to others. As it will be reviewed below among the affective variables increased or decreased in students under the influence of the massive use of social media are anxiety, stress, depression, distress, rumination, and self-esteem. These effects have been explored more among school students in the age range of 13–18 than university students (above 18), but some studies were investigated among college students as well. Exemplary works of research on these affective variables are reviewed here.

In a cross-sectional study, O’Dea and Campbell (2011) explored the impact of online interactions of social networks on the psychological distress of adolescent students. These researchers found a negative correlation between the time spent on social networking and mental distress. Dumitrache et al. (2012) explored the relations between depression and the identity associated with the use of the popular social media, the Facebook. This study showed significant associations between depression and the number of identity-related information pieces shared on this social network. Neira and Barber (2014) explored the relationship between students’ social media use and depressed mood at teenage. No significant correlation was found between these two variables. In the same year, Tsitsika et al. (2014) explored the associations between excessive use of social media and internalizing emotions. These researchers found a positive correlation between more than 2-h a day use of social media and anxiety and depression.

Hanprathet et al. (2015) reported a statistically significant positive correlation between addiction to Facebook and depression among about a thousand high school students in wealthy populations of Thailand and warned against this psychological threat. Sampasa-Kanyinga and Lewis (2015) examined the relationship between social media use and psychological distress. These researchers found that the use of social media for more than 2 h a day was correlated with a higher intensity of psychological distress. Banjanin et al. (2015) tested the relationship between too much use of social networking and depression, yet found no statistically significant correlation between these two variables. Frison and Eggermont (2016) examined the relationships between different forms of Facebook use, perceived social support of social media, and male and female students’ depressed mood. These researchers found a positive association between the passive use of the Facebook and depression and also between the active use of the social media and depression. Furthermore, the perceived social support of the social media was found to mediate this association. Besides, gender was found as the other factor to mediate this relationship.

Vernon et al. (2017) explored change in negative investment in social networking in relation to change in depression and externalizing behavior. These researchers found that increased investment in social media predicted higher depression in adolescent students, which was a function of the effect of higher levels of disrupted sleep. Barry et al. (2017) explored the associations between the use of social media by adolescents and their psychosocial adjustment. Social media activity showed to be positively and moderately associated with depression and anxiety. Another investigation was focused on secondary school students in China conducted by Li et al. (2017) . The findings showed a mediating role of insomnia on the significant correlation between depression and addiction to social media. In the same year, Yan et al. (2017) aimed to explore the time spent on social networks and its correlation with anxiety among middle school students. They found a significant positive correlation between more than 2-h use of social networks and the intensity of anxiety.

Also in China, Wang et al. (2018) showed that addiction to social networking sites was correlated positively with depression, and this correlation was mediated by rumination. These researchers also found that this mediating effect was moderated by self-esteem. It means that the effect of addiction on depression was compounded by low self-esteem through rumination. In another work of research, Drouin et al. (2018) showed that though social media is expected to act as a form of social support for the majority of university students, it can adversely affect students’ mental well-being, especially for those who already have high levels of anxiety and depression. In their research, the social media resources were found to be stress-inducing for half of the participants, all university students. The higher education population was also studied by Iwamoto and Chun (2020) . These researchers investigated the emotional effects of social media in higher education and found that the socially supportive role of social media was overshadowed in the long run in university students’ lives and, instead, fed into their perceived depression, anxiety, and stress.

Keles et al. (2020) provided a systematic review of the effect of social media on young and teenage students’ depression, psychological distress, and anxiety. They found that depression acted as the most frequent affective variable measured. The most salient risk factors of psychological distress, anxiety, and depression based on the systematic review were activities such as repeated checking for messages, personal investment, the time spent on social media, and problematic or addictive use. Similarly, Mathewson (2020) investigated the effect of using social media on college students’ mental health. The participants stated the experience of anxiety, depression, and suicidality (thoughts of suicide or attempts to suicide). The findings showed that the types and frequency of using social media and the students’ perceived mental health were significantly correlated with each other.

The body of research on the effect of social media on students’ affective and emotional states has led to mixed results. The existing literature shows that there are some positive and some negative affective impacts. Yet, it seems that the latter is pre-dominant. Mathewson (2020) attributed these divergent positive and negative effects to the different theoretical frameworks adopted in different studies and also the different contexts (different countries with whole different educational systems). According to Fredrickson’s broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions ( Fredrickson, 2001 ), the mental repertoires of learners can be built and broadened by how they feel. For instance, some external stimuli might provoke negative emotions such as anxiety and depression in learners. Having experienced these negative emotions, students might repeatedly check their messages on social media or get addicted to them. As a result, their cognitive repertoire and mental capacity might become limited and they might lose their concentration during their learning process. On the other hand, it should be noted that by feeling positive, learners might take full advantage of the affordances of the social media and; thus, be able to follow their learning goals strategically. This point should be highlighted that the link between the use of social media and affective states is bi-directional. Therefore, strategic use of social media or its addictive use by students can direct them toward either positive experiences like enjoyment or negative ones such as anxiety and depression. Also, these mixed positive and negative effects are similar to the findings of several other relevant studies on general populations’ psychological and emotional health. A number of studies (with general research populations not necessarily students) showed that social networks have facilitated the way of staying in touch with family and friends living far away as well as an increased social support ( Zhang, 2017 ). Given the positive and negative emotional effects of social media, social media can either scaffold the emotional repertoire of students, which can develop positive emotions in learners, or induce negative provokers in them, based on which learners might feel negative emotions such as anxiety and depression. However, admittedly, social media has also generated a domain that encourages the act of comparing lives, and striving for approval; therefore, it establishes and internalizes unrealistic perceptions ( Virden et al., 2014 ; Radovic et al., 2017 ).

It should be mentioned that the susceptibility of affective variables to social media should be interpreted from a dynamic lens. This means that the ecology of the social media can make changes in the emotional experiences of learners. More specifically, students’ affective variables might self-organize into different states under the influence of social media. As for the positive correlation found in many studies between the use of social media and such negative effects as anxiety, depression, and stress, it can be hypothesized that this correlation is induced by the continuous comparison the individual makes and the perception that others are doing better than him/her influenced by the posts that appear on social media. Using social media can play a major role in university students’ psychological well-being than expected. Though most of these studies were correlational, and correlation is not the same as causation, as the studies show that the number of participants experiencing these negative emotions under the influence of social media is significantly high, more extensive research is highly suggested to explore causal effects ( Mathewson, 2020 ).

As the review of exemplary studies showed, some believed that social media increased comparisons that students made between themselves and others. This finding ratifies the relevance of the Interpretation Comparison Model ( Stapel and Koomen, 2000 ; Stapel, 2007 ) and Festinger’s (1954) Social Comparison Theory. Concerning the negative effects of social media on students’ psychology, it can be argued that individuals may fail to understand that the content presented in social media is usually changed to only represent the attractive aspects of people’s lives, showing an unrealistic image of things. We can add that this argument also supports the relevance of the Social Comparison Theory and the Interpretation Comparison Model ( Stapel and Koomen, 2000 ; Stapel, 2007 ), because social media sets standards that students think they should compare themselves with. A constant observation of how other students or peers are showing their instances of achievement leads to higher self-evaluation ( Stapel and Koomen, 2000 ). It is conjectured that the ubiquitous role of social media in student life establishes unrealistic expectations and promotes continuous comparison as also pinpointed in the Interpretation Comparison Model ( Stapel and Koomen, 2000 ; Stapel, 2007 ).

Implications of the study

The use of social media is ever increasing among students, both at school and university, which is partly because of the promises of technological advances in communication services and partly because of the increased use of social networks for educational purposes in recent years after the pandemic. This consistent use of social media is not expected to leave students’ psychological, affective and emotional states untouched. Thus, it is necessary to know how the growing usage of social networks is associated with students’ affective health on different aspects. Therefore, we found it useful to summarize the research findings in recent years in this respect. If those somehow in charge of student affairs in educational settings are aware of the potential positive or negative effects of social media usage on students, they can better understand the complexities of students’ needs and are better capable of meeting them.

Psychological counseling programs can be initiated at schools or universities to check upon the latest state of students’ mental and emotional health influenced by the pervasive use of social media. The counselors can be made aware of the potential adverse effects of social networking and can adapt the content of their inquiries accordingly. Knowledge of the potential reasons for student anxiety, depression, and stress can help school or university counselors to find individualized coping strategies when they diagnose any symptom of distress in students influenced by an excessive use of social networking.

Admittedly, it is neither possible to discard the use of social media in today’s academic life, nor to keep students’ use of social networks fully controlled. Certainly, the educational space in today’s world cannot do without the social media, which has turned into an integral part of everybody’s life. Yet, probably students need to be instructed on how to take advantage of the media and to be the least affected negatively by its occasional superficial and unrepresentative content. Compensatory programs might be needed at schools or universities to encourage students to avoid making unrealistic and impartial comparisons of themselves and the flamboyant images of others displayed on social media. Students can be taught to develop self-appreciation and self-care while continuing to use the media to their benefit.

The teachers’ role as well as the curriculum developers’ role are becoming more important than ever, as they can significantly help to moderate the adverse effects of the pervasive social media use on students’ mental and emotional health. The kind of groupings formed for instructional purposes, for example, in social media can be done with greater care by teachers to make sure that the members of the groups are homogeneous and the tasks and activities shared in the groups are quite relevant and realistic. The teachers cannot always be in a full control of students’ use of social media, and the other fact is that students do not always and only use social media for educational purposes. They spend more time on social media for communicating with friends or strangers or possibly they just passively receive the content produced out of any educational scope just for entertainment. This uncontrolled and unrealistic content may give them a false image of life events and can threaten their mental and emotional health. Thus, teachers can try to make students aware of the potential hazards of investing too much of their time on following pages or people that publish false and misleading information about their personal or social identities. As students, logically expected, spend more time with their teachers than counselors, they may be better and more receptive to the advice given by the former than the latter.

Teachers may not be in full control of their students’ use of social media, but they have always played an active role in motivating or demotivating students to take particular measures in their academic lives. If teachers are informed of the recent research findings about the potential effects of massively using social media on students, they may find ways to reduce students’ distraction or confusion in class due to the excessive or over-reliant use of these networks. Educators may more often be mesmerized by the promises of technology-, computer- and mobile-assisted learning. They may tend to encourage the use of social media hoping to benefit students’ social and interpersonal skills, self-confidence, stress-managing and the like. Yet, they may be unaware of the potential adverse effects on students’ emotional well-being and, thus, may find the review of the recent relevant research findings insightful. Also, teachers can mediate between learners and social media to manipulate the time learners spend on social media. Research has mainly indicated that students’ emotional experiences are mainly dependent on teachers’ pedagogical approach. They should refrain learners from excessive use of, or overreliance on, social media. Raising learners’ awareness of this fact that individuals should develop their own path of development for learning, and not build their development based on unrealistic comparison of their competences with those of others, can help them consider positive values for their activities on social media and, thus, experience positive emotions.

At higher education, students’ needs are more life-like. For example, their employment-seeking spirits might lead them to create accounts in many social networks, hoping for a better future. However, membership in many of these networks may end in the mere waste of the time that could otherwise be spent on actual on-campus cooperative projects. Universities can provide more on-campus resources both for research and work experience purposes from which the students can benefit more than the cyberspace that can be tricky on many occasions. Two main theories underlying some negative emotions like boredom and anxiety are over-stimulation and under-stimulation. Thus, what learners feel out of their involvement in social media might be directed toward negative emotions due to the stimulating environment of social media. This stimulating environment makes learners rely too much, and spend too much time, on social media or use them obsessively. As a result, they might feel anxious or depressed. Given the ubiquity of social media, these negative emotions can be replaced with positive emotions if learners become aware of the psychological effects of social media. Regarding the affordances of social media for learners, they can take advantage of the potential affordances of these media such as improving their literacy, broadening their communication skills, or enhancing their distance learning opportunities.

A review of the research findings on the relationship between social media and students’ affective traits revealed both positive and negative findings. Yet, the instances of the latter were more salient and the negative psychological symptoms such as depression, anxiety, and stress have been far from negligible. These findings were discussed in relation to some more relevant theories such as the social comparison theory, which predicted that most of the potential issues with the young generation’s excessive use of social media were induced by the unfair comparisons they made between their own lives and the unrealistic portrayal of others’ on social media. Teachers, education policymakers, curriculum developers, and all those in charge of the student affairs at schools and universities should be made aware of the psychological effects of the pervasive use of social media on students, and the potential threats.

It should be reminded that the alleged socially supportive and communicative promises of the prevalent use of social networking in student life might not be fully realized in practice. Students may lose self-appreciation and gratitude when they compare their current state of life with the snapshots of others’ or peers’. A depressed or stressed-out mood can follow. Students at schools or universities need to learn self-worth to resist the adverse effects of the superficial support they receive from social media. Along this way, they should be assisted by the family and those in charge at schools or universities, most importantly the teachers. As already suggested, counseling programs might help with raising students’ awareness of the potential psychological threats of social media to their health. Considering the ubiquity of social media in everybody’ life including student life worldwide, it seems that more coping and compensatory strategies should be contrived to moderate the adverse psychological effects of the pervasive use of social media on students. Also, the affective influences of social media should not be generalized but they need to be interpreted from an ecological or contextual perspective. This means that learners might have different emotions at different times or different contexts while being involved in social media. More specifically, given the stative approach to learners’ emotions, what learners emotionally experience in their application of social media can be bound to their intra-personal and interpersonal experiences. This means that the same learner at different time points might go through different emotions Also, learners’ emotional states as a result of their engagement in social media cannot be necessarily generalized to all learners in a class.

As the majority of studies on the psychological effects of social media on student life have been conducted on school students than in higher education, it seems it is too soon to make any conclusive remark on this population exclusively. Probably, in future, further studies of the psychological complexities of students at higher education and a better knowledge of their needs can pave the way for making more insightful conclusions about the effects of social media on their affective states.

Suggestions for further research

The majority of studies on the potential effects of social media usage on students’ psychological well-being are either quantitative or qualitative in type, each with many limitations. Presumably, mixed approaches in near future can better provide a comprehensive assessment of these potential associations. Moreover, most studies on this topic have been cross-sectional in type. There is a significant dearth of longitudinal investigation on the effect of social media on developing positive or negative emotions in students. This seems to be essential as different affective factors such as anxiety, stress, self-esteem, and the like have a developmental nature. Traditional research methods with single-shot designs for data collection fail to capture the nuances of changes in these affective variables. It can be expected that more longitudinal studies in future can show how the continuous use of social media can affect the fluctuations of any of these affective variables during the different academic courses students pass at school or university.

As already raised in some works of research reviewed, the different patterns of impacts of social media on student life depend largely on the educational context. Thus, the same research designs with the same academic grade students and even the same age groups can lead to different findings concerning the effects of social media on student psychology in different countries. In other words, the potential positive and negative effects of popular social media like Facebook, Snapchat, Twitter, etc., on students’ affective conditions can differ across different educational settings in different host countries. Thus, significantly more research is needed in different contexts and cultures to compare the results.

There is also a need for further research on the higher education students and how their affective conditions are positively and negatively affected by the prevalent use of social media. University students’ psychological needs might be different from other academic grades and, thus, the patterns of changes that the overall use of social networking can create in their emotions can be also different. Their main reasons for using social media might be different from school students as well, which need to be investigated more thoroughly. The sorts of interventions needed to moderate the potential negative effects of social networking on them can be different too, all requiring a new line of research in education domain.

