importance of thinking in educational psychology

Facilitating Complex Thinking

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking  requires skill at analyzing the reliability and validity of information, as well as the attitude or disposition to do so. The skill and attitude may be displayed with regard to a particular subject matter or topic, but in principle, it can occur in any realm of knowledge (Halpern, 2003; Williams, Oliver, & Stockade, 2004). A critical thinker does not necessarily have a negative attitude in the everyday sense of constantly criticizing someone or something. Instead, he or she can be thought of as  astute : the critical thinker asks key questions, evaluates the evidence for ideas, reasons for problems both logically and objectively, and expresses ideas and conclusions clearly and precisely. Last (but not least), the critical thinker can apply these habits of mind in more than one realm of life or knowledge.

Figure 5.2.1.  Model of critical thinking.

With such a broad definition, it is not surprising that educators have suggested a variety of specific cognitive skills as contributing to critical thinking. In one study, for example, the researcher found how critical thinking can be reflected in regard to a published article that was stimulated by  annotation —writing questions and comments in the margins of the article (Liu, 2006). In this study, students were initially instructed in ways of annotating reading materials. Later, when the students completed additional readings for assignments, it was found that some students in fact used their annotation skills much more than others—some simply underlined passages, for example, with a highlighting pen. When essays written about the readings were later analyzed, the ones written by the annotators were found to be better reasoned—more critically astute—than the essays written by the other students.

In another study, on the other hand, a researcher found that critical thinking can also involve oral discussion of personal issues or dilemmas (Hawkins, 2006). In this study, students were asked to verbally describe a recent, personal incident that disturbed them. Classmates then discussed the incident together in order to identify the precise reasons why the incident was disturbing, as well as the assumptions that the student made in describing the incident. The original student—the one who had first told the story—then used the results of the group discussion to frame a topic for a research essay. In one story of a troubling incident, a student told of a time when a store clerk has snubbed or rejected the student during a recent shopping errand. Through discussion, classmates decided that an assumption underlying the student’s disturbance was her suspicion that she had been a victim of racial profiling based on her skin color. The student then used this idea as the basis for a research essay on the topic of “racial profiling in retail stores.” The oral discussion thus stimulated critical thinking in the student and the classmates, but it also  relied  on their prior critical thinking skills at the same time.

Notice that in both of these research studies, as in others like them, what made the thinking “critical” was students’ use of  metacognition —strategies for thinking  about  thinking and for monitoring the success and quality of one’s own thinking. This concept was discussed in the chapter, “The learning process,” as a feature of constructivist views about learning. There we pointed out that when students acquire experience in building their own knowledge, they also become skilled both at knowing  how  they learn, and at knowing  whether  they have learned something well. These are two defining qualities of metacognition, but they are part of critical thinking as well. In fostering critical thinking, a teacher is really fostering a student’s ability to construct or control his or her own thinking and to avoid being controlled by ideas unreflectively.

How best to teach critical thinking remains a matter of debate. One issue is whether to infuse critical skills into existing courses or to teach them through separate, free-standing units or courses. The first approach has the potential advantage of integrating critical thinking into students’ entire educations. But it risks diluting students’ understanding and use of critical thinking simply because critical thinking takes on a different form in each learning context. Its details and appearance vary among courses and teachers. The free-standing approach has the opposite qualities: it stands a better chance of being understood clearly and coherently but at the cost of obscuring how it is related to other courses, tasks, and activities. This dilemma is the issue—again—of  transfer.  Unfortunately, research to compare the different strategies for teaching critical thinking does not settle the matter. The research suggests simply that either infusion or free-standing approaches can work as long as it is implemented thoroughly and teachers are committed to the value of critical thinking (Halpern, 2003).

A related issue about teaching critical thinking is about deciding who needs to learn critical thinking skills the most. Should it be all students or only some of them? Teaching all students seems the more democratic alternative and thus appropriate for educators. Surveys have found, however, that teachers sometimes favor the teaching of critical thinking only to high-advantage students—the ones who already achieve well, who come from relatively high-income families, or (for high school students) who take courses intended for university entrance (Warburton & Torff, 2005). Presumably, the rationale for this bias is that high-advantage students can benefit and/or understand and use critical thinking better than other students. Yet, there is little research evidence to support this idea, even if it were not ethically questionable. The study by Hawkins (2006) described above, for example, is that critical thinking was fostered even with students considered low-advantage.

Video 5.2.1. Challenging Students  to Think Critically  suggests was to encourage critical thinking.

Teaching Critical Thinking

For suggestions on teaching and fostering critical thinking skills at all academic levels, visit the library at   The Foundation for Critical Thinking.

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Jerome Bruner’s Theory Of Learning And Cognitive Development

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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Jerome Bruner believed that children construct knowledge and meaning through active experience with the world around them. He emphasized the role of culture and language in cognitive development, which occurs in a spiral fashion with children revisiting basic concepts at increasing levels of complexity and abstraction.

Bruner’s Ideas

• Like  Ausubel (and other cognitive psychologists), Bruner sees the learner as an active agent; emphasizing the importance of existing schemata in guiding learning.
• Bruner argues that students should discern for themselves the structure of subject content – discovering the links and relationships between different facts, concepts and theories (rather than the teacher simply telling them).
• Bruner (1966) hypothesized that the usual course of intellectual development moves through three stages: enactive, iconic, and symbolic, in that order. However, unlike Piaget’s stages, Bruner did not contend that these stages were necessarily age-dependent, or invariant.
• Piaget and, to an extent, Ausubel, contended that the child must be ready, or made ready, for the subject matter. But Bruner contends just the opposite. According to his theory, the fundamental principles of any subject can be taught at any age, provided the material is converted to a form (and stage) appropriate to the child.
• The notion of a “spiral curriculum” embodies Bruner’s ideas by “spiraling” through similar topics at every age, but consistent with the child’s stage of thought.
• His spiral curriculum revisits basic ideas repeatedly, building upon them into more complex, abstract concepts over time in a developmentally appropriate sequence.
• The aim of education should be to create autonomous learners (i.e., learning to learn).
• Cognitive growth involves an interaction between basic human capabilities and “culturally invented technologies that serve as amplifiers of these capabilities.”
• These culturally invented technologies include not just obvious things such as computers and television, but also more abstract notions such as the way a culture categorizes phenomena, and language itself.
• Bruner would likely agree with  Vygotsky  that language serves to mediate between environmental stimuli and the individual’s response.

Three Modes of Representation

Modes of representation are how information or knowledge is stored and encoded in memory.

Rather than neat age-related stages (like Piaget), the modes of representation are integrated and only loosely sequential as they “translate” into each other.

Bruner (1966) was concerned with how knowledge is represented and organized through different modes of thinking (or representation).

In his research on the cognitive development of children,  Jerome Bruner proposed three modes of representation:

• Enactive representation (action-based)
• Iconic representation (image-based)
• Symbolic representation (language-based)

Bruner’s constructivist theory suggests it is effective when faced with new material to follow a progression from enactive to iconic to symbolic representation; this holds true even for adult learners.

Bruner’s work also suggests that a learner even of a very young age is capable of learning any material so long as the instruction is organized appropriately, in sharp contrast to the beliefs of Piaget and other stage theorists.

Enactive Mode (0-1 year)

In the  enactive mode , knowledge is stored primarily in the form of motor responses. This mode is used within the first year of life (corresponding with Piaget’s sensorimotor stage ).

Thinking is based entirely on physical actions , and infants learn by doing, rather than by internal representation (or thinking).

It involves encoding physical action-based information and storing it in our memory. For example, in the form of movement as muscle memory, a baby might remember the action of shaking a rattle.

And this is not just limited to children. Many adults can perform a variety of motor tasks (typing, sewing a shirt, operating a lawn mower) that they would find difficult to describe in iconic (picture) or symbolic (word) form.

This mode continues later in many physical activities, such as learning to ride a bike.

Iconic Mode (1-6 years)

Information is stored as sensory images (icons), usually visual ones, like pictures in the mind. For some, this is conscious; others say they don’t experience it.

This may explain why, when we are learning a new subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to accompany the verbal information.

Thinking is also based on using other mental images (icons), such as hearing, smell or touch.

Symbolic Mode (7 years onwards)

This develops last. In the  symbolic stage , knowledge is stored primarily as language, mathematical symbols, or in other symbol systems.

This mode is acquired around six to seven years old (corresponding to Piaget’s concrete operational stage ).

In the symbolic stage, knowledge is stored primarily as words, mathematical symbols, or other symbol systems, such as music.

Symbols are flexible in that they can be manipulated, ordered, classified, etc., so the user isn’t constrained by actions or images (which have a fixed relation to that which they represent).

According to Bruner’s taxonomy, these differ from icons in that symbols are “arbitrary.” For example, the word “beauty” is an arbitrary designation for the idea of beauty in that the word itself is no more inherently beautiful than any other word.

The Importance of Language

Language is important for the increased ability to deal with abstract concepts.

Bruner argues that language can code stimuli and free an individual from the constraints of dealing only with appearances, to provide a more complex yet flexible cognition.

The use of words can aid the development of the concepts they represent and can remove the constraints of the “here & now” concept.

Bruner views the infant as an intelligent & active problem solver from birth, with intellectual abilities basically similar to those of the mature adult.

Educational Implications

Education should aim to create autonomous learners (i.e., learning to learn).

For Bruner (1961), the purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but instead to facilitate a child’s thinking and problem-solving skills which can then be transferred to a range of situations. Specifically, education should also develop symbolic thinking in children.

In 1960 Bruner’s text, The Process of Education was published. The main premise of Bruner’s text was that students are active learners who construct their own knowledge.

Bruner (1960) opposed Piaget’s notion of readiness . He argued that schools waste time trying to match the complexity of subject material to a child’s cognitive stage of development.

This means students are held back by teachers as certain topics are deemed too difficult to understand and must be taught when the teacher believes the child has reached the appropriate stage of cognitive maturity .

The Spiral Curriculum

Bruner (1960) adopts a different view and believes a child (of any age) is capable of understanding complex information:

“We begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development.” (p. 33)

Bruner (1960) explained how this was possible through the concept of the spiral curriculum. This involved information being structured so that complex ideas can be taught at a simplified level first, and then re-visited at more complex levels later on.

The underlying principle in this is that the student should review particular concepts at over and over again during their educative experience; each time building and their understanding and requiring more sophisticated cognitive strategies (and thus increase the sophistication of their understanding).

Therefore, subjects would be taught at levels of gradually increasing difficultly (hence the spiral analogy). Ideally, teaching his way should lead to children being able to solve problems by themselves.

Bruner argues that, as children age, they are capable of increasingly complex modes of representation (basically, ways of thinking) – and the spiral curriculum should be sensitive to this development;

• Initially, children learn better using an  enactive  mode of representation (i.e. they learn better through “doing things” such as physical and manual tasks) – for instance, the concept of addition might be first taught by asking the child to combine piles of beads and counting the results.
• As they grow older – and more familiar with subject content – pupils become more confident in using an  iconic  mode of representation; they are able to perform tasks by imagining concrete pictures in their heads. To continue the above example; as the child becomes more confident with addition, they should be able to imagine the beads in order to complete additions (without physically needing to manipulate the piles).
• Finally, students become capable of more abstract,  symbolic  modes of representation; without the need for either physical manipulation or mental imagery. Consequently, at this point, the student should have little problem with completing a series of written calculations; of numbers which are higher than is possible by “imagining beads”.

Discovery Learning Theory

Bruner (1960) developed the concept of Discovery Learning – arguing that students should “not be presented with the subject matter in its final form, but rather are required to organize it themselves…[requiring them] to discover for themselves relationships that exist among items of information”.

Bruner (1961) proposes that learners construct their own knowledge and do this by organizing and categorizing information using a coding system.

Bruner believed that the most effective way to develop a coding system is to discover it rather than being told by the teacher.

The concept of discovery learning implies that students construct their own knowledge for themselves (also known as a constructivist approach ).

The result is an extremely active form of learning, in which the students are always engaged in tasks, finding patterns or solving puzzles – and in which they constantly need to exercise their existing schemata , reorganizing and amending these concepts to address the challenges of the task.

The role of the teacher should not be to teach information by rote learning, but instead to facilitate the learning process. This means that a good teacher will design lessons that help students discover the relationship between bits of information.

To do this a teacher must give students the information they need, but without organizing for them. The use of the spiral curriculum can aid the process of discovery learning .

For example, in teaching a particular concept, the teacher should present the set of instances that will best help learners develop an appropriate model of the concept. The teacher should also model the inquiry process. Bruner would likely not contend that all learning should be through discovery.

For example, it seems pointless to have children “discover” the names of the U.S. Presidents, or important dates in history.

Bruner’s theory is probably clearest when illustrated with practical examples. The instinctive response of a teacher to the task of helping a primary-school child understand the concept of odd and even numbers, for instance, would be to explain the difference to them.

However, Bruner would argue that understanding of this concept would be much more genuine if the child discovered the difference for themselves; for instance, by playing a game in which they had to share various numbers of beads fairly between themselves and their friend.

Discovery is not just an instructional technique, but an important learning outcome in itself. Schools should help learners develop their own ability to find the “recurrent regularities” in their environment.

Bruner would likely not contend that all learning should be through discovery. For example, it seems pointless to have children “discover” the names of the U.S. Presidents, or important dates in history.

Scaffolding Theory

On the surface, Bruner’s emphasis on the learner discovering subject content for themselves seemingly absolves the teacher of a great deal of work.

In practice, however, his model requires the teacher to be actively involved in lessons; providing cognitive scaffolding which will facilitate learning on the part of the student.

On the one hand, this involves the selection and design of appropriate stimulus materials and activities which the student can understand and complete – however Bruner also advocates that the teacher should circulate the classroom and work with individual students, performing six core “functions” (Wood, Bruner and Ross: 1976):

• Recruitment : ensuring that the student is interested in the task, and understands what is required of them.
• Reducing degrees of freedom : helping the student make sense of the material by eliminating irrelevant directions and thus reducing the “trial and error” aspect of learning.
• Direction Maintenance : ensuring that the learner is on-task and interest is maintained – often by breaking the ultimate aim of the task into “sub-aims” which are more readily understood and achieved.
• Marking critical features : highlighting relevant concepts or processes and pointing out errors.
• Frustration Control : stopping students from “giving up” on the task.
• Demonstration : providing models for imitation or possible (partial solution).

In this context, Bruner’s model might be better described as guided discovery learning; as the teacher is vital in ensuring that the acquisition of new concepts and processes is successful.

Bruner and Vygotsky

Both Bruner and Vygotsky emphasize a child’s environment, especially the social environment, more than Piaget did. Both agree that adults should play an active role in assisting the child’s learning.

Bruner, like Vygotsky, emphasized the social nature of learning, citing that other people should help a child develop skills through the process of scaffolding.

“[Scaffolding] refers to the steps taken to reduce the degrees of freedom in carrying out some task so that the child can concentrate on the difficult skill she is in the process of acquiring” (Bruner, 1978, p. 19).

He was especially interested in the characteristics of people whom he considered to have achieved their potential as individuals.

The term scaffolding first appeared in the literature when Wood, Bruner, and Ross described how tutors” interacted with a preschooler to help them solve a block reconstruction problem (Wood et al., 1976).

The concept of scaffolding is very similar to Vygotsky’s notion of the zone of proximal development , and it’s not uncommon for the terms to be used interchangeably.

Scaffolding involves helpful, structured interaction between an adult and a child with the aim of helping the child achieve a specific goal.

The purpose of the support is to allow the child to achieve higher levels of development by:

• Simplifying the task or idea.
• Motivating and encouraging the child.
• Highlighting important task elements or errors.
• Giving models that can be imitated.

Bruner and Piaget

There are similarities between Piaget and Bruner, but a significant difference is that Bruner’s modes are not related in terms of which presuppose the one that precedes it. While sometimes one mode may dominate in usage, they coexist.

Bruner states that the level of intellectual development determines the extent to which the child has been given appropriate instruction together with practice or experience.

So – the right way of presentation and explanation will enable a child to grasp a concept usually only understood by an adult. His theory stresses the role of education and the adult.

Although Bruner proposes stages of cognitive development, he doesn’t see them as representing different separate modes of thought at different points of development (like Piaget).

Instead, he sees a gradual development of cognitive skills and techniques into more integrated “adult” cognitive techniques.

Bruner views symbolic representation as crucial for cognitive development, and since language is our primary means of symbolizing the world, he attaches great importance to language in determining cognitive development.

• Children are innately PRE-ADAPTED to learning
• Children have a NATURAL CURIOSITY
• Children’s COGNITIVE STRUCTURES develop over time
• Children are ACTIVE participants in the learning process
• Cognitive development entails the acquisition of SYMBOLS
• Social factors, particularly language, were important for cognitive growth. These underpin the concept of ‘scaffolding’.
• The development of LANGUAGE is a cause not a consequence of cognitive development
• You can SPEED-UP cognitive development. You don’t have to wait for the child to be ready
• The involvement of ADULTS and MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE PEERS makes a big difference

Bruner, J. S. (1957). Going beyond the information given. New York: Norton.

Bruner, J. S. (1960). The Process of education. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.

Bruner, J. S. (1961). The act of discovery. Harvard Educational Review , 31, 21-32.

Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction , Cambridge, Mass.: Belkapp Press.

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Bruner, J. S. (1978). The role of dialogue in language acquisition. In A. Sinclair, R., J. Jarvelle, and W. J.M. Levelt (eds.) The Child’s Concept of Language. New York: Springer-Verlag.

Wood, D. J., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychiatry and Psychology , 17(2), 89-100.

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“Valued” Thinking in Education: Liberating the Narrative

• Review Article
• Published: 14 March 2023
• Volume 35 , article number  35 , ( 2023 )

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• P. Karen Murphy   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8872-0376 1 ,
• Tyler M. Ogata   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4642-1009 2 , 3 &
• Eric C. Schoute   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4237-9023 4  

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Our purpose in this article is to forward a narrative of valued thinking in education—a narrative that has long been strongly influenced by Western philosophy and scientific psychology. Specifically, we begin by examining the philosophical forebearers of valued thinking, including theories such as rationalism, empiricism, and pragmatism. We follow these philosophical roots into the burgeoning mid-life of introspection, positivism, and the cognitive revolution that made way for mental-focused conceptualizations of valued thinking (e.g., higher-order thinking, critical thinking, or critical-analytic thinking). In sharing this narrative, we also hope to draw attention to the ways in which the voices of White, predominantly male scholars, past and present, have dominated understandings of valued thinking. As we turn to the final section and the possible future of valued thinking, we humbly overview two theoretical perspectives that liberate prevailing epistemic notions and center critical aspects of valued thinking.

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Murphy, P.K., Ogata, T.M. & Schoute, E.C. “Valued” Thinking in Education: Liberating the Narrative. Educ Psychol Rev 35 , 35 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09754-0

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• Published: 23 March 2021

Why spatial is special in education, learning, and everyday activities

• Toru Ishikawa 1 &
• Nora S. Newcombe 2  

Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications volume  6 , Article number:  20 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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The structure of human intellect can be conceptualized as consisting of three broad but correlated domains: verbal ability, numerical ability, and spatial ability (Wai et al. 2009 ). Verbal and numerical abilities are traditionally emphasized in the classroom context, as the phrase "the three Rs" (reading, writing, and arithmetic) suggests. However, research has increasingly demonstrated that spatial ability also plays an important role in academic achievement, especially in learning STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) (National Research Council 2006 ; Newcombe 2010 ). For example, envisioning the shape or movement of an imagined object contributes to the understanding of intersections of solids in calculus, structures of molecules in chemistry, and the formation of landscapes in geology.

Spatial thinking is a broader topic than spatial ability, however (Hegarty 2010 ). We use symbolic spatial tools, such as graphs, maps, and diagrams, in both educational and everyday contexts. These tools significantly enhance human reasoning, for example, graphs are a powerful tool to show the relationship among a set of variables in two (or higher) dimensions. STEM disciplines use these tools frequently, and, in addition, often have specific representations that students need to master, such as block diagrams in geology. Although teachers may assume that these representations are easy to read, maps, diagrams and graphs often pose difficulty for students, especially those with low spatial ability (e.g., a graph that shows changes in an object's velocity according to time) (Kozhevnikov et al. 2007 ).

As well as understanding spatial representations that are provided by teachers or in textbooks, good spatial thinkers can choose or even create representations that are suitable for the task at hand. Novices tend to prefer representations that are realistic and detailed, often more realistic and detailed than necessary because they include irrelevant information (Hegarty 2010 ; Tversky and Morrison 2002 ). Being good at spatial thinking entails the ability to select and create appropriate spatial representations, based on sound knowledge of content in a specific domain.

Navigation is a special kind of spatial thinking, which requires us to understand our location (where we are) and orientation (which direction we are facing) in relation to the surroundings. Sometimes, we may construct reasonably accurate mental representations of the environment ("maps in the head" or "cognitive maps"). However, people often have difficulty with cognitive mapping (Ishikawa and Montello 2006 ; Weisberg and Newcombe 2016 ), especially in environmental space (beyond figural or vista space), when we cannot view a layout in its entirety from a single viewpoint (Ittelson 1973 ; Jacobs and Menzel 2014 ; Montello 1993 ). People thus need to move around and integrate separate pieces of information available at each viewpoint in a common frame of reference, which poses extra cognitive processing demands (Han and Becker 2014 ; Holmes et al. 2018 ; Meilinger et al. 2014 ). Spatial orientation and navigation may be problematic for some people even with maps or satellite navigation (Ishikawa 2019 ; Liben et al. 2002 ).

Characteristics of spatial thinking

Spatial thinking has unique characteristics that offer interesting research challenges. First, spatial thinking concerns space at different scales. Thinking about the structures of molecules, envisioning the folding and unfolding of a piece of paper, making a mechanical drawing, packing a suitcase, finding your way to a destination in a new environment, and reasoning about the formative process of a geologic structure all concern thinking and reasoning about space, but they span a wide range of spatial and temporal scales. Expertise in spatial thinking in STEM domains typically focuses on a specific scale, with organic chemistry, surgery, mechanical engineering, architecture, structural geology, and planetary science spanning but not exhausting the range. Spatial skills may vary across scale. For example, Hegarty et al. ( 2006 ) showed that learning from direct navigation in the environment differed from learning from a video or a desktop virtual environment, yielding two separate factors in factor analysis, and that the former was correlated with self-report sense of direction, whereas the latter with psychometrically assessed spatial ability. Learmonth et al. ( 2001 ) showed that young children's use of landmark information to reorient depends on the size of space.

Second, spatial thinking occurs in various media, including 2D static images, 3D animations, schematic diagrams, indoor and outdoor environments, immersive virtual environments, and spatial language. Each medium has its own way of representing spatial information (Liben 1999 ; Tversky 2001 ) and knowledge acquired from different media differs in structure and flexibility in important ways (Rieser 1989 ; Taylor and Tversky 1992 ; Thorndyke and Hayes-Roth 1982 ). In discussing spatial thinking and learning media, one should distinguish between internal representations (knowledge in the mind) and external representations (spatial products or expressions presented to a person). External spatial representations are shown visually in a certain level of detail or resolution (Goodchild and Proctor 1997 ), and verbally in a specific frame of reference (Levinson 1996 ).

Third, spatial thinking skills vary both at a group level and at the individual level. There are cases where group differences are of concern to the instructor, for example, in consideration of male–female differences in entry and retention rates in STEM disciplines (Belser et al. 2018 ; Chen 2013 ; Sithole et al. 2017 ). Instructors are also concerned with individual differences in aptitudes; for example, students vary in their spatial and verbal abilities and some students are good at spatial tasks and some are good at verbal tasks. Is there a good way to adjust instructional methods to students' aptitudes? Furthermore, given the existence of group and individual differences in spatial thinking, another question of concern is how instruction can have an impact, for example, whether male–female differences in spatial thinking, when they occur, can be eliminated, or how best people with difficulty in spatial thinking can improve, by training.

Papers in this special issue

The papers in this special issue center around three major topics: (a) spatial thinking and the skill of mental rotation; (b) spatial thinking in the classroom context or in STEM curricula; and (c) spatial thinking in wayfinding or large-scale spatial cognition. Here is a link to the papers ( https://cognitiveresearchjournal.springeropen.com/spatial-collection ) (Table 1 ).

Mental rotation

Mental rotation is one of the major spatial abilities assessed by psychometric spatial tests, and has been much studied. Importantly, it has been shown to correlate with success in a variety of other spatial thinking tasks. Intriguingly, it also shows large male–female differences in adults, although sex differences in other spatial skills tend to be smaller or even non-existent. Whether there are sex differences in mental rotation in children is a more controversial topic; sex differences may emerge over the course of development (Lauer et al. 2019 ; Newcombe 2020 ), but for an alternative, see Johnson & Moore’s paper in this special issue. There are also papers in the special issue investigating the malleability of mental rotation with practice (Moen et al.), and its relations with spatial anxiety (Alvarez-Vargas, Abad, & Pruden) and everyday experience (Cheng, Hegarty, & Chrastil). In an unexpected twist, it turns out that mental rotation may even be involved with tracking tasks and executing intended actions at specified times (Kubik, Del Messier, & Mantyla).

Spatial thinking in STEM

Spatial thinking, as discussed above, includes advanced disciplinary thinking of a spatial nature, based on expert knowledge and reasoning in each domain. Examples of such academic disciplines include structural geology, surgery, chemistry (Atit, Uttal, & Stieff), and mathematics (Aldugom, Fenn, & Cook). Despite the contribution of spatial thinking to a physical prediction task, however, spatial skills did not account for all of the individual differences observed in intuitive physics (Mitko & Fischer). Variation in spatial learning is already evident in early adolescence, as shown in a study of learning about plate tectonics using a computer visualization (Epler-Ruths, McDonald, Pallant, & Lee). The development of effective spatial instruction should consider how to bring scientific research into the educational practice of spatial thinking (Gagnier & Fisher) and how to support elementary school teachers who are liable to spatial anxiety (Burte, Gardony, Hutton, & Taylor).

Spatial thinking and navigation

Space at environmental scale, or navigational spatial thinking, is vital in everyday life for wayfinding in the environment. Issues of concern to researchers include spatial reasoning in different spatial frames of reference (Weisberg & Chatterjee), learning performance at different spatial scales (Zhao et al.), relationship with sense of direction (Zhao et al.; Stites, Matzen, & Gastelum), the possibility of improving cognitive mapping skills (Ishikawa & Zhou), and navigation in complex environments or emergent situations (Stites, Matzen, & Gastelum). Uncertainty in a novel environment prompts people to seek information, and a review of the literature suggests the importance of examining task behavior, not just the state of knowledge at the end of a navigation experience (Keller, Taylor, & Brunye). In the context of a discussion of the possibility of instructing spatial thinking, participation in spatial activities during childhood or adolescence and its relationship with spatial thinking has attracted the attention of researchers and practitioners (Peterson et al.). Sex differences in navigation may arise from girls and boys having different childhood wayfinding experiences (Vieites, Pruden, & Reeb-Sutherland).

Questions for further thinking about spatial thinking

Looking over the articles in the special issue as well as other recent studies suggests questions for further research into spatial thinking.

Spatial ability and spatial thinking

How does mental rotation relate to spatial thinking in various academic disciplines? The existing literature points to the malleability of the skill of mental rotation: given that mental rotation is an important component of spatial thinking, how can training in mental rotation improve (or transfer to) spatial thinking? Does the effect differ in different disciplines or for different types of spatial thinking in a specific discipline? What about examining other spatial abilities, such as perspective taking, spatial orientation, or flexibility of closure, in regard to their relations with spatial thinking of various kinds? Arguably, we have focused too much on mental rotation, and ignored other kinds of crucial mental operations.

Spatial thinking as a domain-specific learning skill

Researchers have studied spatial thinking in various STEM disciplines including geoscience, surgery, chemistry, and mathematics, and also in the K-12 setting and at the college level. Continued research into the types of spatial thinking that are required in disciplinary learning and characterize expert thinking in each domain would contribute to better theoretical understanding and educational practice. Specific questions include: How is STEM learning related to (explained or predicted by) facility with spatial thinking? Is spatial thinking different from spatial ability assessed by spatial tests? In a specific STEM discipline, what is the relationship among spatial thinking, spatial ability, and domain-specific knowledge? What is the contribution of spatial thinking, spatial ability, and domain-specific knowledge, respectively, to the mastery of each disciplinary learning? And, importantly, how can one develop curricula that effectively take scientific knowledge of spatial thinking into account to encourage students to pursue STEM careers?

Spatial thinking as it relates to our everyday activities

Space is s fundamental component to our cognition and behavior, as it surrounds us and affords us opportunities to function adaptively. Thinking in, about, and with space characterizes (or conditions) our everyday activities. Finding one's way in the environment (cognitive mapping), communicating information in graphs and diagrams (visualization), and using space to think about nonspatial phenomena (spatial metaphors or spatialization) are major examples of our everyday spatial thinking, to name but a few. How are these everyday spatial thinking skills acquired, and if possible, instructed? Can navigation and wayfinding skills be trained, or can people's "sense of direction" be improved by training? Does the participation in spatial activities affect spatial thinking? Does self-assessment of one's spatial thinking skills affect (promote or hinder) participation in spatial activities?

Investigation of these questions, in collaboration between researchers and practitioners, will deepen our understanding of what spatial thinking is and how it relates to our cognition and behavior. We hope that the special issue fosters more research along these lines and enhances scientific and pedagogical interest in this vital domain of human cognition.

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Ishikawa, T., Newcombe, N.S. Why spatial is special in education, learning, and everyday activities. Cogn. Research 6 , 20 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-021-00274-5

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Why is Educational Psychology Important for the Teacher?

Educational psychology enables a teacher to know how to initiate the learning process, how to inspire, how to remember or how to learn.  Educational psychology helps the teacher to know how the teaching process takes place. Educational psychology helps teachers guide students in the right way in order to improve student capabilities in the right direction.

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Home   >   blogs   >   Unlocking Educational Psychology’s Role

Unlocking Educational Psychology’s Role

February 5,2024

Educational Psychology's Role  

The cornerstone of learning and development .

Indeed, the importance of educational psychology in shaping the future of learning cannot be overstated. At its core, this discipline offers invaluable insights into how individuals acquire knowledge and skills, thereby informing teaching strategies that cater to diverse learning needs. Furthermore, it plays a pivotal role in identifying and addressing learning difficulties, ensuring that education is accessible and effective for all students. 

Moreover, educational psychology extends its benefits beyond the classroom, significantly influencing society. By fostering a deeper understanding of developmental stages and learning styles, it empowers educators to craft learning environments that nurture not only academic success but also social and emotional growth. This holistic approach to education cultivates well-rounded individuals who are equipped to contribute positively to their communities. 

The role of educational psychology in education is evident in its contribution to curriculum design and assessment methods. Through evidence-based research, educational psychologists develop and refine educational materials and teaching strategies, ensuring they meet the evolving needs of students. This dynamic process underscores the discipline's commitment to enhancing educational quality and effectiveness. 

Nurturing Inclusive Educational Environments 

The impact of educational psychological research in practice is particularly notable in the creation of inclusive educational settings. By understanding the unique challenges faced by learners with special needs, educational psychologists guide the development of tailored interventions. These strategies not only support individual learning objectives but also promote an inclusive culture that values diversity and fosters a sense of belonging among all students. 

The importance of educational psychology is highlighted in its approach to student motivation and engagement. By unraveling the complex factors that influence motivation, educational psychologists provide teachers with strategies to engage students actively in their learning journey. This focus on motivation is crucial, as it directly affects learning outcomes and students' overall educational experience. 

In addition, the discipline's emphasis on emotional and psychological well-being is instrumental in addressing issues such as anxiety and stress among students. By equipping educators with strategies to create supportive and empathetic learning environments, educational psychology contributes to the overall well-being of students, enhancing their ability to learn and thrive. 

Advancing Through Research 

The importance of research in educational psychology cannot be understated. It is through rigorous investigation that the field continues to evolve, shedding light on new teaching methodologies, learning technologies, and psychological interventions that can enhance educational outcomes. This commitment to research ensures that educational psychology remains responsive to the changing landscape of education, adapting to new challenges and opportunities. 

Research in educational psychology plays a crucial role in debunking myths and challenging outdated educational practices. By grounding educational theories in empirical evidence, the field promotes practices that are proven to be effective, thereby enhancing the quality of education provided to learners. 

Enhancing Teacher Effectiveness through Educational Psychology 

In the journey to elevate educational standards, the role of educational psychology in education emerges as a beacon guiding the professional development of teachers . By arming educators with a deep understanding of cognitive processes and learning theories, this field equips them to tailor their teaching methods to meet the diverse needs of their students. Moreover, educational psychology offers strategies for classroom management, fostering an environment conducive to learning for all. 

Furthermore, the importance of educational psychology shines through in its application to educational technology. As digital tools become increasingly integral to teaching and learning, understanding how students interact with these technologies is crucial. Educational psychologists delve into the cognitive and emotional aspects of learning with technology, ensuring that digital tools enhance rather than hinder the learning experience. 

The impact of educational psychological research in practice is evident in the field's contributions to special education. By developing and applying research-based interventions, educational psychologists ensure that students with learning disabilities receive the support they need to succeed academically. This commitment to inclusivity underscores the discipline's role in promoting equity in education. 

Fostering Resilience and Mental Well-being in Students 

The importance of educational psychology extends to its focus on students' mental health and resilience. In an era where young people face numerous pressures, from academic stress to social challenges, educational psychology provides insights into fostering resilience. By integrating strategies that promote mental well-being into the curriculum, educators can help students develop coping mechanisms that will serve them well beyond the classroom. 

The role of educational psychology in education is pivotal in addressing the emotional aspects of learning. Understanding the emotional barriers to learning, such as anxiety and lack of confidence, allows educators to create supportive environments that encourage students to embrace challenges and engage in the learning process wholeheartedly. 

Additionally, the discipline's focus on social-emotional learning highlights the importance of educational psychology. By teaching students essential skills such as empathy, self-awareness, and effective communication, educational psychology contributes to the development of emotionally intelligent individuals who can navigate the complexities of interpersonal relationships and societal expectations. 

Navigating the Future of Education 

As we look to the future, the importance of research in educational psychology becomes increasingly apparent. With the educational landscape constantly evolving, ongoing research is essential to keep pace with emerging challenges and opportunities. From understanding the implications of artificial intelligence in education to exploring the potential of personalized learning, educational psychology research drives innovation and ensures that educational practices are grounded in scientific evidence. 

Moreover, the impact of educational psychological research in practice is critical in shaping policies and practices that affect education at all levels. By providing empirical evidence on what works in education, educational psychologists influence decision-making processes, ensuring that policies are informed by solid research rather than anecdotal evidence or passing trends. 

Cultivating a Culture of Lifelong Learning 

The importance of educational psychology is profoundly reflected in its contribution to lifelong learning. By understanding how learning occurs throughout life, educational psychologists advocate for strategies that encourage continuous education beyond formal schooling. This perspective helps individuals adapt to the rapidly changing demands of the workforce and society, emphasizing the value of adaptability and continuous personal development. 

Moreover, the role of educational psychology in education is critical in the context of adult education. Adults returning to education face unique challenges, and educational psychology provides insights into adult learning theories that can make this transition more effective and fulfilling. By applying these principles, educators can create more engaging and relevant learning experiences for adult learners, fostering a culture where education is a continuous journey rather than a destination. 

Additionally, the importance of educational psychology in society extends to its role in community education and outreach programs. Educational psychologists work to design programs that address the educational needs of diverse communities, ensuring that learning opportunities are accessible to all, regardless of age, background, or circumstance. This inclusive approach not only enriches individual lives but also strengthens communities by promoting knowledge, skills, and social cohesion. 

Embracing Diversity and Equity in Education 

The impact of educational psychological research in practice is particularly significant in promoting diversity and equity in educational settings. By examining how factors such as culture, language, and socio-economic status affect learning, educational psychologists develop strategies to mitigate educational disparities. This research informs practices that ensure all students have the support they need to succeed, highlighting the discipline's commitment to social justice in education. 

Furthermore, the importance of educational psychology is evident in its efforts to dismantle barriers to education for marginalized groups. Through advocacy and research, educational psychologists work to change policies and practices that perpetuate inequality, championing a more inclusive and equitable education system. 

In addition, educational psychology's focus on multicultural education enriches learning environments by incorporating diverse perspectives and experiences. This approach not only enhances learning for students from all backgrounds but also prepares students to thrive in a globalized world, fostering mutual respect and understanding among diverse populations. 

Leveraging Technology for Enhanced Learning 

In an era dominated by digital innovation, the importance of research in educational psychology is crucial in understanding the implications of technology in education. Educational psychologists explore how digital tools can be used to enhance learning, examining the effects of multimedia, virtual reality, and online learning platforms on cognitive processes and educational outcomes. 

The role of educational psychology in education in the digital age involves guiding the ethical and effective use of technology in the classroom. By balancing technological opportunities with potential drawbacks, educational psychologists help educators integrate digital tools in ways that enrich learning without compromising students' well-being or privacy. 

The impact of educational psychological research in practice is seen in the development of adaptive learning technologies. These systems use data to personalize learning experiences, adjusting to individual learners' needs and pace. This personalized approach, informed by educational psychology, has the potential to revolutionize education by making learning more engaging, efficient, and effective for students of all ages and backgrounds. 

Envisioning the Future of Educational Psychology 

As we look towards the future, the importance of educational psychology in shaping next-generation education is both exciting and paramount. By continuously exploring how learning occurs across different stages of life and within various social contexts, educational psychology remains at the forefront of educational innovation. This dynamic field adapts to the evolving educational landscape, ensuring that teaching methods stay relevant, engaging, and effective for diverse learner populations. 

The importance of research in educational psychology is critical in navigating the challenges and opportunities presented by the digital age. As technology becomes increasingly integrated into education, research in educational psychology will guide the development of digital learning tools that are pedagogically sound and aligned with human cognitive processes. This research ensures that technology enhances rather than detracts from the learning experience, facilitating a harmonious blend of traditional and digital educational practices. 

The role of educational psychology in education is expanding to encompass global challenges such as sustainability, global citizenship, and digital literacy. By addressing these topics within the educational curriculum, educational psychology contributes to the development of informed, responsible, and proactive global citizens. This broader perspective prepares students not only for personal success but also for active participation in addressing global issues. 

Empowering Change Through Educational Psychology 

The impact of educational psychological research in practice cannot be overstated. As educational psychologists uncover new insights into human learning and development, these findings translate into practical applications that transform educational environments. From individual classrooms to entire educational systems, the principles of educational psychology inform policies, curricula, and teaching practices that cater to the holistic development of learners. 

Furthermore, the importance of educational psychology in society extends to its role in fostering inclusive education. By advocating for educational practices that accommodate diversity in all its forms, educational psychology promotes a more equitable and just educational landscape. This commitment to inclusivity ensures that every student, regardless of background, ability, or learning style, has access to quality education and the opportunity to reach their full potential. 

The discipline's focus on lifelong learning underscores the importance of educational psychology. In a world where change is the only constant, fostering a love for learning and an ability to adapt is crucial. Educational psychology supports the development of these competencies, empowering individuals to navigate the complexities of the modern world with confidence and resilience. 

Conclusion: Unlocking the Full Potential of Education 

In conclusion, the importance of educational psychology in unlocking the full potential of education cannot be understated. Through its comprehensive understanding of how individuals learn and develop, educational psychology provides the foundation for educational practices that are innovative, inclusive, and effective. As we reflect on the insights gained from this exploration, it is clear that educational psychology holds the key to addressing current and future educational challenges. 

The role of educational psychology in education is multifaceted, extending from the micro-level of individual learning processes to the macro-level of global educational trends. By embracing the principles of educational psychology, educators, policymakers, and stakeholders can create learning environments that not only impart knowledge but also foster critical thinking, creativity, and emotional intelligence. 

As we move forward, the importance of research in educational psychology will continue to drive progress in education, ensuring that teaching methods and educational policies are grounded in empirical evidence. This commitment to evidence-based practice is essential for the continuous improvement of education, ensuring that it evolves to meet the needs of future generations. 

In essence, educational psychology serves as a beacon, guiding the way towards a more enlightened, inclusive, and dynamic educational future. By harnessing the power of this discipline, we can unlock the full potential of education, transforming it into a force that not only educates but also empowers individuals and societies alike. 

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Psychologists strive to understand and explain how and why people change throughout life. While many of these changes are normal and expected, they can still pose challenges that people sometimes need extra assistance to manage.

The principles of normative development with specific milestones help professionals spot potential problems and provide early intervention for better outcomes. Developmental psychologists can work with people of all ages to address roadblocks and support growth. However, some choose to specialize in a specific age group, such as childhood, adulthood, or old age.

Lifespan Development: How We Grow and Change Over the Years

Developmental psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on how people grow and change over the course of a lifetime.

Those who specialize in this field are not just concerned with the physical changes that occur as people grow; they also look at the cognitive, emotional, and social development that occurs throughout life.

Some of the many issues developmental psychologists assist with include:

• Cognitive development during childhood and throughout life
• Developmental challenges and learning disabilities
• Emotional development
• Language acquisition
• Moral reasoning
• Motor skill development
• Personality development
• Self-awareness and self-concept
• Social and cultural influences on child development

These professionals spend a great deal of time investigating and observing how these processes occur under normal circumstances. Still, they are also interested in learning about things that can disrupt developmental processes.

By better understanding how and why people change and grow, developmental psychologists help people live up to their full potential. Understanding the course of normal human development and recognizing potential problems early on can prevent difficulties with depression, low self-esteem, frustration, and poor achievement in school or work.

Developmental Psychology Theories

Developmental psychologists often consider a wide array of theories to consider different aspects of human development. A few examples are listed below:

• Cognitive development. A psychologist assessing intellectual growth in a child might consider Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development , which outlines the key stages children go through as they grow and learn.
• Attachment . A psychologist working with a child might also want to consider how the child's relationships with caregivers influence their behaviors, so they might turn to John Bowlby's theory of attachment .
• Personality . Sigmund Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development is another influential theory that explains the importance of childhood experiences on personality development and how maladaptive coping styles and defense mechanisms emerge.
• Social and emotional growth. Psychologists are also interested in looking at how social relationships influence children's and adults' development. Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development and Lev Vygotsky's theory of sociocultural development are two popular theoretical frameworks that address the social influences on the developmental process.

Each approach tends to stress different aspects of development, such as mental, parental, social, or environmental influences on children's growth and progress .

Developmental Psychology Stages

As you might imagine, developmental psychologists often break down development according to various phases of life. Each of these periods of development represents a time when different milestones are typically achieved.

People may face particular challenges at each point, and developmental psychologists can often help people who might be struggling with problems to get back on track.

Prenatal Development

Developmental psychologists are interested in the prenatal period , seeking to understand how the earliest influences on development can impact later growth during childhood. They may examine how primary reflexes emerge before birth, how fetuses respond to stimuli in the womb, and the sensations and perceptions that fetuses are capable of detecting prior to birth.

Developmental psychologists may also look at potential problems such as Down syndrome, maternal drug use, and inherited diseases that might have an impact on the course of future development.

Early Childhood Development

The period from infancy through early childhood is a time of remarkable growth and change. Developmental psychologists examine the physical, cognitive , and socio-emotional growth during this critical development period.

In addition to providing interventions for potential developmental problems at this point, psychologists are also focused on helping kids achieve their full potential. Parents and healthcare experts are often on the lookout to ensure that kids are growing properly, receiving adequate nutrition, and achieving cognitive milestones appropriate for their age.

Middle Childhood Development

This period of development is marked by both physical maturation and the increased importance of social influences as children make their way through elementary school.

Kids begin to make their mark on the world as they build their unique sense of self , form friendships , grasp principles of logic , and gain competency through schoolwork and personal interests. Parents may seek the assistance of a developmental psychologist to help kids deal with potential problems that might arise at this age, including academic, social, emotional, and mental health issues.

Adolescent Development

The teenage years are often the subject of considerable interest as children experience the psychological turmoil and transition that often accompanies this period of development. Psychologists such as Erik Erikson were especially interested in looking at how navigating this period leads to identity formation .

At this age, kids often test limits and explore new identities as they question who they are and who they want to be. Developmental psychologists can help support teens as they deal with some of the challenging issues unique to the adolescent period, including puberty, emotional turmoil, and social pressure.

Early Adult Development

This period of life is often marked by forming and maintaining relationships. Critical milestones during early adulthood may include forming bonds, intimacy, close friendships, and starting a family and career.

Those who can build and sustain such relationships tend to experience connectedness and social support, while those who struggle with such relationships may feel alienated and lonely .

People facing such issues might seek the assistance of a developmental psychologist to build healthier relationships and combat emotional difficulties.

Middle Adult Development

This stage of life tends to center on developing a sense of purpose and contributing to society. Erikson described this as the conflict between generativity and stagnation .

Those who engage in the world, contribute things that will outlast them, and leave a mark on the next generation emerge with a sense of purpose. Activities such as careers, families, group memberships, and community involvement are all things that can contribute to this feeling of generativity.

Older Adult Development

The senior years are often viewed as a period of poor health, yet many older adults can remain active and busy well into their 80s and 90s. Increased health concerns mark this period of development, and some individuals may experience mental declines related to dementia.

Theorist Erik Erikson also viewed the elder years as a time of reflecting back on life . Those who can look back and see a life well-lived emerge with a sense of wisdom and readiness to face the end of their lives, while those who look back with regret may be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.

Developmental psychologists may work with elderly patients to help them cope with issues related to the aging process.

While development tends to follow a fairly predictable pattern, there are times when things might go off course. Parents often focus on what are known as developmental milestones, which represent abilities that most children tend to display by a certain point in development. These typically focus on each of four main areas:

• Physical milestones
• Cognitive milestones, including language development
• Emotional milestones
• Social milestones

For example, walking is one physical milestone most children achieve between 9 and 15 months. If a child is not walking or attempting to walk by 16 to 18 months, parents might consider consulting with their family physician to determine if a developmental issue might be present.

While all children develop at different rates, when a child fails to meet certain milestones by a certain age, there may be cause for concern.

By being aware of these milestones, parents can seek assistance, and healthcare professionals can offer interventions to help kids overcome developmental delays.

These professionals often evaluate children to determine if a developmental delay might be present, or they might work with elderly patients who are facing health concerns associated with old age, such as cognitive declines, physical struggles, emotional difficulties, or degenerative brain disorders.

Developmental psychologists can support individuals at all stages of life who may be facing developmental issues or problems related to aging.

Diagnosing Developmental Issues

To determine if a developmental problem is present, a psychologist or other highly trained professional may administer a developmental screening or evaluation.

For children, such an evaluation typically involves interviews with parents and other caregivers to learn about behaviors they may have observed, a review of a child's medical history, and standardized testing to measure functioning in terms of physical and motor development, cognitive skills, language development and communication skills, and social/emotional skills.

If a problem is found, the patient may be referred to a specialist, such as a speech-language pathologist, physical therapist, or occupational therapist.

Coping With a Developmental Diagnosis

Receiving a diagnosis of a developmental issue can often feel both confusing and frightening, particularly when you, your own child, or an elderly parent is affected. Once you or your loved one has received a diagnosis of a developmental issue, spend some time learning as much as you can about the diagnosis and available treatments.

Prepare a list of questions and concerns you may have and discuss these issues with your doctor, developmental psychologist, and other healthcare professionals who may be part of the treatment team. By taking an active role in the process, you will feel better informed and equipped to tackle the next steps in the treatment process.

The four major developmental psychology issues are focused on physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development.

The Eight major stages of development are:

• Prenatal development
• Infant development
• Early childhood development
• Middle childhood development
• Adolescent development
• Early adult development
• Middle adult development
• Older adult development

The principles of developmental psychology outlined by Paul Baltes suggest that development is (1) lifelong, (2) multidimensional, (3) multidirectional, (4) involves gains and losses, (5) plastic (malleable and adaptive), and (6) multidisciplinary. 

Four developmental issues that psychologists explore are focused on the relative contributions of:

• Nature vs. nurture : Is development primarily influenced by genetics or environmental factors?
• Early vs. later experience : Do early childhood events matter more than events that happen later in life?
• Continuity vs discontinuity : Is developmental change a gradual process, or do changes happen suddenly and follow a specific course?
• Abnormal behavior vs. individual differences : What represents abnormal development, and what can be considered individual variations in development?

Rabindran, Madanagopal D.  Piaget’s theory and stages of cognitive development- An overview .  SJAMS.  2020;8(9):2152-2157. doi:10.36347/sjams.2020.v08i09.034

Bowlby J.  Attachment and loss: Retrospect and prospect .  Am J Orthopsychiatry . 1982;52(4):664-678. doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.1982.tb01456.x

American Psychological Association.  Psychosexual development . APA Dictionary of Psychology.

Erikson, EH & Erikson, JM. The Life Cycle Completed , Extended Version. W.W. Norton & Company; 1998.

Vygotsky LS.  Play and its role in the mental development of the child .  International Research in Early Childhood Education . 2016;7(2):3-25.

Erikson EH. Identity: Youth and Crisis . W. W. Norton; 1968.

Keenan T, Evans S. An Introduction to Child Development . 2nd ed. SAGE; 2009.

Whitebread D, Grau V, Kumpulainen K, McClelland MM, Perry NE, Pino-Pasternak D.  The Sage Handbook of Developmental Psychology and Early Childhood Education . SAGE Publications Ltd; 2019. doi:10.4135/9781526470393

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

College of Education

Learning Sciences and Educational Psychology

The Learning Sciences and Educational Psychology program draws from multiple disciplines to study how, when, and why people learn both in and out of school.

Our students come from diverse fields and professional backgrounds, with shared interest in cognition, design, and learning environments. In our program, students apply learning theories and design principles in projects of their choosing under the mentorship of our faculty.

Educational Psychology Minor

An undergraduate minor to enhance understanding of learning, development, assessment, and learning environments.

• MA Learning Sciences and Educational Psychology

A master’s preparing professionals to design, implement, or evaluate learning materials and environments

• PhD Learning Sciences and Educational Psychology

A terminal doctorate preparing scholars for careers in academia, industry, museums, and beyond.

Graduate Certificates

• Certificate in Online Teaching

Online certificate to gain skills in designing and facilitating online instruction for anyone who has completed a four-year degree.

Graduate Certificate in College Teaching

The Graduate Certificate in College Teaching provides the necessary coursework and supervised experiences to prepare graduate students for careers in post-secondary education.

Faculty and Research

Our Learning Sciences and Educational Psychology faculty reflect the multi-disciplinary nature of the field, applying various lenses and approaches to the study of learning in diverse contexts.

To see associated faculty, please:  Visit Faculty Listing

Areas of expertise include:

• Cognition, learning, and development
• Collaborative learning
• Conceptual change
• Design-based research
• Learning in the disciplines
• Learning technologies & environments
• Meaning making
• Multi-modal learning

The Network of Academic Programs in the Learning Sciences (NAPLeS) is a network of PhD and Master’s programs in the Learning Sciences.

DeLTA Center

The DeLTA (Development and Learning from Theory to Application) Center is an interdisciplinary research community at the University of Iowa

Admissions and Application

For general admissions information, please visit Graduate Admissions . Please visit the degree pages for specific admissions information:

• Educational Psychology - minor

Financial Support

The faculty of the Learning Sciences and Educational Psychology program strive to provide financial aid to as many students as possible. The major sources of funding are teaching and research assistantships. In addition, students frequently obtain professionally relevant employment in the Iowa City area. We encourage all students to consult with their advisors prior to taking employment. In general, financial aid in the form of teaching and research assistantships is available to students for no more than two years of work toward an M.A. degree and for no more than four years of work toward a Ph.D. degree. General information about financial aid for graduate students may be found at the  UI Graduate Admissions' website .

Research and teaching assistantships:   Each year, the program is able to support a number of students as research and teaching assistants. In general, research assistants are supported with funds that faculty members obtain through external grants and contracts. Thus, the number of research assistantships available fluctuates from year to year. Generally, the students appointed to these assistantships have been in the program long enough to acquire the skills that enable them to contribute to the research program. The duties of teaching assistants range from grading to taking full responsibility (with appropriate supervision and support) for teaching a section of a course. Again, first-year students rarely have the skills and background necessary for appointment as teaching assistants. Students are encouraged, through coursework and other experiences, to gain research and teaching skills that will make them eligible for appointment to these assistantships. In most years, some research assistantship or fellowship funds are available especially to support first-year Ph.D. students.

Assistantships   for a 25% time or greater appointment qualify the student assistant and his or her spouse for in-state resident tuition, which is substantially lower than out-of-state tuition. Compensation for student assistants also includes a health-care plan and, in some cases for students with children under 24 months of age, a modest contribution toward child-care costs.

Special Graduate Assistantships   are open to graduate students pursuing an advanced degree offered by the College of Education. These assistantships are half-time appointments (i.e., 20 hours). During the assistantship, students pursue both individual and collaborative research projects with a faculty advisor. Summer support is not available through this program. The application must be filed on a special form obtained from:

The Chair of the Selection Committee 334 Lindquist Center, The University of Iowa Iowa City IA 52242-1529 Tel: 339/335-6010

The   deadline   for completed applications is usually in February. Students should file these applications at the time they apply for admission to the program.

Each year, the program is able to support a number of students as research and teaching assistants. In general, research assistants are supported with funds that faculty members obtain through external grants and contracts. Thus, the number of research assistantships available fluctuates from year to year. These assistantships follow the same general guidelines as the special research assistantships. Summer support may not be available. Unlike the special graduate assistantships, no special form is required. If they indicate an interest, all applicants to the Educational Measurement and Statistics program are considered for these assistantships.

Several   Fellowships   are available in addition to these assistantships. These include Graduate Opportunity Fellowships for minority students and University of Iowa Fellowships. The University of Iowa Fellowship involves a four-year waiver of tuition, plus a stipend. The faculty will review your materials when complete and will forward to you the necessary forms to enable you to apply to either of these fellowships for which you may be qualified.

Please review the required supplemental documents above before starting the general graduate application. To begin the application process, set up an account with an existing email address and password

Ferguson’s research inspired by caring for mother with dementia

Eight faculty-led projects funded by Seeding Excellence Initiative

Kelly recognized with UI's highest teaching honor

Lira receives NSF grant to advance learning technologies

Program resources, academic related links.

• American Educational Research Association
• American Psychological Association
• Cognitive Science Society
• International Society of the Learning Sciences
• Journal of Educational Psychology
• Mid-Westem Educational Research Association

COE Resources

• The   Blommers Measurement Resource Library   contains a collection of books, journals, and reference materials related to educational testing and assessment as well as an extensive collection of published and unpublished tests. The laboratory is staffed by a full-time professional librarian.
• The Connie Belin and Jacqueline N. Blank Center for Gifted Education and Talent Development   provides teacher training and direct services to gifted students. A variety of experiences including practica and research assistantships are available to graduate students.
• Professional Development @ the TLC   provides graduate students a comprehensive job seeking resource.  From résumé and CV samples, templates and critiquing service, to programs that address all aspects of the academic and professional job search, to several publications and video programs that inform and guide every step of the job search.  They also offers students a Letter Service for professional letters of recommendation.  For more information on the services offered, stop by N140 LC or visit our website.
• Computer Resource Laboratory that contains networked microcomputers and terminals linked to the University's network. The lab is used by faculty and students for research and instruction.
• The Video Production Laboratory consists of a 2,000-square-foot television facility and an audio recording studio. The lab is used for instruction and to produce instructional programs.
• The Media Laboratory houses a variety of instructional equipment and facilities for students and faculty to develop skills in the design and production of instructional materials.
• Iowa Testing Programs   develop the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills and the Iowa Tests of Educational Development. The programs also provide analytic and consultative services associated with the interpretation and use of test scores. These activities support a number of unique opportunities for student research.

Learning Sciences and Educational Psychology Program Handbook

Admissions Coordinator

Matthew Lira 353 Lindquist Center 319-335-5557 [email protected]

Program Coordinator

Kathy Schuh N304 Lindquist Center 319-335-5667 [email protected]

For admissions and application questions, please contact: [email protected] .

We're here to help.

8 Benefits of Educational Psychology to the Teacher

• July 4, 2022

Table of Content

Education is more than just delivering knowledge; it is also about understanding how students learn and meet their specific needs. This is where educational psychology comes into play. Educational Psychology is an important branch of Psychology that focuses on the development of children and adolescents. It studies the factors that affect the growth and development of individuals.

Classplus, an innovative learning management system, offers educators with a powerful tool to help them succeed in their teaching endeavors by incorporating educational psychology principles. 

In this article, we will look at the benefits of educational psychology and how it can help educators succeed.

What is Educational Psychology?

Educational Psychology is an important branch of Psychology that focuses on the development of children and adolescents. It studies the factors that affect the growth and development of individuals. It helps educators understand what students need to succeed at school and at home. They also help teachers plan lessons and evaluate student progress.

Teachers are experts in the subject matter and know what works best for each student. They also understand the student’s personality and behavior. The teacher helps the students understand concepts and ideas through lectures, discussions, assignments, tests, projects, etc.

Benefits of Educational Psychology

What is educational psychology ? It is an important tool for teachers that helps them understand what students need to succeed in school and in life. It also helps them to teach effectively in the classroom. Teachers can help students by using teaching methods and strategies according to the behavior and understanding of the students.

• Educational psychology focuses on identifying and addressing central problems in education.
• It clearly depends on understanding the student’s behavior and individual differences.
• Educational psychology helps teachers gain insights into students’ needs, strengths, and challenges.
• It helps to curate the solution according to the students.
• Helps teachers understand students’ cognitive capacity and information retention abilities.
• By applying it’s principles, teachers can enhance their instructional strategies and promote student success.

1. Implementing Effective Strategies

It utilizes psychological principles, concepts, theories, and models in growth and development, motivation, intelligence, working memory, thinking, and problem-solving . These topics allow them to select an application of psychological principles that suitably match the school environment and the characteristics of the teacher and learners.

As a result, teachers will be able to identify the main factors that influence the quality of teaching and learning and thus plan and implement effective strategies to solve problems.

With Classplus, educators can get their own app where they can create effective learning strategies for their students. The platform offers features like student analytics, performance tracking, and adaptive learning modules, enabling educators to identify each student’s strengths, weaknesses, and learning styles. To know more, take a FREE demo now!

2. Selection of Learning Methods

Learning methods are based on the needs of the student. Educational psychology can help teachers determine the best strategy or method of teaching and learning proper and appropriate, as well as relating to the characteristics and uniqueness’s of the individual student.

The types of learning and learning styles, and the level of development being experienced by the students. Having a proper understanding of students helps curate the best learning methods and strategies.

3. Understanding the Individual Differences

Understanding individual differences is an important aspect of education. Teachers need to understand students’ different characteristics and needs at various levels to effectively teach them. In addition, understanding students’ different characteristics help teachers create an environment conducive to learning.

It can help teachers and prospective educators understand the different characteristics of children at various levels of growth and make teaching strategies accordingly. Using strategies that suit the differences of students will help the teachers to improve their students’ grades.

4. Knowing What is Important

Educational Psychology excludes anything that isn’t true about the process of education and learning. It focuses on what is important when we talk about learning and teaching. It provides the most important information and skills to teachers.

These exclude all theories and views that rely on personal opinions and inaccurate and subjective observations about students. It also helps teachers understand the needs of each student and what kind of education will benefit them best.

5. Building a Conducive Learning Environment

It plays an important role in helping teachers design a suitable learning environment. Teachers need to know how to create a positive emotional climate in the classroom, so the learning process can be effective. A teacher should understand the classroom environment and its characteristics. Teachers need to know what kind of learning climate they want to create in class.

Teachers need to know the principles of education and learning and a different approach to the learning process. It plays an important role in helping teachers design a classroom atmosphere conducive to learning.

6. Design, Organize and Evaluate

Time tables should be designed based on the needs of the learners. For example, which subject is considered difficult, where the conditions and mood of the students were still very fresh in receiving course materials? It plays an important role in helping teachers design, organize and evaluate school teaching activities.

It provides teachers with the skills necessary to teach effectively. They gain an understanding of the role of the teacher in the classroom and the different types of teaching strategies available. They also learn about the characteristics of effective teachers and how to identify them. 

7. Providing Proper Guidance

Teachers need to understand each student’s needs and help them succeed. Teachers should guide students through the learning process, helping them overcome obstacles and difficulties. Educational and vocational guidance is necessary for students at different stages of life.

It helps teachers understand what students need to learn and how best to teach them. It also helps teachers identify and address any issues that may interfere with learning. 

8. Evaluation of Learning Outcomes

Evaluation is a complex task because many factors influence the student’s success. In order to measure student learning, it helps teachers study the relationship between teacher behavior and student achievement.

It helps them identify the best ways to assess student learning and then design tests that will accurately reflect the knowledge and skills that students should possess after completing a course. It helps teachers design lessons, assess student progress, and evaluate teaching effectiveness. 

Final Thoughts

Educational Psychology helps teachers identify strengths and weaknesses in the process and the outcome of the education process. With Classplus as your trusted partner, you may harness the power of educational psychology to maximize the effectiveness of your instruction.

Personalized learning, active engagement, metacognition, and data-driven decision-making become available success tools. Accept the power of educational psychology and Classplus to embark on an educational excellence journey. Connect with us now to know more!

Benefits of Educational Psychology to the Teacher FAQs

A1. Educational Psychology plays an important role in assessing the student’s educational and psychological development with the help of specialist skills. This helps teachers to understand a student’s needs to develop and can make proper teaching strategies accordingly.

A2. The two types of educational psychology are behaviorism and cognitivism. 

A3. Educational psychology is the study of how people tend to learn and retain information.

A4. Characteristics of educational psychology are : Good Listening skills Problem-solving skills Empathy Good with Children Ethical

A5. Educational psychology helps teachers to know how a learning process takes place. It helps them to guide the students in the right direction.

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Signs of Emotional Immaturity

How to Identify and Support People With Emotional Immaturity

Emotional Maturity

Emotional immaturity is the tendency to express emotions without restraint or that are excessive for the situation. Some key characteristics of a person behaving with emotional immaturity include selfishness and inadequate communication skills. As a result, they may avoid having difficult conversations, or they make jokes during serious emotional conflicts.

Read on to learn more about emotional immaturity and the impact it can have on relationships.

Jamie Grill / Getty Images

What Is Emotional Immaturity?

Emotional immaturity is a person’s inability to regulate their emotions in an age-appropriate way. People who display emotional immaturity may overreact to situations or have trouble controlling their emotions.

While emotional immaturity can negatively affect relationships, research has shown that it can also negatively impact a person’s professional development and ability to learn new skills.

People have different capacities for emotional maturity. They may display mature behaviors in some situations and immature behaviors in others. For example, they may display emotionally mature behavior in professional situations but immature behavior at home.

What Causes Emotional Immaturity?

Although research isn’t clear on the exact cause of all cases of adult emotional immaturity, one factor is a strong association between being mistreated or abused as a child and the inability to develop parts of the brain .

Examples of Emotional Immaturity vs. Maturity

There are stark differences between emotional immaturity and emotional maturity.

Emotional maturity is when a person has the skills to react to situations appropriately and can control their emotions. Displaying emotional maturity is behaving in an adult-like manner when dealing with other people.

Some examples of emotional maturity vs. emotional immaturity include:

• Relationships : During a conflict in a relationship, a person behaving with emotional maturity will be able to sit down and calmly discuss the issue. A person behaving with emotional immaturity will likely get defensive about their part in the conflict, deny that they have done anything wrong, or avoid discussing the conflict altogether.
• Professional situations : If an issue arises at work, a person behaving with emotional maturity will reflect and accept responsibility for their part in the problem. On the other hand, a person behaving with emotional immaturity may lose their temper with their coworkers or become angry when they are not praised for something they did correctly.
• Real-world situations : When waiting in line, for example, a person behaving with emotional maturity will practice patience or calmly inquire about how much longer the wait is. A person behaving with emotional immaturity will likely begin to feel frustrated or aggressive and might yell, curse, or leave the situation because they had to wait.

Issues That Arise From Emotional Immaturity

Because people displaying emotional immaturity have difficulty with communication, they often have trouble connecting with people on a deeper level, maintaining relationships, and improving upon their own mistakes.

What Are the Signs of Emotional Immaturity?

Emotional immaturity will manifest in different ways. Behavior, thinking, and communication skills are all affected by emotional immaturity.

A person’s behavior is one of the easiest ways to recognize emotional immaturity.

You may notice that a person’s emotions escalate significantly, similar to how a child would react. They may cry easily, get overly angry, or throw a temper tantrum when they don’t get their way.

Other behavioral signs include:

• Blaming others when things go wrong
• Lying to get out of uncomfortable situations or conversations
• Name-calling during conflicts
• Inability to control one's impulses, such as engaging in reckless behaviors
• Needing to be the center of attention at all times
• Bullying others to get what they want
• Denying their part in a conflict or issue
• Attacking others as a form of defensiveness, or engaging in harmful defense mechanisms, such as alcohol abuse and eating unhealthy food excessively

Childish Behaviors in Adulthood

Emotional immaturity is marked by an adult behaving much like a child during times when emotions are high or a conflict is present.

People who behaving with emotional immaturity often think of themselves first, assuming that everything around them is an extension of their world. Because of this type of thinking, they rely heavily on receiving only positive attention. They will steer clear of any sort of difficult, negative, or overwhelming situations that may require them to think of how someone else is feeling.

A person behaving with emotional immaturity exhibits similar characteristics as those with narcissistic personality disorder . Emotional immaturity is considered to be a less severe form of this type of mental health disorder.

People with narcissist traits often believe that they are better than other people and are entitled to special treatment. This is similar to how people behaving with emotional immaturity people think about themselves, though to a lesser degree.

When a person with narcissism doesn’t get what they want or is forced to participate in things that threaten their identity or challenge their behaviors, they may react like a person behaving with emotional immaturity. This can involve:

• Avoiding a person or situation
• Screaming, yelling, or throwing a temper tantrum
• Suspiciousness or distrust

Communication 

Communication is difficult for people behaving with emotional immaturity. They have difficulty expressing emotions and trouble processing their emotions, leading to further complications when trying to communicate with others.

This inability to communicate beyond positive topics also drives their behaviors in situations where they feel attacked or backed into a corner.

How Does Emotional Immaturity Affect Relationships?

If you are in a relationship with a person who displays emotional immaturity, you may have seen and experienced many of the previously mentioned behaviors.

These relationships can be emotionally draining and consistently difficult because issues do not get resolved. You may often end up feeling unhappy, lonely, and unsure about the future of the relationship.  

When to End Things 

In some cases, anger outbursts or other behaviors associated with emotional immaturity can fall under the category of emotional abuse .

For example, if your partner blames you for every conflict that occurs or denies they have ever done anything wrong, this can be considered emotional abuse.

Yelling and screaming when they don’t get their way can also be seen as a form of intimidation, which also falls under the category of emotional abuse.

Other behaviors that can be classified as emotional abuse include:

• Name-calling, which is a form of degradation and verbal assault
• Engaging in reckless behavior, such as cheating on a partner or misusing drugs or alcohol because of a fight (e.g., using this behavior as a form of punishment)
• Bullying to get the other person to give in to their demands or tolerate unwanted behaviors
• Denying things that really occurred

In the instance that these behaviors have escalated to consistent emotional abuse, you should seek help to safely remove yourself from the relationship.

Help Is Available

If you need support in leaving an abusive relationship, call, text, or chat with trained staff at the National Domestic Violence Hotline at  1-800-799-SAFE (7233)  or visit  thehotline.org .

If you are in immediate danger, call 911.

How to Overcome Emotional Immaturity 

While a person who behaves with emotional immaturity can exhibit emotionally abusive patterns, that isn’t always true.

In fact, research has found that developing a more secure attachment style later in life is possible. Having self-awareness and the desire to develop a more secure attachment style can help a person move in that direction.

If you are in a relationship with someone who behaves with emotional immaturity, you can:

• Initiate a conversation : Sit down with your partner and express how their behavior affects you. Focus on yourself as opposed to their behaviors. Then they won't feel like it is a personal attack on them.
• Seek professional help : Talking with a trained mental health professional can help you and your partner open up in a safe environment free of judgment. This may also help your partner become more self-aware of their actions and how they affect others. Seeking out a therapist who specializes in emotional immaturity correction might be a place to start.

Setting Healthy Boundaries

For your partner to understand the consequences of their actions, you have to set boundaries and stick to them. This could mean:

• Being more assertive
• Determining which actions or behaviors you will not tolerate
• Following through with your commitments for how to manage your partner's immaturity

Emotional maturity is a person’s ability to manage their emotions and behaviors in a healthy manner. Emotional maturity helps us resolve conflicts and have satisfying and secure relationships .

Signs of emotional maturity include:

• Having empathy
• Recognizing and sharing feelings
• Being flexible and open-minded
• Maintaining healthy relationships
• Taking responsibility for actions and accepting the consequences of behaviors
• Setting healthy boundaries
• Seeking to resolve conflicts
• Managing stress

Emotional immaturity is when a person has difficulty controlling their emotions, accepting responsibility for their actions, and coping with difficult situations.

While emotional immaturity isn’t always a sign of a mental health disorder, it has been associated with narcissistic personality disorder and emotionally abusive tendencies. That being said, it is not always the case that an emotionally immature person is either a narcissist or abusive.

To help cope with a person behaving with emotional immaturity, set healthy boundaries, initiate productive conversations, and seek out professional help. Becoming emotionally mature is possible, but the person has to want to change in order for it to work.

American Psychological Association. APA dictionary of psychology: emotional immaturity .

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Psychology Today. Can you spot 10 signs of a childish adult?

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By Angelica Bottaro Bottaro has a Bachelor of Science in Psychology and an Advanced Diploma in Journalism. She is based in Canada.