introduction to research methodology chapter 3

How To Write The Methodology Chapter

The what, why & how explained simply (with examples).

By: Jenna Crossley (PhD) | Reviewed By: Dr. Eunice Rautenbach | September 2021 (Updated April 2023)

So, you’ve pinned down your research topic and undertaken a review of the literature – now it’s time to write up the methodology section of your dissertation, thesis or research paper . But what exactly is the methodology chapter all about – and how do you go about writing one? In this post, we’ll unpack the topic, step by step .

Overview: The Methodology Chapter

• The purpose  of the methodology chapter
• Why you need to craft this chapter (really) well
• How to write and structure the chapter
• Methodology chapter example
• Essential takeaways

What (exactly) is the methodology chapter?

The methodology chapter is where you outline the philosophical underpinnings of your research and outline the specific methodological choices you’ve made. The point of the methodology chapter is to tell the reader exactly how you designed your study and, just as importantly, why you did it this way.

Importantly, this chapter should comprehensively describe and justify all the methodological choices you made in your study. For example, the approach you took to your research (i.e., qualitative, quantitative or mixed), who  you collected data from (i.e., your sampling strategy), how you collected your data and, of course, how you analysed it. If that sounds a little intimidating, don’t worry – we’ll explain all these methodological choices in this post .

Why is the methodology chapter important?

The methodology chapter plays two important roles in your dissertation or thesis:

Firstly, it demonstrates your understanding of research theory, which is what earns you marks. A flawed research design or methodology would mean flawed results. So, this chapter is vital as it allows you to show the marker that you know what you’re doing and that your results are credible .

Secondly, the methodology chapter is what helps to make your study replicable. In other words, it allows other researchers to undertake your study using the same methodological approach, and compare their findings to yours. This is very important within academic research, as each study builds on previous studies.

The methodology chapter is also important in that it allows you to identify and discuss any methodological issues or problems you encountered (i.e., research limitations ), and to explain how you mitigated the impacts of these. Every research project has its limitations , so it’s important to acknowledge these openly and highlight your study’s value despite its limitations . Doing so demonstrates your understanding of research design, which will earn you marks. We’ll discuss limitations in a bit more detail later in this post, so stay tuned!

Need a helping hand?

How to write up the methodology chapter

First off, it’s worth noting that the exact structure and contents of the methodology chapter will vary depending on the field of research (e.g., humanities, chemistry or engineering) as well as the university . So, be sure to always check the guidelines provided by your institution for clarity and, if possible, review past dissertations from your university. Here we’re going to discuss a generic structure for a methodology chapter typically found in the sciences.

Before you start writing, it’s always a good idea to draw up a rough outline to guide your writing. Don’t just start writing without knowing what you’ll discuss where. If you do, you’ll likely end up with a disjointed, ill-flowing narrative . You’ll then waste a lot of time rewriting in an attempt to try to stitch all the pieces together. Do yourself a favour and start with the end in mind .

Section 1 – Introduction

As with all chapters in your dissertation or thesis, the methodology chapter should have a brief introduction. In this section, you should remind your readers what the focus of your study is, especially the research aims . As we’ve discussed many times on the blog, your methodology needs to align with your research aims, objectives and research questions. Therefore, it’s useful to frontload this component to remind the reader (and yourself!) what you’re trying to achieve.

In this section, you can also briefly mention how you’ll structure the chapter. This will help orient the reader and provide a bit of a roadmap so that they know what to expect. You don’t need a lot of detail here – just a brief outline will do.

Section 2 – The Methodology

The next section of your chapter is where you’ll present the actual methodology. In this section, you need to detail and justify the key methodological choices you’ve made in a logical, intuitive fashion. Importantly, this is the heart of your methodology chapter, so you need to get specific – don’t hold back on the details here. This is not one of those “less is more” situations.

Let’s take a look at the most common components you’ll likely need to cover. 