Finally, there are hopes that considering the ever-increasing popularity of social networking in education, the potential psychological effects of social media on teachers be explored as well. Though teacher psychology has only recently been considered for research, the literature has provided profound insights into teachers developing stress, motivation, self-esteem, and many other emotions. In today’s world driven by global communications in the cyberspace, teachers like everyone else are affecting and being affected by social networking. The comparison theory can hold true for teachers too. Thus, similar threats (of social media) to self-esteem and self-worth can be there for teachers too besides students, which are worth investigating qualitatively and quantitatively.

Probably a new line of research can be initiated to explore the co-development of teacher and learner psychological traits under the influence of social media use in longitudinal studies. These will certainly entail sophisticated research methods to be capable of unraveling the nuances of variation in these traits and their mutual effects, for example, stress, motivation, and self-esteem. If these are incorporated within mixed-approach works of research, more comprehensive and better insightful findings can be expected to emerge. Correlational studies need to be followed by causal studies in educational settings. As many conditions of the educational settings do not allow for having control groups or randomization, probably, experimental studies do not help with this. Innovative research methods, case studies or else, can be used to further explore the causal relations among the different features of social media use and the development of different affective variables in teachers or learners. Examples of such innovative research methods can be process tracing, qualitative comparative analysis, and longitudinal latent factor modeling (for a more comprehensive view, see Hiver and Al-Hoorie, 2019 ).

Author contributions

Both authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

This study was sponsored by Wuxi Philosophy and Social Sciences bidding project—“Special Project for Safeguarding the Rights and Interests of Workers in the New Form of Employment” (Grant No. WXSK22-GH-13). This study was sponsored by the Key Project of Party Building and Ideological and Political Education Research of Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications—“Research on the Guidance and Countermeasures of Network Public Opinion in Colleges and Universities in the Modern Times” (Grant No. XC 2021002).

Conflict of interest

Author XX was employed by China Mobile Group Jiangsu Co., Ltd.

The remaining author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords : affective variables, education, emotions, social media, post-pandemic, emotional needs

Citation: Chen M and Xiao X (2022) The effect of social media on the development of students’ affective variables. Front. Psychol. 13:1010766. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1010766

Received: 03 August 2022; Accepted: 25 August 2022; Published: 15 September 2022.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2022 Chen and Xiao. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Miao Chen, [email protected] ; Xin Xiao, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

• Open access
• Published: 31 October 2023

Social media usage and students’ social anxiety, loneliness and well-being: does digital mindfulness-based intervention effectively work?

BMC Psychology volume  11 , Article number:  362 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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The increasing integration of digital technologies into daily life has spurred a growing body of research in the field of digital psychology. This research has shed light on the potential benefits and drawbacks of digital technologies for mental health and well-being. However, the intricate relationship between technology and psychology remains largely unexplored.

This study aimed to investigate the impact of mindfulness-based mobile apps on university students' anxiety, loneliness, and well-being. Additionally, it sought to explore participants' perceptions of the addictiveness of these apps.

The research utilized a multi-phase approach, encompassing a correlational research method, a pretest–posttest randomized controlled trial, and a qualitative case study. Participants were segmented into three subsets: correlations ( n  = 300), treatment ( n  = 60), and qualitative ( n  = 20). Data were gathered from various sources, including the social anxiety scale, well-being scale, social media use integration scale, and an interview checklist. Quantitative data was analyzed using Pearson correlation, multiple regression, and t-tests, while qualitative data underwent thematic analysis.

The study uncovered a significant correlation between social media use and the variables under investigation. Moreover, the treatment involving mindfulness-based mobile apps led to a reduction in students' anxiety and an enhancement of their well-being. Notably, participants held various positive perceptions regarding the use of these apps.

Implications

The findings of this research hold both theoretical and practical significance for the field of digital psychology. They provide insight into the potential of mindfulness-based mobile apps to positively impact university students' mental health and well-being. Additionally, the study underscores the need for further exploration of the intricate dynamics between technology and psychology in an increasingly digital world.

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Introduction

The field of digital psychology is undergoing rapid evolution, navigating the intricate intersection of psychology and technology to elucidate the profound impact of digital technologies on human behavior, cognition, and emotions [ 1 , 2 ]. With digital technologies becoming increasingly ingrained in our daily lives, researchers are embarking on a journey to explore the multifaceted implications they bear for mental health and overall well-being. Within the realm of digital psychology, a diverse array of topics has captured the attention of investigators, encompassing the innovative use of technology for psychological interventions like cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) [ 1 , 2 ]. Furthermore, scrutiny has extended to the influence of social media on mental health, unveiling the potential for excessive social media use to contribute to feelings of anxiety and loneliness [ 3 , 4 ].

The exploration of digital psychology has also delved into the impact of video games on cognitive and emotional faculties, with some studies suggesting that specific genres of video games have the potential to enhance attention and problem-solving skills [ 5 , 6 ]. However, concerns surrounding video game addiction and the potential influence of violent video games on aggressive behavior have been the subject of extensive investigation [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ]. The ubiquity of digital technologies in our daily existence has ignited a burgeoning interest in the domain of digital psychology. While research in this domain has yielded valuable insights into the prospective benefits and hazards of digital technologies for mental health and well-being, there remains a vast expanse of knowledge yet to be uncovered regarding the intricate interplay between technology and psychology. Specifically, there is a compelling need for an extensive body of research aimed at comprehending the enduring impacts of digital technologies on cognitive, emotional, and social functionality. Furthermore, it is crucial to decipher how these effects may vary among diverse demographic groups.

One particularly promising avenue of research within digital psychology is the integration of mindfulness-based mobile applications, which has shown considerable potential in alleviating symptoms of anxiety and loneliness. These applications typically offer guided meditation, breathing exercises, and various mindfulness practices that are readily accessible via mobile devices [ 2 ]. Their accessibility and user-friendly nature render them an appealing resource for individuals seeking to enhance their mental well-being without the need for traditional face-to-face therapy [ 3 , 6 ].

In the contemporary landscape of higher education, university students are exposed to the pervasive influence of social media, which has the potential to induce negative psychological consequences such as heightened social anxiety and increased feelings of loneliness. The omnipresence of social media platforms can foster a sense of comparison, social pressure, and disconnection among undergraduate students, amplifying the challenges they already face. Given these circumstances, there is a compelling need to explore interventions that can counteract these adverse impacts, and mindfulness-based interventions emerge as a promising avenue for consideration.

By examining the intersection of these interventions with the digital sphere, this study seeks to illuminate how Digital Mindfulness-based treatments might serve as a potent tool to mitigate the detrimental effects of social media exposure, thereby fostering a healthier psychological landscape among university students [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ].

Furthermore, many of these applications provide personalized features such as progress tracking and goal setting, which enhance user engagement and motivation [ 9 ]. As the popularity of these applications continues to soar, it becomes imperative to further investigate their effectiveness across various demographic cohorts and contextual settings, as well as to identify the most potent features and interventions for fostering improvements in mental health [ 10 ].

The rationale for this study is firmly grounded in the contemporary higher education landscape, where undergraduate students navigate a myriad of challenges that may impact their mental well-being. With the pervasive integration of digital technologies into students' lives, the investigation of Digital Mindfulness-based interventions becomes not only relevant but crucial. The novelty of this study lies in its exploration of the intricate relationship between social media usage and the well-being of university students, specifically targeting social anxiety and loneliness. Moreover, it introduces an innovative approach by examining the effectiveness of digital mindfulness-based interventions in ameliorating these psychological challenges. By addressing this uncharted territory, the study not only contributes to the growing field of digital psychology but also offers valuable insights into the potential of technology-driven mindfulness interventions as a means to enhance the mental well-being of the digital-native student population. This unique blend of investigating the impact of technology on psychological well-being while simultaneously assessing the effectiveness of digital interventions positions the study at the forefront of contemporary research in the field. Given the potential benefits of digital mindfulness apps in reducing anxiety and loneliness, coupled with the distinct challenges that emerge during the undergraduate phase, this research seeks to provide invaluable insights into the perceptions and experiences of students. By delving into the perceptions of adults regarding these treatments, this study aspires to shed light on the feasibility, effectiveness, and potential limitations of digital mindfulness-based interventions for enhancing the mental health of undergraduate students in the modern digital age. Therefore, this study endeavors to address the following critical questions:

What is the relationship between social media use and symptoms of social anxiety, loneliness, and well-being among university students?

Does the use of a mindfulness-based mobile app intervention result in significant improvements in social anxiety, loneliness, and well-being in college students?

What are university students’ perspectives on the use of technology for mental health support, including the benefits and challenges of using technology for this purpose?

Review of literature

Theoretical background.

The study investigating the effects of mindfulness-based mobile apps on university students' anxiety, loneliness, and well-being in the context of social media usage draws upon a multifaceted theoretical framework. At its core, it is rooted in mindfulness theory, which emphasizes present-moment awareness and non-judgmental acceptance to alleviate stress and anxiety [ 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ]. To understand the influence of social media on students, social cognitive theory is relevant, as it explores how individuals learn from observing others in their social networks. Additionally, social comparison theory informs the study by shedding light on how students may constantly compare themselves to others on social media, potentially leading to feelings of loneliness and social anxiety [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. The study also taps into addiction and compulsive behavior theories to comprehend the perceived addictiveness of mindfulness-based mobile apps. Technology acceptance models (TAM) help in understanding user acceptance and perceptions of these apps. Moreover, the study aligns with principles of positive psychology by aiming to enhance well-being and reduce anxiety and loneliness, which are central concerns in this field. Finally, media effects theories, like cultivation theory and uses and gratifications theory, inform the exploration of how social media use affects students' mental health and well-being [ 13 ]. This multifaceted theoretical approach provides a comprehensive foundation for unraveling the intricate relationship between technology, psychology, and well-being in the digital age, offering a well-rounded perspective on the research questions at hand [ 12 , 13 ].

Social media and symptoms of mental health

The use of social media has become increasingly prevalent among university students, and with it comes growing concern about its potential impact on mental health and well-being. Specifically, research has focused on the relationship between social media use and symptoms of social anxiety, loneliness, and well-being among university students. The majority of studies focused on the relationship between social media use and symptoms of social anxiety and/or loneliness. These studies generally found that higher levels of social media use were associated with greater symptoms of social anxiety and loneliness among university students [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ]. For example, Schønning et al. [ 16 ] found that social media use was positively associated with symptoms of social anxiety among Chinese university students. Similarly, a study by Wang et al. [ 13 ] found that social media use was positively associated with symptoms of loneliness among Chinese university students.

Two studies focused on the relationship between social media use and well-being. One study found that higher levels of social media use were associated with lower levels of well-being among university students [ 17 ] Another study found that social media use had a curvilinear relationship with well-being, such that moderate levels of social media use were associated with higher levels of well-being, while both low and high levels of social media use were associated with lower levels of well-being [ 13 ].

The findings of this literature review suggest that social media use may be associated with greater symptoms of social anxiety and loneliness among university students. However, the relationship between social media use and well-being is less clear, with some studies suggesting a negative relationship and others suggesting a curvilinear relationship. Several additional studies have also examined this relationship. For example, a study by Kose and Dogan [ 18 ] found that social media use was negatively associated with psychological well-being among Turkish university students. Another study by Błachnio, et al., [ 19 ] found that Facebook addiction was negatively associated with self-esteem and life satisfaction among Polish university students. Similarly, Chen et al. [ 20 ] conducted a systematic review of 23 studies examining the relationship between social media use and mental health outcomes among college students. The authors concluded that social media use was generally associated with negative mental health outcomes, including loneliness, anxiety, and stress. However, they noted that the strength of this relationship varied across studies and suggested that more research was needed to better understand the mechanisms underlying this relationship. In another study, Seabrook et al. [ 21 ] conducted a systematic review of 20 studies examining the relationship between social networking sites and loneliness and anxiety. They found that social networking sites were associated with both loneliness and anxiety, but that the strength of this relationship varied across studies and depended on factors such as frequency and intensity of social networking site use and individual differences in vulnerability to mental health problems. Similarly, Tandoc Jr. et al. [ 14 ] conducted a study examining the relationship between Facebook use, envy, and depression among college students in the United States. They found that Facebook use was positively associated with envy, which in turn was positively associated with depression. They suggested that envy may be a mechanism underlying the relationship between social media use and negative mental health outcomes.

Mindfulness-based apps effect mental health

Mindfulness-based mobile apps are becoming increasingly popular as a tool for promoting mental health and wellbeing. These apps include a variety of different mindfulness-based practices, such as guided meditations, breathing exercises, and other techniques aimed at reducing stress and anxiety. While there is growing evidence that mindfulness-based interventions can be effective in promoting mental health, less is known about the effectiveness of these interventions when delivered via mobile apps. This literature review aims to synthesize the existing research on mindfulness-based mobile apps and mental health outcomes.

The majority of studies focused on the effectiveness of mindfulness-based mobile apps in reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression. These studies generally found that mindfulness-based mobile apps were effective in reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression in a variety of populations, including college students, adults, and individuals with chronic medical conditions [ 2 , 10 , 22 , 23 , 24 ]. For example, a study by Strauss et al. [ 23 ] found that a mindfulness-based mobile app was effective in reducing stress and improving coping skills in a sample of healthcare workers. Similarly, a study by Lomas et al. [ 24 ] found that a mindfulness-based mobile app was effective in reducing stress and improving resilience in a sample of university students. In addition to examining the effectiveness of mindfulness-based mobile apps, several studies explored the factors that influence user engagement and adherence to these interventions. For example, a study by Valinskas et al. [ 25 ] that users who were using the app for more than 24 days and had at least 12 active days during that time had 3.463 (95% CI 1.142–11.93) and 2.644 (95% CI 1.024–7.127) times higher chances to reduce their DASS-21 subdomain scores of depression and anxiety, respectively. Another study by Linardon, et al. [ 22 ] found that interventions that were more interactive and personalized were more effective in promoting user engagement and adherence.

Some studies also explored the effectiveness of mindfulness-based mobile apps in addressing other mental health conditions beyond anxiety and depression. For example, a study by Wahbeh et al. [ 10 ] found that a mindfulness-based mobile app intervention was effective in reducing symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in a sample of veterans. Similarly, a study by Biegel et al. [ 26 ] found that a mindfulness-based mobile app intervention was effective in reducing symptoms of ADHD in a sample of adolescents.

The use of technology for mental health support

The utilization of technology for the provision of mental health support has gained increasing prominence within the context of university students, prompting a burgeoning interest in comprehending their encounters and viewpoints. Related inquiries have been undertaken in diverse geographical regions, including the United States, Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom. Predominantly, these investigations have centered on the advantages and obstacles inherent in employing technology for mental health support. Generally, these inquiries have ascertained that technology is perceived as a convenient and readily accessible modality for accessing mental health support services among university students [ 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ]. For instance, Birnbaum et al. [ 27 ] conducted a study revealing that college students in the United States exhibited a willingness to engage with mental health applications to manage their stress and anxiety. Nevertheless, certain studies have also discerned impediments associated with the adoption of technology for mental health support, encompassing apprehensions regarding privacy and confidentiality [ 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ], concerns about the quality and dependability of information [ 29 ], and challenges related to navigating and effectively utilizing mental health applications [ 30 ].

Additionally, two investigations have focused their attention on delineating the determinants influencing the utilization of technology for mental health support among university students. These studies have identified an array of factors exerting an influence over students' engagement with technology for mental health support, encompassing individual attributes (e.g., mental health literacy, technological attitudes) [ 31 ], societal influences (e.g., stigma, peer support) [ 31 ], and environmental considerations (e.g., technology availability, access to mental health services). The cumulative insights garnered from this comprehensive literature review underscore the potential of technology as a convenient and accessible avenue for accessing mental health support among university students. However, it is essential to acknowledge that complexities and multifaceted dynamics underlie the factors influencing its utilization, and an array of challenges remain associated with its application in this context.

