rules of case study

How to write a case study — examples, templates, and tools

It’s a marketer’s job to communicate the effectiveness of a product or service to potential and current customers to convince them to buy and keep business moving. One of the best methods for doing this is to share success stories that are relatable to prospects and customers based on their pain points, experiences, and overall needs.

That’s where case studies come in. Case studies are an essential part of a content marketing plan. These in-depth stories of customer experiences are some of the most effective at demonstrating the value of a product or service. Yet many marketers don’t use them, whether because of their regimented formats or the process of customer involvement and approval.

A case study is a powerful tool for showcasing your hard work and the success your customer achieved. But writing a great case study can be difficult if you’ve never done it before or if it’s been a while. This guide will show you how to write an effective case study and provide real-world examples and templates that will keep readers engaged and support your business.

In this article, you’ll learn:

What is a case study?

How to write a case study, case study templates, case study examples, case study tools.

A case study is the detailed story of a customer’s experience with a product or service that demonstrates their success and often includes measurable outcomes. Case studies are used in a range of fields and for various reasons, from business to academic research. They’re especially impactful in marketing as brands work to convince and convert consumers with relatable, real-world stories of actual customer experiences.

The best case studies tell the story of a customer’s success, including the steps they took, the results they achieved, and the support they received from a brand along the way. To write a great case study, you need to:

Celebrate the customer and make them — not a product or service — the star of the story.
Craft the story with specific audiences or target segments in mind so that the story of one customer will be viewed as relatable and actionable for another customer.
Write copy that is easy to read and engaging so that readers will gain the insights and messages intended.
Follow a standardized format that includes all of the essentials a potential customer would find interesting and useful.
Support all of the claims for success made in the story with data in the forms of hard numbers and customer statements.

Case studies are a type of review but more in depth, aiming to show — rather than just tell — the positive experiences that customers have with a brand. Notably, 89% of consumers read reviews before deciding to buy, and 79% view case study content as part of their purchasing process. When it comes to B2B sales, 52% of buyers rank case studies as an important part of their evaluation process.

Telling a brand story through the experience of a tried-and-true customer matters. The story is relatable to potential new customers as they imagine themselves in the shoes of the company or individual featured in the case study. Showcasing previous customers can help new ones see themselves engaging with your brand in the ways that are most meaningful to them.

Besides sharing the perspective of another customer, case studies stand out from other content marketing forms because they are based on evidence. Whether pulling from client testimonials or data-driven results, case studies tend to have more impact on new business because the story contains information that is both objective (data) and subjective (customer experience) — and the brand doesn’t sound too self-promotional.

89% of consumers read reviews before buying, 79% view case studies, and 52% of B2B buyers prioritize case studies in the evaluation process.

Case studies are unique in that there’s a fairly standardized format for telling a customer’s story. But that doesn’t mean there isn’t room for creativity. It’s all about making sure that teams are clear on the goals for the case study — along with strategies for supporting content and channels — and understanding how the story fits within the framework of the company’s overall marketing goals.

Here are the basic steps to writing a good case study.

1. Identify your goal

Start by defining exactly who your case study will be designed to help. Case studies are about specific instances where a company works with a customer to achieve a goal. Identify which customers are likely to have these goals, as well as other needs the story should cover to appeal to them.

The answer is often found in one of the buyer personas that have been constructed as part of your larger marketing strategy. This can include anything from new leads generated by the marketing team to long-term customers that are being pressed for cross-sell opportunities. In all of these cases, demonstrating value through a relatable customer success story can be part of the solution to conversion.

2. Choose your client or subject

Who you highlight matters. Case studies tie brands together that might otherwise not cross paths. A writer will want to ensure that the highlighted customer aligns with their own company’s brand identity and offerings. Look for a customer with positive name recognition who has had great success with a product or service and is willing to be an advocate.

The client should also match up with the identified target audience. Whichever company or individual is selected should be a reflection of other potential customers who can see themselves in similar circumstances, having the same problems and possible solutions.

Some of the most compelling case studies feature customers who:

Switch from one product or service to another while naming competitors that missed the mark.
Experience measurable results that are relatable to others in a specific industry.
Represent well-known brands and recognizable names that are likely to compel action.
Advocate for a product or service as a champion and are well-versed in its advantages.

Whoever or whatever customer is selected, marketers must ensure they have the permission of the company involved before getting started. Some brands have strict review and approval procedures for any official marketing or promotional materials that include their name. Acquiring those approvals in advance will prevent any miscommunication or wasted effort if there is an issue with their legal or compliance teams.

3. Conduct research and compile data

Substantiating the claims made in a case study — either by the marketing team or customers themselves — adds validity to the story. To do this, include data and feedback from the client that defines what success looks like. This can be anything from demonstrating return on investment (ROI) to a specific metric the customer was striving to improve. Case studies should prove how an outcome was achieved and show tangible results that indicate to the customer that your solution is the right one.

This step could also include customer interviews. Make sure that the people being interviewed are key stakeholders in the purchase decision or deployment and use of the product or service that is being highlighted. Content writers should work off a set list of questions prepared in advance. It can be helpful to share these with the interviewees beforehand so they have time to consider and craft their responses. One of the best interview tactics to keep in mind is to ask questions where yes and no are not natural answers. This way, your subject will provide more open-ended responses that produce more meaningful content.

4. Choose the right format

There are a number of different ways to format a case study. Depending on what you hope to achieve, one style will be better than another. However, there are some common elements to include, such as:

An engaging headline
A subject and customer introduction
The unique challenge or challenges the customer faced
The solution the customer used to solve the problem
The results achieved
Data and statistics to back up claims of success
A strong call to action (CTA) to engage with the vendor

It’s also important to note that while case studies are traditionally written as stories, they don’t have to be in a written format. Some companies choose to get more creative with their case studies and produce multimedia content, depending on their audience and objectives. Case study formats can include traditional print stories, interactive web or social content, data-heavy infographics, professionally shot videos, podcasts, and more.

5. Write your case study

We’ll go into more detail later about how exactly to write a case study, including templates and examples. Generally speaking, though, there are a few things to keep in mind when writing your case study.

Be clear and concise. Readers want to get to the point of the story quickly and easily, and they’ll be looking to see themselves reflected in the story right from the start.
Provide a big picture. Always make sure to explain who the client is, their goals, and how they achieved success in a short introduction to engage the reader.
Construct a clear narrative. Stick to the story from the perspective of the customer and what they needed to solve instead of just listing product features or benefits.
Leverage graphics. Incorporating infographics, charts, and sidebars can be a more engaging and eye-catching way to share key statistics and data in readable ways.
Offer the right amount of detail. Most case studies are one or two pages with clear sections that a reader can skim to find the information most important to them.
Include data to support claims. Show real results — both facts and figures and customer quotes — to demonstrate credibility and prove the solution works.

6. Promote your story

Marketers have a number of options for distribution of a freshly minted case study. Many brands choose to publish case studies on their website and post them on social media. This can help support SEO and organic content strategies while also boosting company credibility and trust as visitors see that other businesses have used the product or service.

Marketers are always looking for quality content they can use for lead generation. Consider offering a case study as gated content behind a form on a landing page or as an offer in an email message. One great way to do this is to summarize the content and tease the full story available for download after the user takes an action.

Sales teams can also leverage case studies, so be sure they are aware that the assets exist once they’re published. Especially when it comes to larger B2B sales, companies often ask for examples of similar customer challenges that have been solved.

Now that you’ve learned a bit about case studies and what they should include, you may be wondering how to start creating great customer story content. Here are a couple of templates you can use to structure your case study.

Template 1 — Challenge-solution-result format

Start with an engaging title. This should be fewer than 70 characters long for SEO best practices. One of the best ways to approach the title is to include the customer’s name and a hint at the challenge they overcame in the end.
Create an introduction. Lead with an explanation as to who the customer is, the need they had, and the opportunity they found with a specific product or solution. Writers can also suggest the success the customer experienced with the solution they chose.
Present the challenge. This should be several paragraphs long and explain the problem the customer faced and the issues they were trying to solve. Details should tie into the company’s products and services naturally. This section needs to be the most relatable to the reader so they can picture themselves in a similar situation.
Share the solution. Explain which product or service offered was the ideal fit for the customer and why. Feel free to delve into their experience setting up, purchasing, and onboarding the solution.
Explain the results. Demonstrate the impact of the solution they chose by backing up their positive experience with data. Fill in with customer quotes and tangible, measurable results that show the effect of their choice.
Ask for action. Include a CTA at the end of the case study that invites readers to reach out for more information, try a demo, or learn more — to nurture them further in the marketing pipeline. What you ask of the reader should tie directly into the goals that were established for the case study in the first place.

Template 2 — Data-driven format

Start with an engaging title. Be sure to include a statistic or data point in the first 70 characters. Again, it’s best to include the customer’s name as part of the title.
Create an overview. Share the customer’s background and a short version of the challenge they faced. Present the reason a particular product or service was chosen, and feel free to include quotes from the customer about their selection process.
Present data point 1. Isolate the first metric that the customer used to define success and explain how the product or solution helped to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
Present data point 2. Isolate the second metric that the customer used to define success and explain what the product or solution did to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
Present data point 3. Isolate the final metric that the customer used to define success and explain what the product or solution did to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
Summarize the results. Reiterate the fact that the customer was able to achieve success thanks to a specific product or service. Include quotes and statements that reflect customer satisfaction and suggest they plan to continue using the solution.
Ask for action. Include a CTA at the end of the case study that asks readers to reach out for more information, try a demo, or learn more — to further nurture them in the marketing pipeline. Again, remember that this is where marketers can look to convert their content into action with the customer.

While templates are helpful, seeing a case study in action can also be a great way to learn. Here are some examples of how Adobe customers have experienced success.

Juniper Networks

One example is the Adobe and Juniper Networks case study , which puts the reader in the customer’s shoes. The beginning of the story quickly orients the reader so that they know exactly who the article is about and what they were trying to achieve. Solutions are outlined in a way that shows Adobe Experience Manager is the best choice and a natural fit for the customer. Along the way, quotes from the client are incorporated to help add validity to the statements. The results in the case study are conveyed with clear evidence of scale and volume using tangible data.

The story of Lenovo’s journey with Adobe is one that spans years of planning, implementation, and rollout. The Lenovo case study does a great job of consolidating all of this into a relatable journey that other enterprise organizations can see themselves taking, despite the project size. This case study also features descriptive headers and compelling visual elements that engage the reader and strengthen the content.

Tata Consulting

When it comes to using data to show customer results, this case study does an excellent job of conveying details and numbers in an easy-to-digest manner. Bullet points at the start break up the content while also helping the reader understand exactly what the case study will be about. Tata Consulting used Adobe to deliver elevated, engaging content experiences for a large telecommunications client of its own — an objective that’s relatable for a lot of companies.

Case studies are a vital tool for any marketing team as they enable you to demonstrate the value of your company’s products and services to others. They help marketers do their job and add credibility to a brand trying to promote its solutions by using the experiences and stories of real customers.

When you’re ready to get started with a case study:

Think about a few goals you’d like to accomplish with your content.
Make a list of successful clients that would be strong candidates for a case study.
Reach out to the client to get their approval and conduct an interview.
Gather the data to present an engaging and effective customer story.

Adobe can help

There are several Adobe products that can help you craft compelling case studies. Adobe Experience Platform helps you collect data and deliver great customer experiences across every channel. Once you’ve created your case studies, Experience Platform will help you deliver the right information to the right customer at the right time for maximum impact.

To learn more, watch the Adobe Experience Platform story .

Keep in mind that the best case studies are backed by data. That’s where Adobe Real-Time Customer Data Platform and Adobe Analytics come into play. With Real-Time CDP, you can gather the data you need to build a great case study and target specific customers to deliver the content to the right audience at the perfect moment.

Watch the Real-Time CDP overview video to learn more.

Finally, Adobe Analytics turns real-time data into real-time insights. It helps your business collect and synthesize data from multiple platforms to make more informed decisions and create the best case study possible.

Request a demo to learn more about Adobe Analytics.

https://business.adobe.com/blog/perspectives/b2b-ecommerce-10-case-studies-inspire-you

https://business.adobe.com/blog/basics/business-case

https://business.adobe.com/blog/basics/what-is-real-time-analytics

How to write a case study — examples, templates, and tools card image

The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

Introduction and overview
What is qualitative research?
What is qualitative data?
Examples of qualitative data
Qualitative vs. quantitative research
Mixed methods
Qualitative research preparation
Theoretical perspective
Theoretical framework
Literature reviews

Research question

Conceptual framework
Conceptual vs. theoretical framework

Data collection

Qualitative research methods
Focus groups
Observational research

What is a case study?

Applications for case study research, what is a good case study, process of case study design, benefits and limitations of case studies.

Ethnographical research
Ethical considerations
Confidentiality and privacy
Power dynamics
Reflexivity

Case studies

Case studies are essential to qualitative research , offering a lens through which researchers can investigate complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. This chapter explores the concept, purpose, applications, examples, and types of case studies and provides guidance on how to conduct case study research effectively.

Whereas quantitative methods look at phenomena at scale, case study research looks at a concept or phenomenon in considerable detail. While analyzing a single case can help understand one perspective regarding the object of research inquiry, analyzing multiple cases can help obtain a more holistic sense of the topic or issue. Let's provide a basic definition of a case study, then explore its characteristics and role in the qualitative research process.

Definition of a case study

A case study in qualitative research is a strategy of inquiry that involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon within its real-world context. It provides researchers with the opportunity to acquire an in-depth understanding of intricate details that might not be as apparent or accessible through other methods of research. The specific case or cases being studied can be a single person, group, or organization – demarcating what constitutes a relevant case worth studying depends on the researcher and their research question .

Among qualitative research methods , a case study relies on multiple sources of evidence, such as documents, artifacts, interviews , or observations , to present a complete and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The objective is to illuminate the readers' understanding of the phenomenon beyond its abstract statistical or theoretical explanations.

Characteristics of case studies

Case studies typically possess a number of distinct characteristics that set them apart from other research methods. These characteristics include a focus on holistic description and explanation, flexibility in the design and data collection methods, reliance on multiple sources of evidence, and emphasis on the context in which the phenomenon occurs.

Furthermore, case studies can often involve a longitudinal examination of the case, meaning they study the case over a period of time. These characteristics allow case studies to yield comprehensive, in-depth, and richly contextualized insights about the phenomenon of interest.

The role of case studies in research

Case studies hold a unique position in the broader landscape of research methods aimed at theory development. They are instrumental when the primary research interest is to gain an intensive, detailed understanding of a phenomenon in its real-life context.

In addition, case studies can serve different purposes within research - they can be used for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes, depending on the research question and objectives. This flexibility and depth make case studies a valuable tool in the toolkit of qualitative researchers.

Remember, a well-conducted case study can offer a rich, insightful contribution to both academic and practical knowledge through theory development or theory verification, thus enhancing our understanding of complex phenomena in their real-world contexts.

What is the purpose of a case study?

Case study research aims for a more comprehensive understanding of phenomena, requiring various research methods to gather information for qualitative analysis . Ultimately, a case study can allow the researcher to gain insight into a particular object of inquiry and develop a theoretical framework relevant to the research inquiry.

Why use case studies in qualitative research?

Using case studies as a research strategy depends mainly on the nature of the research question and the researcher's access to the data.

Conducting case study research provides a level of detail and contextual richness that other research methods might not offer. They are beneficial when there's a need to understand complex social phenomena within their natural contexts.

The explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive roles of case studies

Case studies can take on various roles depending on the research objectives. They can be exploratory when the research aims to discover new phenomena or define new research questions; they are descriptive when the objective is to depict a phenomenon within its context in a detailed manner; and they can be explanatory if the goal is to understand specific relationships within the studied context. Thus, the versatility of case studies allows researchers to approach their topic from different angles, offering multiple ways to uncover and interpret the data .

The impact of case studies on knowledge development

Case studies play a significant role in knowledge development across various disciplines. Analysis of cases provides an avenue for researchers to explore phenomena within their context based on the collected data.

This can result in the production of rich, practical insights that can be instrumental in both theory-building and practice. Case studies allow researchers to delve into the intricacies and complexities of real-life situations, uncovering insights that might otherwise remain hidden.

Types of case studies

In qualitative research , a case study is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Depending on the nature of the research question and the specific objectives of the study, researchers might choose to use different types of case studies. These types differ in their focus, methodology, and the level of detail they provide about the phenomenon under investigation.

Understanding these types is crucial for selecting the most appropriate approach for your research project and effectively achieving your research goals. Let's briefly look at the main types of case studies.

Exploratory case studies

Exploratory case studies are typically conducted to develop a theory or framework around an understudied phenomenon. They can also serve as a precursor to a larger-scale research project. Exploratory case studies are useful when a researcher wants to identify the key issues or questions which can spur more extensive study or be used to develop propositions for further research. These case studies are characterized by flexibility, allowing researchers to explore various aspects of a phenomenon as they emerge, which can also form the foundation for subsequent studies.

Descriptive case studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a complete and accurate representation of a phenomenon or event within its context. These case studies are often based on an established theoretical framework, which guides how data is collected and analyzed. The researcher is concerned with describing the phenomenon in detail, as it occurs naturally, without trying to influence or manipulate it.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are focused on explanation - they seek to clarify how or why certain phenomena occur. Often used in complex, real-life situations, they can be particularly valuable in clarifying causal relationships among concepts and understanding the interplay between different factors within a specific context.

Intrinsic, instrumental, and collective case studies

These three categories of case studies focus on the nature and purpose of the study. An intrinsic case study is conducted when a researcher has an inherent interest in the case itself. Instrumental case studies are employed when the case is used to provide insight into a particular issue or phenomenon. A collective case study, on the other hand, involves studying multiple cases simultaneously to investigate some general phenomena.

Each type of case study serves a different purpose and has its own strengths and challenges. The selection of the type should be guided by the research question and objectives, as well as the context and constraints of the research.

