research paper topics about hockey

Hockey: Testing and Performance

Loading... Editorial Frontiers in Sports and Active Living Editorial: Hockey: Testing and Performance Submission type: Editorial 665 views 0 citations

Brief Research Report 08 January 2024 “This is fine”: the impact of blowouts on subsequent game performance in the National Hockey League (NHL) Ravi Chachad ,  1 more  and  Arman P. Medina 917 views 0 citations

Original Research 12 December 2023 Exploring associations between sprinting mechanical capabilities, anaerobic capacity, and repeated-sprint ability of adolescent ice hockey players Julien Glaude-Roy ,  2 more  and  Jean Lemoyne 926 views 0 citations

Opinion 10 November 2023 Debunking the myth of morning skate on game day Franck Brocherie  and  Jerome Perez 1,982 views 1 citations

Original Research 31 October 2023 Developmental activities of elite junior hockey players: an analysis of early sport specialization W. J. Garland ,  2 more  and  S. Horton 1,712 views 0 citations

Loading... Systematic Review 28 September 2023 The science and art of testing in ice hockey: a systematic review of twenty years of research Michael Bournival ,  2 more  and  Jean Lemoyne 3,008 views 3 citations

Original Research 12 April 2022 Temporal and Spatial Structure of Collective Pass-Chaining Action Performed by Japanese Top-Level Field Hockey Players Takayasu Mizawa ,  1 more  and  Akifumi Kijima 1,389 views 1 citations

Main navigation

• Publications
• News & Media
• Prospective Students
• Study Participants
• Bodies of Power

Articles and Chapters

• Conference Abstracts
• Mazurek, C.M., Pearsall, D. J., Renaud, P. J., Robbins, S. M. (2024) Inter-Segment Coordination of Male and Female Collegiate Ice Hockey Players During Forward Skating Starts . R esearch Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2024.2337936
• Robbins, S. M., Renaud, P. J., MacInnis, N., & Pearsall, D. J. (2023) Differences in trunk–shoulder inter‑joint coordination and sequencing between elite and recreational ice hockey players during slap shots. Sports Engineering , DOI: 10.1007/s12283-023-00441-5
• Léger, T., Renaud, P. J., Robbins, S. M., & Pearsall, D. J. (2022) Pilot Study of Embedded IMU Sensors and Machine Learning Algorithms for Automated Ice Hockey Stick Fitting. sensors, DOI: 10.3390/s22093419
• Robbins, S. M., Renaud, P. J., MacInnis, N., Pearsall, D. J., (2020) The relationship between trunk rotation and shot speed when performing ice hockey wrist shots. Journal of Sports Sciences, DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2020.1853336
• Mazurek, C.M., Pearsall, D. J., Renaud, P. J., Robbins, S. M. (2020) Differences in inter-segment coordination between high-and low-calibre ice hockey players during forward skating. Sports Biomechanics, DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2020.1797151
• Liu, K., Aponte, D.I., Greencorn, D.J., Robbins, S. M., & Pearsall, D. J. (2019) Are headforms a poor surrogate for helmet fit? Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part P: Journal of Sports Engineering and Technology , DOI: 10.1177/1754337119882836
• Liu, K., Greencorn, D.J., Aponte, D.I., Robbins, S. M., & Pearsall, D. J. (2019) Comparison of surrogate 50th percentile human headforms to an adult male sample using three-dimensional modeling and principal component analysis. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part P: Journal of Sports Engineering and Technology , doi: 10.1177/1754337119840848
• Robbins, S. M., Renaud, P. J., & Pearsall, D. J. (2018). Principal component analysis identifies differences in ice hockey skating stride between high- and low-calibre players. Sports Biomechanics, 1-19. doi: 10.1080/14763141.2018.1524510
• Budarick, A. R., Shell, J. R., Robbins, S. M. K., Wu, T., Renaud, P. J., & Pearsall, D. J. (2018). Ice hockey skating sprints: run to glide mechanics of high calibre male and female athletes. Sports Biomechanics, 1-17. doi: 10.1080/14763141.2018.1503323
• Greencorn, D.J., Aponte, D.I., Pearsall, D.J. (2018) Photogrammetry: An accurate and cost-effective three-dimensional ice hockey helmet fit acquisition method. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part P: Journal of Sports Engineering and Technology , 1-8. DOI: 10.1177/1754337118768322
• Shell, J. R., Robbins, S. M. K., Dixon, P. C., Renaud, P. J., Wu, T., Turcotte, R. A., & Pearsall, D. J. (2017). Skating start propulsion: three-dimensional kinematic analysis of elite male and female ice hockey players. Sports Biomechanics , 1-12. doi:10.1080/14763141.2017.1306095
• Renaud, P. J., Robbins, S. M. K., Dixon, P. C., Shell, J. R., Turcotte, R. A., & Pearsall, D. J. (2017). Ice hockey skate starts: a comparison of high and low calibre skaters. Sports Engineering , 1-12. doi: 10.1007/s12283-017-0227-0
• Dixon, P.C., Loh J.J., Michaud-Paquette, Y., & Pearsall, D.J. (2016) biomechZoo: An open-source toolbox for the processing, analysis, and visualization of biomechanical movement data. Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine
• Turcotte, R. A., Renaud, P., & Pearsall, D. J. (2016). Ice Hockey Skate, Stick Design and Performance Measures. In The Engineering Approach to Winter Sports (pp. 311-326). Springer New York.
• Fortier, A., Tourcotte, R.A., & Pearsall, D.J. (2014). Skating mechanics of change-of-direction manoeuvres in ice hockey players. Sports Biomechanics , 13 (4), 341-350
• Ouckama, R, Pearsall, D. (2014) Projectile Impact Testing of Ice Hockey Helmets: Headform Kinematics and Dynamic Measurement of Localized Pressure Distribution, in Proceedings of the IRCOBI, 2014, IRC–14–16 Berlin, Germany, Sept 10-12
• Pearsall, D., Turcotte, R., Levangie, M., & Forget, S. (2013). Biomechanical Adaptation in Ice Hockey Skating. Routledge Handbook of Ergonomics in Sport and Exercise, 37.
• Ouckama, R. and D.J. Pearsall (2012) Impact Performance of Ice Hockey Helmets: Head Acceleration versus Focal Force Dispersion. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part P, Journal of Sports Engineering and Technology. 226(3)–(4), 185–192.5
• Ouckama, R. and D.J. Pearsall. (2012) Impact performance of ice hockey helmets: head acceleration versus focal force dispersion. DOI:10.1177/1754337111435625
• Hannon A, Michaud-Paquette Y, Turcotte RA, Pearsall DJ (2011). Dynamic strain profile of the ice hockey stick: comparison of player calibre and stick shaft stiffness. Sports Engineering 14(2-4)57-65.
• Michaud-Paquette Y, Magee P, Turcotte RA, Pearsall DJ (2011). Predictors of scoring accuracy: whole body coordination during ice hockey wrist shot mechanics. Sports Biomechanics. 10(1):12-21.
• Ouckama R, Pearsall DJ (2010) Evaluation of a Flexible Force Sensor for Measurement of Helmet Foam Impact Performance. Journal of Biomechanics. 44(5):904-909.
• Stidwill TJ, Turcotte R, Pearsall DJ, (2010) Comparison of Skating Kinetics and Kinematics on Ice and on a Synthetic Surface, Sport Biomechanics 9(1): 57–64
• Stidwill TJ, Pearsall DJ, Dixon P, Turcotte R, (2010) Force Transducer System for Measurement of Ice Hockey Skating Force, Sports Engineering 12:63–68
• Chang R, Turcotte R, Pearsall D (2009) Hip Adductor Muscle Function in Forward Skating, Journal of Sport Biomechanics 8(3): 212-222
• Dowler PM, Pearsall DJ, Stapley PJ. (2009) Effects of ice hockey facial protectors on response time and kinematics in goal directed tasks. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part P, Journal of Sports Engineering and Technology, 223:99-108
• Michaud-Paquette Y, Pearsall DJ, Turcotte RA (2009) Predictors of scoring accuracy: ice hockey wrist shot mechanics Sports Engineering 11:75-84
• Pearsall DJ and Dowler P. (2008) A Longitudinal Study of Hockey Helmet Shelf Life. Journal of ASTM International, Vol. 5, No. 8 Paper ID JAI101870 available online at www.astm.org and (2009) Journal of ASTM International Selected Technical Papers STP1516 Safety in Ice Hockey: 5th Volume, Editors Richard M. Greenwald and Alan B. Ashare, West Conshohocken, PA, 99-106.
• Upjohn T, Turcotte R, Pearsall DJ, Loh J (2008) Three dimensional kinematics of the lower limbs during forward ice hockey Sport Biomechanics 7(2): 205–220
• Lemair M, Pearsall DJ (2007) Evaluation of impact attenuation of facial protectors in ice hockey helmets. Sports Engineering 10: 65-74
• Lomond KV, Turcotte RA, and Pearsall DJ (2007) Blade position and orientation during an ice hockey slap shot Sports Engineering 10: 87-100
• Pearsall DJ and Turcotte RA (2007) Ice Hockey: Evaluation of Modern Skate and Stick Designs, in Materials In Sports Equipment Volume 2, editor A Subic, Woodhead Publishing Ltd, Cambridge England pp 203-224
• Villasenor- Herrara A, Pearsall DJ, Turcotte RA (2006) Recoil effect of the ice hockey stick during a slap shot. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 22(3):202-211
• Morrison P, Pearsall DJ, Turcotte RA, Lockwood K & Montgomery DL (2005) Skate blade hollow and oxygen consumption during forward skating. Sports Engineering 8(2):91-98
• Safety in Ice Hockey. (2004) 4th Vol, ASTM STP 1446, pp 300. Pearsall DJ and Ashare AB, Eds., American Society for Testing and Materials. (ISBN - 08031-3473-8)
• Wu T, Pearsall DJ, Turcotte R, Montgomery DL, Lefebvre R (2003) Ice Hockey Stick Bend and Twist Measurement during Slap and Wrist Shots. Sports Engineering. 6(1):31-39
• Montgomery DL, Pearsall DJ, Turcotte R (2003) The Evolution of Body Size in the National Hockey League, History of Ice Hockey. Putting it on ice Volume II: Internationalizing 'Canada's Game, ed. CD Howell, Gorsebrook Research Institute, Halifax, NS, Canada 95-99
• Nobes K, Montgomery D, Pearsall D, Turcotte R, Lefebvre R, and Whittom F (2003) A comparison of skating economy on-ice and on the skating treadmill. Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology 28(1):1-11
• Pearsall DJ, Wall E, Hoshizaki B (2000) Comparison of International Ice Hockey Helmet Standards Safety in Ice Hockey, Third Volume, ASTM STP 1341, A.B. Ashare, Ed., American Society for Testing and Materials, 78-92.
• Turcotte R, Pearsall DJ, Montgomery DL (2001) Stiffness properties of ice hockey skates. Sports Engineering 4:43-48
• Spyrou E, Pearsall DJ, Hoshizaki TB (2000) Effect of local shell geometry and material properties on ice hockey helmet impact energy attenuation. Sports Engineering. 3(1):25-36.

Department and University Information

• Subscribe to journal Subscribe
• Get new issue alerts Get alerts

Secondary Logo

Journal logo.

Colleague's E-mail is Invalid

Your message has been successfully sent to your colleague.

Save my selection

Preparing for the Demands of Professional Hockey

Neeld, Kevin MS, CSCS

Address correspondence to Kevin Neeld, MS, CSCS, [email protected] .

Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding: The author reports no conflicts of interest and no source of funding.

PREPARING PLAYERS FOR THE RIGORS OF A PROFESSIONAL ICE HOCKEY SEASON REQUIRES A THOROUGH UNDERSTANDING OF THE PHYSICAL DEMANDS AND INJURY PATTERNS OF THE SPORT. THIS ARTICLE COMBINES AN ANALYSIS OF BIOMECHANICAL AND ENERGY SYSTEM DEMANDS WITH A REVIEW OF THE MOST PROMINENT INJURIES TO PROPOSE A COMPREHENSIVE ASSESSMENT BATTERY FOR HOCKEY PLAYERS. CONCEPTS FROM MULTIPLE PERIODIZATION MODELS ARE INTEGRATED TO PRESENT AN ANNUAL PLAN, INCLUDING SPECIFIC PROGRAMMING STRATEGIES FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPEED, STRENGTH, AND REPEAT SPRINT ABILITY. SAMPLE TRAINING PLANS ARE USED TO ILLUSTRATE THE APPLICATION OF THE DISCUSSED PRINCIPLES, SERVING TO MAXIMIZE BOTH PERFORMANCE AND DURABILITY.

INTRODUCTION

Preparing for a professional hockey season introduces several challenges. The National Hockey League (NHL) regular season consists of 82 games spread out over 185 days, or roughly 1 game every 2.25 days. Depending on the team's success, the postseason could add up to an additional 28 games over the course of approximately 60 days. Including a 4-week preseason preparatory period, NHL players are competing from mid-September up through the first week of June, creating a busy schedule during the season, and a condensed off-season to both recover from the previous season and prepare for the upcoming one. The purposes of this article are to summarize the biomechanical and physiological demands of ice hockey, describe predominant injury patterns, outline a comprehensive assessment and testing battery, and present year-round programming parameters to improve both performance and durability.

BIOMECHANICS

Hockey presents several unique biomechanical considerations relative to other team sports. Broadly, forward skating involves alternating high-velocity diagonal pushes involving hip extension, abduction, and external rotation, along with knee extension and ankle plantar flexion ( 6 ). This force is then transferred to the stance leg, which maintains a position of hip flexion and slight adduction and internal rotation, as well as knee flexion and ankle dorsiflexion. Although difficult to validly quantify, the dynamic nature of the skating patterns involved in the game will test the boundaries of the hip and ankle range of motion in all planes. Although there are many factors that contribute to a player's speed, high caliber players generally adopt a lower skating position (i.e., in a deeper state of hip flexion), use more hip extension, knee extension, and plantar flexion during the propulsive phase, and have greater hip and knee extension velocities compared with lower caliber players ( 6,52 ). Compared with running, the skating pattern has significantly longer ground-contact times ( Tables 1 and 2 ) and slower stride rates ( 29,42 ), which has important implications for exercise selection.

Although there is a dearth of data on upper-body patterns associated with hockey, anecdotally, hockey requires significant rotation through the thoracic and cervical spine, as well as glenohumeral range of motion in all planes. This helps support the high-velocity rotations associated with shooting, as well as widen the space around the body through which a player can accept and handle the puck. Taken together, this information highlights the importance of preparing hockey players for demanding activity in the frontal and transverse planes, in addition to commonly used sagittal methods.

ENERGY SYSTEM PROFILE

Like most team sports, ice hockey demands proficiency across the entire continuum of energy systems. An early attempt to identify the physiological demands revealed that a typical shift involved 2.3 cycles of 39.7 seconds of continuous play and 27.1 seconds of stoppages, for a cumulative playing time of around 24.5 minutes and distance covered around 5,552 m ( 17 ). Interestingly, these authors also noted that defensemen, despite playing more shifts, had an average velocity 38.4% lower and an average heart rate (HR) 10–15 bpm lower than forwards. Although these data are useful, the rules, style, and preparation of the players have all changed substantially since this work was conducted. Their findings, therefore, should be used only as a broad guideline for the general characteristics of a hockey game.

More recently, Stanula et al. ( 47 ) tracked HRs of 16 players on the Polish under-20 (U20) national team for 2 separate games. They reported maximum HRs (MaxHR) of 194.7 ± 8.3 and 190.7 ± 6.2 bpm, and average HRs of 159.1 ± 7.1 and 150.7 ± 7.8 bpm across 1:17:47 ± 16:46 1:17:54 ± 19:19 of game time for forwards and defensemen, respectively. During the game, more time was spent in low-intensity HR zones (HR < ventilatory threshold [VT], 75.2–79.5% MaxHR; forwards: 59%, defensemen: 44%) compared with moderate (VT > HR > respiratory compensation point [RCP], 80.0–92.4% MaxHR; forwards: 22%; defensemen: 26%) and high (HR > RCP, 92.9–100.0% MaxHR; forwards: 19%; defensemen: 30%). Discrepancies between positions are likely the result of the team carrying 4 forward lines opposed to 3 defensive pairings, meaning defensemen spend a larger proportion of the game time on the ice. It is important to note that these data were collected across the entire game, including stoppages and when players were sitting on the bench.