Likewise, a study conducted by Kern et al. [ 32 ] documented that 23.8% of users reported experiencing a positive impact on their mental health through the use of mental health applications. Notably, individuals who had received mental health services within the past 12 months exhibited a significantly higher propensity to embrace mental health apps in comparison to those who had not accessed such services. The allure of convenience, immediate availability, and confidentiality emerged as prevalent factors driving interest in Mental Health Apps (MHAs).

Furthermore, a study conducted by Free et al. [ 33 ] unveiled the unsurprising proliferation of numerous mobile applications designed to aid in the diagnosis, monitoring, and management of health conditions, albeit with varying levels of efficacy. Similarly, research by Brindal et al. [ 34 ] found that participants who had intermittent access to a smartphone app over a 4-week trial period demonstrated notable enhancements in indicators of emotional well-being. This broader observation suggests that uncomplicated and easily accessible solutions can yield substantial improvements in overall well-being. In addition, a study by Karyotaki et al. [ 35 ] reported the effectiveness of web-based interventions in mitigating the symptoms of depression and anxiety among college students.

Methodology

This was a multi-phase research design. In the first phase, a correlational research method was used for exploring the correlation among the research variables. In the second phase, we used a pretest–posttest randomized controlled trial to assess the effectiveness of a mindfulness-based mobile app intervention on symptoms of anxiety, loneliness, and well-being. Moreover, in the third phase, a qualitative research method was used for exploring the participants’ perceptions of mindfulness-based intervention.

Participants

Participants for this study were selected from graduate students at Zhoukou Vocational and Technical College in China. Three separate groups were recruited for the study. The first group consisted of 300 participants who were recruited for a correlational study related to question 1. The eligibility criteria for this group were as follows: participants must be graduate students at Fudan University and willing to participate in the study. The sample size was determined based on power analysis and the expected effect size. The second group consisted of 100 participants who were recruited for question 2. The eligibility criteria for this group were the same as for the first group. Participants were randomly assigned to either an intervention group or a control group. The third group consisted of 20 participants who were recruited for question 3. The eligibility criteria for this group were the same as for the first two groups. Participants were selected using purposive sampling based on their responses to the questionnaire in question 2. All participants provided informed consent prior to participating in the study. The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Zhoukou Vocational and Technical College. Participants were assured of confidentiality and the right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty.

The following instruments were used to collect data for this study:

Social Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (SAS-A)

It is a 22-item self-report questionnaire that measures social anxiety in adolescents [ 36 ]. SAS-A assesses various aspects of social anxiety, including fear of negative evaluation, social avoidance and distress, and physiological symptoms such as sweating and blushing. Each item is measured on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (extremely). The total score on the SAS-A ranges from 22 to 110, with higher scores indicating higher levels of social anxiety.

Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (WEMWBS)

It is a 14-item self-report questionnaire that measures mental well-being in adults and adolescents [ 37 ]. The items on the WEMWBS assess various aspects of mental well-being, including optimism, positive relationships, and a sense of purpose. Participants rate each item on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (none of the time) to 5 (all of the time). The total score on the WEMWBS ranges from 14 to 70, with higher scores indicating higher levels of mental well-being. The fourth instrument was social.

Social Media Use Integration Scale (SMUIS)

The SMUIS is a 10-item self-report questionnaire that assesses the frequency, duration and emotional connection to social media use [ 38 ]. The SMUIS includes questions related to the frequency and duration of social media use, as well as questions related to the emotional connection to social media use, such as "How often do you feel happy when using social media?" and "How often do you feel anxious when you are not able to use social media?" Participants are asked to rate each item on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). The reliability of the instruments was estimated using Cronbach’s alpha. Results revealed that the obtained Cronbach’s alpha for the instrument was above, 0.78 indicating that all used instruments enjoyed an acceptable level of reliability.

Interview checklist

The interview checklist consisted of 8 open-ended questions followed by the interviewer’s prompts. The questions elicited the interviewees’ perceptions of the benefits and challenges of using mobile apps for improving mental health and well-being and reducing social anxiety symptoms and loneliness (See Additional file 1 ). The interview checklist was approved by 4 colleagues and there was a high agreement among the panel of experts regarding the relevance of the interview questions.

Mindfulness-based mobile apps

Mindfulness-based mobile apps are mobile applications designed to help individuals develop mindfulness skills and reduce symptoms of stress, anxiety, and depression. These apps typically include guided mindfulness exercises, educational resources, and other features to help individuals practice mindfulness on a regular basis. The specific features of mindfulness-based mobile apps may vary but typically include guided meditations, breathing exercises, and other mindfulness practices. Some apps may also include educational resources, such as articles or videos that provide information about mindfulness and its benefits. Many apps also include features for tracking progress, setting goals, and sharing progress with others. In this study, the participants who participated in the treatment phase were asked to download popular mindfulness-based mobile apps including Headspace, Calm, and Insight Timer. These apps are available for download on mobile devices and offer a range of mindfulness exercises and resources for users to explore.

The study was conducted in multiple steps. Initially, a sample of 300 graduate students from Fudan University was selected to participate in the research. These participants were asked to complete the Social Media Use Integration Scale (SMUIS) and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21) to evaluate their social media use and mental health status. Next, a sample of 60 students from the same university was selected for the intervention study. These participants were randomly assigned to either an intervention group or a control group. The intervention group was given access to a mindfulness-based mobile app for eight weeks, while the control group received no intervention. Both groups completed the SMUIS and the DASS-21 at baseline, post-intervention, and three-month follow-up to evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention. Lastly, a qualitative study was conducted to gather in-depth information about the participants' experience with the mindfulness-based mobile app intervention. A purposive sample of 20 participants from the intervention group was selected for this study. They underwent semi-structured interviews to provide qualitative data about their perceptions and opinions regarding the intervention.

Data analysis

For the quantitative data, the statistical software was employed. Firstly, descriptive statistics were calculated to determine the mean, and standard deviation of the Social Media Use Integration Scale (SMUIS) and Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21) scores, as well as the mean, and standard deviation of the SMUIS and DASS-21 scores at baseline, post-intervention, and three-month follow-up for both the intervention and control groups. Secondly, bivariate correlations were conducted to examine the relationship between social media use and symptoms of anxiety and depression. Thirdly, multiple regression analysis was performed to determine the unique contribution of social media use to symptoms of anxiety and depression while controlling for other relevant variables. Fourthly, repeated measures ANOVA was conducted to examine changes in SMUIS and DASS-21 scores over time and to determine if there were differences between the intervention and control groups. Finally, post hoc tests were conducted to examine differences between groups at each time point. Effect sizes were calculated to determine the magnitude of the intervention's effects. However, for the qualitative data, the qualitative analysis software was employed. Firstly, the transcripts of the semi-structured interviews were analyzed using thematic analysis to identify themes and subthemes related to participants' experiences with the mindfulness-based mobile app intervention. Secondly, quotes were selected to support and illustrate the identified themes and subthemes. Lastly, the themes and subthemes were interpreted and discussed to provide insight into participants' perceptions and opinions regarding the intervention.

Research question1

Pearson correlations between the variables were estimated and results are presented in Table 1 .

This table shows that social media use is negatively correlated with well-being ( r  = -0.21, p  < 0.01) and positively correlated with symptoms of social anxiety ( r  = -0.35, p  < 0.01) and loneliness ( r  = 0.24, p  < 0.01). Additionally, symptoms of social anxiety are positively correlated with loneliness ( r  = 0.47, p  < 0.01) and negatively correlated with well-being ( r  = -0.61, p  < 0.01), while loneliness is negatively correlated with well-being ( r  = -0.50, p  < 0.01). These results suggest that social media use is associated with poorer mental health outcomes, including higher levels of social anxiety and loneliness and lower levels of well-being, among university students.

Table 2 shows the results of a multiple regression analysis that examined the relationship between social media use, social anxiety, and loneliness as predictor variables and well-being as the outcome variable. The regression equation is:

The results indicate that all three predictor variables significantly contributed to the prediction of well-being, with social media use (β = -0.29, p  = 0.001), social anxiety (β = 0.31, p  = 0.001), and loneliness (β = 0.28, p  = 0.001) each having a significant unique effect on well-being, after controlling for the other variables. The constant term (B = 3.10, p  = 0.001) represents the predicted well-being score when all predictor variables are held at zero.

Research question 2

The second research aimed at investigating the effects of the intervention on the students’ social anxiety, loneliness, and well-being. Results are presented in Table 3 .

This table presents the results of a pretest–posttest randomized control-experimental research design investigating the effects of a mindfulness-based mobile app intervention on social anxiety, loneliness, and well-being in college students. The results indicate that the intervention group showed a significant improvement in social anxiety (F (1, 98) = 17.23, p  < 0.001, partial eta squared = 0.15), loneliness (F (1, 98) = 13.70, p  < 0.001, partial eta squared = 0.12), and well-being (F(1, 98) = 21.41, p  < 0.001, partial eta squared = 0.18) from pretest to posttest. The control group did not show significant changes in any of the measures. The effect sizes (partial eta squared) ranged from moderate to large, indicating that the intervention had a meaningful impact. These findings suggest that the use of a mindfulness-based mobile app intervention can be an effective approach for improving mental health outcomes in college students.

Research question 3

The third research question explored the students’ perceptions of the effects of mindfulness-based mobile apps on the students’ social anxiety, loneliness, and well-being. The detailed analysis of the interviews revealed 6 benefits and 4 challenges of using technology for mental health support. The first extracted benefit as mentioned by 10 students was thematically coded "Convenience and Accessibility". Participants reported that technology-based mental health support services are convenient and accessible, allowing them to access support anytime and anywhere. The following quotations exemplify the theme:

"I like using mental health apps because I can access them whenever I need to. I don't have to wait for an appointment or anything like that." (Student 3). Another student stated, "Online support groups are great because I can connect with people who have similar experiences no matter where I am."(student 11).

The second extracted benefit was thematically coded "Anonymity and Privacy". Participants appreciated the ability to access mental health support services online while maintaining anonymity and privacy. For instance, student 5 stated, "I like that I can access support without having to go to an office or talk to someone face-to-face. It feels less intimidating." This finding was also confirmed by student 6, who stated, "I feel more comfortable talking about my mental health online because I know that no one else needs to know about it."

The third extracted benefit was thematically coded "Customizable and Tailored Support". Participants appreciated the range of options available for mental health support online, including customizable and tailored support that they could access at their own pace. For instance, student 11 stated, "I like that I can choose the type of support that works for me. Some days I just need to read something and other days I need to talk to someone”. Similarly, student 6 stated, "The mental health app I use sends me reminders to check in with myself and practice self-care. It's nice to have that kind of tailored support."

The fourth extracted benefit was thematically coded as "Cost-effective". Participants reported that technology-based mental health support services are often more affordable than traditional face-to-face therapy, making them a more accessible option for those with limited financial resources. This finding was supported by student 17 who stated, "I can't afford traditional therapy, so using mental health apps is a great option for me since it's usually free or very affordable." Similarly, one of the students stated, “Online therapy is much cheaper than traditional therapy, so it's more accessible for people who can't afford to pay a lot."

The fifth extracted benefit was thematically coded as "Increased Awareness and Education". Participants reported that technology-based mental health support services helped them to become more aware of their mental health and provided education about mental health issues and coping strategies. For example, student 12 stated, "The mental health app I use has taught me a lot about mindfulness and how to manage my anxiety." Student 14 also stated, "I learned a lot about depression and how to cope with it from an online support group I joined."

The sixth extracted benefit was thematically coded as "Reduced Stigma". Participants reported that accessing mental health support services online helped to reduce the stigma associated with seeking mental health The following quotations exemplify the theme of support. For instance, one of the students stated, “I used to feel ashamed about seeking mental health support, but using mental health apps has helped me realize that it's okay to take care of my mental health." (Student 9). Similarly, another student argued, “Online support groups have helped me realize that I'm not alone in my struggles with mental health. It's nice to know there are others out there who understand."

Despite the above-mentioned benefits, the participants mentioned some challenges. The first extracted challenge was thematically coded "Quality and Accuracy of Information". Participants expressed concerns about the quality and accuracy of mental health information available online, and the potential for misinformation to be spread. For instance, student 11 stated, "There's so much information online, it's hard to know what's trustworthy and what's not." Another student stated, "I worry that some of the mental health information I see online is not based on evidence and could actually be harmful."(student 6).

The second extracted challenge was thematically coded as "Lack of Human Connection". Participants reported missing the human connection they would get from traditional face-to-face therapy and felt that technology-based mental health support services lacked the same level of personal connection. The following quotations from student 12 exemplify the theme:

"Sometimes I just need someone to talk to face-to-face. It's not the same as talking to a computer screen…. I miss the empathetic listening I would get from a therapist in person. It's hard to replicate that online."

The third extracted challenge was thematically coded as "Technical Difficulties". Participants reported experiencing technical difficulties with technology-based mental health support services, which could be frustrating and hinder their ability to access support. For instance, student 8 stated, “Sometimes the mental health app I use glitches or crashes, which can be really frustrating when I'm trying to use it for support…. I don't have the best internet connection, so sometimes it's hard to access online support groups."

The fourth extracted challenge was thematically coded "Privacy and Security Concerns". Participants expressed concerns about the privacy and security of their personal information when using technology-based mental health support services, and whether their information was being shared without their consent. As an example, student 13 stated, "I worry that my personal information could be shared without my consent, which would be a huge breach of trust." Student 9 also stated, “It's hard to know if my information is really secure when I'm using online mental health support services."

The study investigating the effects of mindfulness-based mobile apps on university students' anxiety, loneliness, and well-being in the context of social media usage is anchored in a multifaceted theoretical framework. At its core, the research draws upon mindfulness theory, a foundational framework emphasizing present-moment awareness and non-judgmental acceptance to alleviate stress and anxiety [ 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ]. This theory forms the bedrock of the study's understanding, as mindfulness-based mobile apps are designed to foster these very principles, encouraging users to engage with the present, accept their experiences without judgment, and, in doing so, mitigate stress and anxiety.

In parallel, to fathom the intricate influence of social media on university students, the study leverages social cognitive theory, a framework highly pertinent for analyzing how individuals acquire and adapt behaviors, attitudes, and emotional responses through observation and modeling within their social networks [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. Given the pervasive role of social media, this theory is essential for comprehending how the behaviors, emotions, and attitudes of students may be shaped by the content and interactions they encounter in the digital realm.

Moreover, the research takes into consideration social comparison theory, which underscores how social media users frequently engage in relentless self-comparisons with others, potentially fostering feelings of loneliness and social anxiety [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. This theory is critical for acknowledging the "highlight reel" effect, wherein users predominantly share their positive experiences and achievements, inadvertently prompting social comparison and potentially engendering negative emotional responses.

In the exploration of the perceived addictiveness of mindfulness-based mobile apps, the study employs addiction and compulsive behavior theories. These theories unearth the underlying factors contributing to the allure and habit-forming nature of certain digital interventions, thereby offering valuable insights into the psychology of user engagement and potential addiction [ 12 , 13 ]. When assessing user acceptance and perceptions of mindfulness-based mobile apps, the study draws from technology acceptance models (TAM). TAM provides a valuable framework for unraveling the intricacies of user adoption and attitudes toward technology-based interventions, elucidating critical factors like perceived usefulness and ease of use, which shed light on participants' acceptance of these apps [ 12 , 13 ].

Furthermore, the research aligns with the principles of positive psychology, a framework that centers on the enhancement of human well-being and strengths. The study's focus on bolstering well-being and mitigating anxiety and loneliness aligns closely with the core tenets of positive psychology, making it a pertinent theoretical perspective [ 12 , 13 ].