The flexibility, depth, and contextual richness offered by case studies make this approach an excellent research method for various fields of study. They enable researchers to investigate real-world phenomena within their specific contexts, capturing nuances that other research methods might miss. Across numerous fields, case studies provide valuable insights into complex issues.

Critical information systems research

Case studies provide a detailed understanding of the role and impact of information systems in different contexts. They offer a platform to explore how information systems are designed, implemented, and used and how they interact with various social, economic, and political factors. Case studies in this field often focus on examining the intricate relationship between technology, organizational processes, and user behavior, helping to uncover insights that can inform better system design and implementation.

Health research

Health research is another field where case studies are highly valuable. They offer a way to explore patient experiences, healthcare delivery processes, and the impact of various interventions in a real-world context.

Case studies can provide a deep understanding of a patient's journey, giving insights into the intricacies of disease progression, treatment effects, and the psychosocial aspects of health and illness.

Asthma research studies

Specifically within medical research, studies on asthma often employ case studies to explore the individual and environmental factors that influence asthma development, management, and outcomes. A case study can provide rich, detailed data about individual patients' experiences, from the triggers and symptoms they experience to the effectiveness of various management strategies. This can be crucial for developing patient-centered asthma care approaches.

Other fields

Apart from the fields mentioned, case studies are also extensively used in business and management research, education research, and political sciences, among many others. They provide an opportunity to delve into the intricacies of real-world situations, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of various phenomena.

Case studies, with their depth and contextual focus, offer unique insights across these varied fields. They allow researchers to illuminate the complexities of real-life situations, contributing to both theory and practice.

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Understanding the key elements of case study design is crucial for conducting rigorous and impactful case study research. A well-structured design guides the researcher through the process, ensuring that the study is methodologically sound and its findings are reliable and valid. The main elements of case study design include the research question , propositions, units of analysis, and the logic linking the data to the propositions.

The research question is the foundation of any research study. A good research question guides the direction of the study and informs the selection of the case, the methods of collecting data, and the analysis techniques. A well-formulated research question in case study research is typically clear, focused, and complex enough to merit further detailed examination of the relevant case(s).

Propositions

Propositions, though not necessary in every case study, provide a direction by stating what we might expect to find in the data collected. They guide how data is collected and analyzed by helping researchers focus on specific aspects of the case. They are particularly important in explanatory case studies, which seek to understand the relationships among concepts within the studied phenomenon.

Units of analysis

The unit of analysis refers to the case, or the main entity or entities that are being analyzed in the study. In case study research, the unit of analysis can be an individual, a group, an organization, a decision, an event, or even a time period. It's crucial to clearly define the unit of analysis, as it shapes the qualitative data analysis process by allowing the researcher to analyze a particular case and synthesize analysis across multiple case studies to draw conclusions.

Argumentation

This refers to the inferential model that allows researchers to draw conclusions from the data. The researcher needs to ensure that there is a clear link between the data, the propositions (if any), and the conclusions drawn. This argumentation is what enables the researcher to make valid and credible inferences about the phenomenon under study.

Understanding and carefully considering these elements in the design phase of a case study can significantly enhance the quality of the research. It can help ensure that the study is methodologically sound and its findings contribute meaningful insights about the case.

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Conducting a case study involves several steps, from defining the research question and selecting the case to collecting and analyzing data . This section outlines these key stages, providing a practical guide on how to conduct case study research.

Defining the research question

The first step in case study research is defining a clear, focused research question. This question should guide the entire research process, from case selection to analysis. It's crucial to ensure that the research question is suitable for a case study approach. Typically, such questions are exploratory or descriptive in nature and focus on understanding a phenomenon within its real-life context.

Selecting and defining the case

The selection of the case should be based on the research question and the objectives of the study. It involves choosing a unique example or a set of examples that provide rich, in-depth data about the phenomenon under investigation. After selecting the case, it's crucial to define it clearly, setting the boundaries of the case, including the time period and the specific context.

Previous research can help guide the case study design. When considering a case study, an example of a case could be taken from previous case study research and used to define cases in a new research inquiry. Considering recently published examples can help understand how to select and define cases effectively.

Developing a detailed case study protocol

A case study protocol outlines the procedures and general rules to be followed during the case study. This includes the data collection methods to be used, the sources of data, and the procedures for analysis. Having a detailed case study protocol ensures consistency and reliability in the study.

The protocol should also consider how to work with the people involved in the research context to grant the research team access to collecting data. As mentioned in previous sections of this guide, establishing rapport is an essential component of qualitative research as it shapes the overall potential for collecting and analyzing data.

Collecting data

Gathering data in case study research often involves multiple sources of evidence, including documents, archival records, interviews, observations, and physical artifacts. This allows for a comprehensive understanding of the case. The process for gathering data should be systematic and carefully documented to ensure the reliability and validity of the study.

Analyzing and interpreting data

The next step is analyzing the data. This involves organizing the data , categorizing it into themes or patterns , and interpreting these patterns to answer the research question. The analysis might also involve comparing the findings with prior research or theoretical propositions.

Writing the case study report

The final step is writing the case study report . This should provide a detailed description of the case, the data, the analysis process, and the findings. The report should be clear, organized, and carefully written to ensure that the reader can understand the case and the conclusions drawn from it.

Each of these steps is crucial in ensuring that the case study research is rigorous, reliable, and provides valuable insights about the case.

The type, depth, and quality of data in your study can significantly influence the validity and utility of the study. In case study research, data is usually collected from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case. This section will outline the various methods of collecting data used in case study research and discuss considerations for ensuring the quality of the data.

Interviews are a common method of gathering data in case study research. They can provide rich, in-depth data about the perspectives, experiences, and interpretations of the individuals involved in the case. Interviews can be structured , semi-structured , or unstructured , depending on the research question and the degree of flexibility needed.

Observations

Observations involve the researcher observing the case in its natural setting, providing first-hand information about the case and its context. Observations can provide data that might not be revealed in interviews or documents, such as non-verbal cues or contextual information.

Documents and artifacts

Documents and archival records provide a valuable source of data in case study research. They can include reports, letters, memos, meeting minutes, email correspondence, and various public and private documents related to the case.

These records can provide historical context, corroborate evidence from other sources, and offer insights into the case that might not be apparent from interviews or observations.

Physical artifacts refer to any physical evidence related to the case, such as tools, products, or physical environments. These artifacts can provide tangible insights into the case, complementing the data gathered from other sources.

Ensuring the quality of data collection

Determining the quality of data in case study research requires careful planning and execution. It's crucial to ensure that the data is reliable, accurate, and relevant to the research question. This involves selecting appropriate methods of collecting data, properly training interviewers or observers, and systematically recording and storing the data. It also includes considering ethical issues related to collecting and handling data, such as obtaining informed consent and ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.

Data analysis

Analyzing case study research involves making sense of the rich, detailed data to answer the research question. This process can be challenging due to the volume and complexity of case study data. However, a systematic and rigorous approach to analysis can ensure that the findings are credible and meaningful. This section outlines the main steps and considerations in analyzing data in case study research.

Organizing the data

The first step in the analysis is organizing the data. This involves sorting the data into manageable sections, often according to the data source or the theme. This step can also involve transcribing interviews, digitizing physical artifacts, or organizing observational data.

Categorizing and coding the data

Once the data is organized, the next step is to categorize or code the data. This involves identifying common themes, patterns, or concepts in the data and assigning codes to relevant data segments. Coding can be done manually or with the help of software tools, and in either case, qualitative analysis software can greatly facilitate the entire coding process. Coding helps to reduce the data to a set of themes or categories that can be more easily analyzed.

Identifying patterns and themes

After coding the data, the researcher looks for patterns or themes in the coded data. This involves comparing and contrasting the codes and looking for relationships or patterns among them. The identified patterns and themes should help answer the research question.

Interpreting the data

Once patterns and themes have been identified, the next step is to interpret these findings. This involves explaining what the patterns or themes mean in the context of the research question and the case. This interpretation should be grounded in the data, but it can also involve drawing on theoretical concepts or prior research.

Verification of the data

The last step in the analysis is verification. This involves checking the accuracy and consistency of the analysis process and confirming that the findings are supported by the data. This can involve re-checking the original data, checking the consistency of codes, or seeking feedback from research participants or peers.

Like any research method , case study research has its strengths and limitations. Researchers must be aware of these, as they can influence the design, conduct, and interpretation of the study.

Understanding the strengths and limitations of case study research can also guide researchers in deciding whether this approach is suitable for their research question . This section outlines some of the key strengths and limitations of case study research.

Benefits include the following:

Rich, detailed data: One of the main strengths of case study research is that it can generate rich, detailed data about the case. This can provide a deep understanding of the case and its context, which can be valuable in exploring complex phenomena.
Flexibility: Case study research is flexible in terms of design , data collection , and analysis . A sufficient degree of flexibility allows the researcher to adapt the study according to the case and the emerging findings.
Real-world context: Case study research involves studying the case in its real-world context, which can provide valuable insights into the interplay between the case and its context.
Multiple sources of evidence: Case study research often involves collecting data from multiple sources , which can enhance the robustness and validity of the findings.

On the other hand, researchers should consider the following limitations:

Generalizability: A common criticism of case study research is that its findings might not be generalizable to other cases due to the specificity and uniqueness of each case.
Time and resource intensive: Case study research can be time and resource intensive due to the depth of the investigation and the amount of collected data.
Complexity of analysis: The rich, detailed data generated in case study research can make analyzing the data challenging.
Subjectivity: Given the nature of case study research, there may be a higher degree of subjectivity in interpreting the data , so researchers need to reflect on this and transparently convey to audiences how the research was conducted.

Being aware of these strengths and limitations can help researchers design and conduct case study research effectively and interpret and report the findings appropriately.

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10 rules for perfect case studies

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
It may not be scientifically rigorous
It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
Explanatory case studies : These are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research.

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal. The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

All You Wanted to Know About How to Write a Case Study

What do you study in your college? If you are a psychology, sociology, or anthropology student, we bet you might be familiar with what a case study is. This research method is used to study a certain person, group, or situation. In this guide from our dissertation writing service , you will learn how to write a case study professionally, from researching to citing sources properly. Also, we will explore different types of case studies and show you examples — so that you won’t have any other questions left.

What Is a Case Study?

A case study is a subcategory of research design which investigates problems and offers solutions. Case studies can range from academic research studies to corporate promotional tools trying to sell an idea—their scope is quite vast.

What Is the Difference Between a Research Paper and a Case Study?

While research papers turn the reader’s attention to a certain problem, case studies go even further. Case study guidelines require students to pay attention to details, examining issues closely and in-depth using different research methods. For example, case studies may be used to examine court cases if you study Law, or a patient's health history if you study Medicine. Case studies are also used in Marketing, which are thorough, empirically supported analysis of a good or service's performance. Well-designed case studies can be valuable for prospective customers as they can identify and solve the potential customers pain point.

Case studies involve a lot of storytelling – they usually examine particular cases for a person or a group of people. This method of research is very helpful, as it is very practical and can give a lot of hands-on information. Most commonly, the length of the case study is about 500-900 words, which is much less than the length of an average research paper.

The structure of a case study is very similar to storytelling. It has a protagonist or main character, which in your case is actually a problem you are trying to solve. You can use the system of 3 Acts to make it a compelling story. It should have an introduction, rising action, a climax where transformation occurs, falling action, and a solution.

Here is a rough formula for you to use in your case study:

Problem (Act I): > Solution (Act II) > Result (Act III) > Conclusion.

Types of Case Studies

The purpose of a case study is to provide detailed reports on an event, an institution, a place, future customers, or pretty much anything. There are a few common types of case study, but the type depends on the topic. The following are the most common domains where case studies are needed:

Historical case studies are great to learn from. Historical events have a multitude of source info offering different perspectives. There are always modern parallels where these perspectives can be applied, compared, and thoroughly analyzed.
Problem-oriented case studies are usually used for solving problems. These are often assigned as theoretical situations where you need to immerse yourself in the situation to examine it. Imagine you’re working for a startup and you’ve just noticed a significant flaw in your product’s design. Before taking it to the senior manager, you want to do a comprehensive study on the issue and provide solutions. On a greater scale, problem-oriented case studies are a vital part of relevant socio-economic discussions.
Cumulative case studies collect information and offer comparisons. In business, case studies are often used to tell people about the value of a product.
Critical case studies explore the causes and effects of a certain case.
Illustrative case studies describe certain events, investigating outcomes and lessons learned.

Need a compelling case study? EssayPro has got you covered. Our experts are ready to provide you with detailed, insightful case studies that capture the essence of real-world scenarios. Elevate your academic work with our professional assistance.

Case Study Format

The case study format is typically made up of eight parts:

Executive Summary. Explain what you will examine in the case study. Write an overview of the field you’re researching. Make a thesis statement and sum up the results of your observation in a maximum of 2 sentences.
Background. Provide background information and the most relevant facts. Isolate the issues.
Case Evaluation. Isolate the sections of the study you want to focus on. In it, explain why something is working or is not working.
Proposed Solutions. Offer realistic ways to solve what isn’t working or how to improve its current condition. Explain why these solutions work by offering testable evidence.
Conclusion. Summarize the main points from the case evaluations and proposed solutions. 6. Recommendations. Talk about the strategy that you should choose. Explain why this choice is the most appropriate.
Implementation. Explain how to put the specific strategies into action.
References. Provide all the citations.

How to Write a Case Study

Let's discover how to write a case study.

Setting Up the Research

When writing a case study, remember that research should always come first. Reading many different sources and analyzing other points of view will help you come up with more creative solutions. You can also conduct an actual interview to thoroughly investigate the customer story that you'll need for your case study. Including all of the necessary research, writing a case study may take some time. The research process involves doing the following:

Define your objective. Explain the reason why you’re presenting your subject. Figure out where you will feature your case study; whether it is written, on video, shown as an infographic, streamed as a podcast, etc.
Determine who will be the right candidate for your case study. Get permission, quotes, and other features that will make your case study effective. Get in touch with your candidate to see if they approve of being part of your work. Study that candidate’s situation and note down what caused it.
Identify which various consequences could result from the situation. Follow these guidelines on how to start a case study: surf the net to find some general information you might find useful.
Make a list of credible sources and examine them. Seek out important facts and highlight problems. Always write down your ideas and make sure to brainstorm.
Focus on several key issues – why they exist, and how they impact your research subject. Think of several unique solutions. Draw from class discussions, readings, and personal experience. When writing a case study, focus on the best solution and explore it in depth. After having all your research in place, writing a case study will be easy. You may first want to check the rubric and criteria of your assignment for the correct case study structure.

Read Also: ' WHAT IS A CREDIBLE SOURCES ?'

Although your instructor might be looking at slightly different criteria, every case study rubric essentially has the same standards. Your professor will want you to exhibit 8 different outcomes:

Correctly identify the concepts, theories, and practices in the discipline.
Identify the relevant theories and principles associated with the particular study.
Evaluate legal and ethical principles and apply them to your decision-making.
Recognize the global importance and contribution of your case.
Construct a coherent summary and explanation of the study.
Demonstrate analytical and critical-thinking skills.
Explain the interrelationships between the environment and nature.
Integrate theory and practice of the discipline within the analysis.

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Case Study Outline

Let's look at the structure of an outline based on the issue of the alcoholic addiction of 30 people.

Introduction

Statement of the issue: Alcoholism is a disease rather than a weakness of character.
Presentation of the problem: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there.
Explanation of the terms: In the past, alcoholism was commonly referred to as alcohol dependence or alcohol addiction. Alcoholism is now the more severe stage of this addiction in the disorder spectrum.
Hypotheses: Drinking in excess can lead to the use of other drugs.
Importance of your story: How the information you present can help people with their addictions.
Background of the story: Include an explanation of why you chose this topic.
Presentation of analysis and data: Describe the criteria for choosing 30 candidates, the structure of the interview, and the outcomes.
Strong argument 1: ex. X% of candidates dealing with anxiety and depression...
Strong argument 2: ex. X amount of people started drinking by their mid-teens.
Strong argument 3: ex. X% of respondents’ parents had issues with alcohol.
Concluding statement: I have researched if alcoholism is a disease and found out that…
Recommendations: Ways and actions for preventing alcohol use.

Writing a Case Study Draft

After you’ve done your case study research and written the outline, it’s time to focus on the draft. In a draft, you have to develop and write your case study by using: the data which you collected throughout the research, interviews, and the analysis processes that were undertaken. Follow these rules for the draft:

Your draft should contain at least 4 sections: an introduction; a body where you should include background information, an explanation of why you decided to do this case study, and a presentation of your main findings; a conclusion where you present data; and references.
In the introduction, you should set the pace very clearly. You can even raise a question or quote someone you interviewed in the research phase. It must provide adequate background information on the topic. The background may include analyses of previous studies on your topic. Include the aim of your case here as well. Think of it as a thesis statement. The aim must describe the purpose of your work—presenting the issues that you want to tackle. Include background information, such as photos or videos you used when doing the research.
Describe your unique research process, whether it was through interviews, observations, academic journals, etc. The next point includes providing the results of your research. Tell the audience what you found out. Why is this important, and what could be learned from it? Discuss the real implications of the problem and its significance in the world.
Include quotes and data (such as findings, percentages, and awards). This will add a personal touch and better credibility to the case you present. Explain what results you find during your interviews in regards to the problem and how it developed. Also, write about solutions which have already been proposed by other people who have already written about this case.
At the end of your case study, you should offer possible solutions, but don’t worry about solving them yourself.

Use Data to Illustrate Key Points in Your Case Study

Even though your case study is a story, it should be based on evidence. Use as much data as possible to illustrate your point. Without the right data, your case study may appear weak and the readers may not be able to relate to your issue as much as they should. Let's see the examples from essay writing service :

‍ With data: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there. Without data: A lot of people suffer from alcoholism in the United States.

Try to include as many credible sources as possible. You may have terms or sources that could be hard for other cultures to understand. If this is the case, you should include them in the appendix or Notes for the Instructor or Professor.