HR data provide valuable information about the internal load (i.e., how the players' physiology is working to meet the imposed demands) experienced by the players. However, to accurately reflect the demands of the game, it is important to support data describing internal loads with data describing external loads (i.e., kinematic data), as internal loading data may underestimate the volume and importance of short-duration high-velocity efforts ( 45 ). Unfortunately, there are no published data profiling the kinematic characteristics of an NHL game, as the current collective bargaining agreement forbids teams from requiring players to use wearable technology. However, Peterson et al. ( 31 ) examined shift data from the NHL database and found that, on average, an NHL forward had 6.8 ± 1.1 shifts per period, each lasting 45.5 ± 3.9 seconds with a rest interval of 73.4 ± 16.6 seconds. In conjunction with estimates that players spend about 50% of their shift time in high-intensity activity ( 28 ), the authors estimated that a forward will spend ∼22.7 seconds of a shift in maximal or near-maximal skating. Together, this body of research highlights both the importance of training high-intensity and high-velocity efforts, as well as having a well-developed aerobic system.

INJURY ANALYSIS

Hockey players are at risk of a multitude of both contact and noncontact injuries. Donaldson et al. ( 10 ) conducted a study examining injury rates and their associated economic costs across 3 NHL seasons from 2009 to 2012. They reported 50.9% of players missed at least 1 game because of injury each season, with an injury resulting in an average of 8.8 games missed. A random subset of 10 weeks was taken from each of the 3 seasons to examine the prevalence and cost of injuries to specific areas. Of the 870 injuries experienced during this time, 241 (27.7%) were to the leg/foot, 165 (19.0%) to the head/neck, 88 (10.1%) to the shoulder, 108 (12.4%) to the groin, 75 (8.6%) to the arm/hand, 66 (7.6%) to the chest/abdomen, and 127 (14.6%) were either unspecified or undisclosed. Players suffering injuries to these areas missed an average of 7.0–11.1 games, with a mean associated salary cost of $219,400–$353,300.

Contact injuries are largely viewed as a consequence of the game, and most amenable to change through adjustments to the rules of the game. By contrast, noncontact injuries around the hip represent a significant, potentially modifiable issue in hockey players. In examining injuries to the groin and abdominal region in NHL players, Emery et al. ( 14 ) reported an escalating cumulative injury incidence from 12.99 injuries/100 players/year in the 1991–1992 season to 19.87 injuries/100 players/year in the 1996–1997 season. Injuries were most likely to occur in the preseason, with an incidence density 5 times greater than that of the regular season, and 20 times greater than that of the postseason. Although some of this discrepancy may be the result of players withholding injuries during the season compared with preseason, surely some of these differences are the result of insufficient preparation or excessive loading during the preseason. In a subsequent study in youth hockey players, Emery and Meeuwisse ( 13 ) identified injuries to the hip and groin as the largest proportion of injuries not resulting from contact.

Elite hockey players may be harboring subclinical damage to the hip and abdominal area that has not yet reached a symptomatic threshold. In a group of 39 NCAA Division I and professional hockey players, Silvis et al. ( 44 ) found that 39% presented with a dysfunction of the adductor/rectus abdominis insertion (i.e., pathology associated with athletic pubalgia or a “sports hernia”), and 64% with hip pathological changes consistent with femoroacetabular impingement (FAI), with 77% of hips having some pathological findings. FAI is a bony overgrowth to the femoral head neck offset (CAM-type) or acetabular hood (pincer-type) that limits hip flexion and internal rotation range of motion. A more recent study identified that 69.4% of the hips of 130 NHL-affiliated players demonstrated sufficient bony overgrowth to meet the criterion for an FAI diagnosis, with 60.8% of players presenting bilaterally ( 27 ). This is of particular interest because there is indirect evidence that FAI may develop progressively over time ( 36 ), and that a larger degree of bony overgrowth is more likely to become symptomatic ( 26 ). FAI is associated with and speculated to be an underlying contributing factor to long-standing adductor pain ( 53 ), athletic pubalgia ( 11 ), and labral damage ( 35 ), and is therefore an important consideration in designing a program for both improved performance and augmented durability.

Although the skating motion itself has been identified as a risk factor for hip pathology ( 48 ), deficits in range of motion or strength imbalances across the pelvis are associated with hip pain. Hammoud et al. ( 19 ) identified limitations in hip flexion, external and internal rotation, and abduction, as well as a strength imbalance between the adductors and lower abdominals (i.e., adductor strength greater than lower abdominal strength) and decreased adductor strength as factors associated with hip pain. Specific to adductor strains, Tyler et al. ( 51 ) found that a player exhibiting adduction strength less than 80% of his abduction strength was 17 times more likely to suffer an adductor strain, whereas there were no differences in adduction range of motion between those that did and did not suffer an adductor strain. In a follow-up study, they demonstrated that a program designed to target adduction strength in progressively more skating-specific patterns significantly reduced the incidence of adductor injury, even in those considered “at risk” ( 50 ). Last, off-season preparation can have an important protective effect, as NHL players who participated in less than 18 sport-specific off-season training sessions were 3.38 times more likely to suffer a groin injury the following season than those who trained more frequently ( 12 ).

PROFILING PERFORMANCE

Hockey requires a diverse set of physical capacities to excel at the elite level. Although this may be intuitive, previous research supports the notion that elite players out perform their nonelite counterparts in tests of speed, power, strength, and repeat sprint ability ( 4,32 ). In order for programs to be customized based on the individual needs of the athlete, it is important to have a comprehensive profiling process to identify the athlete's strengths and weaknesses, particularly as they relate to standards at the desired level of play and feedback from coaches and scouts.

Many of the tests referenced below ( Table 3 ), or some variation of them, are commonly used and widely accepted within the sports performance field, but a few require commentary. The Y-Balance Lower Quarter was designed to provide an objective measure of the zone through which an athlete can maintain stability while reaching outside his or her base of support, serving as a potential screen for future lower extremity injury risk ( 37 ). However, the patterns in this test, particularly the posteromedial and posterolateral reaches, provide a reasonable proxy for stride length in forward and cross-over skating. This provides valuable information that can be used in monitoring improvements in mobility and stability throughout the season, and as a return to play metric. The remainder of the mobility assessments offer explanatory information for why one of the more integrated Y-Balance Lower Quarter movements may be limited, as well as simply being objective measures of range of motion in joints known to affect hockey performance.

Tests of off-ice sprinting speed have demonstrated a moderate correlation with on-ice sprinting test ( 43 ). The reason this relationship is not stronger likely stems from differences in efficiency between running and skating. By using identical tests for acceleration and change of direction both on and off the ice, inferences can be made about whether an athlete would benefit most from an augmented focus on this quality from an off-ice training standpoint (i.e., to focus on speed as a primary training goal) or from spending more time with a skating coach (i.e., to focus on improved skating efficiency to make better use of the speed potential demonstrated off the ice). From a power perspective, including a rotational medicine ball throw offers unique information about low-load, high-velocity power generation in a pattern similar to that used in shooting. The lateral bound expands on information offered by the vertical jump tests by providing information on single-leg power and side-to-side differences in a pattern more specific to the demands of skating. Including upper-body strength tests in both a pushing and pulling pattern allows inferences to be made regarding strength imbalances between these patterns that may have implications on shoulder health.

Within a competition, fatigue can manifest acutely as a result of a large amount of high-intensity work in a relatively short period, and more progressively as workloads accumulate. To account for both the player's ability to repeat high-intensity efforts and sustain higher volumes of work over longer periods, including tests for repeat sprint ability and aerobic capacity offer a more complete picture of the player's fitness than a single test for either quality. The Reed repeat sprint skate test involves sprinting a 300-foot skating course (goal line to goal line and back to approximately the near blue line) as quickly as possible for 6 total reps, each starting every 30 seconds ( 38 ). A more recent use of the test expanded the rest to a full 30-seconds after each repetition, which may decrease some of the variability associated with extreme fatigue ( 46 ). All 6 sprint times are recorded, and an average time and sprint decrement ([sum of 6 sprint times-6 × fastest time]/[6 × fastest time]) are calculated. Sprint decrement provides a cumulative drop-off of each repetition after the first, compared with fatigue index, which only provides a percentage drop-off from the first to the last repetition, the validity of which may be clouded by players conserving energy in middle repetitions to perform at a higher intensity during the last one.

The 30-15 intermittent ice test is a beep test that requires players to alternate periods of 30 seconds of skating with 15 seconds of rest, with the velocity of the work interval increasing with progressing stages ( 5 ). Maximal skating speed achieved during the test demonstrates a strong relationship with V̇ o 2 peak ( r = −0.071), which has a moderate relationship with the drop-off during repeat sprint tests ( 31,46 ). Together, these tests offer a complete picture of the player's repeat sprint ability and aerobic capacity, offering insight across the entire energy system continuum. Using on-ice tests allows an assessment of these qualities in the mode most specific to the requirements of the sport, minimizing the risk of test results being confounded by the athlete's familiarity with the chosen movement pattern (e.g., a player who does not bike regularly may not perform to their true maximal level in a bike test).

ANNUAL PLAN

On an annual basis, programming can be broken down into 2 major periods: in-season and off-season. Understanding the goals and nature of competing demands during these times will help in identifying the optimal periodization strategy to use during each. Periodization is simply another term for purposeful planning. Many models have been proposed, all demonstrating varying levels of population- and goal-specific success.

Briefly, linear periodization (LP) refers to sequentially decreasing volume and increasing intensity across multiple, typically 4–6 weeks of phases. By contrast, an undulating model varies the volume and intensity within a phase. In comparing the 2 approaches, daily undulating periodization (DUP; e.g., rotating between set × rep schemes of 3 × 8, 3 × 6, and 3 × 4 for the main exercises within a week) leads to superior improvements in muscular strength compared with a traditional linear model (e.g., performing 3 × 8, 3 × 6, and 3 × 4 for 4 weeks each) ( 40 ). A similar study design was used to compare linear, DUP, and reverse LP (RLP; intensity decreases as volume increases across phases) models on muscular endurance ( 41 ). In this 15-week study, participants trained 2 days per week, performing 3 sets of either a 25 repetition maximum (RM), 20RM, or 15RM. The LP and RLP groups switched their set and rep schemes every 5 weeks, whereas the DUP group changed their set and rep scheme each workout. Interestingly, the RLP model demonstrated a larger effect size for improvements in muscular endurance compared with the other 2 groups.

These studies highlight the importance of considering specificity when weighing the value of different models. In the first example, the outcome measure was strength, which is dependent on both muscular and neurological characteristics. Therefore, it is not surprising that varying intensity and volume across a week would lead to better progress, as this approach may provide a stimulus for both morphological and neurological adaptations across the entire 12-week period. This is particularly true because all the set and rep schemes fall within a range known to improve strength (e.g., 4–8 RM). From a similar vantage, when a muscular endurance test involving performing 20+ reps is used to quantify progress in local muscular endurance, it is sensible that an RLP program ending with a phase with the highest training volumes would elicit the best outcome. Supporting the idea of specificity, the LP and DUP groups actually improved their strength almost twice as much as the RLP group during the posttest.

A major limitation of these studies is that they are comparing the efficacy of a periodization model on a single outcome measure, whereas ice hockey requires well-developed capacities across a wide range of physical attributes. Block periodization is an alternative model that involves highly concentrated loads aimed at 1 specific quality ( 23 ). Block periodization is essentially built around 2 major theoretical constructs: residual training effects and compatible training methods. Residual training effect refers to the time course over which an improvement in a quality presents and persists after specific training for that training quality ceases. Acknowledging training residuals allows for a more purposeful allocation of training focus to maximize adaptation, while minimizing unnecessary fatigue associated with attempting to train all relevant qualities simultaneously.

Compatibility of training methods highlights that training is nothing more than a stimulus for a specific adaptation. Each stimulus has neurological, mechanical, and chemical components that can trigger molecular sequences leading to increases in proteins used to form structures, making the body more resilient to that stress in the future ( 8 ). In theory, if 2 training methods create a conflicting stimulus for adaptation, the body may not respond as favorably to either as it would if the same stimuli were presented separately ( 8,20 ). Indeed, this concept has been supported in training studies, particularly as it applies to concurrent resistance and endurance exercise ( 15 ), supporting the idea that a more focused approach to a singular quality, or multiple nonconflicting qualities, would allow a more profound adaptation, or the same adaptation at a reduced cost. As an illustration of this concept, Painter et al. ( 30 ) compared strength outcomes in track and field athletes using either a block or DUP program and found that both groups achieved similar improvements, but the DUP group performed 52% more repetitions and had a 35% higher training load. In other words, they achieve the same adaptation, but at a much higher cost. Although block periodization studies have also targeted singular qualities, the focus on biological adaptation principals offers valuable insight into how specific training methods may interact to enhance or inhibit a specific training effect.

All 3 of the presented models (linear, undulating, and block) hold value, and should therefore all be integrated into components of the yearly plan. Linear and block methods both provide a rationale for creating a foundation of certain qualities that will help support future adaptation. For example, traditional LP precedes maximum strength work with hypertrophy work so that the athlete has more muscle mass to train for improved force production through neural mechanisms. Undulating loading schemes within the confines of a specific target adaptation create a variable stimulus that may lead to better progress compared with less varied approaches. Last, block periodization provides a theoretical construct to help determine which methods are most appropriate to mix on a given day, and within a phase, as well as how often qualities may need to be addressed to minimize detraining. From a practical standpoint, it is imperative to recognize that to maximize the progress within a highly focused phase, the athletes need to be sufficiently proficient in the main exercises to load/stress them appropriately. An athlete cannot successfully use Olympic-style lifts, for example, to maximize power output within a 2–4 week phase, if the athlete spends the entire phase doing technique work with an unloaded bar. As a result, it is advisable to build in “practice” work for more complex exercises that will be stressed heavily in future phases, even if the exercise does not seem to be congruent with the goal of the current phase (e.g., low-load weightlifting technique work in a phase targeting aerobic adaptations).

OFF-SEASON PROGRAMMING

During the off-season, many players will take some time away from the ice, and then slowly start reintegrating on-ice work around mid-summer. The decreased presence of competing demands offers an opportunity to increase the frequency of and general focus on off-ice development. During this time, players can train 5 days per week, 3–4 of which can be dedicated toward developing the target qualities for the given phase, with 1–2 additional days to accumulate higher weekly training volumes using lower intensity methods designed to both develop the aerobic system and facilitate recovery from more neurologically taxing work on the developmental days. A general description of a sample off-season template is provided in Table 4 .

• Anatomical adaptation: Improving the musculoskeletal system's ability to tolerate higher training volumes through tissue remodeling and strengthening of passive structures.
• Slow-twitch hypertrophy: Methods specifically targeting hypertrophy of slow-twitch muscle fibers, designed to complement aerobic work by providing more opportunities for mitochondrial biogenesis.
• Aerobic development: Work to improve the ability to deliver and extract oxygen, through a blend of low-intensity continuous and higher threshold interval-based methods operating around or below estimated anaerobic threshold.
• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-PCr power: The ability to produce maximum power over short durations (e.g., 6–10 seconds).
• Anaerobic threshold (AnT): Work to increase anaerobic threshold through a combination of work around and above estimated AnT.
• ATP-PCr capacity: The ability to produce maximum power over short durations with incomplete rest intervals (e.g., 6–15 seconds of work with 30–75 seconds of rest).
• Anaerobic capacity: The ability to tolerate prolonged high-intensity work bouts with incomplete recovery (e.g., 20–45 seconds of work with 40–90 seconds of rest).

Figure 1 portrays a general example of how loading parameters are programmed throughout the week. This demonstrates both the “high-low” programming of neurological stress, as well as the undulation of volume throughout the week. A more detailed description of the composition of each training day by the phase is presented in Table 5 . Based on the results from the performance profiling process, individual adjustments can be made to best account for the specific needs of a player. For example, a player with a well-developed aerobic system and adequate strength that lacks power may benefit from spending less time in phases 1 and 2 and more time in phases 3 and 4. Methods from different phases can be combined in instances where a player may need to spend more or less time working on specific qualities, so long as the methods do not create conflicting stimuli for adaptation. The profiling process can also be used to inform exercise selection. If a player has limited ankle dorsiflexion, for example, selecting exercises with more vertical shin angles may provide a safer environment to develop specific physical capacities, while minimizing compensations associated with the limitation, for example, excessive trunk lean or increased knee valgus ( 18 ). Providing a full off-season program is outside the scope of this article, but sample training days from 5 sequential phases are included in Table 6 .