Lastly, media effects theories, such as cultivation theory and uses and gratifications theory, play a pivotal role in offering insights into how social media usage affects students' mental health and well-being [ 13 ]. Cultivation theory underscores the potential long-term impact of repeated exposure to media content, while uses and gratifications theory delves into how individuals actively use and engage with media to fulfill specific needs and gratifications.

By encompassing this multifaceted theoretical approach, the study constructs a comprehensive foundation for unraveling the intricate relationship between technology, psychology, and well-being in the digital age. This holistic perspective serves as a valuable compass in navigating the complexities of the research questions at hand, offering a deeper understanding of how these factors interconnect and influence one another [ 12 , 13 ]. Additionally, the study incorporates media effects theories to further enrich its theoretical foundation. Cultivation theory, as one of the key media effects theories, underlines the potential long-term consequences of repeated exposure to media content. Given the omnipresence of social media in the lives of university students, understanding how continuous media exposure might shape their perceptions and attitudes is crucial [ 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 ]. Moreover, uses and gratifications theory plays a pivotal role by exploring how individuals actively engage with media to fulfill specific needs and gratifications. In the context of the study, this theory sheds light on why students turn to social media, whether it's for social interaction, information seeking, or entertainment, and how these purposes might be linked to their mental well-being [ 13 ].

To round out the comprehensive theoretical framework, the study interweaves elements of positive psychology. This perspective emphasizes the enhancement of human well-being, positive emotions, and strengths. By striving to boost well-being and alleviate symptoms of anxiety and loneliness, the study directly aligns with the core principles of positive psychology. Positive psychology focuses on fostering qualities like resilience, optimism, and emotional intelligence, which are highly relevant to the study's objectives [ 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 ]. Thus, this framework adds a positive, growth-oriented dimension to the study's theoretical foundation, underscoring the importance of not only addressing negative mental health outcomes but also promoting positive psychological well-being [ 12 , 13 ].

In summary, the multifaceted theoretical framework encompassing mindfulness theory, social cognitive theory, social comparison theory, addiction and compulsive behavior theories, technology acceptance models (TAM), positive psychology, and media effects theories creates a robust and comprehensive foundation for unraveling the intricate relationship between technology, psychology, and well-being in the digital age. This holistic perspective enables the study to navigate the complexities of its research questions, offering a deeper understanding of how these factors interconnect and influence one another, and providing valuable insights into the impact of technology-driven interventions on the mental well-being of university students.

Conclusions

It can be concluded that the current findings add to the growing body of literature suggesting that social media use is linked to negative mental health outcomes. However, it is important to note that the causal direction of these relationships remains unclear. Although social media use may contribute to negative mental health outcomes, it is also possible that individuals who are already experiencing symptoms of anxiety and loneliness may use social media as a coping mechanism or to seek social support. Therefore, more research is needed to understand the complex relationship between social media use and mental health outcomes. It can also be concluded that the use of technology-based interventions can provide increased accessibility and convenience, anonymity and privacy, customizable and tailored support, cost-effectiveness, increased awareness and education, and reduced stigma. These findings demonstrate the potential of technology to offer effective and accessible mental health support for individuals in need.

The implications of investigating the relationship between social media usage and students' social anxiety, loneliness, and well-being within the context of digital mindfulness-based intervention are multifaceted. Firstly, as social media becomes increasingly integrated into students' lives, the study underscores the significance of understanding its potential repercussions on mental health. The findings can offer valuable insights to educational institutions, mental health professionals, and policymakers, prompting them to recognize the importance of promoting responsible social media usage among students. Secondly, the study's exploration of the effectiveness of digital mindfulness-based interventions in alleviating social anxiety, loneliness, and enhancing well-being holds significant implications for mental health intervention strategies. If proven efficacious, these interventions could serve as a practical and accessible means of addressing the psychological challenges posed by social media usage. This could potentially guide the development of tailored programs aimed at improving students' mental health and emotional resilience in the digital age. Furthermore, the study's focus on digital mindfulness-based interventions acknowledges the evolving nature of psychological interventions in the digital era. The implications of successful intervention highlight the potential of technology-assisted approaches to bridge the gap between traditional therapeutic methods and the modern digital landscape. This insight could inspire further innovation in mental health care, encouraging the integration of technology to reach wider audiences and promote positive mental well-being [ 51 ].

The current study also provides evidence that the intervention was effective in improving mental health outcomes over time. However, the study design does not allow us to determine the specific mechanisms by which the intervention was effective. Therefore, more research is needed to better understand how interventions can be optimized to improve mental health outcomes. Finally, while technology-based interventions can provide benefits such as convenience and accessibility, concerns about the quality and accuracy of mental health information available online, the lack of personal connection compared to traditional face-to-face therapy, and technical difficulties with accessing support have been reported by participants in this study.

Availability of data and materials

The data will be made available upon request from the author ( email: [email protected]).

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Analysing the Impact of Social Media on Students’ Academic Performance: A Comparative Study of Extraversion and Introversion Personality

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The advent of technology in education has seen a revolutionary change in the teaching–learning process. Social media is one such invention which has a major impact on students’ academic performance. This research analyzed the impact of social media on the academic performance of extraversion and introversion personality students. Further, the comparative study between these two personalities will be analysed on education level (postgraduate and undergraduate) and gender (male and female). The research was initiated by identifying the factors of social media impacting students’ academic performance. Thereafter, the scale was developed, validated and tested for reliability in the Indian context. Data were collected from 408 students segregated into 202 males and 206 females. Two hundred and thirty-four students are enrolled in postgraduation courses, whereas 174 are registered in the undergraduate programme. One-way ANOVA has been employed to compare the extraversion and introversion students of different education levels and gender. A significant difference is identified between extraversion and introversion students for the impact of social media on their academic performance.

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Introduction

Social Networking Sites (SNS) gained instant popularity just after the invention and expansion of the Internet. Today, these sites are used the most to communicate and spread the message. The population on these social networking sites (SNS) has increased exponentially. Social networking sites (SNS) in general are called social media (Boyd & Ellison, 2008 ). Social media (SM) is used extensively to share content, initiate discussion, promote businesses and gain advantages over traditional media. Technology plays a vital role to make SM more robust by reducing security threats and increasing reliability (Stergiou et al., 2018 ).

As of January 2022, more than 4.95 billion people are using the Internet worldwide, and around 4.62 billion are active SM users (Johnson, 2022 ). In India, the number of Internet users was 680 million by January 2022, and there were 487 million active social media users (Basuray, 2022 ). According to Statista Research Department ( 2022 ), in India, SM is dominated by two social media sites, i.e. YouTube and Facebook. YouTube has 467 million users followed by Facebook with 329 million users.

Although almost all age groups are using SM platforms to interact and communicate with their known community (Whiting & Williams, 2013 ), it has been found that social media sites are more popular among youngsters and specifically among students. They use SM for personal as well as academic activities extensively (Laura et al., 2017 ). Other than SM, from the last two years, several online platforms such as Microsoft Teams, Zoom and Google Meet are preferred to organize any kind of virtual meetings, webinars and online classes. These platforms were used worldwide to share and disseminate knowledge across the defined user community during the pandemic. Social media sites such as Facebook, YouTube, Instagram, WhatsApp and blogs are comparatively more open and used to communicate with public and/or private groups. Earlier these social media platforms were used only to connect with friends and family, but gradually these platforms became one of the essential learning tools for students (Park et al., 2009 ). To enhance the teaching–learning process, these social media sites are explored by all types of learning communities (Dzogbenuku et al., 2019 ). SM when used in academics has both advantages and disadvantages. Social media helps to improve academic performance, but it may also distract the students from studies and indulge them in other non-academic activities (Alshuaibi et al., 2018 ).

Here, it is important to understand that the personality traits of students, their education level and gender are critical constructs to determine academic performance. There are different personality traits of an individual such as openness, conscientiousness, extraversion and introversion, agreeableness and neuroticism (McCrae & Costa, 1987 ). This cross-functional research is an attempt to study the impact of social media on the academic performance of students while using extraversion and introversion personality traits, education levels and gender as moderating variables.

Literature Review

There has been a drastic change in the internet world due to the invention of social media sites in the last ten years. People of all age groups now share their stories, feelings, videos, pictures and all kinds of public stuff on social media platforms exponentially (Asur & Huberman, 2010 ). Youth, particularly from the age group of 16–24, embraced social media sites to connect with their friends and family, exchange information and showcase their social status (Boyd & Ellison, 2008 ). Social media sites have many advantages when used in academics. The fun element of social media sites always helps students to be connected with peers and teachers to gain knowledge (Amin et al., 2016 ). Social media also enhances the communication between teachers and students as this are no ambiguity and miscommunication from social media which eventually improves the academic performance of the students (Oueder & Abousaber, 2018 ).

When social media is used for educational purposes, it may improve academic performance, but some associated challenges also come along with it (Rithika & Selvaraj, 2013 ). If social media is incorporated into academics, students try to also use it for non-academic discussions (Arnold & Paulus, 2010 ). The primary reason for such distraction is its design as it is designed to be a social networking tool (Qiu et al., 2013 ). According to Englander et al. ( 2010 ), the usage of social media in academics has more disadvantages than advantages. Social media severely impacts the academic performance of a student. The addiction to social media is found more among the students of higher studies which ruins the academic excellence of an individual (Nalwa & Anand, 2003 ). Among the social media users, Facebook users’ academic performance was worse than the nonusers or users of any other social media network. Facebook was found to be the major distraction among students (Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010 ). However, other studies report contrary findings and argued that students benefited from chatting (Jain et al., 2012 ), as it improves their vocabulary and writing skills (Yunus & Salehi, 2012 ). Social media can be used either to excel in academics or to devastate academics. It all depends on the way it is used by the students. The good or bad use of social media in academics is the users’ decision because both the options are open to the students (Landry, 2014 ).

Kaplan and Haenlein ( 2010 ) defined social media as user-generated content shared on web 2.0. They have also classified social media into six categories:

Social Networking Sites: Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn and Instagram are the social networking sites where a user may create their profile and invite their friends to join. Users may communicate with each other by sharing common content.

Blogging Sites: Blogging sites are individual web pages where users may communicate and share their knowledge with the audience.

Content Communities and Groups: YouTube and Slideshare are examples of content communities where people may share media files such as pictures, audio and video and PPT presentations.

Gaming Sites: Users may virtually participate and enjoy the virtual games.

Virtual Worlds: During COVID-19, this type of social media was used the most. In the virtual world, users meet with each other at some decided virtual place and can do the pre-decided things together. For example, the teacher may decide on a virtual place of meeting, and students may connect there and continue their learning.

Collaborative Content Sites: Wikipedia is an example of a collaborative content site. It permits many users to work on the same project. Users have all rights to edit and add the new content to the published project.

Massive open online courses (MOOCs) are in trend since 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic (Raja & Kallarakal, 2020 ). MOOCs courses are generally free, and anyone may enrol for them online. Many renowned institutions have their online courses on MOOCs platform which provides a flexible learning opportunity to the students. Students find them useful to enhance their knowledge base and also in career development. Many standalone universities have collaborated with the MOOCs platform and included these courses in their curriculum (Chen, 2013 ).

Security and privacy are the two major concerns associated with social media. Teachers are quite apprehensive in using social media for knowledge sharing due to the same concerns (Fedock et al., 2019 ). It was found that around 72% teachers were reluctant to use social media platforms due to integrity issues and around 63% teachers confirmed that security needs to be tightened before using social media in the classroom (Surface et al., 2014 ). Proper training on security and privacy, to use social media platforms in academics, is needed for  students and teachers (Bhatnagar & Pry, 2020 ).

The personality traits of a student also play a significant role in deciding the impact of social media on students’ academic performance. Personality is a dynamic organization which simplifies the way a person behaves in a situation (Phares, 1991 ). Human behaviour has further been described by many renowned researchers. According to Lubinski ( 2000 ), human behaviour may be divided into five factors, i.e. cognitive abilities, personality, social attitudes, psychological interests and psychopathology. These personality traits are very important characteristics of a human being and play a substantial role in work commitment (Macey & Schneider, 2008 ). Goldberg ( 1993 ) elaborated on five dimensions of personality which are commonly known as the Big Five personality traits. The traits are “openness vs. cautious”; “extraversion vs. introversion”; “agreeableness vs. rational”; “conscientiousness vs. careless”; and “neuroticism vs. resilient”.

It has been found that among all personality traits, the “extraversion vs. introversion” personality trait has a greater impact on students’ academic performance (Costa & McCrae, 1999 ). Extrovert students are outgoing, talkative and assertive (Chamorro et al., 2003 ). They are positive thinkers and comfortable working in a crowd. Introvert students are reserved and quiet. They prefer to be isolated and work in silos (Bidjerano & Dai, 2007 ). So, in the present study, we have considered only the “extraversion vs. introversion” personality trait. This study is going to analyse the impact of social media platforms on students’ academic performance by taking the personality trait of extraversion and introversion as moderating variables along with their education level and gender.

Research Gap

Past research by Choney ( 2010 ), Karpinski and Duberstein ( 2009 ), Khan ( 2009 ) and Kubey et al. ( 2001 ) was done mostly in developed countries to analyse the impact of social media on the students’ academic performance, effect of social media on adolescence, and addictiveness of social media in students. There are no published research studies where the impact of social media was studied on students’ academic performance by taking their personality traits, education level and gender all three together into consideration. So, in the present study, the impact of social media will be evaluated on students’ academic performance by taking their personality traits (extraversion and introversion), education level (undergraduate and postgraduate) and gender (male and female) as moderating variables.

Objectives of the Study

Based on the literature review and research gap, the following research objectives have been defined:

To identify the elements of social media impacting student's academic performance and to develop a suitable scale

To test the  validity and reliability of the scale

To analyse the impact of social media on students’ academic performance using extraversion and introversion personality trait, education level and gender as moderating variables

Research Methodology

Sampling technique.

Convenience sampling was used for data collection. An online google form was floated to collect the responses from 408 male and female university students of undergraduation and postgraduation streams.

Objective 1 To identify the elements of social media impacting student's academic performance and to develop a suitable scale.

A structured questionnaire was employed to collect the responses from 408 students of undergraduate and postgraduate streams. The questionnaire was segregated into three sections. In section one, demographic details such as gender, age and education stream were defined. Section two contained the author’s self-developed 16-item scale related to the impact of social media on the academic performance of students. The third section had a standardized scale developed by John and Srivastava ( 1999 ) of the Big Five personality model.

Demographics

There were 408 respondents (students) of different education levels consisting of 202 males (49.5%) and 206 females (50.5%). Most of the respondents (87%) were from the age group of 17–25 years. 234 respondents (57.4) were enrolled on postgraduation courses, whereas 174 respondents (42.6) were registered in the undergraduate programme. The result further elaborates that WhatsApp with 88.6% and YouTube with 82.9% are the top two commonly used platforms followed by Instagram with 76.7% and Facebook with 62.3% of students. 65% of students stated that Google doc is a quite useful and important application in academics for document creation and information dissemination.

Validity and Reliability of Scale

Objective 2 Scale validity and reliability.

Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and Cronbach’s alpha test were used to investigate construct validity and reliability, respectively.

The author’s self-designed scale of ‘social media impacting students’ academic performance’ consisting of 16 items was validated using exploratory factor analysis. The principle component method with varimax rotation was applied to decrease the multicollinearity within the items. The initial eigenvalue was set to be greater than 1.0 (Field, 2005 ). Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) with 0.795 and Bartlett’s test of sphericity having significant values of 0.000 demonstrated the appropriateness of using exploratory factor analysis.