Finalizing the Draft: Checklist

After you finish drafting your case study, polish it up by answering these ‘ask yourself’ questions and think about how to end your case study:

Check that you follow the correct case study format, also in regards to text formatting.
Check that your work is consistent with its referencing and citation style.
Micro-editing — check for grammar and spelling issues.
Macro-editing — does ‘the big picture’ come across to the reader? Is there enough raw data, such as real-life examples or personal experiences? Have you made your data collection process completely transparent? Does your analysis provide a clear conclusion, allowing for further research and practice?

Problems to avoid:

Overgeneralization – Do not go into further research that deviates from the main problem.
Failure to Document Limitations – Just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study, you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis.
Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications – Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings.

How to Create a Title Page and Cite a Case Study

Let's see how to create an awesome title page.

Your title page depends on the prescribed citation format. The title page should include:

A title that attracts some attention and describes your study
The title should have the words “case study” in it
The title should range between 5-9 words in length
Your name and contact information
Your finished paper should be only 500 to 1,500 words in length.With this type of assignment, write effectively and avoid fluff

Here is a template for the APA and MLA format title page:

There are some cases when you need to cite someone else's study in your own one – therefore, you need to master how to cite a case study. A case study is like a research paper when it comes to citations. You can cite it like you cite a book, depending on what style you need.

Citation Example in MLA ‍ Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing, 2008. Print.

Citation Example in APA ‍ Hill, L., Khanna, T., & Stecker, E. A. (2008). HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing.

Citation Example in Chicago Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies.

Case Study Examples

To give you an idea of a professional case study example, we gathered and linked some below.

Eastman Kodak Case Study

Case Study Example: Audi Trains Mexican Autoworkers in Germany

To conclude, a case study is one of the best methods of getting an overview of what happened to a person, a group, or a situation in practice. It allows you to have an in-depth glance at the real-life problems that businesses, healthcare industry, criminal justice, etc. may face. This insight helps us look at such situations in a different light. This is because we see scenarios that we otherwise would not, without necessarily being there. If you need custom essays , try our research paper writing services .

Get Help Form Qualified Writers

Crafting a case study is not easy. You might want to write one of high quality, but you don’t have the time or expertise. If you’re having trouble with your case study, help with essay request - we'll help. EssayPro writers have read and written countless case studies and are experts in endless disciplines. Request essay writing, editing, or proofreading assistance from our custom case study writing service , and all of your worries will be gone.

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What Is A Case Study?

How to cite a case study in apa, how to write a case study, related articles.

How to Write a Summary of a Book with an Example

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J Can Chiropr Assoc
v.52(4); 2008 Dec

Guidelines to the writing of case studies

Dr. brian budgell.

* Département chiropratique, Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières, 3351, boul des Forges, Trois-Rivières, Qc, Canada G9A 5H7

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Dr. Brian Budgell, DC, PhD, JCCA Editorial Board

Introduction

Case studies are an invaluable record of the clinical practices of a profession. While case studies cannot provide specific guidance for the management of successive patients, they are a record of clinical interactions which help us to frame questions for more rigorously designed clinical studies. Case studies also provide valuable teaching material, demonstrating both classical and unusual presentations which may confront the practitioner. Quite obviously, since the overwhelming majority of clinical interactions occur in the field, not in teaching or research facilities, it falls to the field practitioner to record and pass on their experiences. However, field practitioners generally are not well-practised in writing for publication, and so may hesitate to embark on the task of carrying a case study to publication. These guidelines are intended to assist the relatively novice writer – practitioner or student – in efficiently navigating the relatively easy course to publication of a quality case study. Guidelines are not intended to be proscriptive, and so throughout this document we advise what authors “may” or “should” do, rather than what they “must” do. Authors may decide that the particular circumstances of their case study justify digression from our recommendations.

Additional and useful resources for chiropractic case studies include:

Waalen JK. Single subject research designs. J Can Chirop Assoc 1991; 35(2):95–97.
Gleberzon BJ. A peer-reviewer’s plea. J Can Chirop Assoc 2006; 50(2):107.
Merritt L. Case reports: an important contribution to chiropractic literature. J Can Chiropr Assoc 2007; 51(2):72–74.

Portions of these guidelines were derived from Budgell B. Writing a biomedical research paper. Tokyo: Springer Japan KK, 2008.

General Instructions

This set of guidelines provides both instructions and a template for the writing of case reports for publication. You might want to skip forward and take a quick look at the template now, as we will be using it as the basis for your own case study later on. While the guidelines and template contain much detail, your finished case study should be only 500 to 1,500 words in length. Therefore, you will need to write efficiently and avoid unnecessarily flowery language.

These guidelines for the writing of case studies are designed to be consistent with the “Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals” referenced elsewhere in the JCCA instructions to authors.

After this brief introduction, the guidelines below will follow the headings of our template. Hence, it is possible to work section by section through the template to quickly produce a first draft of your study. To begin with, however, you must have a clear sense of the value of the study which you wish to describe. Therefore, before beginning to write the study itself, you should gather all of the materials relevant to the case – clinical notes, lab reports, x-rays etc. – and form a clear picture of the story that you wish to share with your profession. At the most superficial level, you may want to ask yourself “What is interesting about this case?” Keep your answer in mind as your write, because sometimes we become lost in our writing and forget the message that we want to convey.

Another important general rule for writing case studies is to stick to the facts. A case study should be a fairly modest description of what actually happened. Speculation about underlying mechanisms of the disease process or treatment should be restrained. Field practitioners and students are seldom well-prepared to discuss physiology or pathology. This is best left to experts in those fields. The thing of greatest value that you can provide to your colleagues is an honest record of clinical events.

Finally, remember that a case study is primarily a chronicle of a patient’s progress, not a story about chiropractic. Editorial or promotional remarks do not belong in a case study, no matter how great our enthusiasm. It is best to simply tell the story and let the outcome speak for itself. With these points in mind, let’s begin the process of writing the case study:

Title: The title page will contain the full title of the article. Remember that many people may find our article by searching on the internet. They may have to decide, just by looking at the title, whether or not they want to access the full article. A title which is vague or non-specific may not attract their attention. Thus, our title should contain the phrase “case study,” “case report” or “case series” as is appropriate to the contents. The two most common formats of titles are nominal and compound. A nominal title is a single phrase, for example “A case study of hypertension which responded to spinal manipulation.” A compound title consists of two phrases in succession, for example “Response of hypertension to spinal manipulation: a case study.” Keep in mind that titles of articles in leading journals average between 8 and 9 words in length.
Other contents for the title page should be as in the general JCCA instructions to authors. Remember that for a case study, we would not expect to have more than one or two authors. In order to be listed as an author, a person must have an intellectual stake in the writing – at the very least they must be able to explain and even defend the article. Someone who has only provided technical assistance, as valuable as that may be, may be acknowledged at the end of the article, but would not be listed as an author. Contact information – either home or institutional – should be provided for each author along with the authors’ academic qualifications. If there is more than one author, one author must be identified as the corresponding author – the person whom people should contact if they have questions or comments about the study.
Key words: Provide key words under which the article will be listed. These are the words which would be used when searching for the article using a search engine such as Medline. When practical, we should choose key words from a standard list of keywords, such as MeSH (Medical subject headings). A copy of MeSH is available in most libraries. If we can’t access a copy and we want to make sure that our keywords are included in the MeSH library, we can visit this address: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/meshbrowser.cgi

A narrative abstract consists of a short version of the whole paper. There are no headings within the narrative abstract. The author simply tries to summarize the paper into a story which flows logically.

A structured abstract uses subheadings. Structured abstracts are becoming more popular for basic scientific and clinical studies, since they standardize the abstract and ensure that certain information is included. This is very useful for readers who search for articles on the internet. Often the abstract is displayed by a search engine, and on the basis of the abstract the reader will decide whether or not to download the full article (which may require payment of a fee). With a structured abstract, the reader is more likely to be given the information which they need to decide whether to go on to the full article, and so this style is encouraged. The JCCA recommends the use of structured abstracts for case studies.

Since they are summaries, both narrative and structured abstracts are easier to write once we have finished the rest of the article. We include a template for a structured abstract and encourage authors to make use of it. Our sub-headings will be:

Introduction: This consists of one or two sentences to describe the context of the case and summarize the entire article.
Case presentation: Several sentences describe the history and results of any examinations performed. The working diagnosis and management of the case are described.
Management and Outcome: Simply describe the course of the patient’s complaint. Where possible, make reference to any outcome measures which you used to objectively demonstrate how the patient’s condition evolved through the course of management.
Discussion: Synthesize the foregoing subsections and explain both correlations and apparent inconsistencies. If appropriate to the case, within one or two sentences describe the lessons to be learned.
Introduction: At the beginning of these guidelines we suggested that we need to have a clear idea of what is particularly interesting about the case we want to describe. The introduction is where we convey this to the reader. It is useful to begin by placing the study in a historical or social context. If similar cases have been reported previously, we describe them briefly. If there is something especially challenging about the diagnosis or management of the condition that we are describing, now is our chance to bring that out. Each time we refer to a previous study, we cite the reference (usually at the end of the sentence). Our introduction doesn’t need to be more than a few paragraphs long, and our objective is to have the reader understand clearly, but in a general sense, why it is useful for them to be reading about this case.

The next step is to describe the results of our clinical examination. Again, we should write in an efficient narrative style, restricting ourselves to the relevant information. It is not necessary to include every detail in our clinical notes.

If we are using a named orthopedic or neurological test, it is best to both name and describe the test (since some people may know the test by a different name). Also, we should describe the actual results, since not all readers will have the same understanding of what constitutes a “positive” or “negative” result.

X-rays or other images are only helpful if they are clear enough to be easily reproduced and if they are accompanied by a legend. Be sure that any information that might identify a patient is removed before the image is submitted.

At this point, or at the beginning of the next section, we will want to present our working diagnosis or clinical impression of the patient.

It is useful for the reader to know how long the patient was under care and how many times they were treated. Additionally, we should be as specific as possible in describing the treatment that we used. It does not help the reader to simply say that the patient received “chiropractic care.” Exactly what treatment did we use? If we used spinal manipulation, it is best to name the technique, if a common name exists, and also to describe the manipulation. Remember that our case study may be read by people who are not familiar with spinal manipulation, and, even within chiropractic circles, nomenclature for technique is not well standardized.

We may want to include the patient’s own reports of improvement or worsening. However, whenever possible we should try to use a well-validated method of measuring their improvement. For case studies, it may be possible to use data from visual analogue scales (VAS) for pain, or a journal of medication usage.

It is useful to include in this section an indication of how and why treatment finished. Did we decide to terminate care, and if so, why? Did the patient withdraw from care or did we refer them to another practitioner?

Discussion: In this section we may want to identify any questions that the case raises. It is not our duty to provide a complete physiological explanation for everything that we observed. This is usually impossible. Nor should we feel obligated to list or generate all of the possible hypotheses that might explain the course of the patient’s condition. If there is a well established item of physiology or pathology which illuminates the case, we certainly include it, but remember that we are writing what is primarily a clinical chronicle, not a basic scientific paper. Finally, we summarize the lessons learned from this case.
Acknowledgments: If someone provided assistance with the preparation of the case study, we thank them briefly. It is neither necessary nor conventional to thank the patient (although we appreciate what they have taught us). It would generally be regarded as excessive and inappropriate to thank others, such as teachers or colleagues who did not directly participate in preparation of the paper.

A popular search engine for English-language references is Medline: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi

Legends: If we used any tables, figures or photographs, they should be accompanied by a succinct explanation. A good rule for graphs is that they should contain sufficient information to be generally decipherable without reference to a legend.
Tables, figures and photographs should be included at the end of the manuscript.
Permissions: If any tables, figures or photographs, or substantial quotations, have been borrowed from other publications, we must include a letter of permission from the publisher. Also, if we use any photographs which might identify a patient, we will need their written permission.

In addition, patient consent to publish the case report is also required.

Running Header:

Name, academic degrees and affiliation

Name, address and telephone number of corresponding author

Disclaimers

Statement that patient consent was obtained

Sources of financial support, if any

Key words: (limit of five)

Abstract: (maximum of 150 words)

Case Presentation
Management and Outcome

Introduction:

Provide a context for the case and describe any similar cases previously reported.

Case Presentation:

Introductory sentence: e.g. This 25 year old female office worker presented for the treatment of recurrent headaches.
Describe the essential nature of the complaint, including location, intensity and associated symptoms: e.g. Her headaches are primarily in the suboccipital region, bilaterally but worse on the right. Sometimes there is radiation towards the right temple. She describes the pain as having an intensity of up to 5 out of ten, accompanied by a feeling of tension in the back of the head. When the pain is particularly bad, she feels that her vision is blurred.
Further development of history including details of time and circumstances of onset, and the evolution of the complaint: e.g. This problem began to develop three years ago when she commenced work as a data entry clerk. Her headaches have increased in frequency in the past year, now occurring three to four days per week.
Describe relieving and aggravating factors, including responses to other treatment: e.g. The pain seems to be worse towards the end of the work day and is aggravated by stress. Aspirin provides some relieve. She has not sought any other treatment.
Include other health history, if relevant: e.g. Otherwise the patient reports that she is in good health.
Include family history, if relevant: e.g. There is no family history of headaches.
Summarize the results of examination, which might include general observation and postural analysis, orthopedic exam, neurological exam and chiropractic examination (static and motion palpation): e.g. Examination revealed an otherwise fit-looking young woman with slight anterior carriage of the head. Cervical active ranges of motion were full and painless except for some slight restriction of left lateral bending and rotation of the head to the left. These motions were accompanied by discomfort in the right side of the neck. Cervical compression of the neck in the neutral position did not create discomfort. However, compression of the neck in right rotation and extension produced some right suboccipital pain. Cranial nerve examination was normal. Upper limb motor, sensory and reflex functions were normal. With the patient in the supine position, static palpation revealed tender trigger points bilaterally in the cervical musculature and right trapezius. Motion palpation revealed restrictions of right and left rotation in the upper cervical spine, and restriction of left lateral bending in the mid to lower cervical spine. Blood pressure was 110/70. Houle’s test (holding the neck in extension and rotation for 30 seconds) did not produce nystagmus or dizziness. There were no carotid bruits.
The patient was diagnosed with cervicogenic headache due to chronic postural strain.

Management and Outcome:

Describe as specifically as possible the treatment provided, including the nature of the treatment, and the frequency and duration of care: e.g. The patient undertook a course of treatment consisting of cervical and upper thoracic spinal manipulation three times per week for two weeks. Manipulation was accompanied by trigger point therapy to the paraspinal muscles and stretching of the upper trapezius. Additionally, advice was provided concerning maintenance of proper posture at work. The patient was also instructed in the use of a cervical pillow.
If possible, refer to objective measures of the patient’s progress: e.g. The patient maintained a headache diary indicating that she had two headaches during the first week of care, and one headache the following week. Furthermore the intensity of her headaches declined throughout the course of treatment.
Describe the resolution of care: e.g. Based on the patient’s reported progress during the first two weeks of care, she received an additional two treatments in each of the subsequent two weeks. During the last week of care she experienced no headaches and reported feeling generally more energetic than before commencing care. Following a total of four weeks of care (10 treatments) she was discharged.

Discussion:

Synthesize foregoing sections: e.g. The distinction between migraine and cervicogenic headache is not always clear. However, this case demonstrates several features …

Summarize the case and any lessons learned: e.g. This case demonstrates a classical presentation of cervicogenic headache which resolved quickly with a course of spinal manipulation, supportive soft-tissue therapy and postural advice.

References: (using Vancouver style) e.g.

1 Terret AGJ. Vertebrogenic hearing deficit, the spine and spinal manipulation therapy: a search to validate the DD Palmer/Harvey Lillard experience. Chiropr J Aust 2002; 32:14–26.

Legends: (tables, figures or images are numbered according to the order in which they appear in the text.) e.g.

Figure 1: Intensity of headaches as recorded on a visual analogue scale (vertical axis) versus time (horizontal axis) during the four weeks that the patient was under care. Treatment was given on days 1, 3, 5, 8, 10, 12, 15, 18, 22 and 25. Headache frequency and intensity is seen to fall over time.

Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Acknowledgments

Definition and Introduction

Case analysis is a problem-based teaching and learning method that involves critically analyzing complex scenarios within an organizational setting for the purpose of placing the student in a “real world” situation and applying reflection and critical thinking skills to contemplate appropriate solutions, decisions, or recommended courses of action. It is considered a more effective teaching technique than in-class role playing or simulation activities. The analytical process is often guided by questions provided by the instructor that ask students to contemplate relationships between the facts and critical incidents described in the case.

Cases generally include both descriptive and statistical elements and rely on students applying abductive reasoning to develop and argue for preferred or best outcomes [i.e., case scenarios rarely have a single correct or perfect answer based on the evidence provided]. Rather than emphasizing theories or concepts, case analysis assignments emphasize building a bridge of relevancy between abstract thinking and practical application and, by so doing, teaches the value of both within a specific area of professional practice.

Given this, the purpose of a case analysis paper is to present a structured and logically organized format for analyzing the case situation. It can be assigned to students individually or as a small group assignment and it may include an in-class presentation component. Case analysis is predominately taught in economics and business-related courses, but it is also a method of teaching and learning found in other applied social sciences disciplines, such as, social work, public relations, education, journalism, and public administration.

Ellet, William. The Case Study Handbook: A Student's Guide . Revised Edition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2018; Christoph Rasche and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Analysis . Writing Center, Baruch College; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

How to Approach Writing a Case Analysis Paper

The organization and structure of a case analysis paper can vary depending on the organizational setting, the situation, and how your professor wants you to approach the assignment. Nevertheless, preparing to write a case analysis paper involves several important steps. As Hawes notes, a case analysis assignment “...is useful in developing the ability to get to the heart of a problem, analyze it thoroughly, and to indicate the appropriate solution as well as how it should be implemented” [p.48]. This statement encapsulates how you should approach preparing to write a case analysis paper.