Methodological Choice #1 – Research Philosophy

Research philosophy refers to the underlying beliefs (i.e., the worldview) regarding how data about a phenomenon should be gathered , analysed and used . The research philosophy will serve as the core of your study and underpin all of the other research design choices, so it’s critically important that you understand which philosophy you’ll adopt and why you made that choice. If you’re not clear on this, take the time to get clarity before you make any further methodological choices.

While several research philosophies exist, two commonly adopted ones are positivism and interpretivism . These two sit roughly on opposite sides of the research philosophy spectrum.

Positivism states that the researcher can observe reality objectively and that there is only one reality, which exists independently of the observer. As a consequence, it is quite commonly the underlying research philosophy in quantitative studies and is oftentimes the assumed philosophy in the physical sciences.

Contrasted with this, interpretivism , which is often the underlying research philosophy in qualitative studies, assumes that the researcher performs a role in observing the world around them and that reality is unique to each observer . In other words, reality is observed subjectively .

These are just two philosophies (there are many more), but they demonstrate significantly different approaches to research and have a significant impact on all the methodological choices. Therefore, it’s vital that you clearly outline and justify your research philosophy at the beginning of your methodology chapter, as it sets the scene for everything that follows.

Methodological Choice #2 – Research Type

The next thing you would typically discuss in your methodology section is the research type. The starting point for this is to indicate whether the research you conducted is inductive or deductive .

Inductive research takes a bottom-up approach , where the researcher begins with specific observations or data and then draws general conclusions or theories from those observations. Therefore these studies tend to be exploratory in terms of approach.

Conversely , d eductive research takes a top-down approach , where the researcher starts with a theory or hypothesis and then tests it using specific observations or data. Therefore these studies tend to be confirmatory in approach.

Related to this, you’ll need to indicate whether your study adopts a qualitative, quantitative or mixed  approach. As we’ve mentioned, there’s a strong link between this choice and your research philosophy, so make sure that your choices are tightly aligned . When you write this section up, remember to clearly justify your choices, as they form the foundation of your study.

Methodological Choice #3 – Research Strategy

Next, you’ll need to discuss your research strategy (also referred to as a research design ). This methodological choice refers to the broader strategy in terms of how you’ll conduct your research, based on the aims of your study.

Several research strategies exist, including experimental , case studies , ethnography , grounded theory, action research , and phenomenology . Let’s take a look at two of these, experimental and ethnographic, to see how they contrast.

Experimental research makes use of the scientific method , where one group is the control group (in which no variables are manipulated ) and another is the experimental group (in which a specific variable is manipulated). This type of research is undertaken under strict conditions in a controlled, artificial environment (e.g., a laboratory). By having firm control over the environment, experimental research typically allows the researcher to establish causation between variables. Therefore, it can be a good choice if you have research aims that involve identifying causal relationships.

Ethnographic research , on the other hand, involves observing and capturing the experiences and perceptions of participants in their natural environment (for example, at home or in the office). In other words, in an uncontrolled environment.  Naturally, this means that this research strategy would be far less suitable if your research aims involve identifying causation, but it would be very valuable if you’re looking to explore and examine a group culture, for example.

As you can see, the right research strategy will depend largely on your research aims and research questions – in other words, what you’re trying to figure out. Therefore, as with every other methodological choice, it’s essential to justify why you chose the research strategy you did.

Methodological Choice #4 – Time Horizon

The next thing you’ll need to detail in your methodology chapter is the time horizon. There are two options here: cross-sectional and longitudinal . In other words, whether the data for your study were all collected at one point in time (cross-sectional) or at multiple points in time (longitudinal).

The choice you make here depends again on your research aims, objectives and research questions. If, for example, you aim to assess how a specific group of people’s perspectives regarding a topic change over time , you’d likely adopt a longitudinal time horizon.

Another important factor to consider is simply whether you have the time necessary to adopt a longitudinal approach (which could involve collecting data over multiple months or even years). Oftentimes, the time pressures of your degree program will force your hand into adopting a cross-sectional time horizon, so keep this in mind.