The result of exploratory factor analysis and Cronbach’s alpha is shown in Table 1 . According to Sharma and Behl ( 2020 ), “High loading on the same factor and no substantial cross-loading confirms convergent and discriminant validity respectively”.

The self-developed scale was segregated into four factors, namely “Accelerating Impact”, “Deteriorating Impact”, “Social Media Prospects” and “Social Media Challenges”.

The first factor, i.e. “Accelerating Impact”, contains items related to positive impact of social media on students’ academic performance. Items in this construct determine the social media contribution in the grade improvement, communication and knowledge sharing. The second factor “Deteriorating Impact” describes the items which have a negative influence of social media on students’ academic performance. Items such as addiction to social media and distraction from studies are an integral part of this factor. “Social Media Prospects” talk about the opportunities created by social media for students’ communities. The last factor “Social Media Challenges” deals with security and privacy issues created by social media sites and the threat of cyberbullying which is rampant in academics.

The personality trait of an individual always influences the social media usage pattern. Therefore, the impact of social media on the academic performance of students may also change with their personality traits. To measure the personality traits, the Big Five personality model was used. This model consists of five personality traits, i.e. “openness vs. cautious”; “extraversion vs. introversion”; “agreeableness vs. rational”; “conscientiousness vs. careless”; and “neuroticism vs. resilient”. To remain focussed on the scope of the study, only a single personality trait, i.e. “extraversion vs. introversion” with 6 items was considered for analysis. A reliability test of this existing scale using Cronbach’s alpha was conducted. Prior to the reliability test, reverse scoring applicable to the associated items was also calculated. Table 2 shows the reliability score, i.e. 0.829.

Objective 3 To analyse the impact of social media on students’ academic performance using extraversion and introversion personality traits, education level and gender as moderating variables.

The research model shown in Fig.  1 helps in addressing the above objective.

Social media factors impacting academic performances of extraversion and introversion personality traits of students at different education levels and gender

As mentioned in Fig.  1 , four dependent factors (Accelerating Impact, Deteriorating Impact, Social Media Prospects and Social Media Challenges) were derived from EFA and used for analysing the impact of social media on the academic performance of students having extraversion and introversion personality traits at different education levels and gender.

Students having a greater average score (more than three on a scale of five) for all personality items mentioned in Table 2 are considered to be having extraversion personality or else introversion personality. From the valid dataset of 408 students, 226 students (55.4%) had extraversion personality trait and 182 (44.6%) had introversion personality trait. The one-way ANOVA analysis was employed to determine the impact of social media on academic performance for all three moderators, i.e. personality traits (Extraversion vs. Introversion), education levels (Undergraduate and Postgraduate) and gender (Male and Female). If the sig. value for the result is >  = 0.05, we may accept the null hypothesis, i.e. there is no significant difference between extraversion and introversion personality students for the moderators; otherwise, null hypothesis is rejected which means there is a significant difference for the moderators.

Table 3 shows the comparison of the accelerating impact of social media on the academic performance of all students having extraversion and introversion personality traits. It also shows a comparative analysis on education level and gender for these two personality traits of students. In the first comparison of extraversion and introversion students, the sig. value is 0.001, which indicates that there is a significant difference among extraversion and introversion students for the “Accelerating Impact” of social media on academic performance. Here, 3.781 is the mean value for introversion students which is higher than the mean value 3.495 of extraversion students. It clearly specifies that the accelerating impact of social media is more prominent in the students having introversion personality traits. Introversion students experienced social media as the best tool to express thoughts and improve academic grades. The result is also consistent with the previous studies where introvert students are perceived to use social media to improve their academic performance (Amichai-Hamburger et al., 2002 ; Voorn & Kommers, 2013 ). Further at the education level, there was a significant difference in postgraduate as well as undergraduate students for the accelerating impact of social media on the academic performance among students with extraversion and introversion, and introverts seem to get better use of social media. The gender-wise significant difference was also analysed between extraversion and introversion personalities. Female introversion students were found to gain more of an accelerating impact of social media on their academic performance.

Like Table 3 , the first section of Table 4 compares the deteriorating impact of social media on the academic performance of all students having extraversion and introversion personality traits. Here, the sig. value 0.383 indicates no significant difference among extraversion and introversion students for the “Deteriorating Impact” of social media on academic performance. The mean values show the moderating deteriorating impact of social media on the academic performance of extraversion and introversion personality students. Unlimited use of social media due to the addiction is causing a distraction in academic performance, but the overall impact is not on the higher side. Further, at the education level, the sig. values 0.423 and 0.682 of postgraduate and undergraduate students, respectively, show no significant difference between extraversion and introversion students with respect to “Deteriorating Impact of Social Media Sites”. The mean values again represent the moderate impact. Gender-wise, male students have no difference between the two personality traits, but at the same time, female students have a significant difference in the deteriorating impact, and it is more on extroverted female students.

The significant value, i.e. 0.82, in Table 5 represents no significant difference between extraversion and introversion personality students for the social media prospects. The higher mean value of both personality students indicates that they are utilizing the opportunities of social media in the most appropriate manner. It seems that all the students are using social media for possible employment prospects, gaining knowledge by attending MOOCs courses and transferring knowledge among other classmates. At the education level, postgraduation students have no significant difference between extraversion and introversion for the social media prospects, but at the undergraduate level, there is a significant difference among both the personalities, and by looking at mean values, extroverted students gain more from the social media prospects. Gender-wise comparison of extraversion and introversion personality students found no significant difference in the social media prospects for male as well as female students.

Table 6 shows the comparison of the social media challenges of all students having extraversion and introversion personality traits. It is also doing a comparative analysis on education level and gender for these two personality traits of students. All sig. values in Table 6 represent no significant difference between extraversion and introversion personality students for social media challenges. Even at the education level and gender-wise comparison of the two personalities, no significant difference is derived. The higher mean values indicate that the threat of cyberbullying, security and privacy is the main concern areas for extraversion and introversion personality students. Cyberbullying is seen to be more particularly among female students (Snell & Englander, 2010 ).

The use of social media sites in academics is becoming popular among students and teachers. The improvement or deterioration in academic performance is influenced by the personality traits of an individual. This study has tried to analyse the impact of social media on the academic performance of extraversion and introversion personality students. This study has identified four factors of social media which have an impact on academic performance. These factors are: accelerating impact of social media; deteriorating impact of social media; social media prospects; and social media challenges.

Each of these factors has been used for comparative analysis of students having extraversion and introversion personality traits. Their education level and gender have also been used to understand the detailed impact between these two personality types. In the overall comparison, it has been discovered that both personalities (extraversion and introversion) have a significant difference for only one factor, i.e. “Accelerating Impact of Social Media Sites” where students with introversion benefited the most. At the education level, i.e. postgraduate and undergraduate, there was a significant difference between extraversion and introversion personalities for the first factor which is the accelerating impact of social media. Here, the introversion students were found to benefit in postgraduate as well as undergraduate courses. For the factors of deteriorating impact and social media challenges, there was no significant difference between extraversion and introversion personality type at the different education levels.

Surprisingly, for the first factor, i.e. the accelerating impact of social media, in gender-wise comparison, no significant difference was found between extraversion and introversion male students. Whereas a significant difference was found in female students. The same was the result for the second factor, i.e. deteriorating impact of social media of male and female students. For social media prospects and social media challenges, no significant difference was identified between extraversion and introversion students of any gender.

Findings and Implications

The personality trait of a student plays a vital role in analysing the impact of social media on their academic performance. The present study was designed to find the difference between extraversion and introversion personality types in students for four identified factors of social media and their impact on students’ academic performance. The education level and gender were also added to make it more comprehensive. The implications of this study are useful for institutions, students, teachers and policymakers.

This study will help the institutions to identify the right mix of social media based on the personality, education level and gender of the students. For example, technological challenges are faced by all students. It is important for the institutions to identify the challenges such as cyberbullying, security and privacy issues and accordingly frame the training sessions for all undergraduate and postgraduate students. These training sessions will help students with extraversion and introversion to come out from possible technological hassles and will create a healthy ecosystem (Okereke & Oghenetega, 2014 ).

Students will also benefit from this study as they will be conscious of the possible pros and cons that exist because of social media usage and its association with students’ academic performance. This learning may help students to enhance their academic performance with the right use of social media sites. The in-depth knowledge of all social media platforms and their association with academics should be elucidated to the students so that they may explore the social media opportunities in an optimum manner. Social media challenges also need to be made known to the students to improve upon and overcome with time (Boateng & Amankwaa, 2016 ).

Teachers are required to design the curriculum by understanding the learning style of students with extraversion and introversion personality type. Innovation and customization in teaching style are important for the holistic development of students and to satisfy the urge for academic requirements. Teachers should also guide the students about the adverse impacts of each social media platform, so that these can be minimized. Students should also be guided to reduce the time limit of using social media (Owusu-Acheaw & Larson, 2015 ).

Policymakers are also required to understand the challenges faced by the students while using social media in academics. All possible threats can be managed by defining and implementing transparent and proactive policies. As social media sites are open in nature, security and privacy are the two major concerns. The Government of India should take a strong stand to control all big social media companies so that they may fulfil the necessary compliances related to students’ security and privacy (Kumar & Pradhan, 2018 ).

The overall result of these comparisons gives a better insight and deep understanding of the significant differences between students with extraversion and introversion personality type towards different social media factors and their impact on students’ academic performance. Students’ behaviour according to their education level and gender for extraversion and introversion personalities has also been explored.

Limitation and Future Scope of Research

Due to COVID restrictions, a convenient sampling technique was used for data collection which may create some response biases where the students of introversion personality traits may have intentionally described themselves as extroversion personalities and vice versa. This study also creates scope for future research. In the Big Five personality model, there are four other personality traits which are not considered in the present study. There is an opportunity to also use cross-personality comparisons for the different social media parameters. The other demographic variables such as age and place may also be explored in future research.

Availability of data and material

Complete data and material is available to support transparency.

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Sharma, S., Behl, R. Analysing the Impact of Social Media on Students’ Academic Performance: A Comparative Study of Extraversion and Introversion Personality. Psychol Stud 67 , 549–559 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12646-022-00675-6

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Social media brings benefits and risks to teens. Psychology can help identify a path forward

New psychological research exposes the harms and positive outcomes of social media. APA’s recommendations aim to add science-backed balance to the discussion

Vol. 54 No. 6 Print version: page 46

• Social Media and Internet
• Technology and Design

This was the year that social media itself went viral—and not in a good way. In March, President Joe Biden threatened to ban the Chinese-owned video-sharing site TikTok. In April, a bipartisan group of senators introduced legislation to ban kids under 13 from joining social media. In May, the U.S. surgeon general issued an advisory urging action to protect children online ( Social Media and Youth Mental Health: The U.S. Surgeon General’s Advisory , 2023 ). Just days earlier, APA issued its first-ever health advisory, providing recommendations to protect youth from the risks of social media ( Health Advisory on Social Media Use in Adolescence , 2023 ).

As youth mental health continues to suffer, parents, teachers, and legislators are sounding the alarm on social media. But fear and misinformation often go hand in hand. APA’s recommendations aim to add science-backed balance to the discussion. “There’s such a negative conversation happening around social media, and there is good reason for that. However, it’s important to realize there can be benefits for many teens,” said Jacqueline Nesi, PhD, an assistant professor of psychology at Brown University who studies technology use in youth, and a member of the APA panel that produced the health advisory. “Teens (and adults) obviously get something out of social media. We have to take a balanced view if we want to reach teens and help them use these platforms in healthier ways.”

[ Related:  What parents should know to keep their teens safe on social media ]

In 2023, an estimated 4.9 billion people worldwide are expected to use social media. For teens who grew up with technology, those digital platforms are woven into the fabric of their lives. “Social media is here to stay,” said Mary Alvord, PhD, a clinical psychologist in Maryland and adjunct professor at George Washington University, and a member of the APA panel. That doesn’t mean we have to accept its dangers, however. “Just as we decide when kids are old enough to drive, and we teach them to be good drivers, we can establish guidelines and teach children to use social media safely,” Alvord said.

Social media charms and harms

Even before the COVID-19 pandemic, rates of depression, anxiety, and suicide in young people were climbing. In 2021, more than 40% of high school students reported depressive symptoms, with girls and LGBTQ+ youth reporting even higher rates of poor mental health and suicidal thoughts, according to data from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( American Economic Review , Vol. 112, No. 11, 2022 ).

Young people may be particularly vulnerable to social media’s charms—as well as its harms. During adolescent development, brain regions associated with the desire for attention, feedback, and reinforcement from peers become more sensitive. Meanwhile, the brain regions involved in self-control have not fully matured. That can be a recipe for disaster. “The need to prioritize peers is a normal part of adolescent development, and youth are turning to social media for some of that longed-for peer contact,” said clinical psychologist Mary Ann McCabe, PhD, ABPP, a member-at-large of APA’s Board of Directors, adjunct associate professor of pediatrics at George Washington University School of Medicine, and cochair of the expert advisory panel. “The original yearning is social, but kids can accidentally wander into harmful content.”

[ Related: Potential risks of content, features, and functions: The science of how social media affects youth ]

The potential risks of social media may be especially acute during early adolescence when puberty delivers an onslaught of biological, psychological, and social changes. One longitudinal analysis of data from youth in the United Kingdom found distinct developmental windows during which adolescents are especially sensitive to social media’s impact. During those windows—around 11 to 13 for girls and 14 to 15 for boys—more social media use predicts a decrease in life satisfaction a year later, while lower use predicts greater life satisfaction ( Orben, A., et al.,  Nature Communications , Vol. 13, No. 1649, 2022 ).

One takeaway from such research is that adults should monitor kids’ social media use closely in early adolescence, between the ages of 10 and 14 or so. As kids become more mature and develop digital literacy skills, they can earn more autonomy.

The cost of connection

The internet is at its best when it brings people together. Adults can help kids get the most out of social media by encouraging them to use online platforms to engage with others in positive ways. “The primary benefit is social connection, and that’s true for teens who are connecting with friends they already have or making new connections,” Nesi said. “On social media, they can find people who share their identities and interests.”

Online social interaction can promote healthy socialization among teens, especially when they’re experiencing stress or social isolation. For youth who have anxiety or struggle in social situations, practicing conversations over social media can be an important step toward feeling more comfortable interacting with peers in person. Social media can also help kids stay in touch with their support networks. That can be especially important for kids from marginalized groups, such as LGBTQ+ adolescents who may be reluctant or unable to discuss their identity with caregivers ( Craig, S. L., et al.,  Social Media + Society , Vol. 7, No. 1, 2021 ). In such cases, online support can be a lifeline.

“We know from suicide prevention research that it’s critical for people to know they aren’t alone,” Alvord said.

Kids also learn about themselves online. “Social media provides a lot of opportunities for young people to discover new information, learn about current events, engage with issues, and have their voices heard,” Nesi added. “And it gives them an opportunity to explore their identities, which is an important task of the adolescent years.”

Yet all those opportunities come at a cost. “There is a lot of good that can come from social media. The problem is, the algorithms can also lead you down rabbit holes,” Alvord said. Technology is expertly designed to pull us in. Features such as “like” buttons, notifications, and videos that start playing automatically make it incredibly hard to step away. At the extreme, social media use can interfere with sleep, physical activity, schoolwork, and in-person social interactions. “The risk of technologies that pull us in is that they can get in the way of all the things we know are important for a teen’s development,” Nesi said.