IN-SEASON PROGRAMMING

With the on-ice, travel, and general stress demands of the season, the primary focuses of the in-season period are to strategically develop qualities supporting on-ice work and to help facilitate recovery. Although quantifying precise on-ice workloads is a challenge, it is generally accepted that players achieve sufficient speed and glycolytic work from practices and games. This suggests that off-ice efforts should focus primarily on the maintenance of power and strength, along with durability qualities such as mobility, stability, and aerobic conditioning.

In-season training can follow a similar progression as the off-season. However, because the first phase of the off-season is intended to redevelop a foundation of aerobic fitness and musculoskeletal integrity, and the last phase is designed to smooth the transition to the high workloads and glycolytic demands of training camp, these phases are not nearly as purposeful during the season. With these phases removed, the remaining phases function to maintain performance along the entire force-velocity continuum, progressing from pure strength work to methods focusing on low-load, high-velocity power. Because of the aforementioned competing demands, it is not possible to sequence phases of developmental sessions like it is in the off-season. Instead, it is more realistic to consistently schedule stimulative training sessions, mixing in a true developmental session when the game, practice, and travel schedule allows for it.

Stimulative sessions are designed to hit the threshold for a target stimulus, but not at a sufficient volume to actually improve or develop that quality. For example, a developmental session to improve strength may involve performing 4 sets of 6 reps at 80% for a given exercise; a stimulative session may involve 2 sets of 6 reps. This strategy helps to minimize the degradation of the target quality, while also maintaining the athletes' familiarity with the movement so they do not experience excessive soreness from a developmental session. The sample in-season training days ( Table 7 ) are written with almost every training day as a developmental session. With this as a template, it is easy to make adjustments to volume and loading parameters based on the schedule and fatigue of the players.

DISSECTING METHODS

A few pertinent topics will be addressed below.

• Facilitate circulation by rhythmically compressing the tissue, similar to “effleurage,” a common technique used in Swedish massage.
• Provide feedback to the nervous system about areas that may be harboring unnecessary tension.
• Attempt to address trigger points using pointed compression, similar to ischemic release techniques used commonly by manual therapists.

In support of these mechanisms, recent research has demonstrated that foam rolling leads to increased arterial blood flow ( 22 ), improved range of motion of the ipsilateral ( 49 ), and contralateral joint ( 24 ). These benefits seem to last for 10–30 minutes, providing ample opportunity to reinforce newly acquired motion with purposeful patterning. Joint mobility work is a suitable follow-up to tissue preparation, as it involves targeting range of motion improvements at specific joints using active movement designed to get into a joint's end position, pause, and then back off. This strategy will capitalize on improvements in motion related to increased tissue temperature, but also targets neurological limitations to motion (i.e., overprotective tone).

Once targeted work is complete for a specific joint, the augmented range can be integrated into more dynamic and integrative movement patterns. For example, 2 exercises designed to target ankle dorsiflexion and rectus femoris length (i.e., sagittal plane hip extension with knee flexion) can be followed up with a reverse lunge pattern, which will use the newly acquired motion through an eccentric loading of the back leg. These types of body weight exercises provide an extra opportunity to groove patterns relevant to exercises to be loaded more aggressively in the subsequent training session, while also reinforcing newly acquired range of motion. The final step is to transition into more dynamic locomotion-type movements typical of standard dynamic warm-ups. Although set routines are logistically helpful and provide ample opportunity to coach specific components of the movement, more variable warm-ups may be more engaging and lead to better retention and transfer to less rehearsed patterns ( 9,21 ). As a result, finding subtle variations of traditional exercises to break up the monotony of set routines and create a more neurologically challenging environment is a desirable compromise ( Table 8 ).

SPEED TRAINING

On-ice speed demonstrates a moderate relationship with off-ice speed ( 1 ). However, in choosing speed development methods, it is imperative to understand the underlying commonalities driving this relationship to avoid wasting time on methods that may improve off-ice speed, but will not transfer to on-ice speed. Speed is characterized by the interaction between stride length and stride frequency. In off-ice sprinting, stride length is determined by power, with contributions of both strength and elastic strength, flexibility (i.e., range of motion), and ATP supply, whereas stride frequency is largely determined by neural coordination ( 3 ). Understanding the underlying qualities supporting speed development reinforces the need for a comprehensive program, even if speed improvement is the primary goal. Of these qualities, drills designed to improve neural coordination, or technique, in off-ice sprinting are unlikely to transfer to on-ice improvements, given the significant differences between the 2 patterns noted in the Biomechanics section above.

Building on this discussion, the forward lean, piston-like leg action, and relatively long ground-contact times characteristic of the skating pattern are much more similar to the early acceleration phase of sprinting than more upright top-speed running patterns. This similarity might suggest that performing short-distance sprints (i.e., ∼15 yards or less) will lead to better transfer to on-ice speed than top-speed work. Anecdotally, sprints under 20-yards are also less likely to result in a hamstring or quadriceps strain. Given the common structural adaptations to the hips of hockey players, and the fact that they are highly adapted to a unique nonrunning pattern, special attention should be paid to minimizing sprinting-related injury risk in this population. Focusing on short-duration sprints may provide a more skating-specific stimulus, while simultaneously reducing risk to common running injuries.

RESISTANCE TRAINING

• Lower-body pushing: squat patterns and variations.
• Lower-body pulling: deadlift patterns and variations, posterior chain work.
• Upper-body vertical pushing: overhead pressing patterns and variations.
• Upper-body horizontal pushing: bench press patterns and variations.
• Upper-body vertical pulling: chin-up patterns and variations.
• Upper-body horizontal pulling: rowing patterns and variations.

Within a given pattern categorization, research has convincingly demonstrated that performing multiple sets leads to more significant progress in hypertrophy and strength than single-set programs ( 25,33,39 ). For hypertrophy, 4–6 sets per pattern seems to be the optimal training dose ( 25 ). For strength development in athletes, training 2–3 days per week, performing ∼8 sets per pattern at intensities above 85% 1RM demonstrates the largest effect ( 34 ). Considering this information in light of the aforementioned research on the retention and transference of movement competency, it may be more optimal for athletic populations to accumulate higher volumes of work within a movement categorization by sampling from 2 to 3 different exercises. In using this approach, the athlete would be able to perform sufficient sets within an exercise to become proficient in the movement but have enough variation within that movement category to expand the athlete's movement competency and transfer to less scripted environments.

REPEAT SPRINT ABILITY

Improving repeat sprint ability requires programming to address 2 categories: initial sprint performance and recovery between sprints. The factors associated with initial sprint performance were discussed previously but are an essential piece of the puzzle. Simply, an athlete cannot have repeat speed if he does not have speed. However, facilitating an expedited recovery between high-intensity efforts benefits from methods other than just repetitively sprinting with incomplete rest.

Bishop et al. ( 3 ) identify PCr resynthesis, aerobic fitness, and muscle buffering as the 3 primary determinants of recovery between sprints. Interestingly, PCr resynthesis rates are tightly tied to aerobic fitness levels, and improve in response to aerobic training. For example, performing 6–12 reps of 2 minutes at ∼100% V̇ o 2 max interspersed with 1 minute of rest leads to significant improvements in PCr resynthesis in the first 60 seconds after high-intensity activities, whereas no such improvements were found after a protocol involving 8 reps of 30 seconds at ∼130% V̇ o 2 max with 90 seconds of rest, or 15 reps of 6-second sprints with 60 seconds of active recovery ( 3 ). Given the evidence currently available, the authors of this review speculated that improved PCr resynthesis results from any training that improves aerobic capacity.

Aerobic training can also lead to improvements in anaerobic threshold. This serves to “raise the ceiling” on the amount of work that can be performed before transitioning into primarily anaerobic metabolism, minimizing the deleterious consequences of the pH disturbance and H+ ion accumulation associated with anaerobic glycolysis ( 7 ). Aerobic training can also improve lactate clearance rates, allowing the body to better use lactate as a supplementary fuel source at a given workload ( 2,16 ). Although far from a comprehensive review on the topic, this evidence lends credence to incorporating aerobic training as a means of improving repeat sprint ability in hockey players.

Designing training programs to meet the needs of professional hockey players requires a thorough analysis of the physical demands and injury patterns of the sport. The proposed assessment and testing protocol provides an example of a comprehensive profiling process, providing feedback about the athletes' strengths and weaknesses that can be used to help drive a more individualized approach to program design. Programming for this population requires a strategic balance of improving movement competency and physical development across a wide range of athletic qualities as a means of maximizing both performance and durability. Special attention must be paid to the exhausting demands of the season in designing a preparatory off-season program, and ensuring sufficient flexibility in an in-season program to accommodate the readiness of the players. The recommended programming strategies are designed to best accomplish these goals, while also recognizing that every program is just a template, a starting place from which to make adjustments based on the specific needs of the situation.

• Cited Here |
• View Full Text | PubMed | CrossRef |
• Google Scholar
• View Full Text | CrossRef |
• View Full Text | PubMed |
• PubMed | CrossRef |

energy systems; ice hockey; injuries; periodization; programming; skating; biomechanics; testing

• + Favorites
• View in Gallery

Readers Of this Article Also Read

A strength and conditioning approach for ice hockey, sport-specific training for ice hockey, velocity-based training in football, velocity-based training: from theory to application, dynamic correspondence of the hang power clean to skating starts in men's ice....

Articles on ice hockey

Displaying all articles.

‘Loyal to the Oil’: Finding religion in the Stanley Cup finals

Cody Musselman , Arts & Sciences at Washington University in St. Louis and Judith Ellen Brunton , Harvard University

The Toronto Maple Leafs should not play hardball with its Core Four players

Ryan Clutterbuck , Brock University

The National Aboriginal Hockey Championship celebrates the strength of Indigenous sporting communities

Taylor McKee , Brock University and Carriera Joy Lamoureux , Brock University

Hockey Canada’s issues go beyond a few bad apples — the entire system needs to be  re-engineered

Jennifer Walinga , Royal Roads University

Hockey’s wake-up call: Neck guards should be mandatory following Adam Johnson’s death

Olivia Aguiar , Simon Fraser University

What the end of Nike’s sponsorship means for Hockey Canada

Taylor McKee , Brock University

As teams from the U.S. Sun Belt proceed to the Stanley Cup finals, has the NHL forgotten its Canadian fans?

John Valentine , MacEwan University

To mend the shredded fabric of Canadian sport, Canada needs an independent standards commission

Ann Pegoraro , University of Guelph and Milena M. Parent , L’Université d’Ottawa/University of Ottawa

The 2023 World Ice Hockey Championship is a breakthrough moment for women’s hockey

Julie Stevens , Brock University

Culture change at Hockey Canada is about more than replacing those in charge

Saara Liinamaa , University of Guelph

Hockey Canada scandal highlights toxic masculinity in sports

Michael Kehler , University of Calgary and Gabriel Knott-Fayle , University of Calgary

Winter drownings may increase in northern countries as ice thins with climate change

Sapna Sharma , York University, Canada

For the love of the game: What old men’s hockey can teach young players

Kristi Allain , St. Thomas University (Canada)

Don Cherry debacle highlights the whiteness of hockey

Ryan Snelgrove , University of Waterloo and Victoria Kabetu , University of Waterloo

The death of the CWHL presents a new opportunity for women’s professional hockey

Understanding the science of para ice hockey

Alicia M Gal , Carleton University

History shows Sidney Crosby could have stood up to racial injustice

Blayne Haggart , Brock University

Game over: how professional athletes can have a career after sport

Steve McKenna , Curtin University and Julia Richardson , Curtin University

More sex during South Africa’s World Cup meant more boys nine months on

Gwinyai Masukume , University of the Witwatersrand and Victor Grech , University of Malta

Related Topics

• Canadian sport
• hockey canada
• Listen to this article
• National Hockey League (NHL)

Top contributors

Assistant Professor, Sport Management, Brock University

Professor, Sport Management and Director, Centre for Sport Capacity, Brock University

Professor of Human Resource Management, Head of School of Management, Curtin University

Medical Doctor, Epidemiologist and Biostatistician, University of the Witwatersrand

Associate Professor of Political Science, Brock University

Co-Chair, Humanities, Medicine and Sciences Programme, University of Malta

Professor in Sport (Event) Governance, L’Université d’Ottawa/University of Ottawa

Research Professor, Masculinities Studies, School of Education, University of Calgary

Associate Professor, Department of Sociology, St. Thomas University (Canada)

Professor of Sport Management, University of Waterloo

Postdoctoral Research Associate of Religion and Politics, Arts & Sciences at Washington University in St. Louis

Professor, Communication and Culture, Royal Roads University

Postdoctoral Scholar of Masculinities Studies in Education, University of Calgary

Assistant Professor in Sport Management, Brock University

Lang Chair in Sport Management, Lang School of Business and Economics, University of Guelph

• X (Twitter)
• Unfollow topic Follow topic

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Sports (Basel)

What Is Injury in Ice Hockey: An Integrative Literature Review on Injury Rates, Injury Definition, and Athlete Exposure in Men’s Elite Ice Hockey

Anthony s. donskov.

1 Department of Kinesiology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 357, Canada; ac.owu@4rhpmuhd (D.H.); ac.owu@yekcidj (J.P.D.)

2 Donskov Strength & Conditioning, Columbus, OH 43229, USA

David Humphreys

James p. dickey.

Injuries in men’s elite ice hockey have been studied over the past 40 years, however, there is a lack of consensus on definitions of both injury and athlete exposure. These inconsistencies compromise the reliability and comparability of the research. While many individual studies report injury rates in ice hockey, we are not aware of any literature reviews that have evaluated the definitions of injury and athlete exposure in men’s elite ice hockey. The purpose of this integrative review was to investigate the literature on hockey musculoskeletal injury to determine injury rates and synthesize information about the definitions of injury and athlete exposure. Injury rates varied from 13.8/1000 game athlete exposures to 121/1000 athlete exposures as measured by player-game hours. The majority of variability between studies is explained by differences in the definitions of both injury and athlete exposure. We were unable to find a consensus injury definition in elite ice hockey. In addition, we were unable to observe a consistent athlete exposure metric. We recommend that a consistent injury definition be adopted to evaluate injury risk in elite ice hockey. We recommend that injuries should be defined by a strict list that includes facial lacerations, dental injuries, and fractures. We also recommend that athlete exposure should be quantified using player-game hours.

1. Introduction

Ice hockey is a high intensity sport where players can reach speeds of up to 48 kph [ 1 ]. These speeds, and the nature of collision sports lead to musculoskeletal injuries at all levels of ice hockey [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. There is a need to accurately quantify injury rates in men’s elite ice hockey both for assessing player risk [ 4 ] and the associated economic burden [ 5 ]. Injury rates in ice hockey have been investigated in order to assess injury trends, injury types, injury location, and underlying injury mechanisms [ 6 ]. Injury rates can also be used to quantify the effects of rule changes [ 7 ]. Accurate data is needed in order to better investigate areas of concern while objectifying the effects of rule changes and other preventative measures [ 8 , 9 ].

Differences in the definitions for injury and athlete exposure (AE) lead to inconsistencies between studies, and obscure the resulting injury rates. Consensus statements on injury definitions and data collection procedures have been developed for soccer [ 10 ] and rugby [ 11 ], but have not been developed for ice hockey. Consistent definitions and methods to evaluate ice hockey injuries are required [ 12 ] to improve the comparability of published data [ 8 ]. Our objective was to review global musculoskeletal injury rates in men’s elite ice hockey, as well as definitions of injury and athlete exposure. We focused our review on males as females have different types and rates of injury than males [ 13 ]. We focused on elite players aged 16 years and older playing junior hockey (United States Hockey League, North American Hockey League, Canadian Hockey League), US and Canadian College Hockey (NCAA Div. 1 and Div. III, Canadian Inter-University Sport), international or minor professional and professional hockey (Finnish Elite League, Swedish Elite League, Japanese Elite League, International Ice Hockey and the National Hockey League) as this cohort has not been as extensively studied as other levels such as high school and youth hockey [ 14 , 15 ]. In addition, the economic burden of injury at this level is high. During two seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL), injuries represented a total salary cost of US $218 million per year. While salary losses represent a significant financial burden, it is hoped that improved injury surveillance will reduce these costs.