Methodological Choice #5 – Sampling Strategy

Next, you’ll need to discuss your sampling strategy . There are two main categories of sampling, probability and non-probability sampling.

Probability sampling involves a random (and therefore representative) selection of participants from a population, whereas non-probability sampling entails selecting participants in a non-random  (and therefore non-representative) manner. For example, selecting participants based on ease of access (this is called a convenience sample).

The right sampling approach depends largely on what you’re trying to achieve in your study. Specifically, whether you trying to develop findings that are generalisable to a population or not. Practicalities and resource constraints also play a large role here, as it can oftentimes be challenging to gain access to a truly random sample. In the video below, we explore some of the most common sampling strategies.

Methodological Choice #6 – Data Collection Method

Next up, you’ll need to explain how you’ll go about collecting the necessary data for your study. Your data collection method (or methods) will depend on the type of data that you plan to collect – in other words, qualitative or quantitative data.

Typically, quantitative research relies on surveys , data generated by lab equipment, analytics software or existing datasets. Qualitative research, on the other hand, often makes use of collection methods such as interviews , focus groups , participant observations, and ethnography.

So, as you can see, there is a tight link between this section and the design choices you outlined in earlier sections. Strong alignment between these sections, as well as your research aims and questions is therefore very important.

Methodological Choice #7 – Data Analysis Methods/Techniques

The final major methodological choice that you need to address is that of analysis techniques . In other words, how you’ll go about analysing your date once you’ve collected it. Here it’s important to be very specific about your analysis methods and/or techniques – don’t leave any room for interpretation. Also, as with all choices in this chapter, you need to justify each choice you make.

What exactly you discuss here will depend largely on the type of study you’re conducting (i.e., qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods). For qualitative studies, common analysis methods include content analysis , thematic analysis and discourse analysis . In the video below, we explain each of these in plain language.

For quantitative studies, you’ll almost always make use of descriptive statistics , and in many cases, you’ll also use inferential statistical techniques (e.g., correlation and regression analysis). In the video below, we unpack some of the core concepts involved in descriptive and inferential statistics.

In this section of your methodology chapter, it’s also important to discuss how you prepared your data for analysis, and what software you used (if any). For example, quantitative data will often require some initial preparation such as removing duplicates or incomplete responses . Similarly, qualitative data will often require transcription and perhaps even translation. As always, remember to state both what you did and why you did it.

Section 3 – The Methodological Limitations

With the key methodological choices outlined and justified, the next step is to discuss the limitations of your design. No research methodology is perfect – there will always be trade-offs between the “ideal” methodology and what’s practical and viable, given your constraints. Therefore, this section of your methodology chapter is where you’ll discuss the trade-offs you had to make, and why these were justified given the context.

Methodological limitations can vary greatly from study to study, ranging from common issues such as time and budget constraints to issues of sample or selection bias . For example, you may find that you didn’t manage to draw in enough respondents to achieve the desired sample size (and therefore, statistically significant results), or your sample may be skewed heavily towards a certain demographic, thereby negatively impacting representativeness .

In this section, it’s important to be critical of the shortcomings of your study. There’s no use trying to hide them (your marker will be aware of them regardless). By being critical, you’ll demonstrate to your marker that you have a strong understanding of research theory, so don’t be shy here. At the same time, don’t beat your study to death . State the limitations, why these were justified, how you mitigated their impacts to the best degree possible, and how your study still provides value despite these limitations .

Section 4 – Concluding Summary

Finally, it’s time to wrap up the methodology chapter with a brief concluding summary. In this section, you’ll want to concisely summarise what you’ve presented in the chapter. Here, it can be a good idea to use a figure to summarise the key decisions, especially if your university recommends using a specific model (for example, Saunders’ Research Onion ).

Importantly, this section needs to be brief – a paragraph or two maximum (it’s a summary, after all). Also, make sure that when you write up your concluding summary, you include only what you’ve already discussed in your chapter; don’t add any new information.

Methodology Chapter Example

In the video below, we walk you through an example of a high-quality research methodology chapter from a dissertation. We also unpack our free methodology chapter template so that you can see how best to structure your chapter.

Wrapping Up

And there you have it – the methodology chapter in a nutshell. As we’ve mentioned, the exact contents and structure of this chapter can vary between universities , so be sure to check in with your institution before you start writing. If possible, try to find dissertations or theses from former students of your specific degree program – this will give you a strong indication of the expectations and norms when it comes to the methodology chapter (and all the other chapters!).

Also, remember the golden rule of the methodology chapter – justify every choice ! Make sure that you clearly explain the “why” for every “what”, and reference credible methodology textbooks or academic sources to back up your justifications.

If you need a helping hand with your research methodology (or any other component of your research), be sure to check out our private coaching service , where we hold your hand through every step of the research journey. Until next time, good luck!

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Research Methodology: An Introduction

• First Online: 31 March 2018

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• Vida Davidavičienė 3  

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Digital age brings the most dramatic changes in this study and research discipline as well as in other fields of human activities. Scientific research is known for a very long time, however in comparison with other research fields the business and management researches are a little bit younger. The information technologies and new research methodologies that have recently emerged, dramatically change the nature of the research. Therefore, researchers should be ready to absorb new possibilities and follow basic roles coming from earlier stages of the discipline. The intention of this chapter is to provide a brief introduction to those aspects of pertinent research to beginner researchers. The chapter presents the nature of scientific research so that it may be clearly understood and uses, as its basic approach, the fundamental principles of problem solving. The scope of the research provides an overviews the entire assumptions about reality, knowledge and human nature, key terms of theory and research presented. Main concepts of the research are discussed and all this is oriented to business, management and economic science specific.

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Davidavičienė, V. (2018). Research Methodology: An Introduction. In: Marx Gómez, J., Mouselli, S. (eds) Modernizing the Academic Teaching and Research Environment. Progress in IS. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74173-4_1

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CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 INTRODUCTION

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Home > Books > Metamorphic Rocks as the Key to Understanding Geodynamic Processes

Introductory Chapter: Introduction to New Advances in Metamorphic Geology

Submitted: 27 February 2024 Reviewed: 27 February 2024 Published: 22 May 2024

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.1004848

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Metamorphic Rocks as the Key to Understanding Geodynamic Processes

Károly Németh

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Metamorphic geology is one of the oldest arms of geology and provided fundamental new insights to understand continental growth, terrain accretion, orogenesis and the principal of rock cycle. It is also one of the most diverse still remarkable focused subject area of geology that reflected in a relatively low number of specialized science magazines dedicated to metamorphic geology. In the past decades geology subjects based on more traditional, field-based approaches suffered from the sudden emergence of advanced technologies, modelling and experimental geology in the whole earth science. This trend seems to be changing these days due to the successful adaptation of those new advances to blend them with traditional geological techniques. Metamorphic geology is one of the subject areas where these changes are very visible and rapidly evolving. In this chapter a brief summary is provided to outline the major advances and emergences of new methods and techniques withing metamorphic geology creating a new renaissance of this important area of geosciences.

• microanalytical
• structural geology
• remote sensing
• metamorphic belt
• terrain accretion
• metasomatic
• metamorphic grade

Author Information

Károly németh *.

• Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
• Saudi Geological Survey, Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
• Institute of Earth Physics and Space Science, Sopron, Hungary
• The Geoconservation Trust Aotearoa Pacific, New Zealand

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

1.1 metamorphic geology as the core of traditional field geology.

Metamorphism in the context of geology ( https://opengeology.org/petrology/9-intro-to-metamorphism/ – accessed on 25 February 2024) is a process that changes the mineralogy, microstructure, texture, and chemical compositions of any rocks, normally over long time scale (millions of years) and in a dominantly solid state [ 1 ]. Fluid-driven transition of rock textures and compositions are commonly viewed as a special part of metamorphism (or not even included at all within metamorphism) normally associated with some fluid migration controlled by magmatism such as metasomatism on a sea floor in small or lithospheric scales, including ophiolites [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ]. In general, metamorphism is understood as a process that forms rock assemblages directly in response to gradually changing physical and chemical conditions. Metamorphism can be considered to begin when the original rock (protolith) faces new and persistent physical or chemical conditions markedly different from its original environment, or better to say the difference can be considered in a significant scale ( https://geologyglasgow.org.uk/minerals-rocks-fossils/metamorphic-rocks/ - accessed on 25 February 2024). The classical view on metamorphism is based on the physical-chemical parameters to define the metamorphic environment including the temperature and pressure being the most important ones ( https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/ks3/gsl/education/resources/rockcycle/page3576.html – accessed on 25 February 2024). In contrast, fluid availability and nature as well as the nature of the tectonic stress field are other aspects to view metamorphism [ 8 , 9 ]. These categories almost automatically determine the main approaches metamorphic geology follow. Most importantly and traditionally, the most abundant method is the chemical characterization of the processes (e.g., petrography and petrology), following geochemical methods such as bulk chemical study of the metamorphic products or mineral-level documentation of the chemical (and textural) changes [ 10 ]. These methods are the most obvious ones one can think of about metamorphic geology.

2. Advances in scale to track steps of metamorphism

The main advances in this field are centered around the application of new chemical systematics to follow mineral phase changes and link them to a geological process. High-resolution microchemistry is commonly performed to lower the potential resolution of time scales of the metamorphic events recognizable; hence, a strong drive is visible for developing new techniques to determine the ages of various metamorphic events in the micromineralogy level [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ]. As metamorphism may occur over a wide range of temperature and pressure conditions, the applicable chemical techniques to define these conditions have formed a great variety of research avenues over the past decades. In this perspective, there is a clear and gradual transition from experts focusing on the primary rocks such as sedimentary successions specialized to recognize the early stages of solid phase transition of the original mineral constitutes of sediments and sedimentary rocks to experts clearly dealing with the metamorphic products from the sedimentary protoliths [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 ]. It is also a common approach that the metamorphism starts when the diagenesis completed. While this sounds a trivia, to “capture” the distinct line between diagenesis and metamorphism is not simple. This fuzzy boundary between diagenesis and metamorphism naturally generated various schools following different distinctive parameters since the early 70s in the dawn of metamorphic geology. As in regional sense, these boundaries follow some temperature-pressure conditions, and it is not a surprise that the boundaries are also not fixed as they are also heavily dependent on the actual region geothermal gradients; hence, the limits are different in regions with high geothermal gradients such as orogenic belts [ 21 , 22 , 23 ].

3. Temperature-pressure concept of metamorphism

In the other end of the temperature-pressure spectrum, a similar problem exists as great variations known among suggested barriers. In extreme high temperature and/or pressure, the rock starts to behave as melt and shows similar features expected with igneous rocks. Melting itself in this context is not considered to be a metamorphic process, and we are entering to the unsharp boundary between metamorphic and magmatic processes. However, as melting considered in a rock when the temperature exceeds its wet solidus that is normally around 650°C for most metasediments and metabasites, the beginning of melting does not mean the end of metamorphism. There is a stage when potential melting through the metamorphic grades can take place, but it is hardly ever occurred in en mass and large scale; instead, following stages and pulses is likely associated with some external forcing mechanism as tectonism. Some research groups hence favor to delineate a fine line between metamorphic melting and igneous melting. The extracted melts form purely igneous intrusions within the crust normally shallower than the melting anomaly. In contrast, in situ restites that are the solid mineral assemblages after melt segregation may form gneisses or granulites of high metamorphic grade, or form migmatites [ 24 ] together with the locally segregated melts [ 25 , 26 ]. Thermobarometer revealed that igneous intrusions at shallow crustal level indicate much lower temperatures from high-grade metamorphic rocks in the source region. The highest measured granulite formation temperatures suggest about 1000–1100°C considered to be the highest metamorphic temperatures [ 27 ]. It is obvious that metamorphic geology advanced significantly in recent years to refine these boundaries, or better to say look at metamorphic processes withing the broader geological context without implying the need to follow strict boundaries among processes. To explore the spectrum of pressure conditions within metamorphic processes opened new research directions and recognition of characteristic diagnostic minerals to look for. Ultra-high pressures of metamorphism [ 28 , 29 ] have been recognized from rocks suspected to be subducted over the depth of 300 km followed by rapid uplift and preservation. These findings determine also new research directions to locate rocks that can be viewed as messengers of extreme and long sustained conditions.

4. Texture recognition techniques from micro to landscape scale

New techniques and modeling are also emerged just as more refined textural analysis of metamorphic fabric. The new mineral phases generated by metamorphic processes on the expenses of original minerals generate typical metamorphic textures extensively studied. The recognition of major textural changes is characteristic for the major physical-chemical condition changes. This means that, in metamorphic geology, the recognition of rock textures, such as metamorphic fabric, is a critical aspect of research and a field where new advances achieved due to the rapid development and availability of advanced technologies such as image analysis and remote sensing techniques of microlevel identification of various phases [ 30 , 31 , 32 ]. The combination of remote sensing techniques, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), modeling with microanalytical techniques successfully applied within classical igneous petrology, but in recent times, metamorphic geology also follows these trends to benefit from the seemingly distant disciplines.

Metamorphic geology is also closely linked to structural geology ( Figure 1 ). Most of the metamorphic textures are the most complex 3D textural and structural assemblages from landscape to microscales ( Figures 2 and 3 ). While traditional mapping is still the key for recording and interpreting such complex textures in micro to landscape scales, the fusion of various high resolution digital elevation modeling, including LiDAR and structure for motions (SfM) photogrammetry tools allowing us to reach mm-scale resolution of 3D models capable to capture fine details earlier, was nearly impossible [ 33 , 34 , 35 ]. While the combination of metamorphic and structural geology is still in its infantry by application, the advanced technologies, the direction is clear. Other than visible light sensors, multispectral analysis or laser scanning are just among few main tracks, and high-resolution structural analysis is possible. Combining the high-resolution spatial data from micro to landscape scale with the advanced chemical tools through machine learning and AI will clearly provide a revolution within metamorphic geology to understand the evolution of various lithosphere segments and identify key patterns.

The South Island of New Zealand 1 to 1 million scale geological map overlaid on the 8 m resolution digital terrain model (LINZ) demonstrating well the connection between the structural elements and morphology of the region. The metamorphic grade increases toward the main active fault (Alpine Fault) within the Permo-Triassic Eastern Province’s Rakaia Terrain. Higher grade greenschist zones marked by purple grades are already part of another terrain, the Triassic Eastern Provinces’ Caples Terrain. For clarity, large lakes are marked with black fields.

Higher grade greenschist along the Alpine Fault in the South Island of New Zealand.

Strong deformation along the Alpine Fault in the outcrop scale offering perfect opportunity to use high-resolution advanced technologies including applied remote sensing of mapping the link between structural patterns and metamorphic zones.

Metamorphic geology is also just in the first steps to be more known within geoheritage and geodiversity research [ 36 , 37 , 38 ]. As our planet facing with global and planetary changes, metamorphism is one fundamental aspect of geology that produced numerous geoheritages where dedicated metamorphic geology heritage sites should be systematically explored. We will likely experience an explosion of the number of such research in the future. Overall, metamorphic geology has experienced dramatic advances in recent times, and the recognition of these steps is important in recurrent scientific report such as this InTech book.

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