Research suggests that setting limits and boundaries around social media, combined with discussion and coaching from adults, is the best way to promote positive outcomes for youth ( Wachs, S., et al.,  Computers & Education , Vol. 160, No. 1, 2021 ). Parents should talk to kids often about social media and technology and also use strategies like limiting the amount of time kids can use devices and removing devices from the bedroom at night. Caregivers should also keep an eye out for problematic behaviors, such as strong cravings to use social media, an inability to stop, and lying or sneaking around in order to use devices when they aren’t allowed.

[ Related:   How much is too much social media use: A Q&A with Mitch Prinstein, PhD ]

In helping to set boundaries around social media, it’s important that parents don’t simply limit access to devices, Alvord added. “Removing devices can feel punitive. Instead, parents should focus on encouraging kids to spend time with other activities they find valuable, such as movement and art activities they enjoy,” she said. “When kids are spending more time on those things, they’re less likely to be stuck on social media.”

Dangerous content

Spending too much time on social media is one cause for concern. Dangerous content is another. Despite efforts by caregivers and tech companies to protect kids from problematic material, they still encounter plenty of it online—including mis- and disinformation, racism and hate speech, and content that promotes dangerous behaviors such as disordered eating and self-harm.

During the first year of the pandemic, when kids were spending more time at home and online, McCabe saw a flurry of new diagnoses of eating disorders in her teen patients and their friends. “These kids often reported that they started by watching something relatively benign, like exercise videos,” she said. But their social media algorithms doubled down on that content, offering up more and more material related to body image and weight. “It was an echo chamber,” McCabe added. “And several of my patients attributed their eating disorders to this online behavior.”

Unfortunately, McCabe’s observations seem to be part of a common pattern. A large body of research, cited in APA’s health advisory, suggests that using social media for comparisons and feedback related to physical appearance is linked to poorer body image, disordered eating, and depressive symptoms, especially among girls.

Other research shows that when youth are exposed to unsafe behaviors online, such as substance use or self-harm, they may be at greater risk of engaging in similar behaviors themselves. In a longitudinal study of high school students, Nesi and colleagues showed that kids who saw their peers drinking alcohol on social media were more likely to start drinking and to binge drink 1 year later, even after controlling for demographic and developmental risk factors ( Journal of Adolescent Health , Vol. 60, No. 6, 2017 ).

Cyberbullying is another source of worry, both for young people and their caregivers. Indeed, research shows that online bullying and harassment can be harmful for a young person’s psychological well-being. APA’s health advisory cited several studies that found online bullying and harassment can be more severe than offline bullying. The research showed it can increase the risk of mental health problems in adolescents—with risks for both perpetrators and victims of cyberhate.

Ingrained racism

Search engines and social media algorithms can expose adolescents to other types of cyberhate, including racism. In fact, online algorithms often have structural racism and bias baked in, in ways that White users might not even notice. Sometimes, the algorithms themselves churn out biased or racist content. TikTok, for instance, has come under fire for recommending new accounts based on the appearance of the people a user already follows—with the inadvertent effect of segregating the platform. In addition to this form of “algorithmic bias,” people of color are frequently subjected to what some researchers call “filter bias.” In one common example, the beauty filters built into sites like Instagram or Snapchat might apply paler skin or more typically White facial features to a user’s selfies.

Like microaggressions in offline life, online racism in the form of algorithmic and filter bias can take a toll on mental health, said Brendesha Tynes, PhD, a professor of education and psychology at the University of Southern California, and a member of the APA advisory panel. In an ongoing daily diary study with adolescents, she is finding evidence that people who are exposed to algorithmic and filter bias are at increased risk of next-day depression and anxiety symptoms.

“I’m an adult who studies these issues and who has a lot of strategies to protect myself, and it can still be really hard” to cope with online racism, she said. Impressionable teens who haven’t learned such strategies are likely to experience even greater psychological impacts from the racism they encounter every day on social media. “We’re just beginning to understand the profound negative impacts of online racism,” Tynes said. “We need all hands on deck in supporting kids of color and helping them cope with these experiences.”

Despite the drawbacks of technology, there is a silver lining. Tynes has found Black youth receive valuable social support from other Black people on social media. Those interactions can help them learn to think critically about the racism they encounter. That’s important, since her research also shows that youth who are able to critique racism experience less psychological distress when they witness race-related traumatic events online ( Journal of Adolescent Health , Vol. 43, No. 6, 2008 ).

Tynes said more research is needed to understand how online racism affects youth and how best to protect them from its harms.

“Different groups have vastly different experiences online,” she said. “We need more detailed recommendations for specific groups.”

A role for psychology

How to protect kids from online racism is just one of a long list of questions on researchers’ wish lists. Digital technologies evolve so quickly that kids are off to a new platform before scientists can finish collecting data about yesterday’s favorite sites. “There’s so much we still don’t know about this topic. That’s understandably frustrating for people because social media is impacting people’s lives as we speak,” Nesi said.

It’s likely some groups, and some individuals, are more susceptible than others to the negative effects of social media, she added. “We need more information about who is more vulnerable and who is more resilient, and what it is they’re doing online that’s healthy versus harmful.”

While there is a lot of work to be done, Nesi said, “we’re getting closer.” As APA’s recommendations make clear, there is ample evidence some types of content and online behaviors can harm youth. Adult role models can work together with teens to understand the pitfalls of technology and establish boundaries to protect them from dangerous content and excessive screen time.

Psychological research shows children from a young age should be taught digital literacy skills such as identifying misinformation, protecting privacy, understanding how people can misrepresent themselves online, and how to critically evaluate race-related materials online. One way to promote those skills may be to lean into teens’ inherent skepticism of grown-ups. “You can teach kids that a lot of people want something from them,” Alvord said—whether it’s a stranger trying to message them on Instagram, or TikTok earning money by collecting their data or showing them branded content.

That’s not to say it’s easy to help kids develop a healthy relationship with social media. “By necessity, adolescents disagree more with their parents—and they are formidable when they insist on having something, like phones or social media, that all their friends have,” McCabe said. “But parents are eager for guidance. There is an appetite for this information now,” she added—and psychological scientists can help provide it.

That scientific research can inform broader efforts to keep children safe on social media as well. “Parents can’t do this alone,” Nesi said. “We need larger-scale changes to these platforms to protect kids.”

There are efforts to make such changes. The Kids Online Safety Act, a bipartisan bill introduced in April, establishes a duty of care for social media companies to protect minors from mental health harms, sex trafficking, narcotics, and other dangers. Additionally, the bill requires social media companies to go through independent, external audits, allows researcher access to platform data assets, and creates substantial youth and parental controls to create a safer digital environment. Even as legislators and tech companies consider those and other policies, researchers can continue their efforts to determine which actions might be most protective, said Nesi, who is currently leading a study to understand which features of social media are helpful versus harmful for kids at high risk of suicide. “For some kids, being able to connect with others and find support is really important. For others, social media may create more challenges than it solves,” Nesi said. “The key is making sure we don’t accidentally do any harm” by enacting restrictions and legislation that are not backed by science.

While researchers forge ahead, clinical psychologists, too, can add valuable insight for teens and their families. “Screens are a central part of adolescents’ lives, and that needs to be integrated into assessment and treatment,” Nesi said. “Clinicians can help families and teens take a step back and look at their social media use to figure out what’s working for them and what isn’t.”

Someday, McCabe said, digital literacy may be taught in schools the same way that youth learn about sexual health and substance use. “I hope we’ll come to a point where teaching about the healthy use of social media is an everyday occurrence,” she said. “Because of this dialogue that we’re having now among families and policymakers, we may see a new generation of kids whose entry into the digital world is very different, where we can use social media for connection and education but minimize the harms,” she added. “I hope this is the beginning of a new day.”

Social media recommendations

APA’s Health Advisory on Social Media Use in Adolescence makes these recommendations based on the scientific evidence to date:

• Youth using social media should be encouraged to use functions that create opportunities for social support, online companionship, and emotional intimacy that can promote healthy socialization.
• Social media use, functionality, and permissions/consenting should be tailored to youths’ developmental capabilities; designs created for adults may not be appropriate for children.
• In early adolescence (i.e., typically 10–14 years), adult monitoring (i.e., ongoing review, discussion, and coaching around social media content) is advised for most youths’ social media use; autonomy may increase gradually as kids age and if they gain digital literacy skills. However, monitoring should be balanced with youths’ appropriate needs for privacy.
• To reduce the risks of psychological harm, adolescents’ exposure to content on social media that depicts illegal or psychologically maladaptive behavior, including content that instructs or encourages youth to engage in health-risk behaviors, such as self-harm (e.g., cutting, suicide), harm to others, or those that encourage eating-disordered behavior (e.g., restrictive eating, purging, excessive exercise) should be minimized, reported, and removed; moreover, technology should not drive users to this content.
• To minimize psychological harm, adolescents’ exposure to “cyberhate” including online discrimination, prejudice, hate, or cyberbullying especially directed toward a marginalized group (e.g., racial, ethnic, gender, sexual, religious, ability status), or toward an individual because of their identity or allyship with a marginalized group should be minimized.
• Adolescents should be routinely screened for signs of “problematic social media use” that can impair their ability to engage in daily roles and routines, and may present risk for more serious psychological harms over time.
• The use of social media should be limited so as to not interfere with adolescents’ sleep and physical activity.
• Adolescents should limit use of social media for social comparison, particularly around beauty- or appearance-related content.
• Adolescents’ social media use should be preceded by training in social media literacy to ensure that users have developed psychologically-informed competencies and skills that will maximize the chances for balanced, safe, and meaningful social media use.
• Substantial resources should be provided for continued scientific examination of the positive and negative effects of social media on adolescent development.

Read the full recommendations and see the science behind them .

Further reading

Algorithms of oppression: How search engines reinforce racism Noble, S. U., New York University Press, 2018

Family Online Safety Institute

An updated agenda for the study of digital media use and adolescent development: Future directions following Odgers & Jensen (2020) Prinstein, M. J., et al., The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 2020

From Google searches to Russian disinformation: Adolescent critical race digital literacy needs and skills Tynes, B., et al., International Journal of Multicultural Education , 2021

How social media affects teen mental health: A missing link Orben, A., & Blakemore, S.J. Nature , Feb. 14, 2023

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The Effects of Social Media on Students' Learning and Development

Jun 30, 2023

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Students of today are highly attracted towards social media. This trend of being on social media started mainly during the pandemic when students were distanced from their friends and relatives. Social media platforms provide multiple benefits to students, which is why the top schools in Mumbai encourage students to be on social media.

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The Effects of Social Media on Students' Learning and Development 1-Introduction: Students of today are highly attracted towards social media. This trend of being on social media started mainly during the pandemic when students were distanced from their friends and relatives. Social media platforms provide multiple benefits to students, which is why the top schools in Mumbai encourage students to be on social media. However, there are certain negative impacts as well. So, here we will talk to you about the impacts of social media on the life of students. We will also talk about how the negative impacts of social media can be mitigated. 2-The Positive Effects of Social Media on Students' Learning and Development: Connect with peers: Social media platforms allow students to connect with their peers. This can bring an end to limitations of distance and time. This is effective for all those introverts who find it difficult to express themselves in person. Students of boarding school can also connect with their parents through social media. Availability of educational resources and opportunities: Social media platforms offer students with educational resources and opportunities. This can be a great way of flourishing their career and making their learning experience better. You will also find social media being used as a platform for learning at the best ib schools in the world. Development of digital literacy and technological skills: With frequent use of social media, students can master various technical skills. Digital literacy among students

also improves. This prepares them for a digital era. They also develop an inquisitive mind which helps them in achieving their goals. Enhancement of creativity and self-expression: Social media is also an excellent platform for self-expression. It can bring out the creativity in students and turn them into productive individuals. There are a lot of ib board schools in India that teach students ways to be creative on social media. 3-The Negative Effects of Social Media on Students' Learning and Development: Distraction from academic work and responsibilities: Regular use of social media can distract students from their responsibilities. Their academic performance deteriorates. They fail to acquire the desired grades in school. Exposure to cyberbullying and inappropriate content: Many students become victims of cyberbullying on social media. They start accessing inappropriate content from a very early age, which can be harmful to their mental and physical health. Addiction and negative impact on mental health: Social media platforms can get addictive. There are tons of students who are deeply addicted to social media. This can negatively impact mental health. Influence on social and behavioural development: Social media platforms can impact the social and behavioural development of students. They find it difficult to express themselves in public. They also lose touch with reality. Also Read Advantages Of Reading Newspaper For Students & Tips To Cultivate The Habit Six Tips For Establishing Good Homework Habits In Your Child Benefits Of Morning Exercise For Kids At School: 8 Ways To Help Them Get Started! Who Invented Zero ● ● ● ●

4-Mitigating the Negative Effects of Social Media: Developing responsible social media habits and practices: Students can be taught responsible social media habits and practices. They can also be encouraged to limit the time they spend on social media. Encouraging offline activities and face-to-face interactions: The parents and teachers should encourage the kids to participate in offline activities and face-to-face interactions. This will bring about a balance in their life, and they will also not lose touch with reality. Educating students on digital citizenship and online safety: Students should get the required education on digital safety and online citizenship. In that way, they will not fall victim to social media cyberbullying and they will also be able to enjoy a safe digital experience. Parental and teacher supervision and guidance: Students should use social media only under the strict supervision and guidance of their parents and teachers. This will keep them away from inappropriate content. Their time spent on social media will also be valuable. > 10 Ways To Use Social Media For Education In this way, social media platforms can be used constructively to enhance the learning experience of students. So, if you want your kids to experience the benefits of social media from a very early age, you may consider getting them admitted to one of the best nursery schools in Pune. This will help them in shaping their career in the best way possible.

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How does social media effect on students' health and academic performance using principal component analysis (pca): case study of simad university.

© 2024 The authors. This article is published by IIETA and is licensed under the CC BY 4.0 license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ).

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In today's digital age, the pervasive influence of social media is undeniable, with over 5 billion people globally connected to various platforms. Against this backdrop, this study delves into the causal relationship between social media usage, student health, and academic performance, focusing specifically on SIMAD University students in Somalia. Its primary objective is to comprehensively examine how social media impacts students' physical and mental well-being and their educational achievements. Employing a quantitative research approach and the data analysis was conducted using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software, version 27. The significance level was set at α=0.05. the study utilizes Rifhd regression analysis and principal component analysis (PCA) to analyze primary data collected through a meticulously designed questionnaire administered to a randomly selected sample of stakeholders. The findings significantly highlight the connection between social media usage patterns and both student health and academic outcomes. Notably, the computed model demonstrates that even minor adjustments in the distribution of social media usage, student performance, and student health yield marginal increases, albeit with positive yet negligible values of 0.002 and 0.098, respectively. In conclusion, the study underscores the importance of self-regulation in social media usage among students, as higher levels of self-regulation are associated with improved mental well-being and enhanced academic performance.

social media, student’s health, academic performance, Rifhdreg model

Social media (SM) has become an indispensable component of daily existence for numerous individuals, especially the youth. Social media websites are digital platforms that facilitate the connection of individuals both locally and globally, serving as a means to foster interpersonal interactions. The global number of social media users reached 3.2 billion in 2018, with an annual growth rate of up to 13%. It is projected that by 2020, around 5 billion individuals will be linked to social media platforms (Social Media Week). Adolescents and young adults employ technology in novel and inventive ways. Although they are at the developmental stage of their lives, they exhibit distinct patterns of thinking, working, and communication compared to previous generations. Nevertheless, the utilization of social media platforms has resulted in a significant number of contemporary young individuals developing a dependency on technology and experiencing social isolation [1, 2]. Without a doubt, technical and mobile devices possess favorable attributes and greatly facilitate several parts of individuals' lives [3]. The utilization of social media by students can facilitate expedient access to essential information for their academic pursuits. Excessive utilization of social media can lead to issues such as ocular strain, exhaustion, insufficient physical exercise, diminished focus, and sleep disturbances [4, 5]. Moreover, there exists a positive correlation between the amount of time individuals allocate to social media usage and their susceptibility to mental health disorders. These diseases encompass a range of significant concerns, including diminished self-esteem, eating disorders, anxiety, feelings of inferiority, and impaired concentration [6]. Adolescents who are raised in an era of technology rely on social media platforms to engage with others, resulting in a decrease in in-person interpersonal communication. Nevertheless, virtual contacts fail to impart effective social and communication skills, and the absence of in-person interactions can result in issues such as social isolation, depressive symptoms, and various mental diseases.