2. Materials and Methods

We conducted an integrative literature review [ 16 ] to evaluate musculoskeletal injury rates, injury definition and athlete exposure measurement in elite ice hockey. We formulated three research questions a priori to focus our review: What is the rate of musculoskeletal injuries in men’s elite ice hockey? In elite ice hockey, what injury definition is best suited to enable direct comparisons among research studies? Finally, in elite ice hockey, what measure of athlete exposure is best suited to achieve consistent and comparable injury rates?

Literature Search

A PubMed search strategy was created with the assistance of a University research librarian. PubMed was chosen as a search engine as it is the optimal tool in life sciences and biomedicine [ 17 ]. The search strategy used the key words: hockey AND (injury OR injuries) AND (NHL OR national OR international OR world OR competitive OR professional OR elite OR high caliber OR high caliber OR collegiate OR university OR intercollegiate OR NCAA OR “National Collegiate Athletic Association”). In addition, the same search strategy was performed on SPORTDiscus. The PubMed and SPORTDiscus records of these references were pooled and screened based on established inclusion and exclusion criteria ( Table 1 ). Articles that were not relevant to our research questions were excluded. The references in the remaining papers were reviewed to identify additional relevant articles. All studies were reviewed by both authors for their relevance to the three research questions.

Inclusion/exclusion criteria for literature search.

All studies were reviewed by both authors. The study methodology, and outcome measures were extracted.

Original, peer-reviewed, English language research articles evaluating the injury rates in elite ice hockey were included. Articles were excluded if they were editorials, abstracts, books or excerpts from conference proceedings. Articles were excluded if they did not contain one of the following variables: injury definition, injury rate, athlete exposure, injury mechanism or injury location. Unpublished data was not reviewed.

The PubMed and SPORTDiscus search identified 2463 references. An additional 3 pertinent articles were identified from the references for these articles. A total of 2212 articles were vetted after 254 duplicate articles were removed. Two-thousand, one-hundred and eighty-four of these articles were excluded as they were not relevant to any of our three research questions. No relevant articles were published prior to 1975. Accordingly, a total of 28 articles were included ( Figure 1 ).

Flowchart describing the process for selecting relevant studies. The top row represents the identification process. The second and third rows represent the screening process. The fourth row represents the eligibility of the articles assessed and the last row identifies the articles included.

3.1. Rate of Musculoskeletal Injuries in Men’s Elite Ice Hockey (Question #1)

Injury rate data, and study design characteristics are presented for each of the 28 studies in Table 2 . Injury rates in competitive ice hockey range from 13.8 to 121/1000 player-game hours, depending on factors such as the league of play and exposure estimate. Professional players in Europe and North America experience musculoskeletal injury rates between 49 to 80/1000 AE as measured in player-game hours [ 4 , 18 ] while the collegiate hockey players in Canada and the United States experience lower rates (13.8 to 19.95/1000 AE) as measured in player games [ 19 , 20 ]. The highest injury rates are experienced at the junior level (39.8 to 121/1000 player-game hours) [ 21 , 22 ]. The majority of these musculoskeletal injuries are attributed to collision with other players, the boards or the hockey puck [ 18 , 20 , 23 , 24 ].

Summary of papers evaluating injury definition, injury rate, athlete exposure and injury mechanism in men’s elite ice hockey.

TOI * = Time on Ice. ** = Author did not specify how injury rate was calculated.

The injury rates in practice are much lower than games. Practice rates range between 1.4/1000 player-practice hours for Swedish Elite hockey [ 30 ] to 3.9/1000 player-practice hours for junior hockey [ 21 ], versus game injury rates of 74.3/1000 player-game hours [ 38 ] and 121/1000 player-game hours [ 34 ], respectively. Although the injury rates are lower for practices, the number of hours spent in practices is several-fold greater than games, so the actual number of injuries is higher than indicated by the injury rate.

Several long-term studies have assessed patterns in injury rates over time. For example, injury rates in the Finnish Elite League have increased from the 1970s (54/1000 AE) to the 1990s (83/1000 AE) using the player-game hours exposure estimate [ 35 ] (20 years). Overall game injury rates increased 1.8% annually over a seven-year period (2000–2007) in men’s NCAA ice hockey using the player game estimate. Practice rates also increased 7.8% annually during this time [ 39 ]. In contrast, on average, injury rates have decreased between 2007 and 2013 in men’s International Ice Hockey Federation World Championship tournaments [ 42 ] (6-years). One Canadian Intercollegiate team also experienced decreases in injury rate over a six-year period from 11.3 to 8.30/1000 player games (1991–1996) [ 37 ] (6-years).

There was a large variance in injury rates between studies. This large variance is a function of variability in the definitions for both injury and athlete exposure. As noted in previous papers, establishing consistent definitions of injury and athlete exposure are important first steps for objectifying injury risks in high caliber ice hockey [ 10 , 45 ].

3.2. Injury Definition in Men’s Elite Ice Hockey (Question #2)

Probably the most important methodological factor affecting injury rate calculations is the definition of what constitutes an injury [ 45 ]. A review investigating the methods of data collection on injury surveillance identified three categories of injury definitions [ 45 ]. Category 1 defines injuries as all complaints regardless of time loss. All injuries are recorded, regardless of the severity or amount of time lost from competition. Category 2 defines injuries as events that require medical attention by a member of the medical staff. Therefore, according to this definition, a member of the medical staff, typically a team therapist or team doctor, must diagnose the injury. Finally, category 3 defines injuries as events that have a time loss element. Accordingly, an injury is only recorded if the athlete misses a team-related practice or competition. Individual studies typically fit into one, or more of these categories.

Our review identified 28 studies evaluating injuries in elite ice hockey. Early research investigating injury rates in the Swedish Elite League, and the Swedish National team used the time loss definition of injury (Category 3). As shown in Table 2 , the majority of ice hockey injuries studies use either a time loss (Category 3) or medical attention definition (Category 2). None of the articles evaluating injuries in elite ice hockey used the all complaints definition (Category 1).

Our review found inconsistent definitions of a reportable injury in ice hockey research based on the time loss definition. In addition, the list of injuries has expanded over time. Facial lacerations were considered reportable injuries in 1991 [ 24 ], while sutures, fractures, dislocations and subluxations were added in 1992 [ 23 ]. Concussions, dental and eye injuries were added in subsequent years [ 20 , 21 ], potentially increasing injury rates by expanding the list of injuries. In addition, illness may be counted as an injury, inflating the injury rates [ 23 ].

The definition of injury based on medical attention (Category 2) has also been used to quantify competitive ice hockey injury rates [ 31 , 34 , 38 ]. However, this metric is often combined with the time loss component to result in a broader interpretation of injuries [ 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 35 , 42 ]. For example, injuries such as concussions, dental injuries, lacerations and eye injuries are captured with medical attention by a team physician or athletic trainer, resulting in a more extensive list of ice hockey related injuries compared to definitions that did not include these injuries [ 45 ]. Of note, some studies have expanded their list to include illnesses and psychological complaints that are unrelated to injury [ 46 ].

The time loss definition (Category 3) is the easiest to use as it is easy to track time loss. However, it leads to the fewest reported incidents [ 45 ] as it fails to capture the athletes that continue to train and play while injured [ 47 ]. Depending on the time of year, some injuries may be under reported as injured players continue to play throughout key time periods, such as playoffs. The medical attention definition (Category 2), though broader and encompassing a greater number of conditions, also has limitations. The subjective interpretation of what constitutes medical attention may lead to systemic bias [ 48 ], and the types of injuries managed by the various practitioners may differ based on their qualifications and status [ 45 ].

3.3. Athlete Exposure Metric in Men’s Elite Ice Hockey (Question #3)

Athlete exposure is the second component of injury rate. An athlete exposure is defined as one athlete participating in a practice or game in which there is a potential for athletic injury [ 49 ]. Injury rates are typically based on 1000 athlete exposures. These exposure rates can be quantified as injuries per 1000 game-hours (or injuries per 1000 games), injuries per 1000 practice-hours, or overall injuries per 1000 AEs (games and practices combined). Injury per 1000 player-game hours is based on a 60-min active game and is calculated as the number of injuries/number of players on the ice at the same time (6)/number of games × 1000. Many researchers use this method [ 18 , 21 , 24 , 30 , 31 , 33 , 34 ]. However, this exposure estimate is not used consistently among researchers. For example, several studies accounted for both teams when calculating athlete exposure (number of injuries/number of players on ice at the same time (two teams)/number of games × 1000 [ 22 , 42 ]. In contrast, another study used a 20 person roster, including the back-up goaltender, to calculate athlete exposure per 1000 player-game hours [ 38 ]. This larger number of players will lead to a smaller injury rate.

Our review identified different nomenclatures pertaining to the athlete exposure metric, such as player-games and player-game hours [ 42 ]. The number of athletes used to quantify these exposure rates vary between studies, and are not consistently defined. For example, one researcher [ 42 ] calculated player-game injury rates based on 22 players competing for each team in a game (i.e., 44 players) while another [ 30 ] calculated player-game hours injury rates based on 6 players. This was based on the number of players on the ice at a time, and whether goaltenders were included. Other researchers have used roster averages over a set period of time [ 36 , 37 ], or a tournament [ 22 , 42 ] to calculate player-game injury rates.

Injury per 1000 games is the average number of injuries that one player experiences per 1000 games (number of injuries/total number of players (roster)/number of games × 1000 [ 20 , 37 ]. Our review found different implementations of this approach as there was some research that counted both rosters when computing athlete exposure [ 42 ]. This has an effect on total estimated exposures and can lead to reduced injury rates. Finally, several articles did not fully describe whether they included both rosters or a single team roster when calculating athlete exposures [ 19 , 23 ], making it difficult to determine accurate injury rates.

In addition, we investigated the impact of calculating injury rate based on the actual time on ice (TOI) [ 4 , 50 ]. Using the actual time on ice, injury rate was calculated as the number of injury events/sum of individual AE time as found on the player statistics page ( www.nhl.com/stats/player ). The time on ice was calculated based on the number of minutes and seconds that each individual played per game over the season. The difference between estimated athlete exposure (number of injuries/number of teams (30)/number of players on roster each game (19)/number of games (82)) and the TOI metric was large. As much as three times the amount of exposure was identified by estimating exposure rates. However, when comparing the time on ice metric to the estimated player game-hour metric, the differences were minimal. The player game-hour exposure (based on one hour per game rather than the actual amount of time that players spent on ice, which changes due to overtime periods and penalties) is similar to the time on ice calculations (14,676.2 h calculated as the sum of players’ time on ice versus 14,760 h calculated as 30 teams × 82 games × 6 players) [ 4 ].

Our review found that practice athlete exposure was calculated consistently in most studies. Injury per 1000 practice hours (number of injuries/number of practice hours/number of players on team × 1000) was the standard [ 21 , 30 , 33 , 34 ].

4. Discussion

Injury rates in men’s elite ice hockey are higher in professional leagues such as the Swedish Elite League [ 31 ] and Finnish National League [ 33 ] than college hockey [ 19 , 20 , 23 ]. This may be due to the differing demands as professional players play more games in a season, and therefore may experience more overuse injuries. It may also be due to the athlete exposure estimation (player-game hours vs. player-games) used to calculate injury rate. Style of play and hockey rink dimensions are additional variables that may influence injury rate. Overall, we observed the trend that injury rates have increased over time in professional European leagues [ 35 ] and college hockey [ 39 ], while decreasing in men’s international ice hockey [ 42 ].

We observed a wide range of injury definitions. This affects both the reliability and comparability of injury surveillance research. There is currently a consensus-based injury definition in sports such as soccer and rugby [ 10 , 11 ]; however, there is no consensus injury definition in ice hockey. We recommend that hockey forms a consensus injury definition as this will resolve an important issue that currently impedes hockey injury research. A consistent injury definition would create clarity as to which injury is considered a recordable event. We identified the International Ice Hockey Federation’s (IIHF) definition of injury as the most appropriate as it only captures events that are sufficiently severe that they influence participation in practices or games. The IIHF’s definition describes a reportable event as “any injury sustained in a practice or game that prevented the player from returning to the same practice or game; any injury sustained in a practice or game that caused the player to miss a subsequent practice or game; a laceration which required medical attention; all dental injuries; all concussions; all fractures” [ 42 ]. Although no single definition suits all needs, the time loss definition is the most common and easy to identify. It is considered reliable and allows for the comparison of data between teams, seasons and various leagues [ 45 ]. It is also used in other professional sports such as cricket and Australian football [ 51 , 52 ]. The choice of definition should reflect the aims and goals of surveillance. With its consistency, ease of use, and comparability of published data [ 8 ] among the most important variables, we feel the time-loss definition best meets the needs of injury surveillance in men’s elite ice hockey. However, like all definitions there are limitations in choosing this metric. First, athletes often continue to compete in the presence of injury. Delaying treatment may lead to missed injuries. Finally, the threshold for time loss may depend on the time of season and how important the player is to team success [ 45 ]. Despite these drawbacks, we feel the strengths of the time-loss definition outweigh its limitations and that the IIHF’s time-loss definition is warranted in elite men’s ice hockey.

We also noted that athlete exposure estimations were inconsistent in the literature. The major confusion lies in how many participants are included in the injury rate calculation. Several researchers used player-game exposure based on the entire team, or average team roster (19 players) [ 20 , 36 , 37 ], while others used player-game hour exposures based on 6 players [ 18 , 21 , 24 , 30 , 34 ]. This leads to difficulty in interpreting injury rates and comparing research. It was proposed that the gold standard in athlete exposure during games is time on ice. As much as three times the amount of exposure was accounted for by estimating exposure rates using the player-game approximation compared to time on ice. However, when comparing the time on ice metric to the estimated player game-hour metric (based on one hour per game, rather than the actual amount of time that players spent on ice) it appears that this difference is small [ 4 ]. Therefore, the simplest and easiest way to calculate athlete exposure is to use six players on the ice (player-game hours) unless position specific injury rate information is warranted. Using a consistent athlete exposure metric will increase intra- and inter-league injury rate reliability.

The majority of studies reviewed found that collision with other players is the leading mechanism of injury as well as contact with the boards, opponent’s hockey sticks and hockey pucks [ 22 , 35 , 36 ]. This leads to an injury paradox: the goal of the sports performance specialist is to build bigger, faster, stronger, leaner, more powerful, robust players. However, these types of players also travel faster, and hit harder, elevating the risk of injury. This situation emphasizes the need for accurate injury surveillance methods as these may help reinforce rules and/or govern the addition of new rules enforcing safety for active players.

Limitations

There are limitations to this study. There is a relative paucity of studies evaluating injury rates in men’s elite ice hockey, and the definitions of injury and athlete exposures vary between studies. Accordingly, the reported injury rates differ between studies and are difficult to interpret. Two databases (PubMed and SPORTDiscus) were used to identify research papers that were relevant to injury definition, injury rates and athlete exposure in elite ice hockey. While these databases are an excellent source for research articles in sports, life sciences and biomedicine, supplemental databases may have identified additional research studies.

5. Conclusions

In summary, this project represents the first integrative literature review investigating injury rates, injury definition and AE in men’s elite ice hockey. The greatest opportunities for continued improvement lie in both consistency and comparability to refine, improve and streamline calculations of injury rate.

At the current moment, a uniform definition of injury is the most important step to better objectify injury data in ice hockey. A universal definition is required by sport governing bodies and researchers. Though each approach has its limitations, in order to compare exposure rates in both the intra- and inter-league, a workable, consistent definition is required. Specific responsibility should be given in terms of who will diagnose the injury if the definition is a time loss definition, a medical attention definition, or a combination. In addition, a detailed injury list is needed to clarify the definition of injury and whether specific injuries such as dental, concussions, and facial lacerations, are included.