Before you begin to write your paper, consider the following analytical procedures:

Review the case to get an overview of the situation . A case can be only a few pages in length, however, it is most often very lengthy and contains a significant amount of detailed background information and statistics, with multilayered descriptions of the scenario, the roles and behaviors of various stakeholder groups, and situational events. Therefore, a quick reading of the case will help you gain an overall sense of the situation and illuminate the types of issues and problems that you will need to address in your paper. If your professor has provided questions intended to help frame your analysis, use them to guide your initial reading of the case.
Read the case thoroughly . After gaining a general overview of the case, carefully read the content again with the purpose of understanding key circumstances, events, and behaviors among stakeholder groups. Look for information or data that appears contradictory, extraneous, or misleading. At this point, you should be taking notes as you read because this will help you develop a general outline of your paper. The aim is to obtain a complete understanding of the situation so that you can begin contemplating tentative answers to any questions your professor has provided or, if they have not provided, developing answers to your own questions about the case scenario and its connection to the course readings,lectures, and class discussions.
Determine key stakeholder groups, issues, and events and the relationships they all have to each other . As you analyze the content, pay particular attention to identifying individuals, groups, or organizations described in the case and identify evidence of any problems or issues of concern that impact the situation in a negative way. Other things to look for include identifying any assumptions being made by or about each stakeholder, potential biased explanations or actions, explicit demands or ultimatums , and the underlying concerns that motivate these behaviors among stakeholders. The goal at this stage is to develop a comprehensive understanding of the situational and behavioral dynamics of the case and the explicit and implicit consequences of each of these actions.
Identify the core problems . The next step in most case analysis assignments is to discern what the core [i.e., most damaging, detrimental, injurious] problems are within the organizational setting and to determine their implications. The purpose at this stage of preparing to write your analysis paper is to distinguish between the symptoms of core problems and the core problems themselves and to decide which of these must be addressed immediately and which problems do not appear critical but may escalate over time. Identify evidence from the case to support your decisions by determining what information or data is essential to addressing the core problems and what information is not relevant or is misleading.
Explore alternative solutions . As noted, case analysis scenarios rarely have only one correct answer. Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that the process of analyzing the case and diagnosing core problems, while based on evidence, is a subjective process open to various avenues of interpretation. This means that you must consider alternative solutions or courses of action by critically examining strengths and weaknesses, risk factors, and the differences between short and long-term solutions. For each possible solution or course of action, consider the consequences they may have related to their implementation and how these recommendations might lead to new problems. Also, consider thinking about your recommended solutions or courses of action in relation to issues of fairness, equity, and inclusion.
Decide on a final set of recommendations . The last stage in preparing to write a case analysis paper is to assert an opinion or viewpoint about the recommendations needed to help resolve the core problems as you see them and to make a persuasive argument for supporting this point of view. Prepare a clear rationale for your recommendations based on examining each element of your analysis. Anticipate possible obstacles that could derail their implementation. Consider any counter-arguments that could be made concerning the validity of your recommended actions. Finally, describe a set of criteria and measurable indicators that could be applied to evaluating the effectiveness of your implementation plan.

Use these steps as the framework for writing your paper. Remember that the more detailed you are in taking notes as you critically examine each element of the case, the more information you will have to draw from when you begin to write. This will save you time.

NOTE : If the process of preparing to write a case analysis paper is assigned as a student group project, consider having each member of the group analyze a specific element of the case, including drafting answers to the corresponding questions used by your professor to frame the analysis. This will help make the analytical process more efficient and ensure that the distribution of work is equitable. This can also facilitate who is responsible for drafting each part of the final case analysis paper and, if applicable, the in-class presentation.

Framework for Case Analysis . College of Management. University of Massachusetts; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Rasche, Christoph and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Study Analysis . University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center; Van Ness, Raymond K. A Guide to Case Analysis . School of Business. State University of New York, Albany; Writing a Case Analysis . Business School, University of New South Wales.

Structure and Writing Style

A case analysis paper should be detailed, concise, persuasive, clearly written, and professional in tone and in the use of language . As with other forms of college-level academic writing, declarative statements that convey information, provide a fact, or offer an explanation or any recommended courses of action should be based on evidence. If allowed by your professor, any external sources used to support your analysis, such as course readings, should be properly cited under a list of references. The organization and structure of case analysis papers can vary depending on your professor’s preferred format, but its structure generally follows the steps used for analyzing the case.

Introduction

The introduction should provide a succinct but thorough descriptive overview of the main facts, issues, and core problems of the case . The introduction should also include a brief summary of the most relevant details about the situation and organizational setting. This includes defining the theoretical framework or conceptual model on which any questions were used to frame your analysis.

Following the rules of most college-level research papers, the introduction should then inform the reader how the paper will be organized. This includes describing the major sections of the paper and the order in which they will be presented. Unless you are told to do so by your professor, you do not need to preview your final recommendations in the introduction. U nlike most college-level research papers , the introduction does not include a statement about the significance of your findings because a case analysis assignment does not involve contributing new knowledge about a research problem.

Background Analysis

Background analysis can vary depending on any guiding questions provided by your professor and the underlying concept or theory that the case is based upon. In general, however, this section of your paper should focus on:

Providing an overarching analysis of problems identified from the case scenario, including identifying events that stakeholders find challenging or troublesome,
Identifying assumptions made by each stakeholder and any apparent biases they may exhibit,
Describing any demands or claims made by or forced upon key stakeholders, and
Highlighting any issues of concern or complaints expressed by stakeholders in response to those demands or claims.

These aspects of the case are often in the form of behavioral responses expressed by individuals or groups within the organizational setting. However, note that problems in a case situation can also be reflected in data [or the lack thereof] and in the decision-making, operational, cultural, or institutional structure of the organization. Additionally, demands or claims can be either internal and external to the organization [e.g., a case analysis involving a president considering arms sales to Saudi Arabia could include managing internal demands from White House advisors as well as demands from members of Congress].

Throughout this section, present all relevant evidence from the case that supports your analysis. Do not simply claim there is a problem, an assumption, a demand, or a concern; tell the reader what part of the case informed how you identified these background elements.

Identification of Problems

In most case analysis assignments, there are problems, and then there are problems . Each problem can reflect a multitude of underlying symptoms that are detrimental to the interests of the organization. The purpose of identifying problems is to teach students how to differentiate between problems that vary in severity, impact, and relative importance. Given this, problems can be described in three general forms: those that must be addressed immediately, those that should be addressed but the impact is not severe, and those that do not require immediate attention and can be set aside for the time being.

All of the problems you identify from the case should be identified in this section of your paper, with a description based on evidence explaining the problem variances. If the assignment asks you to conduct research to further support your assessment of the problems, include this in your explanation. Remember to cite those sources in a list of references. Use specific evidence from the case and apply appropriate concepts, theories, and models discussed in class or in relevant course readings to highlight and explain the key problems [or problem] that you believe must be solved immediately and describe the underlying symptoms and why they are so critical.

Alternative Solutions

This section is where you provide specific, realistic, and evidence-based solutions to the problems you have identified and make recommendations about how to alleviate the underlying symptomatic conditions impacting the organizational setting. For each solution, you must explain why it was chosen and provide clear evidence to support your reasoning. This can include, for example, course readings and class discussions as well as research resources, such as, books, journal articles, research reports, or government documents. In some cases, your professor may encourage you to include personal, anecdotal experiences as evidence to support why you chose a particular solution or set of solutions. Using anecdotal evidence helps promote reflective thinking about the process of determining what qualifies as a core problem and relevant solution .

Throughout this part of the paper, keep in mind the entire array of problems that must be addressed and describe in detail the solutions that might be implemented to resolve these problems.

Recommended Courses of Action

In some case analysis assignments, your professor may ask you to combine the alternative solutions section with your recommended courses of action. However, it is important to know the difference between the two. A solution refers to the answer to a problem. A course of action refers to a procedure or deliberate sequence of activities adopted to proactively confront a situation, often in the context of accomplishing a goal. In this context, proposed courses of action are based on your analysis of alternative solutions. Your description and justification for pursuing each course of action should represent the overall plan for implementing your recommendations.

For each course of action, you need to explain the rationale for your recommendation in a way that confronts challenges, explains risks, and anticipates any counter-arguments from stakeholders. Do this by considering the strengths and weaknesses of each course of action framed in relation to how the action is expected to resolve the core problems presented, the possible ways the action may affect remaining problems, and how the recommended action will be perceived by each stakeholder.

In addition, you should describe the criteria needed to measure how well the implementation of these actions is working and explain which individuals or groups are responsible for ensuring your recommendations are successful. In addition, always consider the law of unintended consequences. Outline difficulties that may arise in implementing each course of action and describe how implementing the proposed courses of action [either individually or collectively] may lead to new problems [both large and small].

Throughout this section, you must consider the costs and benefits of recommending your courses of action in relation to uncertainties or missing information and the negative consequences of success.

The conclusion should be brief and introspective. Unlike a research paper, the conclusion in a case analysis paper does not include a summary of key findings and their significance, a statement about how the study contributed to existing knowledge, or indicate opportunities for future research.

Begin by synthesizing the core problems presented in the case and the relevance of your recommended solutions. This can include an explanation of what you have learned about the case in the context of your answers to the questions provided by your professor. The conclusion is also where you link what you learned from analyzing the case with the course readings or class discussions. This can further demonstrate your understanding of the relationships between the practical case situation and the theoretical and abstract content of assigned readings and other course content.

Problems to Avoid

The literature on case analysis assignments often includes examples of difficulties students have with applying methods of critical analysis and effectively reporting the results of their assessment of the situation. A common reason cited by scholars is that the application of this type of teaching and learning method is limited to applied fields of social and behavioral sciences and, as a result, writing a case analysis paper can be unfamiliar to most students entering college.

After you have drafted your paper, proofread the narrative flow and revise any of these common errors:

Unnecessary detail in the background section . The background section should highlight the essential elements of the case based on your analysis. Focus on summarizing the facts and highlighting the key factors that become relevant in the other sections of the paper by eliminating any unnecessary information.
Analysis relies too much on opinion . Your analysis is interpretive, but the narrative must be connected clearly to evidence from the case and any models and theories discussed in class or in course readings. Any positions or arguments you make should be supported by evidence.
Analysis does not focus on the most important elements of the case . Your paper should provide a thorough overview of the case. However, the analysis should focus on providing evidence about what you identify are the key events, stakeholders, issues, and problems. Emphasize what you identify as the most critical aspects of the case to be developed throughout your analysis. Be thorough but succinct.
Writing is too descriptive . A paper with too much descriptive information detracts from your analysis of the complexities of the case situation. Questions about what happened, where, when, and by whom should only be included as essential information leading to your examination of questions related to why, how, and for what purpose.
Inadequate definition of a core problem and associated symptoms . A common error found in case analysis papers is recommending a solution or course of action without adequately defining or demonstrating that you understand the problem. Make sure you have clearly described the problem and its impact and scope within the organizational setting. Ensure that you have adequately described the root causes w hen describing the symptoms of the problem.
Recommendations lack specificity . Identify any use of vague statements and indeterminate terminology, such as, “A particular experience” or “a large increase to the budget.” These statements cannot be measured and, as a result, there is no way to evaluate their successful implementation. Provide specific data and use direct language in describing recommended actions.
Unrealistic, exaggerated, or unattainable recommendations . Review your recommendations to ensure that they are based on the situational facts of the case. Your recommended solutions and courses of action must be based on realistic assumptions and fit within the constraints of the situation. Also note that the case scenario has already happened, therefore, any speculation or arguments about what could have occurred if the circumstances were different should be revised or eliminated.

Bee, Lian Song et al. "Business Students' Perspectives on Case Method Coaching for Problem-Based Learning: Impacts on Student Engagement and Learning Performance in Higher Education." Education & Training 64 (2022): 416-432; The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Georgallis, Panikos and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching using Case-Based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Georgallis, Panikos, and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching Using Case-based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; .Dean, Kathy Lund and Charles J. Fornaciari. "How to Create and Use Experiential Case-Based Exercises in a Management Classroom." Journal of Management Education 26 (October 2002): 586-603; Klebba, Joanne M. and Janet G. Hamilton. "Structured Case Analysis: Developing Critical Thinking Skills in a Marketing Case Course." Journal of Marketing Education 29 (August 2007): 132-137, 139; Klein, Norman. "The Case Discussion Method Revisited: Some Questions about Student Skills." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 30-32; Mukherjee, Arup. "Effective Use of In-Class Mini Case Analysis for Discovery Learning in an Undergraduate MIS Course." The Journal of Computer Information Systems 40 (Spring 2000): 15-23; Pessoa, Silviaet al. "Scaffolding the Case Analysis in an Organizational Behavior Course: Making Analytical Language Explicit." Journal of Management Education 46 (2022): 226-251: Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Schweitzer, Karen. "How to Write and Format a Business Case Study." ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-write-and-format-a-business-case-study-466324 (accessed December 5, 2022); Reddy, C. D. "Teaching Research Methodology: Everything's a Case." Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods 18 (December 2020): 178-188; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

Writing Tip

Ca se Study and Case Analysis Are Not the Same!

Confusion often exists between what it means to write a paper that uses a case study research design and writing a paper that analyzes a case; they are two different types of approaches to learning in the social and behavioral sciences. Professors as well as educational researchers contribute to this confusion because they often use the term "case study" when describing the subject of analysis for a case analysis paper. But you are not studying a case for the purpose of generating a comprehensive, multi-faceted understanding of a research problem. R ather, you are critically analyzing a specific scenario to argue logically for recommended solutions and courses of action that lead to optimal outcomes applicable to professional practice.

To avoid any confusion, here are twelve characteristics that delineate the differences between writing a paper using the case study research method and writing a case analysis paper:

Case study is a method of in-depth research and rigorous inquiry ; case analysis is a reliable method of teaching and learning . A case study is a modality of research that investigates a phenomenon for the purpose of creating new knowledge, solving a problem, or testing a hypothesis using empirical evidence derived from the case being studied. Often, the results are used to generalize about a larger population or within a wider context. The writing adheres to the traditional standards of a scholarly research study. A case analysis is a pedagogical tool used to teach students how to reflect and think critically about a practical, real-life problem in an organizational setting.
The researcher is responsible for identifying the case to study; a case analysis is assigned by your professor . As the researcher, you choose the case study to investigate in support of obtaining new knowledge and understanding about the research problem. The case in a case analysis assignment is almost always provided, and sometimes written, by your professor and either given to every student in class to analyze individually or to a small group of students, or students select a case to analyze from a predetermined list.
A case study is indeterminate and boundless; a case analysis is predetermined and confined . A case study can be almost anything [see item 9 below] as long as it relates directly to examining the research problem. This relationship is the only limit to what a researcher can choose as the subject of their case study. The content of a case analysis is determined by your professor and its parameters are well-defined and limited to elucidating insights of practical value applied to practice.
Case study is fact-based and describes actual events or situations; case analysis can be entirely fictional or adapted from an actual situation . The entire content of a case study must be grounded in reality to be a valid subject of investigation in an empirical research study. A case analysis only needs to set the stage for critically examining a situation in practice and, therefore, can be entirely fictional or adapted, all or in-part, from an actual situation.
Research using a case study method must adhere to principles of intellectual honesty and academic integrity; a case analysis scenario can include misleading or false information . A case study paper must report research objectively and factually to ensure that any findings are understood to be logically correct and trustworthy. A case analysis scenario may include misleading or false information intended to deliberately distract from the central issues of the case. The purpose is to teach students how to sort through conflicting or useless information in order to come up with the preferred solution. Any use of misleading or false information in academic research is considered unethical.
Case study is linked to a research problem; case analysis is linked to a practical situation or scenario . In the social sciences, the subject of an investigation is most often framed as a problem that must be researched in order to generate new knowledge leading to a solution. Case analysis narratives are grounded in real life scenarios for the purpose of examining the realities of decision-making behavior and processes within organizational settings. A case analysis assignments include a problem or set of problems to be analyzed. However, the goal is centered around the act of identifying and evaluating courses of action leading to best possible outcomes.
The purpose of a case study is to create new knowledge through research; the purpose of a case analysis is to teach new understanding . Case studies are a choice of methodological design intended to create new knowledge about resolving a research problem. A case analysis is a mode of teaching and learning intended to create new understanding and an awareness of uncertainty applied to practice through acts of critical thinking and reflection.
A case study seeks to identify the best possible solution to a research problem; case analysis can have an indeterminate set of solutions or outcomes . Your role in studying a case is to discover the most logical, evidence-based ways to address a research problem. A case analysis assignment rarely has a single correct answer because one of the goals is to force students to confront the real life dynamics of uncertainly, ambiguity, and missing or conflicting information within professional practice. Under these conditions, a perfect outcome or solution almost never exists.
Case study is unbounded and relies on gathering external information; case analysis is a self-contained subject of analysis . The scope of a case study chosen as a method of research is bounded. However, the researcher is free to gather whatever information and data is necessary to investigate its relevance to understanding the research problem. For a case analysis assignment, your professor will often ask you to examine solutions or recommended courses of action based solely on facts and information from the case.
Case study can be a person, place, object, issue, event, condition, or phenomenon; a case analysis is a carefully constructed synopsis of events, situations, and behaviors . The research problem dictates the type of case being studied and, therefore, the design can encompass almost anything tangible as long as it fulfills the objective of generating new knowledge and understanding. A case analysis is in the form of a narrative containing descriptions of facts, situations, processes, rules, and behaviors within a particular setting and under a specific set of circumstances.
Case study can represent an open-ended subject of inquiry; a case analysis is a narrative about something that has happened in the past . A case study is not restricted by time and can encompass an event or issue with no temporal limit or end. For example, the current war in Ukraine can be used as a case study of how medical personnel help civilians during a large military conflict, even though circumstances around this event are still evolving. A case analysis can be used to elicit critical thinking about current or future situations in practice, but the case itself is a narrative about something finite and that has taken place in the past.
Multiple case studies can be used in a research study; case analysis involves examining a single scenario . Case study research can use two or more cases to examine a problem, often for the purpose of conducting a comparative investigation intended to discover hidden relationships, document emerging trends, or determine variations among different examples. A case analysis assignment typically describes a stand-alone, self-contained situation and any comparisons among cases are conducted during in-class discussions and/or student presentations.

The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2017; Crowe, Sarah et al. “The Case Study Approach.” BMC Medical Research Methodology 11 (2011): doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-11-100; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing; 1994.

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Last Updated: Mar 6, 2024 1:00 PM
URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/assignments

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Table of contents:, the 6 rules for creating compelling client case studies:, the 6 rules for creating powerful agency client case studies.

Client case studies are one of the most important elements to master as you grow as an agency.

After all, social proof is a key aspect of any agency growth strategy.

Seeing as you’ve just delivered the desired results for your clients, you’ll want to capitalize on the opportunity to share the success story with other prospective clients.

Clients who can relate and understand how their project might work with your agency.

Case studies add credibility to you as an agency, make it easier to close deals, and are great for finding quotes for social proof marketing assets. A few strong case studies in a specific niche or service can take an agency to new (authoritative) heights.

What’s the secret to creating compelling, amazing, and credible case studies?

Don’t just come strolling in with your eyes closed — walk into every project with a thoughtful strategy that will help you to best capture the work you’re doing with your clients.

The 6 Rules For Creating Compelling Case Studies
Add Case Studies and a Share-Your-Work Clause in Contracts
Have a Case Study Theme
Always Ask For Permission Before Publishing a Case Study
Ask For a Testimonial to Use in Your Case Study
Gather Several Different Perspectives For a Case Study
Build Out a Process for Creating Case Studies

If you only think about case studies in hindsight, you could lose the opportunity to bolster your social proof portfolio altogether.

As a general rule, before we dive into the 6 rules for creating compelling client case studies , it’s essential that you emphasize quality over quantity when it comes to building up social proof.

You could have 20 subpar and rushed case studies on your website but they won’t do nearly as well as three in-depth ones that really pack a punch.

1. Add Case Studies and a Share-Your-Work Clause in Contracts

We started adding a notation in our contracts about showcasing client work at a later time and date.

We don’t do this to be sneaky. We do this to get everything out there right from the beginning of the relationship.

So, if the client has specific instructions that won’t allow us to showcase work, this is a great place to establish it.

This accomplished two things:

Helped us get the permission to share work early on — which we would ask additional permission for before publishing a single piece — down in writing.
Opened their mind to the fact that we like to do case studies and that one may be coming down the pipeline.

As you know, around here, we’re all about hoping for the best and preparing for the worst.

You want to be actively collecting case studies. It needs to be embedded in your processes. It’s a powerful sales tool that can make you stand out from the competition, and it’s important you take the time to create and then leverage it.

Hope for the Best, Prepare for the Worst

I bring the biggest smile and the most positive attitude in the world into every single client relationship. However, that doesn’t mean that I don’t take responsible measures to help protect myself and my team from any potential dangers lurking around the corner.

What could go wrong, you ask? Two things:

Imagine somewhere down the line you write a book and mention a client experience that you had permission to utilize. Let’s say that client decides to sue you for some reason. If you don’t have written permission in your contract, it’s going to be hard to defend yourself.
In a similar instance, imagine you chatted about using a case study with a client. They verbally agree and later verbally change their mind. Again, you have no documentation to defend yourself in case things go sour—and no, email proof isn’t quite enough.

2. Have a Case Study Theme

When you’re approaching a client to construct a case study, be sure to have a specific direction in mind for it.

You don’t want to roll in there without a plan. You want to know what particular success you want to emphasize and what the results are for the business and have testimonials from individuals most impacted by the results.

Turn Your Case Study Into a Story

This could be as simple as how you helped them hop over a huge hurdle that no one thought was possible or how together your teams formed a super force that did amazing things.

You want to gather the information from the client and turn it into a compelling story from prospects, with your client and your agency as the stars. Next, show the transformation from struggling in this specific way, what you did to fix it, and the results of this change.

Finally, paint a picture for the prospect about how you can do the same thing for them.

Your theme is limited to your imagination. A compelling case study isn’t just an event timeline of the work you completed—it’s a story that is moving enough to persuade future businesses to work with you.

You want to take a prospect reading your case study on a journey.

The theme will help you construct the best possible story, and it will help your clients formulate their thoughts. We all know how intimidating it can be to look at the blinking cursor on the screen. You can help your clients succeed by giving them that theme along with some examples.

You want to give them an outline of the story you want to tell.

3. Always Ask For Permission Before Publishing a Case Study

This is the cardinal rule of case studies: always get explicit permissions from clients.

Yes, we’ve put it in the contract, but that was to open the original conversation and get it down in writing.

You don’t want unblessed work getting found — especially via Google searches!

The last thing you want is for your clients to explore your website and find a case study about them that they didn’t sign off on. This is just bad business behavior here.

In some instances, your case study could appear on the first or top of the second page of search engines related to your client’s organization name. Again, you don’t want them to be surprised in any way, especially by finding it on a search engine by accident.

This is a great way to cause havoc.

Be Sure to Frame the Case Study in a Positive Light

Your case study should never be “our client absolutely sucked, and we rescued them!”

Rather, it should be something like:

“Our client was awesome. They are talented in (insert areas here). Together, we partnered to collaborate to create some amazing results.”

The way you position the case study will have a great impact on the permission you receive and how you’re continuing your relationship with your clients.

Reframe Your Request

Instead of simply just saying:

“We want to do a case study. Is that okay with you?”

Position it along the lines of:

“We did some awesome work. Mind if we brag about our combined story and the amazing results we both achieved?”

At the end of the day, it takes your marketing work and the quality of the team and product of the client to really have success. Showing how this happened and came together does a lot to build positive vibes with the client.

4. Ask For a Testimonial to Use in Your Case Study

Don’t just ask for permission to brag about your work together—ask for a testimonial as well. With your theme already in mind, you can help your client formulate the most concentrated thought possible, which will take your case study to the next level.

The Key to Amazing Testimonials

The best way to get the testimonials you want is to provide direction for what you’re looking for. But, again, there’s nothing worse than staring at the blinking cursor on a blank screen and trying to come up with something out of the blue.

Heck—we as agencies struggle enough with creating something out of nothing! Our clients will have the same trouble as well. It’s our job to make it as easy as possible for them to put together an amazing testimonial.

To do this, send over examples of the ideal testImonial. This will give them something to work with. You once again want to use a simple formula in this. Here’s an easy formula with a testimonial.

This is what I bought > This is why I was hesitant to buy > This is how the agency addressed the concern > This is how happy I am with the results

You want the client to be “realistic,” too. You don’t want non-stop praise and the best, but have an honest assessment of your work. This is why including a “why they were hesitant” helps in the process.

A prospect is going to be reading this case study and has their own concerns with purchasing. You can overcome specific purchasing objections with the smart use of testimonials.

Outlandish testimonials are a dime a dozen in the online world, so collecting testimonials that address objections increases trust.

In a testimonial, you also want to make sure it comes across as real . This means having a headshot, the name of the person, the company, and their role at the company. Again, it reduces the chances a prospect thinks the whole story is made up.

Don’t Neglect Audio and Video in Case Studies

Also, don’t forget the power of audio and video. For some clients, it might also be easier for them to give you their best testimonials via one of these two mediums.

For example, having a video on your website of a client looking into a camera is a great way to connect with the prospect.

It’s not just a picture and a face, but they can see this is another business person just like themselves, who used your services and is now experiencing all the benefits.

5. Gather Several Different Perspectives For a Case Study

Just like we want to involve diverse members of the client’s team — sales, marketing, fulfillment, leadership, etc. — during the GamePlan strategy meetings, we want to bring a variety of perspectives to a case study.

This is all about telling a story, and bringing in multiple perspectives from the client side will help you tell the most compelling story possible that prospective clients will relate to.

You want the president sharing about the outrageous success his business is now having— the marketing director about how easy your team was to work with and execute a campaign with.

6. Build Out a Process for Creating Case Studies

At DoInbound, we’re all about building easily repeatable processes that save you time and help you do your best work. The way you go about doing case studies should be no different.

You want it to be seamless and embedded into your client engagements. It’s easy to have a marketing success and forget about it or have it in your mind but never shared. Taking the time to do that can boost your sales and impress prospects.

It’s another way to use current clients you generate more business.

We’ve streamlined our testimonial and info gathering by sending clients exit surveys when we complete a project. But, of course, this is something they expect to receive and is something we always send when the client has the experience fresh on their minds.

Start Creating Compelling Case Studies Today!

Case studies are powerful weapons in your sales arsenal. They can help you tell the story of what you do and how you work with your clients. They can mean the difference between a new client or a lost opportunity to start creating compelling ones today!

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Featured Content

How to Write a Case Study

This guide explains how to write a descriptive case study. A descriptive case study describes how an organization handled a specific issue. Case studies can vary in length and the amount of details provided. They can be fictional or based on true events.

Why should you write one? Case studies can help others (e.g., students, other organizations, employees) learn about

new concepts,
best practices, and
situations they might face.

Writing a case study also allows you to critically examine your organizational practices.

The following pages provide examples of different types of case study formats. As you read them, think about what stands out to you. Which format best matches your needs? You can make similar stylistic choices when you write your own case study.

ACF Case Studies of Community Economic Development This page contains links to nine case studies that describe how different organizations performed economic development activities in their communities.

National Asthma Control Program Wee Wheezers This case study describes a public health program.

CDC Epidemiologic Case Studies This page contains links to five classroom-style case studies on foodborne diseases.

ATSDR Environmental Health and Medicine This page contains links to approximately 20 classroom-style case studies focused on exposures to environmental hazards.

What are your goals ? What should your intended readers understand or learn after reading your case? Pick 1–5 realistic goals. The more goals you include, the more complex your case study might need to be.

Who is your audience? You need to write with them in mind.

What kind of background knowledge do they have? Very little, moderate, or a lot of knowledge. Be sure to explain special terms and jargon so that readers with little to moderate knowledge can understand and enjoy your case study.

What format do you need to use? Will your case study be published in a journal, online, or printed as part of a handout? Think about how word minimums or maximums will shape what you can talk about and how you talk about it. For example, you may be allowed fewer words for a case study written for a print textbook than for a webpage.

What narrative perspective will you use? A first-person perspective uses words such as “I” and” “we” to tell a story. A third-person perspective uses pronouns and names such as “they” or “CDC”. Be consistent throughout your case study.

Depending on your writing style, you might prefer to write everything that comes to your mind first, then organize and edit it later. Some of you might prefer to use headings or be more structured and methodical in your approach. Any writing style is fine, just be sure to write! Later, after you have included all the necessary information, you can go back and find more appropriate words, ensure your writing is clear, and edit your punctuation and grammar.

Use clear writing principles, sometimes called plain language. More information can be found in the CDC’s Guide to Clear Writing [PDF – 5 MB] or on the Federal Plain Language website .
Use active voice instead of passive voice. If you are unfamiliar with active voice, review resources such as NCEH/ATSDR’s Training on Active Voice , The National Archive’s Active Voice Tips , and USCIS’ Video on Active Voice .
Word choice is important. If you use jargon or special terminology, define it for readers.
CDC has developed many resources to help writers choose better words. These include the NCEH/ATSDR Environmental Health Thesaurus , CDC’s National Center for Health Marketing Plain Language Thesaurus for Health Communicators [PDF – 565 KB] , CDC’s Everyday Words for Public Health Communication [PDF – 282 KB] , and the NCEH/ATSDR’s Clear Writing Hub .

After writing a draft, the case study writer or team should have 2–3 people, unfamiliar with the draft, read it over. These people should highlight any words or sentences they find confusing. They can also write down one or two questions that they still have after reading the draft. The case study writer or team can use those notes make edits.

Review your goals for the case study. Have you met each goal? Make any necessary edits.
Check your sentence length. If your sentence has more than 20 words, it might be too long. Limit each sentence to one main idea.
Use common words and phrases. Review a list of commonly misused words and phrases.
Be sure you have been consistent with your verb tenses throughout.

Finally, the writer/team should have someone with a good eye for detail review the case study for grammar and formatting issues. You can review the CDC Style Guide [PDF – 1.36 MB] for clarification on the use of punctuation, spelling, tables, etc.

Green BN, Johnson CD. How to write a case report for publication. Journal of Chiropractic Medicine. 2006;5(2):72-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0899-3467(07)60137-2

Scholz RW, Tietje O. Types of case studies. In: Embedded Case Study Methods . Thousand Oaks (CA): SAGE Publications, Inc.; 2002. P. 9-14. doi:10.4135/9781412984027

Warner C. How to Write a Case Study [online]. 2009. Available from URL: https://www.asec.purdue.edu/lct/HBCU/documents/HOWTOWRITEACASESTUDY.pdf [PDF – 14.5 KB]

Title: Organization: Author(s):

Goals: After reading this case study, readers should

Introduction Who is your organization? What is your expertise? Provide your audience with some background information, such as your expertise. This provides context to help them understand your decisions. (How much should you write? A few sentences to 1 paragraph)

What problem did you address? Who identified the problem? Provide some background on who noticed the problem and how it was reported. Were multiple organizations or people involved in identifying and addressing the problem? This will help the reader understand how and why decisions were made. (1 paragraph)

Case Details Provide more information about the community. What factors affected your decisions? Describe the community. The context, or setting, is very important to readers. What are some of the unique characteristics that affected your decisions? (1 paragraph)

How did you address the problem? Start at the beginning. Summarize what happened, in chronological order. If you know which section of the publication your case study is likely to be put in, you can specify how your actions addressed one or more of the main points of the publication/lesson.

What challenge(s) did you encounter? Address them now if you have not already.

What was the outcome? What were your notable achievements? Explain how your actions or the outcomes satisfy your learning goals for the reader. Be clear about the main point. For example, if you wanted readers to understand how your organization dealt with a major organizational change, include a few sentences that reiterate how you encountered and dealt with the organizational change. (A few sentences to 1 paragraph)

Conclusion Summarize lessons learned. Reiterate your main point(s) for the reader by explaining how your actions, or the outcomes, meet your goals for the reader.

Exit Notification / Disclaimer Policy

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) cannot attest to the accuracy of a non-federal website.
Linking to a non-federal website does not constitute an endorsement by CDC or any of its employees of the sponsors or the information and products presented on the website.
You will be subject to the destination website's privacy policy when you follow the link.
CDC is not responsible for Section 508 compliance (accessibility) on other federal or private website.

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10 Rules For Writing A Case Study

Let’s get it straight. Case studies are an integral part of constructing one marketing portfolio. Why shouldn’t they be? a well researched and high quality case study can directly impact your company’s capabilities.

Moreover, they can showcase your organization’s problems. Furthermore, a case study can detect those problems with possible solutions. A professional case study can help build a strong bond with the customers too. What makes it useful? It’s the ability to convey the crucial messages that later aids a happy customer’s experience. That’s why these proper 10 rules for writing a case study will assist you well.

Can there be a better way of putting up with the real life occasions? We guess, no. a scholarly case study will help in building strong relationships within the customers and serve as an essential element in the buyer’s journey.

Your prospect will be lying in the company’s data, might have downloaded the critical content, blogs, or even got in touch through any social media platform.

Most likely, the prime reason for conducting a case study is to affirm this further trust. This practice will, later on, help in converting these ideas with the customers.

Top Most Popular 10 Rules For Writing A Case Study

Discover excellent case studies to write

Writing a good research case study asks for both time and budget. One of the primary reasons why it is crucial to opt for the right case study from the start – is to gain a maximum output for your marketing investment. Having a definite case study in mind is considered a perfect rule amongst the rest of the rules for case study writing. Furthermore, trust is an essential element. It concludes the featuring of your brand, along with the identifiable industry names. A good case study should have an excellent anchor. Your case study should be compelling and worth reading to grab the customer’s attention instantly.

Join hands with the sales group

This thought is an essential factor out of all the rules for case study writing. In this regard, you will have to get expert assistance from your sales team. Later on, they can help you in developing and identifying excellent case studies. With collaboration, utmost cooperation goes hand in hand. It is vital to building concrete relationships within the sales department, customer services, support staff, etc. To gain an immaculate and knowledgeable background, the clients need to show a willingness to participate.

Clear communication is vital

Out of all the 10 rules for writing a case study, the communication process is the key. This process involves taking the client for an instant call for an explanation. You can tell them about the estimated time – the potential interviewee would take. Highlight the time in your notepad. Have a few questions in advance, which help them prepare. The important tip to be aware of during an interview is to be cautious about the answers as they might spark further questions.

Book the case study interview

Arrange the Interview with the help of a manager. Meanwhile, coordinate with the interviewers. It can provide you with added expert knowledge like technical doings, etc.

It’s time for the Interview

Be ready for the Interview; if possible, record it. Make notes; it can build a framework of the questions you want to ask. Later on, it can help you develop the final story. Construct a rapport with the interviewee so that he or she can open up their answers well.

Blend Them All

A well-structured case study makes a lasting impression. You need to jot down the useful points and highlight the outline, the core benefit, and the introductory paragraph. Make sure t give a brief background of the company, the possible challenges, problems, and solutions. Do it with shorter sentences, subheadings. An essential rule among the rules for case study writing is to have powerful quotes. Eventually, these quotes will support the plan of your product or services along with the claims.

Easy going design

A user-friendly layout is equally crucial to read sentences along with images heading by the companies editorial style guide and branding.

Back end approval

This stage includes a thorough check of your case study. Later on, it will be provided for the final approval from the respected client.

Clients final word

The client will finally check the content’s quality and highlight any possible errors with the marketing plan. If there are any changes needed, they should be discussed and corrected before the case study is published.

Strong promotion

Lastly, you need a good promotion campaign so that your case study can impact and subsequently have exposure affection will always help. Once the case studies are uploaded, they can grab your attention on social media. You can use videos as they are equally powerful.

Writing Case Study Rules Made Easy For You

There is no doubt. Writing a persuasive case study can be a hard nut to crack. Still, these useful 10 rules for writing a case study can provide the required assistance. Follow these steps and keep building the portfolio for your future customers.

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Breaking The Rules — A Business Rules Analysis Case Study

A recent software development project for a New Zealand Government Agency has provided locally-based IT consultancy, Equinox, with an opportunity to test a business rules approach. Business rules are applied throughout the agency's core business processes in order to:

control capture of application data,
determine allocation of cases,
support decisions made during assessment of each case,
select approved providers,
identify appropriate services based on the type of case,
drive the contents of letters to providers and clients, and
check claims for payment of provider services against guidelines.

Equinox was engaged in 2008 to re-develop and enhance the software application supporting these key processes. Two of the key business drivers for this work were:

"The Agency needs to be able to implement business changes with low risk and in accordance with their current technology Principles" and
"Administrators need to improve the consistency and quality of granting decisions."

With these aspirations in mind, a decision was made to make use of a business rules engine to de-couple business logic wherever possible from other code. This decision was made in the early stages of selecting the architecture for this re-development.

To make the most of the flexibility that a business rules engine could provide, Equinox was aware that the team would need to apply an analysis approach that would complement this technology. In particular, it would need to:

identify those rules that would be both in-scope for the software application and would be most likely to change in the future, and
document the rules in a way that could be readily converted into the business rules engine syntax.

1.1 Case Study Features

The project was further characterised by the following factors:

Iterative techniques employed within the framework of a Unified Process-based method.
Use cases used to structure and document functional requirements.
Thirteen Equinox staff, one Microsoft data migration consultant, and five Agency staff directly involved at some time, over a period of 18 months.
Extensive use made of Sparx Enterprise Architect modelling tool to document requirements, business rules, and architecture.

2 Issues

2.1 Volume of Rules

Between two-hundred and two-hundred-fifty business rules were within the system's scope. Sources of these rules existed in many different forms, including legislation, Agency policy documents, and regional procedures. Left to a single analyst to elicit and document, in a fashion appropriate for translation to rules engine syntax, would create an unnecessary bottleneck and a high risk of contributing to project overruns .

Many of these business rules were likely to be re-used by a number of use cases — for example, eligibility rules used during the Assess Application function would also be applied during Assess Amendment . This represented a risk of inconsistencies , if documented in multiple use cases. So, embedding rules in use case documentation was never an option.

2.2 Rules Elicitation Method

Equinox recommended, as always, that high-level solution requirements and business rules be identified in the context of a redesigned set of business process flows.

For a number of reasons, the client was not able to accommodate this approach. There was a belief that the project was essentially a 're-development' of the existing system. Also, a separate business process review by another party was already planned, and the client was looking to move forward as quickly as possible into the development phase.

Therefore, the business rules to be embedded in the system needed to be gathered and documented in parallel with elicitation and analysis of detailed software requirements.

Some business rules engines are purported to provide a user-friendly syntax and rules-definition facilities that 'empower' business users to make business rule changes directly into the system. Others support the parsing of documents in order to harvest the business rules directly from legislative and other documentation.

These are definitely at the Rolls Royce end of the business rules spectrum at the moment, with price tags to match. The business rules engine employed on the Agency's Management System project was closer to the Volkswagen end of the spectrum — cheap but reliable and performs remarkably well.

The rules engine used comes free with the Workflow component of MicroSoft's .Net 3.5 framework. It requires an object oriented-like syntax and data 'wrappers' to be built in order to make the relevant data available to each rule set. So, any user attempting to make changes to rules needs to understand the classes and attributes that provide the link to data. In short, creation and maintenance of rules require the user to have some technical background.

The tool therefore required us to make manual translations from the original rule source — with an inherent risk of misinterpretation by the analyst — and then for these rule definitions to be coded by a developer into the engine — with an additional risk of inaccurate translation. Thus, the nature of the technology used created a very real risk of inaccurate implementation of business rules.

Having said this, the advantages of the rules engine that justified this approach included:

Support of separation of conditional logic code from main business logic layer. So, business rules are coded in one place and reused from multiple points (in the code).
Support of 'forward chaining' of rules (one rule triggering another) and therefore support of 'Conditional' action assertion rules.
Support of 'backward chaining' of rules (a rule that references the results of other rules) and therefore support of decision trees.
Capability for 'effective dating' — that is, rules can be tested and implemented into production but do not take effect until a specified date.
Separate front end applications available to support the creation and management of rules, thereby eliminating the need to develop rules administration software.

I should also add that we have had no issues with the implementation or execution of this rules engine and performance looks good so far.

3 Solutions

3.1 Theory — What, Where, and How

To address these issues, we hoped to be able to merge elements of a business rules approach, including categorisation of rules and use of a separate rules repository, into our existing Unified Process-based software development approach. In essence, the intent was to apply business rules analysis to help identify what was rule versus functional requirement, where a rule would be implemented, and how to best document each.

3.1.1 What

When eliciting business rules within the context of detailed software requirements gathering, we've found there is a tendency to confuse system rules with business rules and sometimes to embed business rules into functional requirements.

To avoid these traps and ensure that business rules were isolated in a separate repository, to be offered as candidate business rules engine entries, the following basic tests were planned:

Would this rule still apply if this system did not exist?

For example, a rule that states that "the application receive date should be the date the application arrives at an Agency office" is true whether or not this date is entered in a system. Therefore, this is a business rule and may change if policy changes. By contrast, the rule stating that the application date must be entered as DD/MMM/YYYY is a validation that ensures data is captured and stored consistently in the system; it would not exist if the system was not built. This is a data validation rule, less likely to change, and is more appropriately implemented in the presentation layer of the system.

Does the requirement (or part of the requirement) fit one of the business rule categories?

If not, it is probably a functional or non-functional requirement rather than a rule. For example, the requirement that states "The system must notify Team Leaders when a case allocated to one of their staff is withdrawn" is actually hiding a functional requirement: " The system must provide automatic notification of key staff members when selected events occur " and a business rule: " Team Leaders must be made aware of cases when the grants for those cases are withdrawn and the case is allocated to a member of their team " which fits the 'action enabler' category within the action assertion group of rules categories.

We would expect the functional requirement represented by automated notification to be covered by a use case workflow. The data validation rule represented by the date format is a system rule and would be documented as a special requirement within the related use case (or within supplementary requirements, if the system rule was common to a number of use cases).

An early work of the Business Rules Group provides a useful categorisation approach that groups business rules into structural assertions, action assertions, and derivations. [2] The IIBA's BABOK version 1.6 [3] included a variation of this where 'action enablers' are treated as a separate rule type rather than a special kind of 'conditional'. This appeared to be a simpler approach for the novice business rules analyst.

Structural Assertion

Term — business concept or entity (Client, Invoice, Invoice Claim )

Fact — relationship between entities ( an Invoice Claim is related to one Invoice) or additional information about entities ( Invoice Number, Invoice Date )

Action Assertion

Conditional — causes another rule to be applied

Action Enabler — causes some action to be performed

Integrity Constraint — determines whether some combination of facts is acceptable Only invoices for which all invoice claims are valid may be approved. — i.e., If the status of all claims related to an invoice is valid then the invoice is acceptable .

Authorisation — action that specified business roles are authorised to perform

Derivation — an expression that determines the value of a fact Invoice Total = sum of all invoice claims + GST

Categorising also helps to determine where the business rules will be implemented and therefore where best to document them. This was used to identify those rules to concentrate on when building the list of rules to be provided to the development team as candidate business rules engine entries.

Terms and facts will eventually be implemented as tables, columns, and referential integrity constraints. From a requirements perspective, we document data requirements using a conceptual domain model, which evolves into a logical data model. Accordingly, these rules would not be included in the business rules list.

Authorisations to be supported by software are maintained using the security administration functions, so from a software requirements perspective they add little value — as long as functional security requirements (such as the need for role-based or row-based security) are identified. There was therefore no intention to elicit and document security rules as part of the software requirements set.

The remaining rules would normally be coded into business logic. The plan was to concentrate on the elicitation and documentation of these rules in a separate rules repository, as a distinct component of the software requirements package.

Figure 1. Business Rule Categories and Requirements Models

3.1.3 How

In order to minimise the translation required from rules documentation to rules engine syntax, we planned to document different categories of rules using different formats, as follows:

Conditional rules documented as IF rule expression THEN check rule
Integrity Constraints documented as IF rule expression THEN Accept
Action Enablers documented as IF rule expression THEN Perform xyz
Derivations documented as Fact = rule expression

Here, a "rule expression" is a combination of facts or other rules, forming a Boolean expression. Facts are implemented as attributes and so, at the elementary level, these are Boolean expressions related to data.

Where rules expressions rely on the results of other rules, the intention was to make use of the hierarchical element feature of the modelling tool. For example, a requirement element BR 1.6.1, the result of which is used in BR 1.6, is added as a child element of BR 1.6 (shown in Figure 2).

Figure 2. BR 1.6.1 — a Child Element of BR 1.6

Since it was not possible to identify business rules during a business process re-design exercise, rules were identified during use case workshops and then documented off-line by subject matter experts — effectively, a bottom-up approach to documenting just those rules that affect the system.

In practice, the rules elicitation and documentation process worked like this:

Business rules are identified during use case workshops.

Since we have employed use case workshops to identify the reference points for rules within use cases, this was business-as-usual for us. If anything, our issues were with communication between the subject matter experts and the analysis and development team. Hand-drawn screens and diagrams (albeit followed up with modelling tool documentation) just didn't cut it. Later, we used a UI mock-up tool instead of drawing screens on the whiteboard. In the future we intend to support validation of requirements with virtual walkthroughs (using Expression Blend 3 and SketchFlow), but that's another story. Identification of "decision points" in the use case work flow worked well, and our subject matter experts had no issues being involved in this process.

Use Case workflow steps are written to include references to business rules (using a business rule number and title).

For example, a basic flow step might include: "The system checks BR 3.1 Valid Service Claim , for each invoice line, determines that the invoice is valid, and prompts the user to authorise …" There were also no issues raised relating to this technique, so I took no news to be good news . The fact that the subject matter experts referred to certain rules being used at a specific point in the flow was also a good sign that this approach was workable. We keep our alternate flows self-contained and our basic flows clean (i.e., source, condition, and destination are all documented in the alternate flows or extension use cases only), so adding a set of references to business rules did not clutter the use case work flows. Of more impact to the project as a whole was the fact that not all business rules could be determined by the project SMEs alone. Often, consultation with the wider client group was required. In these cases, the related business process flow needed to be redesigned so, not surprisingly, we were having a "bottom up" impact on business processes. The results of these discussions sometimes had a flow-on effect to other process flows and business rules — and therefore to software development — mostly causing changes to rules and functionality already implemented. All this could have been avoided if business processes had been redesigned well, before software requirements and development began, and business rules collected and defined in this context.

Skeleton business rule requirement types are created within the appropriate Use Case element (within the Sparx Enterprise Architecture project repository), then moved to the appropriate location within the business rules package, using the Sparx EA Move External function .

This creates a separate requirement element (stereotyped as 'Business Rule') for the rule — making it available to be linked to other use cases — and creates a link from the use case it was "discovered" in. There were definitely some efficiency gains in documentation due to this. In addition, presenting requirements for validation was simplified as discussed below. While the developers tended to read a separate rules document created from this rules "repository," business reviewers preferred to see these rules documented within the use cases that referenced them. Use of the modelling tool in the manner described above supports both needs, with minimal additional effort.

Skeleton business rule text is added to each rule element with comments as reminders of the intent .

The skeleton rules were formatted as If rules expression Then accept data change , execute another rule , perform function (depending on the type of action assertion) or, for derivations, Fact = rules expression . We found this format decreased the degree of translation required by developers, and our SMEs assigned to the project team were comfortable with the approach.

Subset documents with these skeleton rules are generated from the repository and distributed to project team subject matter experts who complete the documentation, often working with other business experts .

This eliminated the risk of analyst misinterpretation of these rules but placed a large work load on the SMEs who were part of the project team. Since there were more subject matter experts than analysts, the rules documentation bottleneck was eased, but not removed totally. The resulting rules were not always atomic. Often, rules came back with multiple If … Then expressions. I suspect this reflected the subject matter experts' need to express rules as a related set (or, in Decision Model-speak, as a "rules family"). There was an implied sequence to the application of these rules, which sometimes needed clarification but, in general, could be derived from the context. For example, the following excerpt is from the rule to determine that a case should be transferred to another office: If the Application Type is A or E then the case should be transferred to the Christchurch Office . If the Application Type is R then the case should be transferred to the Auckland Office . ...

If the application type is S then transfer the case to the Wellington Office .

Resulting rules specifications were not always precise, as little attempt was made by subject matter experts to create correct nesting or grouping and data was referred to using business terminology. However, in the few cases where there was ambiguity, a quick discussion between developer and subject matter expert resolved the intent.

Expanding the glossary to include a reference to the related attribute name may have alleviated some of this ambiguity, although in practice this would have required the same conversations between the developers and subject matter experts that were required to implement the rules.

In most cases, the rules expressions came back from subject matter experts in a more English format than the original skeleton, as this obviously suited the business experts better. In hindsight, it also helped provide a clear business context for the rules that were documented as part of system requirements. (Note that explicit traceability was built in the modelling tool between layers of requirements — from use case to features to needs and rules to use cases — but not between rules and business processes and activities.)

For example, the rule for setting the integrity constraint for finalising a case started life as

If Case Finalisation criteria Then Allow Finalisation .

but was re-documented as

If this is the final Invoice for the Case and the final invoice has been processed and there are no outstanding Invoices or Reversals or Credit Notes related to the Case, and there is no unprocessed communication related to the Case and there are no outstanding Requests logged against the Case Then the case may be finalised .

Since the developers knew the context of this rule and the data it represented, this description required no further explanation.

Other example results were:

Example Integrity Constraint

Example Conditional plus Derivation

In summary, the subject matter experts were comfortable with an IF … Then … construct, replacing the rules expression within this with English. They didn't care whether a rule should have been "…Then Accept" or "… Then perform" (etc.), so only two constructs were meaningful: If expression Then and Fact = expression .

This implies that business people are not interested in, and there is no reason to expose them to, business rules analysis techniques like categorisation.

Fully-documented rules are copied back into the business rules repository.

This makes the rules available to be listed in stand-alone business rule documents or in use case specifications (as references or with complete text). The client asked to see the full business rule text in any use case the rule was referenced by. This did not increase the amount of effort but made the use case documents unnecessarily large. In the future, I would create a range of views of the requirements and rules. This could be, for example, a version of the use case report with only a list of related business rule numbers and text (and possibly not even this) for the development team and, for the wider client group, a version of the use case reports that includes only the description, business rule, and user interface mockup sections.

Developers translate rules into rules engine syntax and hook these into appropriate reference points, based on use case documentation.

In the end, some of these were implemented as stored procedures, particularly where it made sense to return a list. These will always require developer skills to change, but at least they are coded only once. Most of the business rules identified, as well as a number of system rules, were coded into the business rules engine.

4 Summary of Findings

ease of development (each rule is developed in one place and re-used wherever necessary),
ease of maintenance (each rule is maintained in one place without the need to touch code), and
the ability to effective-date the implementation of business rule changes in the production environment.
Not all business rules are implemented using the business rules engine (some become stored procedures) and not all logic implemented using the business rules engine are business rules (for example, screen flow rules).
Static data change — often performed by system administrator,
Functional change — requiring expensive code change and test,
Business rule change — requiring less expensive, and faster, business rule change via the business rules engine user interface.
Use of a business rules engine requires identification and careful documentation of rules — therefore, business rules analysis is important.
During software requirements elicitation and analysis, if business rules have not already been captured, categorisation can help to focus analysis on the critical business rules and to test requirements in order to find embedded rules.
Business rules analysis allows rules to be separated into a central repository and this avoids duplication.
Use cases help to locate business rule reference points ( aka decision points) within user–system interactions (i.e., workflow).
Use cases help to ensure coverage in terms of business rules selection, whether business rules are harvested during business modelling or during detailed software requirements elicitation.
Appropriate skeleton formats for rules allow users to document rules in a manner that reduces the translation required to write business rules engine syntax. This means that specification of rules can be distributed to the people who are in the best position to perform this work. This, in turn, improves the degree of accuracy of the software solution, with regard to business needs.
Rules clarity should not be traded for precision. It is better to leave rules in English with inherent ambiguity than to re-write in pseudo code in order to gain precision, at least until translation into business rules engine syntax.

5 Conclusions

The success of the project in terms of the five key advantages of the Business Rules Approach can be summarised as follows:

Agility — Unknown . This is yet to be tested as the system is still in User Acceptance Test. Prior to deployment, there will be a discussion with the client regarding who will update the business rules. Because the selected rules engine exposes the business rules administrator to system classes and attributes and a "technical" syntax, it is unlikely that business users will be able to update rules directly. It is hoped that one or more of the client's "power users" will be able to perform this role, however.

Some effort has already been saved due to the approach of documenting and coding rules in one place. Some rules have already required updates during development (due to change requests), and these were significantly easier to make than changes to the main code base.

Consistency — Yes . A common business process was identified and implemented for different application types by separating business rules (particularly for data capture, assessment, amendment, and invoicing).
Decision Making (support) — Yes . This was especially the case with the complex guidance that was now able to be provided to grants officers during application eligibility assessment, through the use of the rules engine.
Compliance — Yes . Particularly in the key business activities of application assessment and review, the system will guide appropriate eligibility decisions. Also, when providers are assigned to cases, business rules prevent incorrect assignments — i.e., assigning solicitors or barristers who do not have appropriate approvals and experience levels to cases. Rules are also used to drive compliance with the claimable hours guidelines related to provider services.
Transparency — Yes . It is now possible, if required, to publish the list of rules that have been implemented in the system, as a separate list from functional requirements. In addition, a business rules user interface is available to administrators, to review the actual "code" of those rules implemented in the system.

These outcomes are in large part due to the use of a business rules engine, but the results would have been difficult to achieve without the adoption of a specialised approach to the elicitation, analysis, and specification of business rules. The application of a set of business rules categories was a key ingredient in this approach to business rules analysis.

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About our Contributor:

A Certified Business Analysis Professional (CBAP) since 2007, Craig McLean has 30 years experience in the IT industry, having tackled everything from strategic through to technical roles. His analysis background includes business process modelling, software requirements analysis, and Business Analysis framework development. Craig fills the dual roles of Business Analysis Practice Director and consultant, providing hands-on business analysis and mentoring as well as being a regular presenter of Business Analysis training. He can be reached at [email protected].

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MFIA Clinic Lawsuit Succeeds in Lifting Gag Rules at Pittsburgh Jail

Four squat, blocky brick buildings of varying heights are along a river surrounded by office and other tall buildings in a downtown area

In a win for government accountability in Pennsylvania, the Media Freedom and Information Access Clinic at Yale Law School and the Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press have succeeded in lifting Allegheny County Jail rules that forbid employees from talking to the press or posting information on social media.

As part of a settlement reached in the federal First Amendment lawsuit on April 23, the Pittsburgh jail has adopted new policies that affirm employees’ right to speak and to disclose wrongdoing at the jail. The policies also empower jail employees to speak out to the press on matters of public concern.

“We’re confident that these new policies secure the rights of journalists and the jail’s employees.” — Federico Roitman ’25

The clinic brought the case on behalf of reporter Brittney Hailer and worked with Reporters Committee staff attorney Paula Knudsen Burke as local counsel. The complaint alleged that the jail’s gag rules violated Hailer’s rights to gather and report on the news and the jail’s employees’ rights to speak on matters on public concern.

The now-abandoned policies broadly prohibited employees from speaking to the press without the warden’s permission. They also required employees to hold all jail matters “confidential,” significantly hampering Hailer’s ability to report on conditions at the jail. MFIA’s suit alleged that these policies violate the First Amendment rights of the public and press, as well as the rights of the jail’s staff.

“This case challenged an overreaching policy that prevented all employees from talking to the press,” said Victoria Maras ’25, who worked on the case. “We worked with the Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press and the Society of Professional Journalists (SPJ) to bring this case as a means of demonstrating that the First Amendment does not tolerate government agencies gagging their employees in this way. SPJ is particularly concerned about this issue because similar policies are being rolled out around the country, and hopefully the jail’s withdrawal of its broad rules will send a message that such restrictions on employee speech are not defensible.”

The settlement was mediated by retired Magistrate Judge Lisa Pupo Lenihan under a mandatory mediation program in the Western District of Pennsylvania. After several rounds of negotiation, the two sides chalked out new press policies for the jail. Among other things, those new rules declare that jail employees may speak on matters of public concern as private citizens on their own time and are not restricted from revealing impropriety or wrongdoing by an employee.

This settlement and the resulting policy changes send a clear message that jail employees and contractors who want to speak publicly or with the press in their capacity as private citizens have a First Amendment right to do so.” — Paula Knudsen Burke, Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press

“This settlement and the resulting policy changes send a clear message that jail employees and contractors who want to speak publicly or with the press in their capacity as private citizens have a First Amendment right to do so,” said Burke, the Pennsylvania Local Legal Initiative attorney for the Reporters Committee. “Meaningful accountability and oversight depends upon the public’s ability to access information about what is happening inside of correctional facilities. We are glad to have reached a resolution with Allegheny County that will help ensure that, moving forward, our client and other journalists can receive information about issues of public concern from those who wish to discuss them.”

The new policies, one of which explicitly includes documentary filmmakers and freelance journalists covered by its press access provisions, will take effect 30 days from the date of signing the settlement.

“Working on this case was an excellent chance to get practical experience being a part of a mediation, which is not something you often get to do in law school,” Isaac Barnes May ’24 said. “Mediation provides a way to resolve the case by bringing together all parties, talking through differences, and developing solutions that everyone can live with.”

As part of the mediation process, MFIA’s students undertook a 50-state survey of jail press policies.

“We took inspiration from the best examples we encountered,” Federico Roitman ’25 said. “We’re confident that these new policies secure the rights of journalists and the jail’s employees.”

The Media Freedom and Information Access Clinic at Yale Law School is a law student clinic dedicated to increasing government transparency, defending the essential work of news gatherers, and protecting freedom of expression by providing pro bono legal services, pursuing impact litigation and developing policy initiatives.

In the Press

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Soros Fellowship for New Americans Announces 2024 Recipients

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Published: 01 April 2024

Adaptive neighborhood rough set model for hybrid data processing: a case study on Parkinson’s disease behavioral analysis

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Computational biology and bioinformatics
Machine learning

Extracting knowledge from hybrid data, comprising both categorical and numerical data, poses significant challenges due to the inherent difficulty in preserving information and practical meanings during the conversion process. To address this challenge, hybrid data processing methods, combining complementary rough sets, have emerged as a promising approach for handling uncertainty. However, selecting an appropriate model and effectively utilizing it in data mining requires a thorough qualitative and quantitative comparison of existing hybrid data processing models. This research aims to contribute to the analysis of hybrid data processing models based on neighborhood rough sets by investigating the inherent relationships among these models. We propose a generic neighborhood rough set-based hybrid model specifically designed for processing hybrid data, thereby enhancing the efficacy of the data mining process without resorting to discretization and avoiding information loss or practical meaning degradation in datasets. The proposed scheme dynamically adapts the threshold value for the neighborhood approximation space according to the characteristics of the given datasets, ensuring optimal performance without sacrificing accuracy. To evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed scheme, we develop a testbed tailored for Parkinson’s patients, a domain where hybrid data processing is particularly relevant. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed scheme consistently outperforms existing schemes in adaptively handling both numerical and categorical data, achieving an impressive accuracy of 95% on the Parkinson’s dataset. Overall, this research contributes to advancing hybrid data processing techniques by providing a robust and adaptive solution that addresses the challenges associated with handling hybrid data, particularly in the context of Parkinson’s disease analysis.

Soft ordered double quantitative approximations based three-way decisions and their applications

Hybrid similarity relation based mutual information for feature selection in intuitionistic fuzzy rough framework and its applications

A dynamic fuzzy rule-based inference system using fuzzy inference with semantic reasoning

Introduction.

The advancement of technology has facilitated the accumulation of vast amounts of data from various sources such as databases, web repositories, and files, necessitating robust tools for analysis and decision-making 1 , 2 . Data mining, employing techniques such as support vector machine (SVM), decision trees, neural networks, clustering, fuzzy logic, and genetic algorithms, plays a pivotal role in extracting information and uncovering hidden patterns within the data 3 , 4 . However, the complexity of the data landscape, characterized by high dimensionality, heterogeneity, and non-traditional structures, renders the data mining process inherently challenging 5 , 6 . To tackle these challenges effectively, a combination of complementary and cooperative intelligent techniques, including SVM, fuzzy logic, probabilistic reasoning, genetic algorithms, and neural networks, has been advocated 7 , 8 .

Hybrid intelligent systems, amalgamating various intelligent techniques, have emerged as a promising approach to enhance the efficacy of data mining. Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference systems (ANFIS) have laid the groundwork for intelligent systems in data mining techniques, providing a foundation for exploring complex data relationships 7 , 8 . Moreover, the theory of rough sets has found practical application in tasks such as attribute selection, data reduction, decision rule generation, and pattern extraction, contributing to the development of intelligent systems for knowledge discovery 7 , 8 . Extracting meaningful knowledge from hybrid data, which encompasses both categorical and numerical data, presents a significant challenge. Two predominant strategies have emerged to address this challenge 9 , 10 . The first strategy involves employing numerical data processing techniques such as Principal Component Analysis (PCA) 11 , 12 , Neural Networks 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , and SVM 17 . However, this approach necessitates converting categorical data into numerical equivalents, leading to a loss of contextual meaning 18 , 19 . The second strategy leverages rough set theory alongside methods tailored for categorical data. Nonetheless, applying rough set theory to numerical data requires a discretization process, resulting in information loss 20 , 21 . Numerous hybrid data processing methods have been proposed, combining rough sets and fuzzy sets to handle uncertainty 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 . However, selecting an appropriate rough set model for a given dataset necessitates exploring the inherent relationships among existing models, presenting a challenge for users. The selection and utilization of an appropriate model in data mining thus demand qualitative and quantitative comparisons of existing hybrid data processing models.

This research endeavors to present a comprehensive analysis of hybrid data processing models, with a specific focus on those rooted in neighborhood rough sets (NRS). By investigating the inherent interconnections among these models, this study aims to elucidate their complex dynamics. To address the challenges posed by hybrid data, a novel hybrid model founded on NRS is introduced. This model enhances the efficiency of the data mining process without discretization mitigating information loss and ambiguity in data interpretation. Notably, the adaptability of the proposed model, particularly in adjusting the threshold value governing the neighborhood approximation space, ensures optimal performance aligned with dataset characteristics while maintaining high accuracy. A dedicated testbed tailored for Parkinson’s patients is developed to evaluate the real-world effectiveness of the proposed approach. Furthermore, a rigorous evaluation of the proposed model is conducted, encompassing both accuracy and overall effectiveness. Encouragingly, the results demonstrate that the proposed scheme surpasses alternative approaches, adeptly managing both numerical and categorical data through an adaptive framework.

The major contributions, listed below, collectively emphasize the innovative hybrid data processing model, the adaptive nature of its thresholding mechanism, and the empirical validation using a Parkinson’s patient testbed, underscoring the relevance and significance of the study’s findings.

Novel Hybrid Data Processing Model: This research introduces a novel hybrid data processing model based on NRS, preserving the practical meaning of both numerical and categorical data types. Unlike conventional methods, it minimizes information loss while optimizing interpretability. The proposed distance function combines Euclidean and Levenshtein distances with weighted calculations and dynamic selection mechanisms to enhance accuracy and realism in neighborhood approximation spaces.

Adaptive Thresholding Mechanism: Another key contribution is the integration of an adaptive thresholding mechanism within the hybrid model. This feature dynamically adjusts the threshold value based on dataset characteristics, ensuring optimal performance and yielding more accurate and contextually relevant results.

Empirical Validation through Parkinson’s Testbed: This research provides a dedicated testbed for analyzing behavioral data from Parkinson’s patients, allowing rigorous evaluation of the proposed hybrid data processing model. Utilizing real-world datasets enhances the model’s practical applicability and advances knowledge in medical data analysis and diagnosis.

The subsequent structure of the paper unfolds as follows: section “ Related work ” delves into the related work. The proposed model is introduced in section “ Adaptive neighborhood rough set model ”, Section “ Instrumentation ” underscores the instrumentation aspect, section “ Result and discussion ” unfolds the presentation of results and ensuing discussions, while section “ Conclusion and future work ” provides the concluding remarks for the paper. A list of notations used in this study is provided in Table 1 .

Related work

Rough set-based approaches have been utilized in various applications like bankruptcy prediction 42 , attribute/feature subset selection 43 , 44 , cancer prediction 45 , 46 , etc. In addition, recently, several innovative hybrid models have emerged, blending the realms of fuzzy logic and non-randomized systems (NRSs). One such development is presented by Yin et al. 47 , who introduce a parameterized hybrid fuzzy similarity relation. They apply this relation to the task of granulating multilabel data, subsequently extending it to the domain of multilabel learning. To construct a noise-tolerant multilabel fuzzy NRS model (NT-MLFNRS), they leverage the inclusion relationship between fuzzy neighborhood granules and fuzzy decisions. Building upon NT-MLFNRS, Yin et al. also devise a noise-resistant heuristic multilabel feature selection (NRFSFN) algorithm. To further enhance the efficiency of feature selection and address the complexities associated with handling large-scale multilabel datasets, they culminate their efforts by introducing an efficient extended version of NRFSFN known as ENFSFN.

Sang et al. 48 explore incremental feature selection methodologies, introducing a novel conditional entropy metric tailored for dynamic ordered data robustness. Their approach introduces the concept of a fuzzy dominance neighborhood rough set (FDNRS) and defines a conditional entropy metric with robustness, leveraging the FDNRS model. This metric serves as an evaluation criterion for features, and it is integrated into a heuristic feature selection algorithm. The resulting incremental feature selection algorithm is built upon this innovative model

Wang et al. 19 introduced the Fuzzy Rough Iterative Computational (FRIC) model, addressing challenges in hybrid information systems (HIS). Their framework includes a specialized distance function for object sets, enhancing object differentiation precision within HIS. Utilizing this function, they establish fuzzy symmetric relations among objects to formulate fuzzy rough approximations. Additionally, they introduce evaluation functions like fuzzy positive regions, dependency functions, and attribute importance functions to assess classification capabilities of attribute sets. They developed an attribute reduction algorithm tailored for hybrid data based on FRIC principles. This work contributes significantly to HIS analysis, providing a robust framework for data classification and feature selection in complex hybrid information systems.

Xu et al. 49 introduced a novel Fitting Fuzzy Rough Set (FRS) model enriched with relative dependency complement mutual information. This model addresses challenges related to data distribution and precision enhancement of fuzzy information granules. They utilized relative distance to mitigate the influence of data distribution on fuzzy similarity relationships and introduced a fitting fuzzy neighborhood radius optimized for enhancing the precision of fuzzy information granules. Within this model, the authors conducted a comprehensive analysis of information uncertainty, introducing definitions of relative complement information entropy and formulating a multiview uncertainty measure based on relative dependency complement mutual information. This work significantly advances our understanding of managing information uncertainty within FRS models, making a valuable contribution to computational modeling and data analysis.

Jiang et al. 50 presented an innovative approach for multiattribute decision-making (MADM) rooted in PROMETHEE II methodologies. Building upon the NRS model, they introduce two additional variants of covering-based variable precision fuzzy rough sets (CVPFRSs) by applying fuzzy logical operators, specifically type-I CVPFRSs and type-II CVPFRSs. In the context of MADM, their method entails the selection of medicines using an algorithm that leverages the identified features.

Qu et al. 51 introduced the concept of Adaptive Neighborhood Rough Sets (ANRSs), aiming for effective integration of feature separation and linkage with classification. They utilize the mRMR-based Feature Selection Algorithm (FSRMI), demonstrating outstanding performance across various selected datasets. However, it’s worth noting that FSRMI may not consistently outperform other algorithms on all datasets.

Xu et al. 52 introduced the Fuzzy Neighborhood Joint Entropy Model (FNSIJE) for feature selection, leveraging fuzzy neighborhood self-information measures and joint entropy to capture combined feature information. FNSIJE comprehensively analyzes the neighborhood decision system, considering noise, uncertainty, and ambiguity. To improve classification performance, the authors devised a new forward search method. Experimental results demonstrated the effectiveness of FNSIJE-KS, efficiently selecting fewer features for both low-dimensional UCI datasets and high-dimensional gene datasets while maintaining optimal classification performance. This approach advances feature selection techniques in machine learning and data analysis.

In 53 , the authors introduced a novel multi-label feature selection method utilizing fuzzy NRS to optimize classification performance in multi-label fuzzy neighborhood decision systems. By combining the NRS and FRS models a Multi-Label Fuzzy NRS model is introduced. They devised a fuzzy neighborhood approximation accuracy metric and crafted a hybrid metric integrating fuzzy neighborhood approximate accuracy with fuzzy neighborhood conditional entropy for attribute importance evaluation. Rigorous evaluation of their methods across ten diverse multi-label datasets showcased significant progress in multi-label feature selection techniques, promising enhanced classification performance in complex multi-label scenarios.

Sanget et al. 54 introduced the Fuzzy Dominance Neighborhood Rough Set (NRS) model for Interval-Valued Ordered Decision Systems (IvODS), along with a robust conditional entropy measure to assess monotonic consistency within IvODS. They also presented two incremental feature selection algorithms. Experimental results on nine publicly available datasets showcased the robustness of their proposed metric and the effectiveness and efficiency of the incremental algorithms, particularly in dynamic IvODS updates. This research significantly advances the application of fuzzy dominance NRS models in IvODS scenarios, providing valuable insights for data analysis and decision-making processes.

Zheng et al. 55 generalized the FRSs using axiomatic and constructive approaches. A pair of dual generalized fuzzy approximation operators is defined using arbitrary fuzzy relation in the constructive approach. Different classes of FRSs are characterized using different sets of axioms. The postulates governing fuzzy approximation operators ensure the presence of specific categories of fuzzy relations yielding identical operators. Using a generalized FRS model, Hu et al. 18 introduced an efficient algorithm for hybrid attribute reduction based on fuzzy relations constructing a forward greedy algorithm for hybrid attribute reduction resulting in optimal classification performance with lesser selected features and higher accuracy. Considering the similarity between two objects, Wang et al. 36 redefine fuzzy upper and lower approximations. The existing concepts of knowledge reduction are extending fuzzy environment resulting in a heuristic algorithm to learn fuzzy rules.

Gogoi et al. 56 use rough set theory for generating decision rules from inconsistent data. The proposed scheme uses indiscernibility relation to find inconsistencies in the data generating minimized and non-redundant rules using lower and upper approximations. The proposed scheme is based on the LEM2 algorithm 57 which performs the local covering option for generating minimum and non-redundant sets of classification rules and does not consider the global covering. The scheme is evaluated on a variety of data sets from the UCI Machine Learning Repository. All these data sets are either categorical or numerical having variable feature spaces. The proposed scheme performs consistently better for categorical data sets, as it is designed to handle inconsistencies in the data having at least one inconsistency. Results show that the proposed scheme generates minimized rule without reducing the feature space unlike other schemes, which compromise the feature space.

In 58 , the authors introduced a novel NRS model to address attribute reduction in noisy systems with heterogeneous attributes. This model extends traditional NRS by incorporating tolerance neighborhood relation and probabilistic theory, resulting in more comprehensive information granules. It evaluates the significance of heterogeneous attributes by considering neighborhood dependency and aims to maximize classification consistency within selected feature spaces. The feature space reduction algorithm employs an incremental approach, adding features while preserving maximal dependency in each round and halting when a new feature no longer increases dependency. This approach selects fewer features than other methods while achieving significantly improved classification performance, demonstrating its effectiveness in attribute reduction for noisy systems.

Zhu et al. 59 propose a fault tolerance scheme combining kernel method, NRS, and statistical features to adaptively select sensitive features. They employ a Gaussian kernel function with NRS to map fault data to a high-dimensional space. Their feature selection algorithm utilizes the hyper-sphere radius in high-dimensional feature space as the neighborhood value, selecting features based on significance measure regardless of the classification algorithm. A wrapper deploys a classification algorithm to evaluate selected features, choosing a subset for optimal classification. Experimental results demonstrate precise determination of the neighborhood value by mapping data into a high-dimensional space using the kernel function and hyper-sphere radius. This methodology proficiently selects sensitive fault features, diagnoses fault types, and identifies fault degrees in rolling bearing datasets.

A neighborhood covering a rough set model for the fuzziness of decision systems is proposed that solves the problem of hybrid decision systems having both fuzzy and numerical attributes 60 . The fuzzy neighborhood relation measures the indiscernibility relation and approximates the universe space using information granules, which deal with fuzzy attributes directly. The experimental results evaluate the influence of neighborhood operator size on the accuracy and attribute reduction of fuzzy neighborhood rough sets. The attribute reduction increases with the increase in the threshold size. A feature will not distinguish any samples and cannot reduce attributes if the neighborhood operator exceeds a certain value.

Hou et al. 61 applied NRS reduction techniques to cancer molecular classification, focusing on gene expression profiles. Their method introduced a novel perspective by using gene occurrence probability in selected gene subsets to indicate tumor classification efficacy. Unlike traditional methods, it integrated both Filters and Wrappers, enhancing classification performance while being computationally efficient. Additionally, they developed an ensemble classifier to improve accuracy and stability without overfitting. Experimental results showed the method achieved high prediction accuracy, identified potential cancer biomarkers, and demonstrated stability in performance.

Table 2 gives a comparison of existing rough set-based schemes for quantitative and qualitative analysis. The comparative parameters include handling hybrid data, generalized NRS, attribute reduction, classification, and accuracy rate. Most of the existing schemes do not handle hybrid data sets without discretization resulting in information loss and a lack of practical meanings. Another parameter to evaluate the effectiveness of the existing scheme is the ability to adapt the threshold value according to the given data sets. Most of the schemes do not adapt threshold values for neighborhood approximation space resulting in variable accuracy rates for different datasets. The end-user has to adjust the value of the threshold for different datasets without understanding its impact in terms of overfitting. Selecting a large threshold value will result in more global rules resulting in poor accuracy. There needs to be a mechanism to adaptively choose the value of the threshold considering both the global and local information without compromising on the accuracy rate. The schemes are also evaluated for their ability to attribute reduction using NRS. This can greatly improve processing time and accuracy by not considering insignificant attributes. The comparative analysis shows that most of the NRS-based existing schemes perform better than many other well-known schemes in terms of accuracy. Most of these schemes have a higher accuracy rate than CART, C4.5, and k NN. This makes the NRS-based schemes a choice for attribute reduction and classification.

Adaptive neighborhood rough set model

The detailed analysis of existing techniques highlights the need for a generalized NRS-based classification technique to handle both categorical and numerical data. The proposed NRS-based techniques not only handle the hybrid information granules but also dynamically select the threshold $\delta $ producing optimal results with a high accuracy rate. The proposed scheme considers a hybrid tuple $HIS=\langle U_h,\ Q_h,\ V,\ f \rangle $ , where $U_h$ is nonempty set of hybrid records $\{x_{h1},\ x_{h2},\ x_{h3},\ \ldots ,\ x_{hn}\}$ , $Q_h=\left\{ q_{h1},\ q_{h2},\ \ q_{h3},\ \ldots \,\ q_{hn}\right\} $ is the non-empty set of hybrid features. $ V_{q_h}$ is the domain of attribute $q_h$ and $V=\ \cup _{q_h\in Q_h}V_{q_h}$ , and $f=U_h\ x\ Q_h\rightarrow V$ is a total function such $f\left( x_h,q_h\right) \in V_{q_h}$ for each $q_h\in Q_h, x_h\in U_h$ , called information function. $\langle U_h,\ Q_h,\ V,\ f\rangle $ is also known as a decision table if $Q_h=C_h\cup D$ , where $C_h$ is the set of hybrid condition attributes and D is the decision attribute.

A neighborhood relation N is calculated using this set of hybrid samples $U_h$ creating the neighborhood approximation space $\langle U_h,\ N\rangle $ which contains information granules $ \left\{ \delta ({x_h}_i)\big |{x_h}_i\in U_h\right\} $ based on some distance function $\Delta $ . For an arbitrary sample ${x_h}_i\in U_h$ and $B \subseteq C_h$ , the neighborhood $\delta _B({x_h}_i)$ of ${x_h}_i$ in the subspace B is defined as $\delta _B\left( {x_h}_i\right) =\{{x_h}_j\left| {x_h}_j\right. \in U_h,\ \Delta B(x_i,x_j) \le \delta \}$ . The scheme proposes a new hybrid distance function to handle both the categorical and numerical features in an approximation space.

The proposed distance function uses Euclidean distance for numerical features and Levenshtein distance for categorical features. The distance function also takes care of the significant features calculating weighted distance for both the categorical and numerical features. The proposed algorithm dynamically selects the distance function at the run time. The use of Levenshtein distance for categorical features provides precise distance for optimal neighborhood approximation space providing better results. Existing techniques add 1 to distance if two strings do not match in calculating the distance for categorical data and add 0 otherwise. This may not result in a realistic neighborhood approximation space.

The neighborhood size depends on the threshold $\delta $ . The neighborhood will contain more samples if $\delta $ is greater and results in more rules not considering the local information data. The accuracy rate of the NRS greatly depends on the selection of threshold values. The proposed scheme dynamically calculates the threshold value for any given dataset considering both local and global information. The threshold calculation formula is given below where ${min}_D$ is the minimum distance between the set of training samples and the test sample containing local information and $R_D$ is the range of distance between the set of training samples and the test sample containing the global information.

The proposed scheme then calculates the lower and upper approximations given a neighborhood space $\langle U_h, N\rangle $ for $X \subseteq U_h$ , the lower and upper approximations of X are defined as:

Given a hybrid neighborhood decision table $HNDT=\langle U_h,\ C_h\cup \ D, V, f\rangle $ , $\{ X_{h1},X_{h2},\ \ldots ,\ X_{hN} \}$ are the sample hybrid subjects with decision 1 to N , $\delta _B\left( x_{hi}\right) $ is the information granules generated by attributes $B \subseteq C_h$ , then the lower and upper approximation is defined as:

and the boundary region of D is defined as:

The lower and upper approximation spaces are the set of rules, which are used to classify a test sample. A test sample forms its neighborhood using a lower approximation having all the rules with a distance less than a dynamically calculated threshold value. The majority voting is used in the neighborhood of a test sample to decide the class of a test sample. K-fold cross-validation is used to measure the accuracy of the proposed scheme where the value k is 10. The algorithm 1 of the proposed scheme has a time complexity of $O(nm^{2})$ where n is the number of clients and m is the size of the categorial data.

Instrumentation

The proposed generalized rough set model has been rigorously assessed through the development of a testbed designed for the classification of Parkinson’s patients. It has also been subjected to testing using various standard datasets sourced from the University of California at Irvine machine learning data repository 63 . This research underscores the increasing significance of biomedical engineering in healthcare, particularly in light of the growing prevalence of Parkinson’s disease, which ranks as the second most common neurodegenerative condition, impacting over 1% of the population aged 65 and above 64 . The disease manifests through distinct motor symptoms like resting tremors, bradykinesia (slowness of movement), rigidity, and poor balance, with medication-related side effects such as wearing off and dyskinesias 65 .

In this study, to address the need for a reliable quantitative method for assessing motor complications in Parkinson’s patients, the data collection process involves utilizing a home-monitoring system equipped with wireless wearable sensors. These sensors were specifically deployed to closely monitor Parkinson’s patients with severe tremors in real time. It’s important to note that all patients involved in the study were clinically diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease. Additionally, before data collection, proper consent was obtained from each participant, and the study protocol was approved by the ethical committee of our university. The data collected from these sensors is then analyzed, yielding reliable quantitative information that can significantly aid clinical decision-making within both routine patient care and clinical trials of innovative treatments.

Testbed for Parkinson’s patients.

Figure 1 illustrates a real-time Testbed designed for monitoring Parkinson’s patients. This system utilizes a tri-axial accelerometer to capture three signals, one for each axis $(x,\ y,\ and\ z)$ , resulting in a total of 18 channels of data. The sensors employed in this setup employ ZigBee (IEEE 802.15.4 infrastructure) protocol to transmit data to a computer at a sampling rate of 62.5 Hz. To ensure synchronization of the transmitted signals, a transition protocol is applied. These data packets are received through the Serial Forwarder using the TinyOS platform ( http://www.tinyos.net ). The recorded acceleration data is represented as digital signals and can be visualized on an oscilloscope. The frequency domain data is obtained by applying the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) to the signal, resulting in an ARFF file format that is then employed for classification purposes. The experimental flowchart is shown in Fig. 2 .

Experimental flowchart.

The real-time testbed includes various components to capture data using the Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS). TelosB MTM-CM5000-MSP and MTM-CM3000-MSP sensors are used to send and receive radio signals from the sensor to the PC. These sensors are based on an open-source TelosB/Tmote Sky platform, designed and developed by the University of California, Berkeley.

TelosB sensor uses the IEEE 802.15.4 wireless structure and the embedded sensors can measure temperature, relative humidity, and light. In CM3000, the USB connector is replaced with an ERNI connector that is compatible with interface modules. Also, the Hirose 51-pin connector makes this more versatile as it can be attachable to any sensor board family, and the coverage area is increased using SMA design by a 5dBi external antenna 66 . These components can be used for a variety of applications such as low-power Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) platforms, network monitoring, and environment monitoring systems.

MTS-EX1000 sensor board is used for the amplification of the voltage/current value from the accelerometer. The EX1000 is an attachable board that supports the CMXXXX series of wireless sensors network Motes (Hirose 51-pin connector). The basic functionality of EX1000 is to connect the external sensors with CMXX00 communication modules to enhance the mote’s I/O capability and support different kinds of sensors based on the sensor type and its output signal. ADXL-345 Tri-accelerometer sensor is used to calculate body motion along x, y, and z-axis relative to gravity. It is a small, thin, low-power, 3-axis accelerometer that calculates high resolution (13-bit) measurements at up to ±16g. Its digital output, in 16-bit twos complement format, is accessible through either an SPI (3- or 4-wire) or I2C digital interface. A customized main circuit board is used having a programmed IC, registers, and transistors. Its basic functionality is to convert the digital data, accessed through the ADXL-345 sensor, into analog form and send it to MTS1000.

Result and discussion

The proposed generalized and ANRS is evaluated against different data sets taken from the machine learning data repository, at the University of California at Irvine. In addition to these common data sets, a real-time Testbed for Parkinson’s patients is also used to evaluate the proposed scheme. The hybrid data of 500 people was collected using the Testbed for Parkinson’s patients including 10 Parkinson’s patients, 20 people have abnormal and uncontrolled hand movements, and the rest of the samples were taken approximating the hand movements of Parkinson’s patients. The objective of this evaluation is to compare the accuracy rate of the proposed scheme with CART, k NN, and SVM having both simple and complex datasets containing numerical and hybrid features respectively. The results also demonstrate the selection of radius r for dynamically calculating the threshold value.

Table 3 provides the details of the datasets used for the evaluation of the proposed scheme including the training and test ratio used for evaluation in addition to data type, total number of instances, total feature, a feature considered for evaluation, and number of classes. The hybrid datasets are also selected to evaluate to performance of the proposed scheme against the hybrid feature space without discretization preventing information loss.

The accuracy of the NRS is greatly dependent on the threshold value. Most of the existing techniques do not dynamically adapt the threshold $\delta $ value for different hybrid datasets. This results in the variant of NRS suitable for specific datasets with different threshold values. A specific threshold value may produce better results for one dataset and poor results for others requiring a more generic threshold value catering to different datasets with optimal results. The proposed scheme introduces an adaptable threshold calculation mechanism to achieve optimal results regardless of the datasets under evaluation. The radius value plays a pivotal role in forming a neighborhood, as the threshold values consider both the local and global information of the NRS to calculate neighborhood approximation space. Table 4 shows the accuracy rate having different values of the radius of the NRS. The proposed threshold mechanism provides better results for all datasets if the value of the radius is 0.002. Results also show that assigning no weight to the radius produces poor results, as it will then only consider the local information for the approximation space. Selecting other weights for radius may produce better results for one dataset but not for all datasets.

Table 5 presents the comparative analysis of the proposed scheme with k NN, Naive Bayes, and C45. The results show that the proposed scheme performs well against other well-known techniques for both the categorical and numerical features space. Naive Bayes and C45 also result in information loss, as these techniques cannot process the hybrid data. So the proposed scheme handles the hybrid data without compromising on the information completeness producing acceptable results. K-fold cross-validation is used to measure the accuracy of the proposed scheme. Each dataset is divided into 10 subsets to use one of the K subsets as the test set and the other K-1 subsets as training sets. Then the average accuracy of all K trials is computed with the advantage of having results regardless of the dataset division.

Conclusion and future work

This work evaluates the existing NRS-based scheme for handling hybrid data sets i.e. numerical and categorical features. The comparative analysis of existing NRS-based schemes shows that there is a need for a generic NRS-based approach to adapt the threshold selection forming neighborhood approximation space. A generalized and ANRS-based scheme is proposed to handle both the categorical and numerical features avoiding information loss and lack of practical meanings. The proposed scheme uses a Euclidean and Levenshtein distance to calculate the upper and lower approximation of NRS for numerical and categorical features respectively. Euclidean and Levenshtein distances have been modified to handle the impact of outliers in calculating the approximation spaces. The proposed scheme defines an adaptive threshold mechanism for calculating neighborhood approximation space regardless of the data set under consideration. A Testbed is developed for real-time behavioral analysis of Parkinson’s patients evaluating the effectiveness of the proposed scheme. The evaluation results show that the proposed scheme provides better accuracy than k NN, C4.5, and Naive Bayes for both the categorical and numerical feature space achieving 95% accuracy on the Parkinson’s dataset. The proposed scheme will be evaluated against the hybrid data set having more than two classes in future work. Additionally, in future work, we aim to explore the following areas; (i) conduct longitudinal studies to track the progression of Parkinson’s disease over time, allowing for a deeper understanding of how behavioral patterns evolve and how interventions may impact disease trajectory, (ii) explore the integration of additional data sources, such as genetic data, imaging studies, and environmental factors, to provide a more comprehensive understanding of Parkinson’s disease etiology and progression, (iii) validate our findings in larger and more diverse patient populations and investigate the feasibility of implementing our proposed approach in clinical settings to support healthcare providers in decision-making processes, (iv) investigate novel biomarkers or physiological signals that may provide additional insights into Parkinson’s disease progression and motor complications, potentially leading to the development of new diagnostic and monitoring tools, and (v) conduct patient-centered outcomes research to better understand the impact of Parkinson’s disease on patients’ quality of life, functional abilities, and overall well-being, with a focus on developing personalized treatment approaches.

Data availability

The datasets used in this study are publicly available at the following links:

Bupa 67 : https://doi.org/10.24432/C54G67 , Sonar 68 : https://doi.org/10.24432/C5T01Q , Mammographic Mass 69 : https://doi.org/10.24432/C53K6Z , Haberman’s Survival 70 : https://doi.org/10.24432/C5XK51 , Credit-g 71 : https://doi.org/10.24432/C5NC77 , Lymmography 73 : https://doi.org/10.24432/C54598 , Splice 74 : https://doi.org/10.24432/C5M888 , Optdigits 75 : https://doi.org/10.24432/C50P49 , Pendigits 76 : https://doi.org/10.1137/1.9781611972825.9 , Pageblocks 77 : https://doi.org/10.24432/C5J590 , Statlog 78 : https://doi.org/10.24432/C55887 , Magic04 79 : https://doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v29i1.9277 .

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Imran Raza, Muhammad Hasan Jamal, Rizwan Qureshi & Abdul Karim Shahid

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Raza, I., Jamal, M.H., Qureshi, R. et al. Adaptive neighborhood rough set model for hybrid data processing: a case study on Parkinson’s disease behavioral analysis. Sci Rep 14 , 7635 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-57547-4

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Mathematics > Numerical Analysis

Title: intractability results for integration in tensor product spaces.

Abstract: We study lower bounds on the worst-case error of numerical integration in tensor product spaces. As reference we use the $N$-th minimal error of linear rules that use $N$ function values. The information complexity is the minimal number $N$ of function evaluations that is necessary such that the $N$-th minimal error is less than a factor $\varepsilon$ times the initial error. We are interested to which extent the information complexity depends on the number $d$ of variables of the integrands. If the information complexity grows exponentially fast in $d$, then the integration problem is said to suffer from the curse of dimensionality. Under the assumption of the existence of a worst-case function for the uni-variate problem we present two methods for providing good lower bounds on the information complexity. The first method is based on a suitable decomposition of the worst-case function. This method can be seen as a generalization of the method of decomposable reproducing kernels, that is often successfully applied when integration in Hilbert spaces with a reproducing kernel is studied. The second method, although only applicable for positive quadrature rules, has the advantage, that it does not require a suitable decomposition of the worst-case function. Rather, it is based on a spline approximation of the worst-case function and can be used for analytic functions. The methods presented can be applied to problems beyond the Hilbert space setting. For demonstration purposes we apply them to several examples, notably to uniform integration over the unit-cube, weighted integration over the whole space, and integration of infinitely smooth functions over the cube. Some of these results have interesting consequences in discrepancy theory.

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