Social media is a useful method of communication but may be harmful to health. Social media has ‘pros and cons,’ but the effect depends on the individual’s use of these platforms [7]. A recent study found that although students felt competent using social media platforms for academic purposes, they did not have the desire or willingness to do so; however, students with more self-regulation were better able to control social media use [6]. Another study reported that academic performance was a function of attention span, time management skills, student characteristics, academic competence, and time spent on online social networking [8]. Research suggests that college students who socialize rather than for academic pursuits mainly use social media, and the time spent on social media takes time from studying [9]. Yahaya [10] reported that addicted users of social media platforms (e.g., Facebook, WhatsApp) often devoted less time to their studies compared with non-users and subsequently had lower grade point averages [11]. That study also reported that social media use was negatively associated with students’ academic performance, with this association being much more reliable than the advantages derived from using social media platforms. Another study argued that social networks divert students’ attention and concentration from learning and redirect them towards non-educational activities (e.g., unnecessary chatting) [11, 12]. Previous studies have also found that social media may affect students’ attention, span, memory, sleep, vision, and overall physical, mental, and social health [13]. A recent study confirmed that unnecessary use of social media platforms affected students’ psychological and physical health and found that students often did not have their meals on time or get proper rest [14].

Social networking sites (SNS) experienced swift and widespread appeal in reaction to the rise and growth of the Internet. Currently, these sites are predominantly used for communication and the dissemination of information. The user population on these social networking sites (SNS) has undergone a quick and substantial expansion. Social networking sites (SNS) are frequently known as social media [15]. Social media (SM) is widely employed for the distribution of content, fostering discussions, promoting businesses, and reaping benefits over traditional media. Technology is crucial for augmenting the security and dependability of social media platforms [16]. As of January 2022, the worldwide Internet user population surpassed 4.95 billion, with over 4.62 billion actively participating in social media platforms [17]. As of January 2022, the number of internet users in India has reached 680 million, out of whom 487 million are actively engaged in using social media platforms [18].

As per the Statista Research Department [19], YouTube and Facebook are the dominant social media platforms in India. YouTube boasts a user population of 467 million, while Facebook has a somewhat smaller user count of 329 million. Research indicates that while individuals of various age groups utilize social media platforms for connecting and communicating with friends, young people, specifically students, exhibit a pronounced inclination towards these websites. Laura et al. [20] extensively employ social media (SM) for both personal and academic reasons. Furthermore, social media (SM) has played a role in the increased popularity of other online platforms like Microsoft Teams, Zoom, and Google Meet. Over the past two years, these platforms have gained popularity as preferred options for hosting virtual meetings, webinars, and online lectures. Amidst the outbreak, these platforms were widely employed worldwide to disseminate and promote knowledge among the target user population. Facebook, YouTube, Instagram, WhatsApp, and blogs are easily accessible social media platforms that function as communication channels for both public and private groups. Originally, social media platforms were developed to facilitate communication between individuals and their acquaintances and relatives. Gradually, these platforms have transformed into essential teaching tools for pupils [21]. Dzogbenuku et al. [21] assert that various educational communities employ social media platforms to enhance the process of teaching and learning. The integration of social media (SM) in educational environments has both advantages and disadvantages. Social media possesses the capacity to augment academic performance, although it can also divert students from their educational pursuits and engross them in non-academic endeavors [22].

Rahman et al. [6] investigate the influence of social media utilization on the welfare and academic accomplishments of students enrolled at the University of Sharjah. The study concluded that the utilization of social media has a noticeable effect on the academic achievement and well-being of students enrolled at the University of Sharjah. Considering the detrimental consequences of excessive social media consumption, it is crucial for universities to implement awareness campaigns and incorporate this topic into health education and awareness curricula. The objective of this study is to incorporate a causal effect model like RIFs (recentered influence functions) to examine the social media effect on the health and academic performance of students, which is the novelty of this research, and this model was not applied in the previous related studies to the best of my knowledge.

However, due to contextual factors, the direct relevance of these worldwide and Indian data to the situation at SIMAD University in Somalia may be restricted [23]. Similar to many other developing nations, social media usage and internet penetration have increased recently in Somalia. Although there may not be much precise data on social media usage in Somalia [24], anecdotal evidence points to a rising reliance on Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram among young Somalis for social contact, communication, and information sharing [25]. In addition, students face both opportunities and challenges as a result of social media's inclusion in academic environments, including institutions like SIMAD. The goal is to offer insights that are unique to the Somali setting on how social media affects academic performance and health by concentrating on students at SIMAD University. Comprehending the impact of social media on Somalian pupils is vital in order to devise focused treatments and tactics that foster favorable results in both academic and health-related areas.

The emergence of social media platforms in the last decade has resulted in a substantial revolution in the online domain. People of all age groups are using social media platforms more and more to share their own stories, feelings, multimedia content, and different types of public information at a rapidly expanding rate [1, 6, 26]. Adolescents, specifically individuals aged 16 to 24, eagerly embraced social media platforms as a way to interact with their peers and family members, exchange information, and showcase their social status [15]. Using social media platforms in academia provides a multitude of advantages. Social networking platforms offer a fun method for students to maintain connections with their peers and professors, which helps in the acquisition of knowledge [27]. Social media enhances communication between professors and students by minimizing ambiguity and misinterpretation, eventually improving students' academic accomplishments [28].

Massive open online courses (MOOCs) have gained popularity since 2020 as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic [29]. MOOCs are typically offered at no cost and are accessible to anybody who wishes to enroll online. Several prestigious colleges offer their courses on the MOOC platform, allowing students to engage in flexible learning. Students find them valuable for augmenting their knowledge base and facilitating job advancement. Several independent universities have formed partnerships with MOOC platforms and integrated these courses into their academic programs [30]. Besides, Rahman et al. [6] conducted a study to investigate the impact of social media usage on the well-being and scholastic achievements of students enrolled at the University of Sharjah. The study determined that social media usage had a discernible impact on the academic performance and health of University of Sharjah students. Given the adverse effects of excessive social media usage, it is imperative for colleges to establish awareness initiatives and include this subject in health education and awareness curricula.

Using social media for educational purposes has the capacity to improve academic performance, but it is crucial to recognize the associated challenges [31]. Integrating social media into academic environments may lead to students engaging in non-academic conversations as well [32]. The main reason for this diversion is its intentional design as a social networking tool [33]. Englander et al. [34] argue that the utilization of social media in academia yields a greater number of detrimental consequences compared to favorable outcomes. Social media has a significant negative impact on a student's academic achievement. Research conducted by Nalwa and Anand [35] indicates that students who are engaged in higher education are more likely to experience a greater occurrence of social media addiction, which in turn has a detrimental effect on their academic achievements. Facebook users exhibited inferior academic achievement compared to nonusers or users of other social media platforms within the social media user population. As per the findings of Kirschner and Karpinski [36], Facebook is the primary source of diversion for pupils. However, alternative research contradicts these findings and argues that students really benefit from participating in chat chats [37], as it improves their vocabulary and writing skills [38]. Social media possesses the capacity to either augment academic performance or significantly impede it. The result depends on how the students utilize it. Hence, the goal of this study is to examine the impact of social media on the well-being and academic achievement of students, utilizing a causal effect model such as Recentered Influence Functions (RIFs), which was not applied in the previous study.

Al-Rahmi et al. [39] contribute to the discourse on social media's role in contemporary higher education by emphasizing the importance of constructivist learning and task-technology fit in enhancing student satisfaction and performance. Their study underscores the need for collaborative learning opportunities, easy access to social media, and aligned performance expectations to maximize educational quality. Notably, while actual social media use predicts student performance, it surprisingly doesn't directly influence student satisfaction.

Safeer and Awan [40] underscore the importance of addressing the adverse effects of excessive social media use on students' academic success. By identifying usage patterns influenced by geography and gender, the study emphasizes the need for targeted interventions to counteract social media's negative impact on learning outcomes.

Adhikari [26] explores the widespread use of social media, particularly among youth, and its swift adoption by institutions for communication. While acknowledging its benefits in fostering global connections and cost-effective communication, the paper raises concerns about its negative effects on students, including time and energy waste. The study assesses the impact of social media specifically on Navodit College students, employing both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Sharma and Behl [41] explore the transformative impact of technology in education, particularly focusing on how social media affects students' academic performance based on their extraversion and introversion personalities. Their study also examines the differences between postgraduate and undergraduate students, as well as gender disparities. They begin by identifying factors influencing academic performance through social media and developing a scale specifically validated for the Indian context. Data from 408 students, including 202 males and 206 females, is analyzed, with 234 in postgraduate and 174 in undergraduate programs. Using one-way ANOVA, the research uncovers significant variations between extraversion and introversion students in terms of social media's impact on academic performance, offering insights into the complex interplay between personality traits and technology usage in educational settings.

We can therefore develop a hypothesis in this regard as follows:

H1: Social media is significantly connected with a student’s health and academic performance.

3.1 Research design

The study employs a causal research methodology to examine the impact of social media on the health and academic performance of students. In order to elucidate the relationships between the factors, this study also concentrates on analysing a specific situation. Alternatively, while causality may be deduced, it cannot be definitively demonstrated with a high level of assurance. In addition, the causal research study is considered ideal for the objectives of this investigation since it allows for an investigation of the impact of social media on students' health and academic performance.

3.2 Sample size determination and sampling technique

The sample size will be calculated using Fisher’s formula for calculating minimum sample size for this study as follows:

$N=\frac{Z^2 P(1-P)}{d^2}$

where, N=Minimum sample size; Z=Standard normal deviation at 95% level of confidence=1.96; P=Assumed population proportion=0.5; d=Tolerance margin of error=0.05.

$N=\frac{(1.96)^2  (0.5)(0.5)}{(0.05)^2}$

N=384.16 approximately=384

In order to enhance the accuracy and precision of the study, the sample size of the participants will be expanded to 385. This will be accomplished by distributing 385 questionnaires to the target stakeholders, specifically, the students of SIMAD University in Somalia, using purposive sampling.

3.3 Questionnaire design

The questionnaire covers various aspects related to social media usage, including the frequency and duration of usage, preferred platforms, reasons for usage, perceived impact on academic performance and health, and behaviors related to social media use. Demographic information such as gender, age, academic year, and CGPA (Cumulative Grade Point Average) is also collected to understand the characteristics of the respondents. Likert scale items are used to measure participants' agreement or disagreement with statements related to the impact of social media on academic performance, health, and other aspects. Before distributing the questionnaire to the target sample, a pre-test was conducted with a small group of individuals, representing a diverse range of characteristics similar to the target population. The purpose of the pre-test was to assess the clarity, comprehensibility, and relevance of the questionnaire items. Feedback from pre-test participants was used to refine and finalize the questionnaire, ensuring that it effectively captured the intended information and aligned with the research questions. Content validity of the questionnaire was assessed by subject matter experts, including researchers familiar with social media usage and its impact on academic performance and health. Face validity was also evaluated to ensure that the questionnaire appeared relevant and appropriate to the target respondents. The questionnaire was reviewed to ensure that it covered all relevant dimensions of social media usage and its potential effects on students' academic performance and health.

3.4 Method of data analysis

The acquired primary data was analysed using quantitative research methods, specifically employing a regression model. The primary data for this study was collected by administering a questionnaire to randomly selected stakeholders, ensuring that there is no compulsion involved, in accordance with ethical research considerations. Meanwhile, the demographic profile of the respondents was examined using the techniques of frequency and percentage analysis. The study utilised frequencies and percentages to depict the characteristics of the respondents as derived from the survey questions. The principal component analysis was also applied as a variable reduction technique to identify the construct items that are very crucial and the ones that are less important. The data analysis was conducted using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software, version 27. The significance level was set at α = 0.05.

3.5 Principal component analysis (PCA)

PCA is a dimensionality reduction technique used to identify patterns in multivariate data by transforming the original variables into a new set of uncorrelated variables called principal components. The mathematical model for PCA involves the following steps:

Standardization: Standardize the data to have a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1 to ensure that all variables contribute equally to the analysis.

Compute the Covariance Matrix: Calculate the covariance matrix of the standardized data to understand the relationships between variables.

Eigenvalue Decomposition: Perform eigenvalue decomposition on the covariance matrix to obtain the eigenvectors and eigenvalues.

Eigenvectors: These represent the directions or principal components of the data.

Eigenvalues: These indicate the variance explained by each principal component.

Select Principal Components: Sort the eigenvalues in descending order and select the top k eigenvectors corresponding to the largest eigenvalues to retain the most important components.

Transform Data: Project the original data onto the new principal component space defined by the selected eigenvectors.

PCA can be represented mathematically as follows:

Given a dataset X consisting of n observations and p variables, where X is an n × p matrix, PCA aims to find a transformation matrix W such that the transformed data Z is given by:

where, Z is the n × k matrix of principal components; W is the p × k matrix of eigenvectors; k is the number of principal components selected.

The eigenvalue decomposition of the covariance matrix Σ of X is given by:

where, V is the matrix of eigenvectors; W is the diagonal matrix of eigenvalues.

The principal components are then obtained by multiplying the original data X by the matrix of eigenvectors V:

PCA helps in reducing the dimensionality of the data while retaining most of its variance, making it easier to interpret and visualize complex datasets.

3.5.1 RIF regression: Rifhdreg

According to Rios-Avila [42], Rifhdreg is an extension of RIFs (Recentered influence functions) with robustness against outliers and provides a simple framework for analyzing the impact of changes in the distribution of X’s on distribution statistics at margin which can be used to fit a linear model to capture how small changes in the distribution of the independent variables X affect v(Fy) and therefore has slight changes in the interpretation of the coefficient which is different from OLS regression.

The model can be specified mathematically with an equation as follows:

$R I F=\{y, v(F y)\}=x \beta+\varepsilon_i, E\left(\varepsilon_i\right)=0$

where, v(Fy) is the response variables which is the students’ academic performance while X’s is the small changes in the distribution of the independent variables identified as the social media, student health and socio-demographic factors and the β is the coefficient estimate of X’s while the εi is the stochastic error term. Similarly, the same model estimation is estimated with the response variable as student’s health and the independent variables as social media, academic performance and socio-demographic variables.

3.5.2 Principles of Rifhdreg model

Recentered Influence Functions (RIFs): RIFs are statistical metrics employed to evaluate the impact of independent variable modifications on distribution statistics. They offer a versatile methodology for examining causal connections and exhibit resilience in the face of outliers.

Causal inference: Causal inference is facilitated through the utilisation of the Rifhdreg model [42], which computes the effect of alterations in student health and social media utilisation on academic achievement. The ability of researchers to isolate the causal effect of social media on student outcomes is achieved through the control of confounding variables.

Robustness: The Rifhdreg model is appropriate for analysing complex relationships in real-world data due to its resistance to outliers and deviations from normality.