Finally, disparate AE estimations diminish injury rates, which compromises research findings. Attendance rate in both practice and games (player-game hours based on 6 players per game and the full roster during practices) is the preferred method for calculating athlete exposure.

Further Research

Investigating anatomical areas prone to injury is crucial for team performance staff such as athletic therapists, physical therapists and strength and conditioning specialists as it may guide rehabilitation initiatives, performance program design and athlete monitoring [ 53 ]. We observed that the lower extremities was the most common site of musculoskeletal injury.

Future research should clearly define injury rate measurements to provide doctors, therapists, and coaches with accurate information to streamline return to play initiatives. In this regard, our review has exposed gaps including the disparate definition of injury and the lack of a consistent athlete exposure metric.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank David Lesauvage, Library Assistant, University of Western Ontario, Canada, for his contribution in refining a comprehensive search strategy for our review. The authors declare they have no competing interest. The study complied with the laws of the country of the authors’ affiliation.

Author Contributions

Study conceptualization, A.S.D.; methodology, A.S.D.; formal analysis, original draft preparation, A.S.D.; writing—review and editing, A.S.D., D.H. and J.P.D.; project administration, J.P.D.

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

•  We're Hiring!
•  Help Center
• Most Cited Papers
• Most Downloaded Papers
• Newest Papers
• Last »
• Sports Fans Follow Following
• Sport history Follow Following
• Leisure (Social Sciences) Follow Following
• The Culture of Technologies and Interfaces Follow Following
• Canadian History Follow Following
• Hockey Follow Following
• Business History Follow Following
• Video Game Follow Following
• Sport Marketing Follow Following
• Hockey Arenas Follow Following

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• Academia.edu Journals
•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

Sports Research Paper Topics and Ideas

Research paper topics on sport, huh! The mere mention of sports research papers elicits biological reactions that can turn out good or bad. Sports is a global culture that connects people from diverse backgrounds.

If you are lucky enough to have a chance to study sports science or any related program, you will at some point be required to write an essay or a research paper on a unique sports topic. It could be on football, athletics, basketball, Superbowl, Hokey, Skating, Olympics, or Commonwealth Games, you name it.

But as you might have noticed, sport is a multidisciplinary field. While it is just every physical activity that everyone does, sports has a unique role in the society and on a personal level.

It is easy to underestimate this article, but prior to writing it we had questions like I am stuck with my 1000 words essay on sports, what I write on? Another one was, So I have a research paper due that can be about anything I want. I've been wanting to do one on the NBA, so do you guys have any academic topics I can write about the NBA?

The trauma of choosing a great sports research paper topic or a sports essay topic is too much. Now, let's get the pressure of your chest by sharing an up to date list of topics for your research paper or essay.

Why Trust our Research Paper Topics List

We have picked and listed some of the best research paper topics for your sports assignments or homework. Here are some reasons to trust us:

• Our team of expert sports writers has handled hundreds of sports essays, term papers, and research papers.
• Some of us are experts in sports science attached to some of the best local and international teams.
• We understand what topics are great for college students.
• Our website helps many students generate fresh sports research paper topic ideas : we help you brainstorm.
• We are lovers of sports, specifically football and sometimes our free time and lunch are spent discussing sports.

Now, you can go on and trust our best pick sports research topics for college students. In this list, you will find topics relating to sports science, sports medicine, and softball, sports psychology, hokey, Jokey, chess, football, sports marketing, sport management, and many more. This is an invitation already to get things started.

Doping Research Paper Topics and Ideas for College Students

• The ethics of doping among athletes?
• Consequences of steroids used in doping.
• Role of athletes in preventing Doping.
• The role of Doping Control Officers.
• Is the mandatory testing of drugs during a competition fair?
• The World Anti-Doping Code.
• Doping and sports functionality.
• WADA drug testing procedures.
• The Anti-doping rules
• Pros and Cons of Performance-Enhancing Drugs
• Is doping necessary?
• Controlled doping.
• Doping cases in cycling races.
• Risks of doping on athletes.
• Explore a recent doping case including the impacts it had on the sports personality.
• Methods used to detect anabolic steroids used in doping in sports.
• The role of athletes and sport managers in controlling doping.
• The anti-doping fund and its significance in the sports industry.
• What substances or methods (banned and permitted) are more common in endurance sports?
• Specifically, what substances or methods (banned and permitted) enhance oxygen transfer?
• What is known about the health risks of banned substances or methods that enhance oxygen transfer (i.e. EPO, blood transfusion)?
• What substances or methods (banned and permitted) mask fatigue or assist alertness?
• What is known about the health risks of banned substances or methods that mask fatigue or assist alertness?
• What substances or methods (banned and permitted) are more common in strength/power sports?
• Specifically, what substances or methods (banned and permitted) enhance muscle growth, repair or recovery?
• What is known about the health risks of banned substances or methods that enhance muscle growth, repair or recovery (i.e. anabolic steroids, human growth hormone)?
• What substances or methods (banned and permitted) are more common in sports with weight categories (i.e. Boxing, Judo)?
• What is known about the health risks of diuretics, clenbuterol (beta2agonist)?
• Of the three criteria, WADA use to assess substances and methods, which is the most important? Which is the most difficult to define?
• What is meant by �the Spirit of Sport'? Other than deliberate doping, what else might contravene the Spirit of Sport?
• Do you agree with the WADA criteria? What else do you think should be considered?
• Only two of the three criteria need to be met for a substance or method to be placed on the banned list. Do you support this approach?

Related: Creative topics for college research papers (general).

Sports Marketing Research Paper Topic Ideas

• Explore the role of corporate sponsorship in sports
• Use of big data in sports marketing
• Marketing strategies that engage football fans.
• Nike's marketing strategy.
• How female athletes affect brand loyalty of sports goods consumers.
• The use of social media in sports marketing.
• Can SMEs thrive through sports marketing?
• Marketing mix in sports.
• NBA marketing strategies.
• Marketing Budgets for International Sports such as the Olympics and Commonwealth Games.
• Viral sports promotion.
• Greenwashing in sports advertising.
• Sources of revenue in sports apart from tickets.
• Using digital media to market local sports.
• Banned Sports Ads, why?
• Sports celebrities and marketing of food substances.
• Effectiveness of Strategies used by Superbowl in advertisements.

Cricket Research Paper Topics

• Impacts of cricket on softball sports.
• History of cricket.
• Cricket is better than football?
• Are the best cricket players from India?
• Hawk-eye complex in cricket matches.
• Do cricket players get injuries? What are some of the injuries?
• Protective equipment when playing cricket.
• Explaining cricket game rules.
• A descriptive essay on how cricket is played.
• Tactics and techniques to win a cricket match
• Do cricket fans follow it religiously like football?
• Eye and Head injuries when playing and training for Cricket.
• Who holds the current cricket world championship?

Argumentative Essay Topics for a Sports Research Paper

• Is chess a sport?
• Are sprinters of Jamaica the first in Athletics World Championships and the Olympic games?
• Sports is the best stress relief for both players and fans.
• Is Michael Jordan everyone's role model?
• Should the world cup be gendered?
• NBA needs to have stricter dress code rules.
• Is FIFA competent in managing sports globally?
• Should Major League baseball be outlawed?
• Sporting injuries negatively impact stress management
• Stress affects the performance of athletes.
• Should college athletes be paid?
• Trauma in sports can have a lifelong impact on psychological, physical, and emotional progress in children.
• Should fast-food advertising in sports be banned?
• Sport is a unifying factor
• Gambling should be legalized
• Should kids be forced on what sports to love or adopt?
• Should transgender people choose where to participate in sports?
• Ice Hockey has high chances of injuries.
• Extreme sports requires psychological preparedness.
• Do clubs help athletes and sportspeople?
• Betting on sports depends on match-fixing
• Betting is unethical
• Players should receive royalties from sponsors
• Should men and women in sports get the same salary?

Tennis Research Paper Topics

• Tennis is both a mind and a physical game.
• Is Serena Williams the best Tennis Player ever lived?
• The best approach to training tennis to young children.
• Impacts of mental and emotional training on tennis players.
• Management of competitive pressures among tennis players.
• Strategies to win a tennis tournament.
• Describe your best Tennis player.
• Compare double and single tennis matches
• The role of elastic therapeutic tape in treating common tennis injuries
• The common types of injuries and complications for tennis players
• Personal traits of the best tennis player
• History of table tennis
• A profile essay on Serena Williams
• A profile essay on Althea Gibson
• Mechanics of tennis
• Types of tennis
• Describe the game of tennis
• What equipment do tennis players use?
• Describe the normal training schedule and scope for a tennis player.
• Analyzing game dynamics in Tennis
• Role of technology in tennis matches
• The best life lessons from tennis players
• The World Tennis Association
• Is indoor tennis a different game?
• Tennis is largely dominated by women, explain?
• Allison Riske as a tennis star
• Autobiography of Irwin Homes
• The best tennis tournament
• Indoor and outdoor tennis courts, a comparison essay.
• Is Cori Coco Gauff the Heir Apparent to Serena William's Throne?
• Impacts of coaching programs on tennis.
• Analysis of the Backhand stroke in tennis.
• Serena Williams Biography.
• Australian Open- is it the best tennis tournament?

Sports Medicine Research Paper

• Impacts of swimming on endurance and balance among athletes.
• Is Keto Diet the best for athletes.
• Significance of Caffeine among athletes.
• Effects of sports practice on people with heart disease.
• Is the 1.59 INEOS challenge physiologically viable?
• Impacts of doping on athletes' bodies.
• The kinesiology of bowling.
• Common knee injuries in sports
• Muscle strains- prevention, treatment, and causes.
• Is the ironman challenge detrimental to competing athletes?
• Health impacts of Triathlon and Duathlon games.
• Safety issues in scuba diving.
• Consequences of steroid use among athletes
• Anatomy of the heart of a sports person.
• How important is an ACSM Certification in today's sports medicine world?
• Training hip flexor for sprinting.
• Is HRV an accurate tool to quantify training load in athletes?
• Effects of carbohydrate loading before a sports competition?
• Why are drug tests necessary for athletes?
• Good strategies to measure torque development rate in athletes
• Role of BMI in sports
• Impacts of stretching on muscles
• How to build endurance and resistance among athletes
• Use of the Kinesio-Taping in Olympic Games
• Impacts of clothing on sports performance
• Can lightweight outdoor clothing prevent hypothermia for low-intensity training exercises?
• The heart rate of female referees is always lower than males in basketball matches, explain.
• Can NASM CORRECTIVE EXERCISES CONTINUUM prevent sport injury?
• Does meniscus injury symptoms decrease after ACL reconstruction?
• ACL protocol guidelines for rehabilitation for better recovery
• Low laser therapy in muscle performance
• Methods to assess recovery after intensive sports competition
• Recovery protocols among trained and elite athletes
• Impacts of cycling on the body anatomy of professional cyclists
• Physiotherapy in sports
• Health screening procedures for elite athletes
• Significance of analyzing ACTH and Cortisol ration in sports
• Fat intake in acyclic or team sports
• Exercise-induced acidosis
• Physical exercise and bone geometry
• Does secondary amenorrhea jeopardize the physical and mental health of young healthy female athletes?
• Are there long-term consequences of repeated brachial plexus injuries (e.g. "stingers") that occur during contact sports (e.g. football and rugby)?
• Measuring hamstring performance
• Roles of team doctor in clubs
• Use of Ayurvedic drugs in sports medicine
• Causes of deaths in sports competitions such as football and Olympics

Topics on Sports Injuries for Essays and Research Papers

• Use of technology in diagnosis, treatment, and management of sports injuries.
• Types of injuries encountered by bodybuilders, powerlifters, and weightlifters.
• Common injuries in football fields.
• Hamstring injuries- causes, prevention, and management.
• The impacts of psychological strengths on recovery by athletes.
• Treatment of injuries in children and youths in sports.
• First aid strategies for sports
• The use of therapeutic tape in sports
• Consequences of overtraining
• Brain concussions in sports
• Role of helmets and protective gear in sports
• Athletic varicose disease
• Fatigue in sports, causes, and consequences
• Treating chronic and acute strains in athletes
• Sudden deaths in sports
• Acute pathologic conditions among athletes
• Dislocations in sports
• Chest and breast traumas in sports

Sports Psychology Paper Topics

• Psychology of women in sports
• Do team chant help in boosting morale?
• The concept of adrenaline junkies in sports
• Hygiene in sports- what are some of the best practices?
• ADHD in sports
• Selfies craze in sports
• Do sports trophies impact self-esteem?
• Use of neurolinguistics programming in sports.
• Psychological impacts of drugs in sports.
• The role of sports psychologists in the training athletes.
• Yoga and meditation in sports.
• Mental health issues in sports.
• Gender-based issues in contemporary sports
• Benefits of psychological preparation for sportspeople
• The motivation of female and male athletes
• Aggression in sports
• The psychological causes of football hooliganism
• Mental impacts of losing much competition
• How coaches develop self-confidence in college athletes
• Assessing the psychological wellbeing of a player by their actions in the field.
• Causes of aggression and violence among the fans.
• The psychology of referees.
• Impacts of low-motivation and confidence on sportspeople
• Impacts of fans on sports performance
• Distractions that hinder the full performance of athletes
• Career pathway of a sports psychologist
• Characteristics of sportspeople participating in extreme sports
• Physiological and psychological impacts of doping.
• The parenting styles of sports personalities.
• Life-work balance for athletes.

Related Articles: Good psychology topics for research papers.

Sports Nutrition Research Paper Topics

• Impacts of energy drinks on athletes.
• Athlete-centered nutritional plans in sports.
• Consequences of carbohydrate loading in sports.
• Use of supplements and steroids by bodybuilders
• Essential nutrients required for optimal performance in sports
• Collaboration between coaches and nutritionists
• Benefits of Vitamin D in Sport Nutrition
• Performance Nutrition for Young Athletes
• Whey proteins
• Encouraging healthy eating habits among athletes
• Meal plans for athletes participating in extreme sports
• Role of microelements in sports nutrition
• Use of protein isolate in sports nutrition
• Hydration among sportsmen
• Weight management among athletes
• The Global Sports Nutrition Market
• Ornithine, Arginine, and Citrulline in Exercise and Sports Nutrition
• Best recovery nutritional plan for athletes
• Short-term changes in dietary fats in duathlon and triathlon competitors
• Caffeine and creatinine use in sports
• Best foods for athletes
• Glycemic Index, Food Exchange Values, and Exercise Performance
• Are bananas a good source of energy for athletes?
• Pre-exercise eating among athletes
• Is vegetarianism the best approach for athletes and other sportspeople?
• Intermittent fasting among athletes
• Ketogenic dieting among athletes
• History of Sports Nutrition Beverages
• Pros and cons of paleo diet for athletes
• Efficacy of L-glutamine supplement on sports training and athletes
• Food matrix and synergic effect for exercise performance
• Benefits of the "Paleo" diet for health and performance.
• effects of diet on elite athletes' sports performance
• Best dietary approach for female athletes
• The best way of measuring fatty acid oxidation rate in athletes
• Is the effectiveness of caffeine reduced when combined with carbohydrates?
• How does resting metabolic rate change with different diets?
• Negative effects of (chocolate) milk intake for recovery reasons after endurance exercise
• Does a carbohydrate-protein beverage (CHO-P) improve endurance performance compared with a commercial sports beverage?
• Prevalence of use of dietary supplements among athletes
• Estrogen from Soy Protein
• Why do athletes have to go through a diarrhea stage when they gain maximum fitness?