3.5.3 Justification for selecting the Rifhdreg model

The Rifhdreg model was selected due to its capacity to offer valuable insights regarding the causal connection that exists among student health, academic performance, and social media usage. Rifhdreg, in contrast to conventional regression models, provides robustness against outliers and deviations from normality, rendering it well-suited for examining the intricate and multifaceted effects of social media on student outcomes. Furthermore, causal inference is facilitated by the model, which empowers researchers to deduce the reasons behind the correlation between social media usage and health outcomes and academic achievement [5].

Table 1 shows that gender of the students under study consist of 233 males representing 60.5% and 152 females representing 39.5%, the students age group categories that is within 17-20 years are 181 representing 47%, those within 21-24 years are also 181 representing 47%, those within 25-28 years are 20 representing 5.2%, the student within 29-32 years is just 1 representing 0.3%, and the students above 32 years are 2 representing 0.5%, the students in the 1st year are 103 representing 26.8%, students in the 2nd year are 74 representing 19.2%, the students in the 3rd year are 117 representing 30.4% and those in the 4th year are 91 representing 23.6%, the students with semester CGPA less than 1.66 are 39 representing 10.1%, those with CGPA within 1.67-2.66 are 72 representing 18.7%, those with CGPA within 2.67-3.66 are 168 representing 43.6% and those with CGPA within 3.67-4.00 are 106 representing 27.5%, the students that spend less than 1hour on social media networking sites are 52 representing 13.5%, those that spend above 4hours on social networking sites are 81 representing 21%, those that spend within 1-2hours on social networking sites are 134 representing 34.8%, and the students that spend within 3-4hours on social networking sites are 118 representing 30.6%, the students investigated under study who feel that social media network sites had negative effect on academic performance are 51 representing 13.2%, those who believe that social had no effect on students’ performance are 95 representing 24.7%, those who feel social media had positive effect on students’ academic performance are 138 representing 35.8% (majority), those students who feel social media had a very negative effect on academic performance are 23 representing 6% and those students who feel that social media had a very positive effect on academic performance are 78 representing 20.3%. Meanwhile, gender on average is 1.39 with a variability of 0.49, age categories on average are 1.60 with a variability of 0.65, the average of the student's year of study is 2.51 with a variability of 1.12, the student’s CGPA on the average is 2.89 with variability of about 0.93, the average hours students spend on social media sites are about 3 hours with a variability of about 1.01 hours, and the average number of students who feel social media network sites have an effect on their grade or performance is 2.95 with a variability of about 1.28.

Note: Only items that are greater or equal to 0.5 are left in the communalities and they represent construct that are valid.

Table 2 shows that all the items have communalities with extraction above 0.5, indicating that the construct items are valid and therefore measure what they are designed to measure.

Table 3 shows that the first four construct items have eigen value above 1 which indicate that they are the most crucial or important items while the other three with eigen value less than 1 are the least important items. Meanwhile, the % of variance of the item with the highest eigen value is 22.305% indicating that the construct items do not occur the problem of common method bias.

Figure 1 is the scree plot of the construct items that demonstrated the first four items with eigen values above 1 indicating the most important items and those other three items with a decline pattern had eigen value below 1, indicating that they are the least important items.

Table 1 . Socio-demographic characteristics

Table 2. Communalities

Source: Author’s computation using SPSS Software

Table 3. PCA

Figure 1. Scree plot

Table 4 shows that the overall Rifhdreg model has a p-value of 0.0019 which is below the 0.05 significant level, which means that we reject the null hypothesis at the 5% level, indicating that social media is significantly connected with a student’s health and academic performance while accounting for socio-demographic variables like age, semester CGPA, and hours spent on social media sites. This supported the research hypothesis, and the results also suggest that the fitted Rifhdreg model is a good fit for the dataset since the overall model is statistically significant.

More so, Table 4 shows that the coefficient estimate of the students' health has a positive and significant effect on their academic performance, which suggests that students’ academic performance improves greatly when they have good health, while the coefficient estimate of the social media is not statistically significant and therefore has no significant effect on their academic performance, which supports the coefficient estimate value of 0.002, indicating that with a small change in the distribution of the social media, student performance will also rise slightly, with small value changes of 0.002 considered positive but insignificant.

Table 5 shows that the overall Rifhdreg model has a p-value of 0.0292 which is below the 0.05 significant level, which means that we reject the null hypothesis at the 5% level, indicating that social media is significantly connected with a student’s health and academic performance while accounting for socio-demographic variables like age, semester CGPA, and hours spent on social media sites. Meanwhile, academic performance has a significant positive effect on the student’s health, indicating that students become happier with better health when their academic performance improves greatly. Besides, the coefficient of social media is positive but has no significant effect on the student’s health. Meanwhile, Figures 2 and 3 demonstrated the  coefficient estimates plot of the student academic  performance and student’s health respectively.

Table 4. Rifhdreg model for students’ academic performance, social media, student’s health and other socio-demographic variables

Table 5. Rifhdreg model for students’ health, social media, academic performance and other socio-demographic variables

Figure 2. Coefficient estimates plot of students’ academic performance and the predictor variables

Figure 3. Coefficient estimates plot of students’ health and the predictor variable

Based on global statistics, over 5 billion people are currently connected to social media platforms. Research has revealed the adverse consequences of excessive use of social media (SM) on students' well-being, encompassing impaired concentration, memory, sleep patterns, eyesight, and overall physical, mental, and social health. Conversely, moderate and positive use of SM has been found to have a beneficial impact on academic performance. The aim of this study is to examine the impact of social media on the physical and mental well-being, as well as the educational achievements, of students.

According to data from Table 1, 138 students, accounting for 35.8% of the total, believe that social media has a positive impact on academic performance. This result is in line with the findings of Oueder and Abousaber's (2018) study, which also found that social media enhances academic performance. Table 1 indicates that the gender distribution of the students in the study consists of 233 males, accounting for 60.5% of the total, and 152 females, representing 39.5%. In terms of semester CGPA, 39 students (10.1%) have a CGPA below 1.66. 72 students (18.7%) have a CGPA between 1.67 and 2.66, 168 students (43.6%) have a CGPA between 2.67 and 3.66, and 106 students (27.5%) have a CGPA between 3.67 and 4.00. Additionally, 52 students (13.5%) spend less than 1 hour on social media networking sites, 81 students (21%) spend more than 4 hours, 134 students (34.8%) spend between 1 and 2 hours, and 118 students (30.6%) spend between 3 and 4 hours.

Table 3 indicates that the first four construct elements have eigenvalues greater than 1, suggesting that they are the most significant or essential items. Conversely, the last three items with eigenvalues less than 1 are considered less important. The item with the highest eigenvalue is responsible for explaining 22.305% of the variance. This suggests that the problem of common method bias is not affecting the construct items.

Table 4 demonstrates a substantial correlation between social media usage and a student's health and academic performance. This correlation takes into account socio-demographic factors such as age, semester CGPA, and the amount of time spent on social media sites. Conversely, there is a notable correlation between academic achievement and student health, suggesting that students experience more happiness and improved health when their academic performance significantly improves. In addition, the coefficient of social media is positively correlated with student health, although the impact is not statistically significant. This contradicts the findings of Englander et al. (2010), who contend that the use of social media in academia is more harmful than good. According to Amin et al. (2016), who found a significant correlation between social media usage and students' academic achievement, social media has a significant negative impact on students' academic performance. The computed model indicates that tiny changes in the distribution of social media, student performance, and students' health will result in a slight increase, with positive but negligible values of 0.002 and 0.098, respectively. Hence, individuals who possess higher levels of self-regulation exhibit greater mastery over their utilization of social media, thereby leading to enhanced mental well-being and improved academic achievements. In light of this, schools and families need to work together to enhance the student’s self-regulation ability, which will guide students to use social media in a moral and standardized way.

Funding by SIMAD University.

Stata do-file

Rifhdreg StudentsHealth StudentsAcademicPerformance SocialMedia Age SemesterCGPA Hoursspentonsocialmediasite, rif(q(10)) robust

Rifhdreg StudentsAcademicPerformance StudentsHealth SocialMedia Age SemesterCGPA Hoursspentonsocialmediasite, rif(q(25)) robust

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The Social Media Influence on Youth Spending

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Office of the Surgeon General (OSG). Social Media and Youth Mental Health: The U.S. Surgeon General’s Advisory [Internet]. Washington (DC): US Department of Health and Human Services; 2023.

Social Media and Youth Mental Health: The U.S. Surgeon General’s Advisory [Internet].

Social media has both positive and negative impacts on children and adolescents.

The influence of social media on youth mental health is shaped by many complex factors, including, but not limited to, the amount of time children and adolescents spend on platforms, the type of content they consume or are otherwise exposed to, the activities and interactions social media affords, and the degree to which it disrupts activities that are essential for health like sleep and physical activity. 6 Importantly, different children and adolescents are affected by social media in different ways, based on their individual strengths and vulnerabilities, and based on cultural, historical, and socio-economic factors. 7 , 8 There is broad agreement among the scientific community that social media has the potential to both benefit and harm children and adolescents. 6 , 9

Brain development is a critical factor to consider when assessing the risk for harm. Adolescents, ages 10 to 19, are undergoing a highly sensitive period of brain development. 10 , 11 This is a period when risk-taking behaviors reach their peak, when well-being experiences the greatest fluctuations, and when mental health challenges such as depression typically emerge. 12 , 13 , 14 Furthermore, in early adolescence, when identities and sense of self-worth are forming, brain development is especially susceptible to social pressures, peer opinions, and peer comparison. 11 , 13 Frequent social media use may be associated with distinct changes in the developing brain in the amygdala (important for emotional learning and behavior) and the prefrontal cortex (important for impulse control, emotional regulation, and moderating social behavior), and could increase sensitivity to social rewards and punishments. 15 , 16 As such, adolescents may experience heightened emotional sensitivity to the communicative and interactive nature of social media. 16 Adolescent social media use is predictive of a subsequent decrease in life satisfaction for certain developmental stages including for girls 11–13 years old and boys 14–15 years old. 17 Because adolescence is a vulnerable period of brain development, social media exposure during this period warrants additional scrutiny.

• The Potential Benefits of Social Media Use Among Children and Adolescents

Social media can provide benefits for some youth by providing positive community and connection with others who share identities, abilities, and interests. It can provide access to important information and create a space for self-expression. 9 The ability to form and maintain friendships online and develop social connections are among the positive effects of social media use for youth. 18 , 19 These relationships can afford opportunities to have positive interactions with more diverse peer groups than are available to them offline and can provide important social support to youth. 18 The buffering effects against stress that online social support from peers may provide can be especially important for youth who are often marginalized, including racial, ethnic, and sexual and gender minorities. 20 , 21 , 22 For example, studies have shown that social media may support the mental health and well-being of lesbian, gay, bisexual, asexual, transgender, queer, intersex and other youths by enabling peer connection, identity development and management, and social support. 23 Seven out of ten adolescent girls of color report encountering positive or identity-affirming content related to race across social media platforms. 24 A majority of adolescents report that social media helps them feel more accepted (58%), like they have people who can support them through tough times (67%), like they have a place to show their creative side (71%), and more connected to what’s going on in their friends’ lives (80%). 25 In addition, research suggests that social media-based and other digitally-based mental health interventions may also be helpful for some children and adolescents by promoting help-seeking behaviors and serving as a gateway to initiating mental health care. 8 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29

• The Potential Harms of Social Media Use Among Children and Adolescents

Over the last decade, evidence has emerged identifying reasons for concern about the potential negative impact of social media on children and adolescents.

A longitudinal cohort study of U.S. adolescents aged 12–15 (n=6,595) that adjusted for baseline mental health status found that adolescents who spent more than 3 hours per day on social media faced double the risk of experiencing poor mental health outcomes including symptoms of depression and anxiety. 30

As of 2021, 8th and 10th graders now spend an average of 3.5 hours per day on social media. 31 In a unique natural experiment that leveraged the staggered introduction of a social media platform across U.S. colleges, the roll-out of the platform was associated with an increase in depression (9% over baseline) and anxiety (12% over baseline) among college-aged youth (n = 359,827 observations). 32 The study’s co-author also noted that when applied across the entirety of the U.S. college population, the introduction of the social media platform may have contributed to more than 300,000 new cases of depression. 32 , 33 If such sizable effects occurred in college-aged youth, these findings raise serious concerns about the risk of harm from social media exposure for children and adolescents who are at a more vulnerable stage of brain development.

Limits on the use of social media have resulted in mental health benefits for young adults and adults. A small, randomized controlled trial in college-aged youth found that limiting social media use to 30 minutes daily over three weeks led to significant improvements in depression severity. 34 This effect was particularly large for those with high baseline levels of depression who saw an improvement in depression scores by more than 35%. 35 Another randomized controlled trial among young adults and adults found that deactivation of a social media platform for four weeks improved subjective well-being (i.e., self-reported happiness, life satisfaction, depression, and anxiety) by about 25–40% of the effect of psychological interventions like self-help therapy, group training, and individual therapy. 36

In addition to these recent studies, correlational research on associations between social media use and mental health has indicated reason for concern and further investigation. These studies point to a higher relative concern of harm in adolescent girls and those already experiencing poor mental health, 37 , 38 , 39 as well as for particular health outcomes like cyberbullying-related depression, 40 body image and disordered eating behaviors, 41 and poor sleep quality linked to social media use. 42 For example, a study conducted among 14-year-olds (n = 10,904) found that greater social media use predicted poor sleep, online harassment, poor body image, low self-esteem, and higher depressive symptom scores with a larger association for girls than boys. 43 A majority of parents of adolescents say they are somewhat, very, or extremely worried that their child’s use of social media could lead to problems with anxiety or depression (53%), lower self-esteem (54%), being harassed or bullied by others (54%), feeling pressured to act a certain way (59%), and exposure to explicit content (71%). 44

Unless otherwise noted in the text, all material appearing in this work is in the public domain and may be reproduced without permission. Citation of the source is appreciated.

• Cite this Page Office of the Surgeon General (OSG). Social Media and Youth Mental Health: The U.S. Surgeon General’s Advisory [Internet]. Washington (DC): US Department of Health and Human Services; 2023. Social Media Has Both Positive and Negative Impacts on Children and Adolescents.
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Iran Emerges as a Top Disinformation Threat in U.S. Presidential Race

With a flurry of hacks and fake websites, Iran has intensified its efforts to discredit American democracy and possibly tip the race against former President Donald Trump.

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By Steven Lee Myers Tiffany Hsu and Farnaz Fassihi

A website called Savannah Time describes itself as “your trusted source for conservative news and perspectives in the vibrant city of Savannah.” Another site, NioThinker, wants to be “your go-to destination for insightful, progressive news.” The online outlet Westland Sun appears to cater to Muslims in suburban Detroit.

None are what they appear to be. Instead, they are part of what American officials and tech company analysts say is an intensifying campaign by Iran to sway this year’s American presidential election.

Iran has long carried out clandestine information operations against its adversaries, especially Israel, Saudi Arabia and the United States, but until now most of its activities were conducted under the shadow of similar campaigns by Russia and China. Its latest propaganda and disinformation efforts have grown more brazen, more varied and more ambitious, according to the U.S. government, company officials and Iran experts.

Iran’s efforts appear intended to undermine former President Donald J. Trump’s campaign to return to the White House, according to the officials and companies, but they have also targeted President Biden and Vice President Kamala Harris, suggesting a wider goal of sowing internal discord and discrediting the democratic system in the United States more broadly in the eyes of the world.

“Iran is becoming increasingly aggressive in their foreign influence efforts, seeking to stoke discord and undermine confidence in our democratic institutions,” Avril Haines, the director of national intelligence, warned recently.

Ms. Haines warned Americans to be wary “as they engage online with accounts and actors they do not personally know.”

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