Sports Theory Research Paper Topics for College and University Students

• Types of athletes : a comparative analysis
• Describe a peloton in cycling
• Coordination and Control in sports
• Football formations and their significance
• Nordic walking : biomechanics and comparison to normal walking.
• Scientific research and its role in sports.
• Nutritionists as a key part of sports performance.
• Endurance, Resistance, and Flexibility training for athletes.
• Drug testing policies.
• Drug testing bodies.
• Explore team sports.
• Short-term and Long-term training in sports.
• Anatomy of different sportsmen
• Gladiators and Rome: how did rules and staging affect gladiatorial games in ancient Rome?
• Stretching and sports performance
• Winners, Losers & Famous athletes: why was athletic fame important to the Greeks and Romans?
• Cultural identity and the role of sports in Asian countries
• Sports as a culture
• Understanding the role of technology in sports
• Sports as a nationalism element
• Sociological basis of sports
• The economic significance of sports
• Should The NBA Shorten Its Regular Season?
• Sport in Greek Society: why did the Greeks place such a high value on athletics?
• Homer and Sport: how does Homer portray Sport and its importance in his epic poems?
• Ancient Olympia: how were festival games and religion interconnected?
•   Women and Sport: what role was there for women (esp. Spartan women) in ancient sports

Sports Management Topics

• Promoting community awareness of sports
• Role of club leadership
• Blockchain in sports management
• Management of sports organization
• Corruption scandals affecting FIFA
• Analysis of the global sports industry
• Corporate sponsorships in sports
• How sports affect workplace performance and cohesion
• The motivation for football and basketball players
• Recruitment and selection in sports
• Women in sports leadership positions
• Funding sport events
• The bidding process for hosting major sport events
• Role of government in sports regulation
• Corruption in sports (match-fixing in football )
• How match-fixing ruins the integrity of the game

How UNODC and International Center for Sports Security FIFA stepped in to fight against match-fixing

• Betting proceeds in match-fixing - A case study
• Motivating factors for Match-fixing
• Title IX and its Impact on Collegiate Athletics: Implications for Gender and Finances
• Common Protocols and Training Mistakes Made in Professional Soccer

Hockey Research Paper Topics

Sometimes, you can be asked to write an essay on hockey. You might find choosing a topic for your hockey essay difficult. Therefore, we have listed some topics to get you started.

• Types of hockey
• Rules for playing hockey
• Protective gear is worn during hockey matches and training
• League versus Olympic hockey
• Is hockey profitable
• Does ice hockey have disadvantages?
• Hockey inventions that changed daily life
• Common hockey injuries
• Most popular celebrities that play hockey
• Causes of aggressiveness in hockey
• The popularity of hockey in the U.S., Canada, and Russia
• Evolution of Hockey

Sports Sociology Research Paper Topics

• Role of sports in promoting global peace
• Sports and discipline in schools and society
• Sports and academic performance
• Sports and the well-being of a community
• Transgender women in sports
• Racial issues in sports and sports advertising
• The role of gender in sports
• Women in sports
• Can athletes be good role models?
• Gender-based violence in sports
• Youth sports as a strategy to combat juvenile delinquency
• Hos sports unify people from different races
• Should physical education be mandatory?
• Contribution of sports to identity
• Impacts of sports on body shaming

Related: How to write a descriptive essay.

Esports Research Paper Topics

Electronic Sports, or eSports, has increasingly become popular given the advancement in technology and the decrease of digital divide. It is a multibillion-dollar industry that is attracting the deserved attention. There are many issues that can make for a good eSports topic. As it competitive gaming is done virtually, there are many aspects to consider: fandom, revenue, sponsorships, marketing, attitudes, perceptions, motivation, participation, gambling, and growth.

If you are assigned to write an eSports essay, follow the standard academic essay writing guidelines and consider the topics below. The same applies to writing an eSports research paper. Consider our pieces of advice in our research paper writing guide and choose a topic below to complete the paper.

• Foundation of Esports curricular in higher education
• Effectiveness of learning American football through video games
• Wall/Rock climbing versus virtual motion-based video game
• Reasons for the growth of esports industry revenue
• Comparison of intentions and behavior towards esports and sports
• Netizen�s behavior towards blockchain-based esports framework
• Frameworks that support the design of esports curricular in higher education
• Does participation in esports affect academic performance in higher education?
• Strategies for attracting sponsors for esports events
• Esports and match-fixing
• Rise of Esports industry and its potential for success in the UAE
• Importance of physical space and the demarcation of place in esports
• Impacts of covid-19 on esports
• Factors for the rise of esports
• Origin of esports
• Lower Extremity Disorders in Esports
• Neck and back disorders in eSports
• Brand image in eSports events
• How to plan and execute eSports events
• Role of peer mentoring in eSports
• Toxic masculinity in eSports
• Why Men and Women Play and Watch Esports Games
• Are esports venues the new opportunity in sports business?
• Esports and physical activity among the youth
• The link between esports and obesity
• Arena esports venues in Turkey
• Psychological impacts of esports in e-marketing
• Are professional esports players obese?
• Gender issues in esports industry
• Esports experiences of women players
• Should esports be included in Olympic games?
• The future of esports
• Why is esports considered not sports while chess is?
• Is esports a fake sport?
• The experience of Australian eSports spectatorship
• Difference between virtual NBA championship games and the real game
• Meaning and value of physicality in video games and non-digital sports
• The esports ecosystem
• Harassment in eSports industry
• Strategies for player protection in a hostile eSports venue
• Is eSports spectatorship authentic?
• The regulatory framework for eSports betting
• Exploring breadth of gambling involvement among esports bettors
• Institutionalization of eSports
• Online gambling activity, pay-to-win payments, motivation to gamble and coping strategies as predictors of gambling disorder among e-sports bettors
• Exploring an alternative interpretational framework for competitive gaming
• Dimensionalizing esports consumption: Alternative journeys to professional play
• Intellectual Property Rights of Gamers in Esports
• Perspectives of people on eSports
• An approach to electronic sports (eSports) from Intellectual Property
• Comparing behaviors and intentions toward sports and esports
• Motivations of eSports players
• Role of eSports in global peace
• Is eSports a male-dominated sport?
• Role of nutritionists in eSports
• Extreme sports vs. eSports
• Why people bet on eSports
• The eSports industry in Canada
• Sportification of Esports
• Factors for the Emergence of College eSports in North America.
• Should Esports Be a Co-Curricular Activity in School?
• ESports Gamers who Gamble
• The relationship between eSports Spectatorship and Event Wagering
• Adapting the Gambling Related Cognitions Scale (GRCS) for video game-related gambling
• Does esports spectating influence game consumption?
• What predicts esports betting?
• Participants, practices and problematic behaviour associated with emergent forms of gambling in eSports
• Comparing gratifications for engagement in live performance versus online eSports spectating
• The structure of performance and training in esports
• Management strategies for eSports business
• A typology of esports players
• Esports Transmediality
• Analysis of the legal-labor aspects of the eSports player in Brazil
• E-sports Polemic in National Sports
• The ethical and political contours of institutional promotion in esports
• Esports, Skins Betting, and Wire Fraud Vulnerability
• eSports and Fraud
• The Business Model Network of eSports
• Motivation to Play Digital Sports Games and Moral Decision-Making Attitudes of youths
• Is eSports the answer to rising unemployment rates globally?
• Esports industry in Germany
• Energy Expenditure during eSports
• Governance structures in eSports
• How millenials perceive eSports
• Gendered Differences in Peer and Spectator Feedback During Competitive Video Game Play
• Ethos of the video game Speedrunning
• Influence of eSports on self-perceived social support
• Online psychological work with esports teams
• Training strategies for eSports players
• How the LOL generation perceives eSports marketing
• The rise and fall of Korean eSports industry
• Factors Influencing Foreign Language Learning in eSports
• Communication, camaraderie and group cohesion among eSports team members
• Laws that govern eSports
• The role of emotions in esports performance
• Understanding the eSports Franchise System
• Esports as the new sports modality for Millenials
• Is eSports revolutionizing the sports industry
• Fans as e-participants
• Group dynamics in eSports
• A business model for eSports startups
• Investigating career decision levels of adolescents who are interested in esports
• The motivations of offline eSports consumption
• eSports and anxiety among the players
• How do sponsorships create value for the eSport Industry?
• Benefits of eSports for children
• The link between eSports and addiction
• Treatments for Internet Gaming Disorder and Internet Addiction
• Understanding video game addiction
• The moral license in eSports games
• The link between eSports and aggression
• Esports and violence
• Esports skills are people skills
• ESports marketing: sponsorship opportunities, threats and strategies
• The Benefits and Risks of Sponsoring eSports
• An institutional creation perspective of collegiate esports
• The Rise of the E-sports industry in China
• E-Sports, heirs to a tradition
• Multiplayer online games and eSports
• eSports and energy drinks consumption
• Meritocracy, precarity, and disposability of eSports players in China
• Complexity and dynamics in the career development of eSports athletes
• Esports fandom in the age of digital media
• Knowledge management in the eSports industry
• Impacts of covid-19 on eSports industry
• The impacts of Russian-Ukrainian war on the eSports industry
• Risks in eSports and Company Stakeholder Responsibility
• Interactivity, Ethical Behaviors, and Transmediation in eSports
• Assembling Intercultural Teams in eSports
• Are 'Olympic' eSports Morally Justifiable?
• The Role of Esports Events in the Tourism Industry
• eSports as a News Specialty Gold Rush
• Business and Research Opportunities in K-12 eSports
• Barriers and Challenges for women eSports Players
• The Ergonomics of Esports
• Esports Consumer Perspectives on Match-Fixing
• Strategies to promote gambling awareness and game integrity in eSports
• The link between eSports and Internet Fraud
• Esports and cryptocurrencies

You can check out more eSports topic ideas from online websites that enlist the eSports topics .

Related: List of social and global issues.

Here is a highlight of some of the important things to consider when choosing a research paper topics for your sports research paper.

• Begin by using a Google search of the news.
• Focus on controversial issues and current affairs
• Consider the type of sport you want to write the essay or research paper about.
• Choose a topic you are passionate about and find interest in handling.
• The human-centered design can be the best approach. This approach focuses on the users, their requirements, and associated factors.
• Use some of the best sources, such as BBC Sports, the Sports Journal, and Major Magazines such as the Guardian, Forbes, and New York Times.

Now that you are here already if you feel stuck with writing a sports essay or research paper, our writers can help. We have the best research paper writers who have helped many clients achieve success in different fields. We write the best samples that can help you in handling the current and subsequent academic papers.

We will be glad to answer your can someone write my sports essay or research paper? Let us help you. Besides, you can also trust us to handle your research paper outline or proofread your written papers.

Gradecrest is a professional writing service that provides original model papers. We offer personalized services along with research materials for assistance purposes only. All the materials from our website should be used with proper references. See our Terms of Use Page for proper details.

• Essay Topics
• Homework Help
• Essay Types
• Essay Examples
• Become a Tutor

100+ Youth Sports Research Paper Topics to Write About

I know many sad stories  of college students who write about non-interesting sports research topics such as the usefulness of teamwork or the history of football. Here in Homework Lab, I’ve got 21 students from the U.S. who came to us with D and even F marks for sports research paper topics, banned as hackneyed  by their professors. For my students, I used to create a list of 10-20 topics to select when they started the essay. Today, I publish my collection. These are 100 best  research ideas, based on academic articles and research, which will surely work for you. Feel free to check them below! 👇

Update 24 Oct:  I’ve wiped out some old topics and introduced fresh ones. The list is ready for 2019 season!

Contents (Clickable)

   Sports Research Examples by Homework Lab Geeks

Why reinvent the wheel if you can take a look at the wheels made by your peers? Before you start browsing currently unused and unique topics, it is worth checking essays that have already passed college and high school grading with success 📝. You can use them as a source of inspiration and fresh ideas for your own writing!

• “Miller Park Baseball Stadium” essay example  is devoted to the unusual theme: infrastructure for sports. It considers even such intricate factors as weather, the safety of workers and the behavior of sports fans — it is a good sample for sports management research.
• “Nike’s Marketing Communication Mix”  paper example explores how Nike penetrated the market by helping athletes to perform better, and what solutions were required. Apparel matters for success, and sometimes even more than you think.
• “Critical Analysis of Sidney Crosby by Kristi Allain” exemplifies how sports research can be used to analyze identities of athletes — and how venerable heroes affect national culture. Sports psychology and culture students would like to check it!
• “Nutrition and Fitness” Essay  reminds of usually forgotten topic — food, supplements and nutrition of athletes are regulated by many organizations! The paper points out that restrictions are needed to save human lives in some situations.
• “Fitness and Wellness Essay” example — a great source of physical assessment information and tips to be used by nursing, rehabilitation and sports safety students.
• “Fraud Examination: 2015 FIFA Corruption” paper  refers to the topic of fairness in sports competition research — and how virtues of equality are violated by officials for their profits. Must-read for those who look for interesting sports research topics.
• “The Value of Physical Exercise and P.E. Classes at School”  provides empirical evidence on why sports education is being developed in the U.S — and why there are still problems (spoiler: because of parents and Maths).
• “The Construction of National Identity in British Media Coverage of Sport” is an essay example about the impact of media on how competitive sports are being developed, and on the society in general.

Browse and download essay examples from the most full and up to date Free Online Essay Database at Homework Lab . All the examples of college essays have been donated by the students to boost your writing creativity.

Find My Essay

     💊 research topics on sports injuries.

In healthcare studies, students are required to focus on sports injuries and avoiding them in athletic practice. In my experience, the best option is to write about injury prevention and post-injury care, and  never on emergency help.  Unless you are a nursing student, you are not expected to be an expert in medical emergency services. On the sports field, every action after an injury may have dramatic consequences for athlete health — and your tutor is not likely to be forgiving to your mistakes.

Following topics are entirely predictable — you will find enough sources to write about, and you are likely to enjoy your research. After an update, I also added some  safe  emergency topics. During 3 years of my work as a Geek, they did not cause any problems.

• Brain concussion of athletes.  Should be athletes with suspicion on concussion removed from the field?
• Treating acute and chronic overstrains in athletes . What is better: massage, injections or ointments?
• Athletic varicose disease. Causes of development, signs, methods of prevention.
• Anti-doping control in sports : What is the most performance-affecting drug in the world?
• Athletic pharmacology.  What is the best medication to cure injuries and facilitate post-traumatic recovery?
• Overtraining. What are its symptoms, how it affects competition and how to avoid it?
• Sudden death in sports.  What impacts on-field mortality of athletes and what sports organizations do to mitigate the issue?
• Overwork & fatigue in sports.  How can trainers help athletes to work more productively and avoid exhaustion?
• Acute pathological athletic conditions . What severe diseases can develop due to sports and training, and how they can be avoided without medication?
• Recovery after the illness.  How athletes turn back on track after catching flue, cold or other diseases?
• Do athletes live shorter than ordinary people?  What impacts the life expectancy of people of sports?
• Thermal and solar strikes during sports competition. 
• Dislocation in sports.  Is it an unavoidable plague of active sports?
• Fear of injury.  Do athletes who were traumatized once feel anxiety during the play?
• Masculinity and injuries.  Some sports research topics suggest that male athletes incur much more traumas and wounds than their female peers. Is that true?
• Breast traumas.  What threats await for female athletes in competitive and active sports?

I received the feedback that these ideas had been useful for nursing and healthcare students too — so, feel free to use!

     📊 Research Paper Topics On Sports Management

Management topics on sports revolve around three things: organizing people, providing athletes with everything they need, and connecting sports organization and stakeholders to enable competition. Don’t think that it’s too easy, though — management tutors like graphs, statistics, and science. They are also not likely to tolerate some extreme ideas like maximization of sports event funding at the cost of fans’ safety and sports dignity. Below, you will find topics where you teacher  just cannot  force you to sweat😓.

• Management of sports club.  What is needed to create a sports hub for professional athletes and the community?
• How to save costs on sports.  Which facilities and services for athletes are too expensive, and how can savvy managers save funds?
• Where to find money for sports events?  Sources of funding, sponsors, charity, donations, and issues of ticket selling.
• Community awareness of sports.  How to attract locals to your sports organization and why do you need it?
• Women in sports.  Is there any ceiling that prevents the career development of women in sports industries?
• Efficiency management in a sports organization.  How can a non-athlete manager know that everything goes right in a sports club?
• Relationships with philanthropists in sports.  What drives sponsors to fund sports, and what can be done to retain and attract them?
• Cost-benefit analysis of the sports industry.  Can sports organization be a profitable and sustainable business?
• Global warming and sports  (I know that it is unexpected). Does environmental change affect sports and what shifts can we expect in the future?
• Sports accessibility.  What are difficulties of providing access to physical activities for seniors, children, and people with disabilities, and how to overcome them?
• Ecology of water sports.  What to do with wastewater from pools?
• HR and recruiting in sports.  How to find good athletes for your team if you don’t have $1,000,000?

Do you want to learn an advanced research method to apply statistics to your research? Afraid of maths and hate calculations?

We created a human language guide on chi-square test  that  everyone  can use. Tested on 8th-graders — no math is needed, online tools provided! Term papers nailed.

     ⚛ Sports Science Research Topics

If your major is not sports or you are pursuing a degree in sports education, then you are likely to be assigned to a science research paper. The primary point of such topics is to find the connection between sports and some field of study — be it psychology, economics or chemistry. I added some ideas for the 2018-2019 academic year that are easy to research.

• Connections between sports and the economy.  Are nations that invest in sports are more successful that sports-hating countries?
• Why do some countries refuse to host the Olympics?  Can major international events become a burden for the national economy?
• January Club in sports.  Why children who born in January become more successful in sports than kids born in other months? (It’s a true fact, besides, and called a Relative Age Effect ).
• Can athletic success be inherited?  Genetics and heredity in sports.
• Sports regulation and performance of athletes. 
• What hormones are the most important for athletes?  Biochemistry of winning sports competition.
• Athletic nutrition.  What do top athletes eat to remain strong, fast and steady?
• What traits of character are needed for an athlete to win?  Sports psychology research has a lot of papers on the topic, so you’ll have a good time writing about it.
• Empathy in sports . Is the ability to understand other people necessary for athletic training?
• Sports for an animal. 🐶  Can a dog athlete earn more than a human sports practitioner?

Did you expect such topics, hah? They are really scientific, still not boring. For more science stuff, check sociology topics below, in the 8th section of our post. 👇

“ A goal without a plan is just a wish “, de Saint-Exupéry said. Homework Lab can help you to plan your sports essay:

• Register at Homework Lab  (Free Sign Up)
• Plan and schedule your task
• Work on your own or request expert help from a Geek

No Wishes, Let’s Nail My Essay

     🎓 sports schools topics for college students.

I know that in sports school, the primary objective of any sports writing assignment is to show your professional abilities. What are they? It is your skills on how to make training safe, enjoyable and beneficial. Given that the humanity works on these tasks for several hundreds of years now, good sports school topic is hard to find and easy to miss. Honestly, it is the most popular part of my list.

• What is more important for sports: a mind or a body? Physical and mental development of athletes.
• What sports uses the body the most?  Body activity during physical exercises.
• Safest exercises for students with disabilities. 
• How does training help to become stronger?  The biological and mental process of training as the improvement of sports skills.
• Collaboration on a sports field. What is the most effective communication strategy among sports team members?
• Being tired is not OK in sports. Signs of fatigue during training and measures to prevent it.
• Physiological characteristics of “second breath” . How to boost the stamina of athlete to play two times longer?
• Self-control in sports.  How to transform a body into a programmable success tool?
• Posture and internal organ functioning.  Does it matter for health how we move, sleep and eat?
• Overweight and sports.  Is it possible to be obese even when you train hard?
• The friendship between a trainer and students.  Is it ethical to become more than a teacher for your sports students?

     🏈 Football Research Topics

You may already know that right now, lawsuits on head injuries of college students  may make ban this type of sports from the public education. It’s an excellent topic to write if you are focused on injuries and health. Honestly, I believe that football topics present a lot of place for creativity — this sport has evolved beyond a simple play and now presents a complex cultural construct.

• Why is rugby called football?  It’s not a big secret that outside the US, “football” means “soccer.” Such words shift has an exciting history.
• How are champions selected?  Why date of birth matter for junior football leagues? (Remeber about  Relative Age Effect )
• Evolution of football today.  Which rules are about to change in years coming?
• Football tactics. What do rugby players have in common with Ancient Rome infantry? ⚔
• Can football gear be used as an armor?
• Head concussions and football.  Are football players doomed for neurological disorders as they mature?
• Who earns the most on football?  Players, stadiums or beer manufacturers?
• Is a football player accountable for injuring another player?  Legal peculiarities of sports and athletic insurance.
• How many pounds rugby players lift?  The role of strength and endurance in football competition.
• Is cheerleading an art?  Cheerleading as a separate sport that born out of football.
• Psychopaths and football.  Can people with a mental disorder be better athletes than their ordinary peers?
• Impact of fame on sports performance.  Do famous athletes begin playing worse when they reach recognition?

I strongly recommend to take a loot on athletic training topics too — they are several sections below, and they focus on even more controversial issues. ⬇

Now you come to me, and you say: “ Homework Lab, give me sports research paper topics. ” But you don’t ask with an awareness that Homework Lab has a Research Paper Guide with an Example — all-in-one manual for conducting & writing your research assignments. 

     🏒 Hockey Research Paper Topics

According to statistics , ice hockey is ninth in the world by the number of its fans. However, it cannot be said about hokey’s revenues — it sport earns $4.1 billion yearly in the U.S. only! That is why essays on hockey remain to be popular in high school and colleges, given the complexity of the discipline. Below go topics that have not been ridden to death by hundreds of students before you!

• Why is field hockey more popular than grass hockey?  (It’s a fact, by the way).
• Why is hockey popular in Russia?  Low temperatures, national love to the sports, or communistic heritage?
• Can adults enroll in hockey and become a champion?  A length of hockey athletes career.
• Hockey injuries.  What are unique traumas that you can get in that sport?
• Aggressiveness in hockey.  Are hockey players more aggressive than players in other sports?
• Olympic vs. League Hockey.  Are there any differences?
• Differences between h ockey schools in the USA and Canada.
• 5 hockey inventions that are used in everyday life. 
• How fast can a puck run?  How fast can a hockey player run? Can a puck break through a human body? Hockey can a dozen amazing stats that you can write about.
• Why is hockey so profitable?  Secrets of huge fortunes earned in this sport.
• Evolution of hockey : changes in rules and practices within the last 50 years.

      💪 Athletic Training Research Topics + Sports Psychology

I know that 4 of 5 of psychology students are assigned with essays and research papers on training. It is not surprising — training is a complex psychological process of overcoming physical and mental barriers  to improve body performance. Moreover, mental strength is as important as physical power for athletic competition. Scientists proved that the nervous system has a bigger impact on functional strength than muscle mass and training.

My topics already consider the latest research findings.  Don’t worry: all these questions exist in academia, however fantastic they may sound.

• What determines strength: a neural system or muscle mass? 
• Do strict sports rules generate stress? Impact of game rules on athletic training.
• “Second breath”: myth of truth?  What determines the stamina of an athlete and how to train it?
• Team chants:  do they help to play better?  Techniques and secrets of teambuilding in team sports.
• Willpower and sports.  Do athletes really have a swift and robust character?
• “Adrenaline junkies” in sports.  Is that true that adrenaline is an addictive drug and many athletes practice risky sports just to get their dope?
• Multitasking in sports as a barrier to performance  Why team captains usually strike fewer goals than ordinary team members?
• Hygiene in sports. Why not taking a shower is dangerous for health? 
• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and sports.  Do people with ADHD are prone to becoming athletes?
• Sports trophies and self-esteem.  Does winning cups and medals help teenagers to prove their worthiness to parents and peers?
• Selfies and sports safety.  What causes people to take dangerous selfies while doing extreme sports?

If you want to focus on money in sports, scroll down to sports marketing topics. We all want to know where to find 💰💰💰, and in sports, they are all around for well-informed business people.

Sports are cool, fashionable and trendy. Still, they are not everything you can write about. Check out our 50 Crazy Pop Culture Topics — provocative but appropriate for the classroom. The author of the article successfully helped students from the toughest English courses in the US and the UK. 🏆

     👨‍👩‍👧‍👧  Sports Sociology Research Topics

Sports research paper topics of sociology focus on two things: why do people play sports, and what sports make for society. I composed the list below to allow you to explore these questions in depth and width. Sports are the social activity by the very definition — even when they are not played in the team, they are spectated by other people. Therefore, every sociology idea from the list below will work, regardless of your major.

• Sports behavior in kids.  Do sports and training present a part in human instincts.
• Sports as a tribal behavior.  Do Indigenous Australians, Native Americans or Native Africans play their unique sports?
• Sports as a mental health treatment.  Can psychological diseases be cured with training and sports?
• Sports and school performance.  Do young athletes really study worse than nerds? Why?
• Why is physical education mandatory in schools?  Besides, did you know that in some countries, physical education is mandatory for college students too, even with the major in math?
• Sexual activity and sports.  Are athletes more sexually active than their non-training peers? What causes such an effect?
• Transgender women: should they compete against males or females?  It’s a difficult but interesting topic to research.
• Gender and sports.  Do representatives of different genders perceive sports differently?
• Athletes as role models. Is an idol from the sports industry better for child’s development than a pop star?
• Are sports a reasonable career?  How athletes as professionals compare to other jobs in the labor market of your country?
• Youth sports and juvenile delinquency.  Is that true that playing sports and training at school reduces kid’s chances to commit crimes and get into jail?

     🤑 Sports Marketing Research Topics

Sports marketing ≠ sports advertising, my dear students. Marketing is far, far more complex — professionals research the whole society to find  how to transform and adapt sports to maximize popularity and revenue. Online event streams, e-sports, viral campaigns with athletes: these are only a few attempts made to convert sports as an industry. So, instead of writing about generic “How to advertise sports,” let me show you some advanced but easy topics to write about.

• International tickets selling.  How to sell tickets to people who don’t even speak English?
• Viral sports promotion.  What are the most successful PR cases of sports marketing in the US?
• How to promote your sports even for free and gain revenue? 
• Tickets are not the primary source of revenue in sports.  How do event hosts and sports associations earn billions on food, ads, and merchandise?
• Marketing budgets for Olympics.  What are the most expensive items in the purchase list for an international event?
• Sports celebrities and food advertising.  Is it ethical for star athletes to advertise McDonald’s?
• Marketing Eagles vs. Marketing Dragons.  What are the differences between sports markets in the US and China?
• Social media and sports motivation.  Can sports pictures and videos on Instagram help to attract people to sports and training?
• How to attract the local community to your gym?  Sports and fitness as a business.
• Personal data and sports.  How can marketers use your sports behavior data to advertise and sell stuff to you?
• Banned sports ads.  What advertisements about sports  were  removed from screens and paper by courts and public volunteers? Why?

Are you ready for some expert stuff? I’ve also disclosed our internal topic checklist from Homework Lab. Check it below if you want to select your own idea and don’t get stuck without sources! 👇

Hey, I’m the Geek who wrote that topic list.

Below, you will find my advanced tips on research idea selection. I can also help you to finish your research paper with Homework Lab tools.

• 1. Register at Homework Lab
• 2. Plan and schedule your task
• 3. Work on your own or request expert help from a Geek

Don’t worry — it’s free unless you want professional help.

All Right, Geek, Show Me Your Secrets 

   criteria for selecting a good sports research paper topic.

There is a Golden Essay Idea Checklist that is used by our Geeks in their works — it helps to avoid writing crises, lack of information and low grades!

• Google your idea for controversy!  Anecdotal case: “sports rehab” topic was returned to a student for a second resit. Tutors required to write about treating injuries with sports — and the submitted paper was about the rehabilitation of people with a drug addiction! Google your idea to avoid such anecdotes.
• Check availability of sources!  Some fresh topics as so fresh so you will not find any articles or books to use for citation 😋. This problem is very critical for athletic training research topics!
• Mind Ethics!  Students are often directed by tutors to resit on the paper — in lucky cases! — for such proposals as testing substances on athletes. Sports psychology topics should also consider human dignity, research ethics and morals, which are required by every tutor in the US, the UK, and Australia!
• Use a human-centered approach!  A research design that focuses on the safety of people and their wellbeing is a must for students in 2018. Safety of athletes from injuries in high-performance competitions is more desired topic than discussing the opportunities to push the human organism to its limits.

Now, you are ready to proceed! All the topics in this article have passed the Golden Checklist and are safe to use. However, if you alter them, it will be necessary to re-check everything. Here is a table with reminders for you

   3 Sources To Choose a Right Topic & Start Researching 

No topic suits you 100%, and you don’t feel satisfied? Or, you want to find more information to start off your paper? Here are three main websites to keep on the sharp edge of sports research. Maybe, even closer to the edge than your tutor! I used them to compose this list.

1. BBC Sports

BBC is famous worldwide, and the section “ Sports ” covers all the recent sports events in the world. Visiting this web page may help you to find the urgent topic or the topic you have a particular interest in. It’s a good place to find trendy discussions and hot academic findings, as well as industry news.

2. The Sport Journal

It’s a peer-reviewed journal  that focuses sports published by the US Sports Academy. Here you could search for articles in the field of sports science that will help you to produce a good paper. Use this when you need academic articles in your paper — or you just want to look more professional.

3. Sportscience

In this resource , you could find articles, research reports and statistics on sports. There are a lot of topics that could be explored using this resource – it will help you to find the most interesting one for you. Don’t be afraid of the old-fashioned interface — what distracts other students gives you a unique and valuable resource!

Now, you are good to go… Oh no,  de Saint-Exupéry and his Little Prince have something to say! 

DON'T MAKE DE SAINT-EXUPERY MAD AND GRAB 15% OFF

Once again, sign up is free. You don’t bear any risks by giving a try.

• Register on Homework Lab.
• Schedule your task to get free tips and reminders.
• Paste “ Exupery 15% off ” in your task description to get expert help with your topic, outline, and paper from a Geek.

You won’t be disappointed 👌.

Related articles

Popular articles

Get the Reddit app

Discuss the NHL, PWHL, IIHF, and all other hockey you can think of! We are the premier subreddit to talk everything hockey!

Hockey Research paper help

So for my college research class, I have to chose a topic to write about 12 pages on. I want to of course do something about hockey as its my favorite sport. I originally wanted to do something about why its tougher than football or basketball.. but I feel like my professor will think that's too obvious. I wanna know if anyone else has any good research questions or topics I could go at? It's hard to find a topic that has enough evidence that I could research to write a 12-15 page paper on! I was also thinking about how the NHL doesn't make as much money like the NFL or MLB, so maybe I could formulate a question regarding to that!

edit: it's just a research class, not a history class, just an english class were i have to support my arguments with 5 sources or so, providing a lot of research!

By continuing, you agree to our User Agreement and acknowledge that you understand the Privacy Policy .

Enter the 6-digit code from your authenticator app

You’ve set up two-factor authentication for this account.

Enter a 6-digit backup code

Create your username and password.

Reddit is anonymous, so your username is what you’ll go by here. Choose wisely—because once you get a name, you can’t change it.

Reset your password

Enter your email address or username and we’ll send you a link to reset your password

Check your inbox

An email with a link to reset your password was sent to the email address associated with your account

Choose a Reddit account to continue

Suggestions or feedback?

MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology

• Machine learning
• Sustainability
• Black holes
• Classes and programs

Departments

• Aeronautics and Astronautics
• Brain and Cognitive Sciences
• Architecture
• Political Science
• Mechanical Engineering

Centers, Labs, & Programs

• Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL)
• Picower Institute for Learning and Memory
• Lincoln Laboratory
• School of Architecture + Planning
• School of Engineering
• School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences
• Sloan School of Management
• School of Science
• MIT Schwarzman College of Computing

Study reveals ways in which 40Hz sensory stimulation may preserve brain’s “white matter”

Press contact :.

Previous image Next image

Early-stage trials in Alzheimer’s disease patients and studies in mouse models of the disease have suggested positive impacts on pathology and symptoms from exposure to light and sound presented at the “gamma” band frequency of 40 hertz (Hz). A new study zeroes in on how 40Hz sensory stimulation helps to sustain an essential process in which the signal-sending branches of neurons, called axons, are wrapped in a fatty insulation called myelin. Often called the brain’s “white matter,” myelin protects axons and insures better electrical signal transmission in brain circuits.

“Previous publications from our lab have mainly focused on neuronal protection,” says Li-Huei Tsai , Picower Professor in The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory and the Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences at MIT and senior author of the new open-access study in Nature Communications . Tsai also leads MIT’s Aging Brain Initiative. “But this study shows that it’s not just the gray matter, but also the white matter that’s protected by this method.”

This year Cognito Therapeutics, the spinoff company that licensed MIT’s sensory stimulation technology, published phase II human trial results in the Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease indicating that 40Hz light and sound stimulation significantly slowed the loss of myelin in volunteers with Alzheimer’s. Also this year, Tsai’s lab published a study showing that gamma sensory stimulation helped mice withstand neurological effects of chemotherapy medicines, including by preserving myelin. In the new study, members of Tsai’s lab led by former postdoc Daniela Rodrigues Amorim used a common mouse model of myelin loss — a diet with the chemical cuprizone — to explore how sensory stimulation preserves myelination.

Amorim and Tsai’s team found that 40Hz light and sound not only preserved myelination in the brains of cuprizone-exposed mice, it also appeared to protect oligodendrocytes (the cells that myelinate neural axons), sustain the electrical performance of neurons, and preserve a key marker of axon structural integrity. When the team looked into the molecular underpinnings of these benefits, they found clear signs of specific mechanisms including preservation of neural circuit connections called synapses; a reduction in a cause of oligodendrocyte death called “ferroptosis;” reduced inflammation; and an increase in the ability of microglia brain cells to clean up myelin damage so that new myelin could be restored.

“Gamma stimulation promotes a healthy environment,” says Amorim, who is now a Marie Curie Fellow at the University of Galway in Ireland. “There are several ways we are seeing different effects.”

The findings suggest that gamma sensory stimulation may help not only Alzheimer’s disease patients but also people battling other diseases involving myelin loss, such as multiple sclerosis, the authors wrote in the study.

Maintaining myelin

To conduct the study, Tsai and Amorim’s team fed some male mice a diet with cuprizone and gave other male mice a normal diet for six weeks. Halfway into that period, when cuprizone is known to begin causing its most acute effects on myelination, they exposed some mice from each group to gamma sensory stimulation for the remaining three weeks. In this way they had four groups: completely unaffected mice, mice that received no cuprizone but did get gamma stimulation, mice that received cuprizone and constant (but not 40Hz) light and sound as a control, and mice that received cuprizone and also gamma stimulation.

After the six weeks elapsed, the scientists measured signs of myelination throughout the brains of the mice in each group. Mice that weren’t fed cuprizone maintained healthy levels, as expected. Mice that were fed cuprizone and didn’t receive 40Hz gamma sensory stimulation showed drastic levels of myelin loss. Cuprizone-fed mice that received 40Hz stimulation retained significantly more myelin, rivaling the health of mice never fed cuprizone by some, but not all, measures.

The researchers also looked at numbers of oligodendrocytes to see if they survived better with sensory stimulation. Several measures revealed that in mice fed cuprizone, oligodendrocytes in the corpus callosum region of the brain (a key point for the transit of neural signals because it connects the brain’s hemispheres) were markedly reduced. But in mice fed cuprizone and also treated with gamma stimulation, the number of cells were much closer to healthy levels.

Electrophysiological tests among neural axons in the corpus callosum showed that gamma sensory stimulation was associated with improved electrical performance in cuprizone-fed mice who received gamma stimulation compared to cuprizone-fed mice left untreated by 40Hz stimulation. And when researchers looked in the anterior cingulate cortex region of the brain, they saw that MAP2, a protein that signals the structural integrity of axons, was much better preserved in mice that received cuprizone and gamma stimulation compared to cuprizone-fed mice who did not.

A key goal of the study was to identify possible ways in which 40Hz sensory stimulation may protect myelin.

To find out, the researchers conducted a sweeping assessment of protein expression in each mouse group and identified which proteins were differentially expressed based on cuprizone diet and exposure to gamma frequency stimulation. The analysis revealed distinct sets of effects between the cuprizone mice exposed to control stimulation and cuprizone-plus-gamma mice.

A highlight of one set of effects was the increase in MAP2 in gamma-treated cuprizone-fed mice. A highlight of another set was that cuprizone mice who received control stimulation showed a substantial deficit in expression of proteins associated with synapses. The gamma-treated cuprizone-fed mice did not show any significant loss, mirroring results in a 2019 Alzheimer’s 40Hz study that showed synaptic preservation. This result is important, the researchers wrote, because neural circuit activity, which depends on maintaining synapses, is associated with preserving myelin. They confirmed the protein expression results by looking directly at brain tissues.

Another set of protein expression results hinted at another important mechanism: ferroptosis. This phenomenon, in which errant metabolism of iron leads to a lethal buildup of reactive oxygen species in cells, is a known problem for oligodendrocytes in the cuprizone mouse model. Among the signs was an increase in cuprizone-fed, control stimulation mice in expression of the protein HMGB1, which is a marker of ferroptosis-associated damage that triggers an inflammatory response. Gamma stimulation, however, reduced levels of HMGB1.

Looking more deeply at the cellular and molecular response to cuprizone demyelination and the effects of gamma stimulation, the team assessed gene expression using single-cell RNA sequencing technology. They found that astrocytes and microglia became very inflammatory in cuprizone-control mice but gamma stimulation calmed that response. Fewer cells became inflammatory and direct observations of tissue showed that microglia became more proficient at clearing away myelin debris, a key step in effecting repairs.

The team also learned more about how oligodendrocytes in cuprizone-fed mice exposed to 40Hz sensory stimulation managed to survive better. Expression of protective proteins such as HSP70 increased and as did expression of GPX4, a master regulator of processes that constrain ferroptosis.

In addition to Amorim and Tsai, the paper’s other authors are Lorenzo Bozzelli, TaeHyun Kim, Liwang Liu, Oliver Gibson, Cheng-Yi Yang, Mitch Murdock, Fabiola Galiana-Meléndez, Brooke Schatz, Alexis Davison, Md Rezaul Islam, Dong Shin Park, Ravikiran M. Raju, Fatema Abdurrob, Alissa J. Nelson, Jian Min Ren, Vicky Yang and Matthew P. Stokes.

Fundacion Bancaria la Caixa, The JPB Foundation, The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, the Carol and Gene Ludwig Family Foundation, Lester A. Gimpelson, Eduardo Eurnekian, The Dolby Family, Kathy and Miguel Octavio, the Marc Haas Foundation, Ben Lenail and Laurie Yoler, and the U.S. National Institutes of Health provided funding for the study.

Share this news article on:

Related links.

• Li-Huei Tsai
• The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory
• Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences

Related Topics

• Alzheimer's
• Brain and cognitive sciences
• Neuroscience
• Picower Institute

Related Articles

A noninvasive treatment for “chemo brain”

How sensory gamma rhythm stimulation clears amyloid in Alzheimer’s mice

Evidence that gamma rhythm stimulation can treat neurological disorders is emerging

40 Hz vibrations reduce Alzheimer’s pathology, symptoms in mouse models

Small studies of 40-hertz sensory stimulation confirm safety, suggest Alzheimer’s benefits

Previous item Next item

More MIT News

New open-source tool helps to detangle the brain

Read full story →

LLMs develop their own understanding of reality as their language abilities improve

Building bidirectional bridges

An implantable sensor could reverse opioid overdoses

Study: Rocks from Mars’ Jezero Crater, which likely predate life on Earth, contain signs of water

MIT researchers use large language models to flag problems in complex systems

• More news on MIT News homepage →

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, USA

• Map (opens in new window)
• Events (opens in new window)
• People (opens in new window)
• Careers (opens in new window)
• Accessibility
• Social Media Hub
• MIT on Facebook
• MIT on YouTube
• MIT on Instagram

How to cite ChatGPT

Use discount code STYLEBLOG15 for 15% off APA Style print products with free shipping in the United States.

We, the APA Style team, are not robots. We can all pass a CAPTCHA test , and we know our roles in a Turing test . And, like so many nonrobot human beings this year, we’ve spent a fair amount of time reading, learning, and thinking about issues related to large language models, artificial intelligence (AI), AI-generated text, and specifically ChatGPT . We’ve also been gathering opinions and feedback about the use and citation of ChatGPT. Thank you to everyone who has contributed and shared ideas, opinions, research, and feedback.

In this post, I discuss situations where students and researchers use ChatGPT to create text and to facilitate their research, not to write the full text of their paper or manuscript. We know instructors have differing opinions about how or even whether students should use ChatGPT, and we’ll be continuing to collect feedback about instructor and student questions. As always, defer to instructor guidelines when writing student papers. For more about guidelines and policies about student and author use of ChatGPT, see the last section of this post.

Quoting or reproducing the text created by ChatGPT in your paper

If you’ve used ChatGPT or other AI tools in your research, describe how you used the tool in your Method section or in a comparable section of your paper. For literature reviews or other types of essays or response or reaction papers, you might describe how you used the tool in your introduction. In your text, provide the prompt you used and then any portion of the relevant text that was generated in response.

Unfortunately, the results of a ChatGPT “chat” are not retrievable by other readers, and although nonretrievable data or quotations in APA Style papers are usually cited as personal communications , with ChatGPT-generated text there is no person communicating. Quoting ChatGPT’s text from a chat session is therefore more like sharing an algorithm’s output; thus, credit the author of the algorithm with a reference list entry and the corresponding in-text citation.

When prompted with “Is the left brain right brain divide real or a metaphor?” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that although the two brain hemispheres are somewhat specialized, “the notation that people can be characterized as ‘left-brained’ or ‘right-brained’ is considered to be an oversimplification and a popular myth” (OpenAI, 2023).

OpenAI. (2023). ChatGPT (Mar 14 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com/chat

You may also put the full text of long responses from ChatGPT in an appendix of your paper or in online supplemental materials, so readers have access to the exact text that was generated. It is particularly important to document the exact text created because ChatGPT will generate a unique response in each chat session, even if given the same prompt. If you create appendices or supplemental materials, remember that each should be called out at least once in the body of your APA Style paper.

When given a follow-up prompt of “What is a more accurate representation?” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that “different brain regions work together to support various cognitive processes” and “the functional specialization of different regions can change in response to experience and environmental factors” (OpenAI, 2023; see Appendix A for the full transcript).

Creating a reference to ChatGPT or other AI models and software

The in-text citations and references above are adapted from the reference template for software in Section 10.10 of the Publication Manual (American Psychological Association, 2020, Chapter 10). Although here we focus on ChatGPT, because these guidelines are based on the software template, they can be adapted to note the use of other large language models (e.g., Bard), algorithms, and similar software.

The reference and in-text citations for ChatGPT are formatted as follows:

• Parenthetical citation: (OpenAI, 2023)
• Narrative citation: OpenAI (2023)

Let’s break that reference down and look at the four elements (author, date, title, and source):

Author: The author of the model is OpenAI.

Date: The date is the year of the version you used. Following the template in Section 10.10, you need to include only the year, not the exact date. The version number provides the specific date information a reader might need.

Title: The name of the model is “ChatGPT,” so that serves as the title and is italicized in your reference, as shown in the template. Although OpenAI labels unique iterations (i.e., ChatGPT-3, ChatGPT-4), they are using “ChatGPT” as the general name of the model, with updates identified with version numbers.

The version number is included after the title in parentheses. The format for the version number in ChatGPT references includes the date because that is how OpenAI is labeling the versions. Different large language models or software might use different version numbering; use the version number in the format the author or publisher provides, which may be a numbering system (e.g., Version 2.0) or other methods.

Bracketed text is used in references for additional descriptions when they are needed to help a reader understand what’s being cited. References for a number of common sources, such as journal articles and books, do not include bracketed descriptions, but things outside of the typical peer-reviewed system often do. In the case of a reference for ChatGPT, provide the descriptor “Large language model” in square brackets. OpenAI describes ChatGPT-4 as a “large multimodal model,” so that description may be provided instead if you are using ChatGPT-4. Later versions and software or models from other companies may need different descriptions, based on how the publishers describe the model. The goal of the bracketed text is to briefly describe the kind of model to your reader.

Source: When the publisher name and the author name are the same, do not repeat the publisher name in the source element of the reference, and move directly to the URL. This is the case for ChatGPT. The URL for ChatGPT is https://chat.openai.com/chat . For other models or products for which you may create a reference, use the URL that links as directly as possible to the source (i.e., the page where you can access the model, not the publisher’s homepage).

Other questions about citing ChatGPT

You may have noticed the confidence with which ChatGPT described the ideas of brain lateralization and how the brain operates, without citing any sources. I asked for a list of sources to support those claims and ChatGPT provided five references—four of which I was able to find online. The fifth does not seem to be a real article; the digital object identifier given for that reference belongs to a different article, and I was not able to find any article with the authors, date, title, and source details that ChatGPT provided. Authors using ChatGPT or similar AI tools for research should consider making this scrutiny of the primary sources a standard process. If the sources are real, accurate, and relevant, it may be better to read those original sources to learn from that research and paraphrase or quote from those articles, as applicable, than to use the model’s interpretation of them.

We’ve also received a number of other questions about ChatGPT. Should students be allowed to use it? What guidelines should instructors create for students using AI? Does using AI-generated text constitute plagiarism? Should authors who use ChatGPT credit ChatGPT or OpenAI in their byline? What are the copyright implications ?

On these questions, researchers, editors, instructors, and others are actively debating and creating parameters and guidelines. Many of you have sent us feedback, and we encourage you to continue to do so in the comments below. We will also study the policies and procedures being established by instructors, publishers, and academic institutions, with a goal of creating guidelines that reflect the many real-world applications of AI-generated text.

For questions about manuscript byline credit, plagiarism, and related ChatGPT and AI topics, the APA Style team is seeking the recommendations of APA Journals editors. APA Style guidelines based on those recommendations will be posted on this blog and on the APA Style site later this year.

Update: APA Journals has published policies on the use of generative AI in scholarly materials .

We, the APA Style team humans, appreciate your patience as we navigate these unique challenges and new ways of thinking about how authors, researchers, and students learn, write, and work with new technologies.

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

Related and recent

Comments are disabled due to your privacy settings. To re-enable, please adjust your cookie preferences.

APA Style Monthly

Subscribe to the APA Style Monthly newsletter to get tips, updates, and resources delivered directly to your inbox.

Welcome! Thank you for subscribing.

APA Style Guidelines

Browse APA Style writing guidelines by category

• Abbreviations
• Bias-Free Language
• Capitalization
• In-Text Citations
• Italics and Quotation Marks
• Paper Format
• Punctuation
• Research and Publication
• Spelling and Hyphenation
• Tables and Figures

Full index of topics

Sabotage as Industrial Policy

We characterize sabotage, exemplified by recent U.S. policies concerning China's semiconductor industry, as trade policy. For some (but not all) goods, completely destroying foreigners’ productivity increases domestic real income by shifting the location of production and improving the terms of trade. The gross benefit of sabotage can be summarized by a few sufficient statistics: trade and demand elasticities and import and production shares. The cost of sabotage is determined by countries' relative unit labor costs for the sabotaged goods. We find important non-monotinicities: for semi-conductors, partially sabotaging foreign production would lower US real income, while comprehensive sabotage would raise it.

We are grateful to Corina Boar, Raquel Fernandez, Sam Kortum, and Jesse Schreger for valuable comments. Please contact [email protected] with any questions or comments. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

MARC RIS BibTeΧ

Download Citation Data

More from NBER

In addition to working papers , the NBER disseminates affiliates’ latest findings through a range of free periodicals — the NBER Reporter , the NBER Digest , the Bulletin on Retirement and Disability , the Bulletin on Health , and the Bulletin on Entrepreneurship  — as well as online conference reports , video lectures , and interviews .

Grab your spot at the free arXiv Accessibility Forum

Help | Advanced Search

Computer Science > Computation and Language

Title: generative ai for automatic topic labelling.

Abstract: Topic Modeling has become a prominent tool for the study of scientific fields, as they allow for a large scale interpretation of research trends. Nevertheless, the output of these models is structured as a list of keywords which requires a manual interpretation for the labelling. This paper proposes to assess the reliability of three LLMs, namely flan, GPT-4o, and GPT-4 mini for topic labelling. Drawing on previous research leveraging BERTopic, we generate topics from a dataset of all the scientific articles (n=34,797) authored by all biology professors in Switzerland (n=465) between 2008 and 2020, as recorded in the Web of Science database. We assess the output of the three models both quantitatively and qualitatively and find that, first, both GPT models are capable of accurately and precisely label topics from the models' output keywords. Second, 3-word labels are preferable to grasp the complexity of research topics.

Submission history

Access paper:.

• Other Formats

References & Citations

• Google Scholar
• Semantic Scholar

BibTeX formatted citation

Bibliographic and Citation Tools

Code, data and media associated with this article, recommenders and search tools.

• Institution

arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators

arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website.

Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them.

Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs .