identity an international journal of theory and research

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• Psychology (miscellaneous)
• Anthropology
• Sociology and Political Science

Psychology Press Ltd

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15283488, 1532706X

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Ethnic Identity Scale

Ethnic Identity Scale (EIS)

The Ethnic Identity Scale assesses three distinct components of ethnic-racial identity: (a) exploration, or the degree to which individuals have explored their ethnicity; (b) resolution, or the degree to which they have resolved what their ethnic identity means to them; and (c) affirmation, or the affect (positive or negative) that they associate with their ethnic-group membership (Umaña-Taylor, Yazedjian, & Bámaca-Gómez, 2004). Exploration and resolution capture aspects of the developmental process of ethnic-racial identity, and affirmation captures ethnic-racial identity content. Examination of exploration and resolution as individual scales enables scholars to categorize individuals into ethnic-racial identity statuses of diffuse, foreclosed, moratorium, and achieved (for detailed instructions of this approach see Umaña-Taylor, Yazedjian, & Bámaca-Gómez, 2004).

Original and Brief Versions.

There are two versions of the Ethnic Identity Scale, an “original” scale and a “brief” version. The “original” 17-item Ethnic Identity Scale (EIS) assesses the three components of ethnic identity and distinguishes exploration (7 items), resolution (4 items), and affirmation (6 items). Items are scored on a 4-point Likert scale, with end points of “Does not describe me at all” (1) to “Describes me very well” (4). Sample items include “I have attended events that have helped me learn more about my ethnicity” (exploration), “I have a clear sense of what my ethnicity means to me” (resolution), and “I wish I were of a different ethnicity” (affirmation, reverse scored).

The Ethnic Identity Scale-Brief (EIS-B) version was developed through two studies which resulted in a 9-item brief version of the EIS (Douglass & Umaña-Taylor, 2015) – the items selected for this brief version were not changed from how they appeared in the original version. Existing findings provide support for the validity and reliability of the EIS-B as a brief measure of the multidimensional construct of ethnic-racial identity, and indicate that the EIS-B assesses ethnic-racial identity in a comparable manner to the original version of the scale (Douglass & Umaña-Taylor, 2015).

Psychometric Properties.

The subscales of the EIS have obtained moderately strong alpha coefficients ranging from .84 to .89 with ethnically diverse samples (Umaña-Taylor, Yazedjian, & Bámaca-Gómez, 2004). Full psychometric properties for the EIS and EIS-B are reported in:

Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Yazedjian, A. & Bámaca-Gómez, M. Y. (2004). Developing the Ethnic Identity Scale using Eriksonian and social identity perspectives. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 4 , 9-38.

Douglass, S., & Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2015). A brief form of the Ethnic Identity Scale: Development and empirical validation. Identity, 15 (1), 48-65.

Ethnic-Racial Groups Assessed.

The EIS and EIS-B have been used to examine ethnic identity among African American, Asian American, Native American/American Indian, Latino, White, and Multiracial adolescents and adults in the U.S. The EIS has also been used in studies internationally, in Germany, Colombia, Greece. The original scale has been translated into Spanish, German, Greek.

Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Vargas-Chanes, D., Garcia, C. D., & Gonzales-Backen, M. (2008). An examination of Latino adolescents’ ethnic identity, coping with discrimination, and self-esteem. Journal of Early Adolescence, 28, 16-50.

Supple, A. J., Ghazarian, S. R., Frabutt, J. M., Plunkett, S. W., & Sands, T. (2006). Contextual influences on Latino adolescent ethnic identity and academic outcomes. Child Development, 77, 1427-1433.

Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Gonzales-Backen, M., A., & Guimond, A. (2009). Latino adolescents’ ethnic identity: Is there a developmental progression and does growth in ethnic identity predict growth in self-esteem? Child Development, 80, 391-405.

All researchers have permission to use the EIS, with the following citation: Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Yazedjian, A. & Bámaca-Gómez, M. Y. (2004). Developing the Ethnic Identity Scale using Eriksonian and social identity perspectives. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 4 , 9-38.

All researchers have permission to use the EIS-B, with the following citation: Douglass, S., & Umaña-Taylor, A. J. (2015). A brief form of the Ethnic Identity Scale: Development and empirical validation. Identity, 15 (1), 48-65.

To download the EIS, click here . For a Spanish version, click here . For an Italian version, click here .

To download the EIS-B (Eng & Spanish), click here . For an Italian version, click here .

If you are planning to translate the EIS or EIS-B into other languages, please send the final version of the measure and any information on how the measure held up in analyses to Adriana Umaña-Taylor .

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International Society for Research on Identity

International and multidisciplinary, the International Society for Research on Identity (formerly the Society for Research on Identity Formation) provides a forum for identity theorists and researchers around the globe to share their ideas and findings regarding the problems and prospects of human self-definition. The unifying theme of the Society is “identity” in its various manifestations throughout the life course. Identity issues transcend national, political, and cultural boundaries, taking on global proportions. The Society seeks to provide a forum in which theoretical and research analysis find practical applications in dealing with identity processes and problems.

Membership is invited and encouraged from all fields using a full range of methodologies to provide multiple bridges, across nations and disciplines, and between theory and research. The Society’s goal is to provide a nonpartisan forum within which identity researchers from a variety of areas can communicate their findings and stay apprised of the findings of others, especially among those who use different technical vocabularies.

INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR RESEARCH ON IDENTITY, Inc. CONSTITUTION

Board of Directors

• President:  Kazumi Sugimura   [email protected]
• Past President:  Renee Galliher  [email protected]
• President-Elect:  Elli Schacter  [email protected]
• Treasurer: H. Durell Johnson  [email protected]
• Secretary:   Maria Wängqvist   [email protected]
• Member at large: Dena Swanson  [email protected]
• International member at large: Py Liv Eriksson [email protected]
• Student member at large: Ole Gmelin [email protected]

Program Committee:

• Chair:  Shogo Hihara  [email protected]
• Megan Smith  [email protected]
• Konrad Piotrowski  [email protected]
• Theo Klimstra  [email protected]
• Ole Gmelin  [email protected]
• Dena Swanson   [email protected]
• Hans Saint-Eloi Cadely [email protected]
• Luzelle Naude  [email protected]
• Liselotte den Boer [email protected]

Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research:

• Elizabetta Crocetti, Editor  [email protected]

Advisory Board to the President:

• Elizabeth Morgan (Past President 2019 – 2021)    [email protected]
• Moin Syed (Past President 2017 – 2019)  [email protected]
• Marilyn Montgomery (Past President 2015-2017) [email protected]
• Steven L. Berman (Past President 2013 – 2015)  [email protected]
• Joe Pittman (Past President 2011 – 2013) [email protected]
• Carol A. Markstrom (Past President 2009 – 2011) [email protected]
• Jean Phinney (Past President 2007 – 2009) [email protected]
• Jane Kroger (Past President 2005 – 2007) [email protected]
• James Côté (Past President 2003 – 2005) [email protected]
• Alan Waterman (Past President 2001 – 2003) [email protected]
• Philip Dryer (Past President 1999 – 2001) [email protected]

© 2024 ISRI.

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IDENTITY: An International Journal of Theory and Research 1st Edition

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• ISBN-10 0805894853
• ISBN-13 978-0805894851
• Edition 1st
• Publisher Psychology Press
• Publication date April 6, 2005
• Language English
• Dimensions 6 x 0.25 x 8.75 inches
• Print length 136 pages
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• Publisher ‏ : ‎ Psychology Press; 1st edition (April 6, 2005)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• Paperback ‏ : ‎ 136 pages
• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 0805894853
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-0805894851
• Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 7.2 ounces
• Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 6 x 0.25 x 8.75 inches

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Bridging the Gender Gap in Academic Engagement among Young Adults: The Role of Anticipated Future Sex Discrimination and Gender-role Orientation

• Empirical Research
• Published: 16 May 2024

Cite this article

• Jia Xu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7697-618X 1 , 2 ,
• Lixia Yu 1 &
• Xiaowen Zhang 3  

Academic engagement is vital for college students, yet existing studies reveal inconsistencies in how gender influences academic engagement. Building upon the statistical discrimination theory and identity-based motivation theory, this study develops an integrated model to examine gender differences in college students’ academic engagement. Further, the role that gender-role orientation in influencing academic engagement was investigated. Using a sample of 524 college students (Mage = 21.11, SD = 1.98; 47.7% women) from a large university collected in two time periods, the findings indicate that in the Chinese context, women anticipate higher future sex discrimination than men. However, gender-role orientation restores parity between men and women through a moderated mediation: egalitarian gender-role orientation has a stronger effect on women’s anticipated future sex discrimination than on men’s, resulting in increased academic engagement of women. The findings highlight the need to consider female students’ egalitarian beliefs in gender-related academic research.

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Xu, J., Yu, L. & Zhang, X. Bridging the Gender Gap in Academic Engagement among Young Adults: The Role of Anticipated Future Sex Discrimination and Gender-role Orientation. J. Youth Adolescence (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-024-02009-3

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The Perception of The Senior High Students in the Implementation of Reserve Officers Training Corps

• Dave B. Bagundol
• Aurea Jane D. Balan
• Jovert Adrian A. Calunia
• Lonito B. Lumactod
• Teresa Dane T. Valdez
• Angelita B. Alvarico
• Jose F. Cuevas Jr.
• Jul 9, 2023

Dave B. Bagundol, Aurea Jane D. Balan, Jovert Adrian A. Calunia, Lonito B. Lumactod, Teresa Dane T. Valdez, Angelita B. Alvarico, Jose F. Cuevas Jr.

College of Criminology, Misamis University, Ozamiz City, Philippines

DOI:  https://dx.doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2023.7673

Received: 17 May 2023; Revised: 02 June 2023; Accepted: 07 June 2023; Published: 09 July 2023

In the Philippines, the National Service Training Program (NSTP) is a law that must be followed. This study explored the perception of senior high school students towards the implementation of the ROTC. It was conducted at one of the higher educational institutions in Ozamiz City, situated in Misamis Occidental in the Northern part of Mindanao during the school year 2022-2023. The study utilized the descriptive-correlational research design. Two hundred and fifty-six respondents were included in this research study; they were chosen at random by the researchers to participate in the survey using random stratified sampling. The researchers used adapted research questionnaires. The statistical tools used were mean and standard deviation and t-test. The quantitative study results revealed that the perception of senior high students towards the implementation of ROTC showed very high in terms of physical capabilities and psychological capabilities. And only high for extent knowledge and attitude. This only shows that the students tend to give more importance to the aspect of physical and psychological capabilities compared to having extent knowledge and attitude in the implementation of ROTC. Moreover, it shows that there is a significant relationship between physical and psychological capabilities toward attitude. But for extent knowledge and attitude, it has been shown that there is no significant relationship between them. It signifies that physical and psychological capabilities can impact the attitude of the students compared to the extent knowledge which shows that the students will be more focused or will give more attention to their academics than ROTC. The researchers recommend that in terms of administrative support, such as office, training ground, logistics, funding, and registration of grades and graduates, schools should continuously examine and enhance the ROTC program as part of their annual program.

Keywords: senior high students, ROTC, physical capabilities, psychological capabilities, extent knowledge

INTRODUCTION

In the Philippines, the National Service Training Program (NSTP) is a law that must be followed (Anorico, 2019). All tertiary students are required to participate in it (Lopez, 2019). The National Service Training Program (NSTP) is a mandated government initiative in tertiary and vocational educational institutions to raise civic awareness, promote and integrate values education, transformational leadership, a sense of patriotism and nationalism, sustainable social mobilization, and defense preparedness among the youth through any of its three components, which are the Literacy Training Service (LTS), Civic Welfare Training Services (CWTS), and Youth Service Corps. LTS prepares its graduates to instruct school children, youngsters who are not enrolled in school, and other underserved people in the community in reading and numeracy (Anorico, 2019). The CWTS seeks to improve numerous community facilities or the overall welfare and quality of life of the community and its residents (Basco-Galangco & Mamolo Jr, 2017). To prepare young people for national security, ROTC focuses on military instruction (Pacatang & Montallana, 2022).

The National Service Training Program (NSTP) is a valuable program that should be implemented on a wider scale (Crisostomo, 2018). The program has been successful in terms of its goals of enhancing civic consciousness and defense readiness in the youth (Belentsov et al., (2019). Moreover, the NSTP provides a pathway to a successful and fulfilling career. The National Service Training Program (NSTP) Act of 2001 (R.A. 9163) was enacted in response to public clamor for reforms in the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) Program (Pacatang & Montallana, 2022). This act affirms that the prime duty of the government shall be to serve and protect its citizens (Trivedi & Van Cleve, 2020).

The National Service Training Program (NSTP) is a beneficial initiative that ought to be expanded upon (Crisostomo, 2018). According to Belentsov et al. (2019), the initiative has succeeded in raising youth civic engagement and defense preparation. The NSTP also offers a route to a fruitful and satisfying career. In response to public demands for changes to the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) Program, the National Service Training Program (NSTP) Act of 2001 (R.A. 9163) was passed (Pacatang & Montallana, 2022). The primary responsibility of the government is to serve and protect its citizens, as this act maintains (Trivedi & Van Cleve, 2020).

A combination of leadership and practical instruction is provided via the Reserve Officers Instruction Corps (ROTC) educational curriculum (Meyer & Rinn, 2022). This military science course is intended to improve and enhance the leadership, discipline, and community awareness of college students so that they can be ready to act quickly in the event of a disaster (Hassan Gillani et al., 2020). Under Republic Act sections 38 and 39. No 7077 tertiary students will participate in military training to motivate, inspire, equip, and organize them in advance of national defense (Garingan, 2021). Some Filipinos are appreciative of the call to amend Republic Act No. 7077, also known as the Citizen Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) Reservist Act, to reinstate the mandatory Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (ROTC), while others have been vocal in their opposition to the ROTC program (Gross, 2017).

Commonwealth Act No. 1, popularly known as the National Defense Act of 1935, which required that all college students complete mandatory military training, was the driving force for the establishment of the ROTC program (Muhallin, 2021). Executive Order No. 207, issued by President Manuel L. Quezon to train the future generation in state defense, put the National Defense Act into effect (Morningstar, 2018). The National Defense Act was amended by Presidential Decree 1706 (The National Law), which provided the three National Service Program components of Military Service (MS), Civil Welfare Service (CWS), and Law Enforcement Service (LES), with DND, CHED, and DILG serving as the corresponding implementing agencies. Schools and universities only offered the MS program, however, as involved organizations were not prepared to execute the CWS and LES components (Muhallin, 2021). RA 7077, often known as the AFP Reservist Act, which went into force in 1991, mandates that all students participating in higher education must finish a two-year ROTC program to graduate. In February 2017, a proposal to make ROTC training mandatory for seniors in both public and private high schools received the support of President Rodrigo Duterte (Ragragio, 2022).

The Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (ROTC) was successfully integrated into the National Service Training Program (NSTP) (Garingan, 2021). By producing a disciplined and well-trained officer corps, the ROTC program rendered a vital service to the country (Moskos, 2019). By offering a tactical and strategic leadership training curriculum for the military, the ROTC program improved the nation’s defense readiness (Morgado, 2017). The ROTC program is a fantastic approach for college students to improve their civic literacy and readiness for defense (Spoehr, 2021). It gives them the chance to make new friends, pick up new skills, and cultivate a sense of duty and responsibility toward their country.

One of the top leadership development programs in the nation, the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) has several benefits (Grant Sr., 2019). Army ROTC reportedly provides management and leadership training, according to the Division of Military Education (Barr et al., 2019). Students in ROTC not only learn how to use a weapon but also how to maintain self-discipline (Malone, 2022). To strengthen one’s personality and get over obstacles young people can be kept away from risky vices via the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) (Kim & Sa, 2022).

With the help of ROTC, young people are better able to remember and defend the nationalistic and patriotic values that were established throughout the struggle for our country’s freedom (Curren & Dorn, 2018). You will gain leadership skills in Army ROTC, including how to set an example for others to follow in addition to giving instructions (Menu, 2019). Additionally, people can gain knowledge that is not available elsewhere. Your leadership skills, military prowess, and adventure training will all be emphasized in the ROTC program, among other things (Swinford et al., 2019). Not least of all, ROTC will earn your respect (Griffes, 2017).

               The researchers sought to ascertain how Misamis University Senior High School’s Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) program was perceived by senior high students. The Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) in Senior High School is a topic on which the researcher frequently receives feedback. This prompts scientists to investigate the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) issue among students (Martinelli, 2021). The Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) will benefit everyone with its full capacity to perform actions of voluntarism and patriotism, as well as its leadership and discipline as an individual, due to this study’s guidance in helping the students appreciate it.

The research design that was used in this undertaking and in achieving its objectives is descriptive-correlational. Descriptive-correlational is a quantitative method of research in which sets out to identify and describe relationships between naturally occurring events and variables (Creswell, 2003). This design is primarily used in describing relationships among variables, without seeking to establish a causal connection and without any active intervention on the part of the researcher (Pokit & Hungle, 2013). This design was chosen to meet the objectives of the study, namely, to determine the level of impact of personal and external preferences on the students’ performance in the Implementation of Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) .

The study was conducted at one of the higher educational institutions in Ozamiz City, situated in Misamis Occidental in the Northern part of Mindanao. It has basic education from K-12, 11 colleges with a graduate school offering graduate and post-graduate studies. It offers 56 academic programs, including undergraduate to graduate programs, and 22 have been submitted voluntarily to accrediting agencies. At present, this institution is accredited by the Philippine Association of Colleges and Universities Commission on Accreditation (PACUCOA). At present, this university is enjoying the benefits of an autonomous school in Northern Mindanao.

               A total of 256 respondents were included in this research study; they were chosen at random by the researchers to participate in the survey using stratified sampling techniques. Students in the Humanities and Social Sciences (HUMSS), General Academic Strand (GAS), Accounting, Business and Management (ABM), and Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) fields’ students from Senior High Basic Education Department. These respondents are formally registered at Misamis University, Ozamiz City School Year 2022-2023.

This instrument was adopted from the Panuelos study survey questionnaire (2019). Four constructs—physical capabilities, psychological capabilities, extent of knowledge, and attitude—are included in the questionnaire. This survey was meant to learn how Misamis University Senior High students felt about the Reserve Officers Training Corps program (ROTC).

The following scale was used to assess how Misamis University Senior High students felt about the Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) program:

               The “Data Privacy Act of 2012,” also known as Republic Act No. 10173, is followed by the researchers. The following ethical principles were taken into mind when performing the study: confidentiality, informed consent, avoiding the risk of harm, and voluntary participation (Trochim, 2020). First off, to privacy laws, the researchers did not specify the university where the study was carried out. Second, no one was coerced into taking part in the study by the researchers. They did not hold this against them because they could decline if they wanted not to participate. The concept of informed consent, which mandates that participants be made aware of all the risks and procedures associated with the research in advance, was then considered. Finally, a formal letter providing all the necessary details regarding the impending questionnaire was handed to them.

               The process of gathering data began with a formal letter asking the deans and professors at Misamis University for their permission to carry out the study and conduct the surveys. When the deans and teachers gave their blessing, the researchers asked senior high school students at Misamis University if they would consent to participate in the survey and could inform the students about the survey’s interpretation of the senior high school students on the implementation of the Reserve Officers Training Corps at Misamis University so that they could collect data and ensure that all their responses were truthful.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Demographic Profile of the Respondents

               The demographic profile of senior high students at one of Ozamiz City’s higher educational institutions is shown in Table 1. The frequency and proportion of data related to age, gender, and academic strand are the statistical findings. The data indicate that respondents who are 18 years old have the highest frequency of 105, or 41 percent, while respondents who are 19 years old have the lowest frequency, or 20 percent with this data majority of the respondents are of legal age, and they can understand fully the ultimate purpose of this study. On the other hand, when the demographic profile of the respondents is contrasted by gender, most of the respondents—140 in total, or 54.7%—are male, while the proportion of females—116 in total, or 45.3—is much smaller, the total number of respondents was dominated by male factors. There were 67 (26.17%) respondents in the General Academic Strand (GAS), 59 (23.05%) in the Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM), 60 (23.44%) in the Accounting, Business, and Management, and 70 (27.34%) in the Humanities and Social Sciences (HUMSS). These findings highlight the importance of the General Academic Strand, which serves students who are unsure of the courses or degrees they wish to pursue in college. This strand was designed so that indecisive learners can proceed with any college program in the future. The STEM stands for Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics strand. Through the STEM strand, senior high school students are exposed to complex mathematical and science theories and concepts which will serve as a foundation for their college courses. The Accountancy, Business, and Management (ABM) strand, may be the track for you. This Senior High School strand will introduce you to the fundamentals of business, accounting, marketing, and economics. It will also provide you with knowledge and skills in line with the digital. And lastly, the Humanities and Social Sciences is a strand offered to senior high school students under the Academics track. The HUMSS Senior High School strand is designed for students who intend to take up journalism, communication arts, liberal arts, education, and other social-science-related courses in college.

Table 1. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Respondents According to their Profile

Table 2 reveals the perception of senior high students toward the implementation of ROTC. Overall, the results showed a high remark with an overall mean and standard deviation of 3.22 and 0.25 respectively. Furthermore, the statistical result showed Very high perception in terms of Physical capabilities with a mean of 3.60 and a standard deviation of 0.10. According to the data, senior high students’ physical capabilities are most strongly influenced by their physical health. The physical component must be among the most crucial elements given the nature of the training course. The physical exercises that will be assigned to students must be manageable for them. For Psychology capabilities, it showed Very high with a 3.88 mean and 0.03 standard deviation. The study findings revealed that the perception of senior high students regarding their psychological capabilities is essential for success in ROTC (Reserve Officer Training Corps). ROTC is a program that prepares students to become officers in the military. It is designed to develop leadership skills, physical fitness, and character in its participants. To be successful in ROTC, cadets need to have strong psychological capabilities, such as resilience, adaptability, and mental toughness. They must be able to handle high levels of stress, work well under pressure, and make quick decisions in challenging situations.  As to Extent knowledge, the results showed a high perception with a mean of 2.52 and standard deviation of 0.56 in which the study’s findings indicate that most of the students think of ROTC. Lastly, Attitude in which the results showed a high perception with a 2.89 mean and 0.32 standard deviation.

Table 2. Perception of the Senior High School Students’ towards the implementation of ROTC (n=256)

Note. Scale: 3.27-4.00 Very High (VH); 2.52-3.26 High (H); 1.76-2.51 Low (L); 1.00-1.75Very Low (VL).

Table 3 reveals the relationship between the perception of Senior High School Students towards the implementation of ROTC in terms of Physical Capabilities, Psychological Capabilities, Extent of Knowledge, and Attitude. The implementation of Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (ROTC) in senior high schools has been a topic of debate for many years. The statistical results showed that there is a significant relationship between Physical Capabilities and Attitude having a t value of 7.20, standard deviation of 18, and p value of 0.0001. Moreover, the relationship between Psychological Capabilities and Attitude has shown to be significant having a t value of 9.19, standard deviation of 18, p value of 0.0001. Lastly, the results have shown that there is no significant relationship between the Extent of Knowledge and Attitude with a t-value of 1.72, standard deviation of 18, and p-value of 0.1023.

Research has shown that students who perceive themselves to have high physical capabilities are more likely to have positive attitudes toward the ROTC program. This is because the ROTC program emphasizes physical fitness and discipline, and students who are confident in their physical abilities may be more inclined to enjoy the physical challenges presented by the program.

Students who perceive themselves to have high psychological capabilities, such as resilience, self-discipline, and motivation, are more likely to have positive attitudes toward the ROTC program. This is because the ROTC program places a strong emphasis on developing these psychological capabilities, and students who already possess them may be more inclined to enjoy the challenges presented by the program.

On the other hand, there is no significant relationship between the perception of senior high school students towards the implementation of ROTC in terms of the extent of knowledge and attitude. Students who have a limited understanding of the ROTC program may have negative attitudes toward it. Given the fact that ROTC is already present in college, some senior high students see the program to be exhausting and time-consuming which they think might affect their academics. Another thing is that they may not see the relevance of the program to their future goals and may not fully appreciate the benefits it can provide.

Table 3. Relationship between the perception of Senior High School Students towards the implementation of ROTC in terms of Physical Capabilities, Psychological Capabilities, Extent Knowledge and their Attitude.

Note: Probability Value Scale: **p<0.01 (Highly Significant) ; *p<0.05 (Significant) ; p >0.05 (Not significant)

To foster discipline, patriotism, and preparation for the country’s defense, the government has reinstated senior high school students’ ROTC participation as a requirement. Depending on each student’s individual beliefs, experiences, and expectations, there may be a range in how they view the implementation of ROTC. Some students can view ROTC as a chance to enhance their leadership and teamwork abilities while also serving their nation. Some students could consider it to be a hardship or an infringement on their personal or academic time, particularly if they are involved in other extracurricular activities or obligations. This study assessed how senior high students feel about the implementation of ROTC in terms of their physical and psychological abilities, as well as their level of knowledge and attitude. It has been discovered that factors other than attitude have a greater impact on how senior high school students perceive the implementation of ROTC than do physical, psychological, and level of knowledge skills. Most respondents are also of legal age and fully understand the purpose of the study, with respondents who are 18 years old having the highest frequency and respondents who are 19 years old having the lowest frequency, according to the statistics. Most respondents are male, but the number of female respondents is significantly lower when the responder is contrasted by gender. The findings imply that the installation of ROTC directly affects how students perceive their senior year of high school. It was determined that the student’s physical and psychological talents, level of knowledge, and attitudes all benefited the researchers in comprehending the students’ perceptions of the Mandatory ROTC Program. The use of questionnaires has been adapted from panuelos.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The researchers made the following recommendations based on the study’s findings:

• To the incoming students of ROTC, this unit will promote a culture of leadership. The goal of the ROTC program is to create leaders who will serve their nation in the armed forces. To accomplish this, the program must foster a culture of leadership. This can include chances for students to assume leadership roles within the curriculum and leadership development initiatives. This could also emphasize physical fitness, in order to succeed in the program and the military, ROTC cadets must adhere to strict physical fitness standards. As a result, it’s crucial to give physical fitness training, such as frequent exercise, strength training, and endurance training, priority in your program. There may be a suggested upgrade program for the Misamis University ROTC Unit.
• Parents, ROTC can be a rewarding experience for students, but it requires commitment and support. By understanding the requirements, encouraging their child, supporting physical fitness, being prepared for the financial commitment, and staying involved and supportive, they can help their child make the most of their ROTC experience.
• In terms of the School Administrative support, such as Office, Training Ground, logistics, funding, and registration of grades and graduates, schools should continuously examine and enhance the ROTC Program as part of their annual program. On the other hand, by providing adequate resources, recognizing and supporting ROTC achievements, coordinating with ROTC instructors, encouraging participation in community events, and providing academic support, school administrators can help ensure that students enrolled in ROTC have a positive and successful experience.
• The Army Reserve Command (ARESCOM), in collaboration with the Commission on Higher Education, may encourage private and public colleges and universities in the region to have a program for NSTP-ROTC that focuses on the following: a scholarship program for ROTC Basic and Advance cadets, a standardized ROTC training program and schedule. And by establishing clear expectations, providing quality training, fostering a sense of community, recognizing and rewarding achievements, and supporting physical fitness, ROTC units can provide a positive and successful experience for their students.
• The NSTP Director/Coordinator, Commandant and Staff, and the Corps of Cadets, both Basic and advanced, may participate in clean-up drives, tree-planting activities, bloodletting operations, and other similar activities to demonstrate their commitment to making a good and proactive change in the community. And by connecting students to community service opportunities, encouraging reflection and learning, and recognizing and rewarding achievements, NSTP directors can provide a positive and successful experience for their students.
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Cultural Relativity and Acceptance of Embryonic Stem Cell Research

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There is a debate about the ethical implications of using human embryos in stem cell research, which can be influenced by cultural, moral, and social values. This paper argues for an adaptable framework to accommodate diverse cultural and religious perspectives. By using an adaptive ethics model, research protections can reflect various populations and foster growth in stem cell research possibilities.

INTRODUCTION

Stem cell research combines biology, medicine, and technology, promising to alter health care and the understanding of human development. Yet, ethical contention exists because of individuals’ perceptions of using human embryos based on their various cultural, moral, and social values. While these disagreements concerning policy, use, and general acceptance have prompted the development of an international ethics policy, such a uniform approach can overlook the nuanced ethical landscapes between cultures. With diverse viewpoints in public health, a single global policy, especially one reflecting Western ethics or the ethics prevalent in high-income countries, is impractical. This paper argues for a culturally sensitive, adaptable framework for the use of embryonic stem cells. Stem cell policy should accommodate varying ethical viewpoints and promote an effective global dialogue. With an extension of an ethics model that can adapt to various cultures, we recommend localized guidelines that reflect the moral views of the people those guidelines serve.

Stem cells, characterized by their unique ability to differentiate into various cell types, enable the repair or replacement of damaged tissues. Two primary types of stem cells are somatic stem cells (adult stem cells) and embryonic stem cells. Adult stem cells exist in developed tissues and maintain the body’s repair processes. [1] Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are remarkably pluripotent or versatile, making them valuable in research. [2] However, the use of ESCs has sparked ethics debates. Considering the potential of embryonic stem cells, research guidelines are essential. The International Society for Stem Cell Research (ISSCR) provides international stem cell research guidelines. They call for “public conversations touching on the scientific significance as well as the societal and ethical issues raised by ESC research.” [3] The ISSCR also publishes updates about culturing human embryos 14 days post fertilization, suggesting local policies and regulations should continue to evolve as ESC research develops. [4]  Like the ISSCR, which calls for local law and policy to adapt to developing stem cell research given cultural acceptance, this paper highlights the importance of local social factors such as religion and culture.

I.     Global Cultural Perspective of Embryonic Stem Cells

Views on ESCs vary throughout the world. Some countries readily embrace stem cell research and therapies, while others have stricter regulations due to ethical concerns surrounding embryonic stem cells and when an embryo becomes entitled to moral consideration. The philosophical issue of when the “someone” begins to be a human after fertilization, in the morally relevant sense, [5] impacts when an embryo becomes not just worthy of protection but morally entitled to it. The process of creating embryonic stem cell lines involves the destruction of the embryos for research. [6] Consequently, global engagement in ESC research depends on social-cultural acceptability.

a.     US and Rights-Based Cultures

In the United States, attitudes toward stem cell therapies are diverse. The ethics and social approaches, which value individualism, [7] trigger debates regarding the destruction of human embryos, creating a complex regulatory environment. For example, the 1996 Dickey-Wicker Amendment prohibited federal funding for the creation of embryos for research and the destruction of embryos for “more than allowed for research on fetuses in utero.” [8] Following suit, in 2001, the Bush Administration heavily restricted stem cell lines for research. However, the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005 was proposed to help develop ESC research but was ultimately vetoed. [9] Under the Obama administration, in 2009, an executive order lifted restrictions allowing for more development in this field. [10] The flux of research capacity and funding parallels the different cultural perceptions of human dignity of the embryo and how it is socially presented within the country’s research culture. [11]

b.     Ubuntu and Collective Cultures

African bioethics differs from Western individualism because of the different traditions and values. African traditions, as described by individuals from South Africa and supported by some studies in other African countries, including Ghana and Kenya, follow the African moral philosophies of Ubuntu or Botho and Ukama , which “advocates for a form of wholeness that comes through one’s relationship and connectedness with other people in the society,” [12] making autonomy a socially collective concept. In this context, for the community to act autonomously, individuals would come together to decide what is best for the collective. Thus, stem cell research would require examining the value of the research to society as a whole and the use of the embryos as a collective societal resource. If society views the source as part of the collective whole, and opposes using stem cells, compromising the cultural values to pursue research may cause social detachment and stunt research growth. [13] Based on local culture and moral philosophy, the permissibility of stem cell research depends on how embryo, stem cell, and cell line therapies relate to the community as a whole. Ubuntu is the expression of humanness, with the person’s identity drawn from the “’I am because we are’” value. [14] The decision in a collectivistic culture becomes one born of cultural context, and individual decisions give deference to others in the society.

Consent differs in cultures where thought and moral philosophy are based on a collective paradigm. So, applying Western bioethical concepts is unrealistic. For one, Africa is a diverse continent with many countries with different belief systems, access to health care, and reliance on traditional or Western medicines. Where traditional medicine is the primary treatment, the “’restrictive focus on biomedically-related bioethics’” [is] problematic in African contexts because it neglects bioethical issues raised by traditional systems.” [15] No single approach applies in all areas or contexts. Rather than evaluating the permissibility of ESC research according to Western concepts such as the four principles approach, different ethics approaches should prevail.

Another consideration is the socio-economic standing of countries. In parts of South Africa, researchers have not focused heavily on contributing to the stem cell discourse, either because it is not considered health care or a health science priority or because resources are unavailable. [16] Each country’s priorities differ given different social, political, and economic factors. In South Africa, for instance, areas such as maternal mortality, non-communicable diseases, telemedicine, and the strength of health systems need improvement and require more focus. [17] Stem cell research could benefit the population, but it also could divert resources from basic medical care. Researchers in South Africa adhere to the National Health Act and Medicines Control Act in South Africa and international guidelines; however, the Act is not strictly enforced, and there is no clear legislation for research conduct or ethical guidelines. [18]

Some parts of Africa condemn stem cell research. For example, 98.2 percent of the Tunisian population is Muslim. [19] Tunisia does not permit stem cell research because of moral conflict with a Fatwa. Religion heavily saturates the regulation and direction of research. [20] Stem cell use became permissible for reproductive purposes only recently, with tight restrictions preventing cells from being used in any research other than procedures concerning ART/IVF.  Their use is conditioned on consent, and available only to married couples. [21] The community's receptiveness to stem cell research depends on including communitarian African ethics.

c.     Asia

Some Asian countries also have a collective model of ethics and decision making. [22] In China, the ethics model promotes a sincere respect for life or human dignity, [23] based on protective medicine. This model, influenced by Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), [24] recognizes Qi as the vital energy delivered via the meridians of the body; it connects illness to body systems, the body’s entire constitution, and the universe for a holistic bond of nature, health, and quality of life. [25] Following a protective ethics model, and traditional customs of wholeness, investment in stem cell research is heavily desired for its applications in regenerative therapies, disease modeling, and protective medicines. In a survey of medical students and healthcare practitioners, 30.8 percent considered stem cell research morally unacceptable while 63.5 percent accepted medical research using human embryonic stem cells. Of these individuals, 89.9 percent supported increased funding for stem cell research. [26] The scientific community might not reflect the overall population. From 1997 to 2019, China spent a total of $576 million (USD) on stem cell research at 8,050 stem cell programs, increased published presence from 0.6 percent to 14.01 percent of total global stem cell publications as of 2014, and made significant strides in cell-based therapies for various medical conditions. [27] However, while China has made substantial investments in stem cell research and achieved notable progress in clinical applications, concerns linger regarding ethical oversight and transparency. [28] For example, the China Biosecurity Law, promoted by the National Health Commission and China Hospital Association, attempted to mitigate risks by introducing an institutional review board (IRB) in the regulatory bodies. 5800 IRBs registered with the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry since 2021. [29] However, issues still need to be addressed in implementing effective IRB review and approval procedures.

The substantial government funding and focus on scientific advancement have sometimes overshadowed considerations of regional cultures, ethnic minorities, and individual perspectives, particularly evident during the one-child policy era. As government policy adapts to promote public stability, such as the change from the one-child to the two-child policy, [30] research ethics should also adapt to ensure respect for the values of its represented peoples.

Japan is also relatively supportive of stem cell research and therapies. Japan has a more transparent regulatory framework, allowing for faster approval of regenerative medicine products, which has led to several advanced clinical trials and therapies. [31] South Korea is also actively engaged in stem cell research and has a history of breakthroughs in cloning and embryonic stem cells. [32] However, the field is controversial, and there are issues of scientific integrity. For example, the Korean FDA fast-tracked products for approval, [33] and in another instance, the oocyte source was unclear and possibly violated ethical standards. [34] Trust is important in research, as it builds collaborative foundations between colleagues, trial participant comfort, open-mindedness for complicated and sensitive discussions, and supports regulatory procedures for stakeholders. There is a need to respect the culture’s interest, engagement, and for research and clinical trials to be transparent and have ethical oversight to promote global research discourse and trust.

d.     Middle East

Countries in the Middle East have varying degrees of acceptance of or restrictions to policies related to using embryonic stem cells due to cultural and religious influences. Saudi Arabia has made significant contributions to stem cell research, and conducts research based on international guidelines for ethical conduct and under strict adherence to guidelines in accordance with Islamic principles. Specifically, the Saudi government and people require ESC research to adhere to Sharia law. In addition to umbilical and placental stem cells, [35] Saudi Arabia permits the use of embryonic stem cells as long as they come from miscarriages, therapeutic abortions permissible by Sharia law, or are left over from in vitro fertilization and donated to research. [36] Laws and ethical guidelines for stem cell research allow the development of research institutions such as the King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, which has a cord blood bank and a stem cell registry with nearly 10,000 donors. [37] Such volume and acceptance are due to the ethical ‘permissibility’ of the donor sources, which do not conflict with religious pillars. However, some researchers err on the side of caution, choosing not to use embryos or fetal tissue as they feel it is unethical to do so. [38]

Jordan has a positive research ethics culture. [39] However, there is a significant issue of lack of trust in researchers, with 45.23 percent (38.66 percent agreeing and 6.57 percent strongly agreeing) of Jordanians holding a low level of trust in researchers, compared to 81.34 percent of Jordanians agreeing that they feel safe to participate in a research trial. [40] Safety testifies to the feeling of confidence that adequate measures are in place to protect participants from harm, whereas trust in researchers could represent the confidence in researchers to act in the participants’ best interests, adhere to ethical guidelines, provide accurate information, and respect participants’ rights and dignity. One method to improve trust would be to address communication issues relevant to ESC. Legislation surrounding stem cell research has adopted specific language, especially concerning clarification “between ‘stem cells’ and ‘embryonic stem cells’” in translation. [41] Furthermore, legislation “mandates the creation of a national committee… laying out specific regulations for stem-cell banking in accordance with international standards.” [42] This broad regulation opens the door for future global engagement and maintains transparency. However, these regulations may also constrain the influence of research direction, pace, and accessibility of research outcomes.

e.     Europe

In the European Union (EU), ethics is also principle-based, but the principles of autonomy, dignity, integrity, and vulnerability are interconnected. [43] As such, the opportunity for cohesion and concessions between individuals’ thoughts and ideals allows for a more adaptable ethics model due to the flexible principles that relate to the human experience The EU has put forth a framework in its Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being allowing member states to take different approaches. Each European state applies these principles to its specific conventions, leading to or reflecting different acceptance levels of stem cell research. [44]

For example, in Germany, Lebenzusammenhang , or the coherence of life, references integrity in the unity of human culture. Namely, the personal sphere “should not be subject to external intervention.” [45]  Stem cell interventions could affect this concept of bodily completeness, leading to heavy restrictions. Under the Grundgesetz, human dignity and the right to life with physical integrity are paramount. [46] The Embryo Protection Act of 1991 made producing cell lines illegal. Cell lines can be imported if approved by the Central Ethics Commission for Stem Cell Research only if they were derived before May 2007. [47] Stem cell research respects the integrity of life for the embryo with heavy specifications and intense oversight. This is vastly different in Finland, where the regulatory bodies find research more permissible in IVF excess, but only up to 14 days after fertilization. [48] Spain’s approach differs still, with a comprehensive regulatory framework. [49] Thus, research regulation can be culture-specific due to variations in applied principles. Diverse cultures call for various approaches to ethical permissibility. [50] Only an adaptive-deliberative model can address the cultural constructions of self and achieve positive, culturally sensitive stem cell research practices. [51]

II.     Religious Perspectives on ESC

Embryonic stem cell sources are the main consideration within religious contexts. While individuals may not regard their own religious texts as authoritative or factual, religion can shape their foundations or perspectives.

The Qur'an states:

“And indeed We created man from a quintessence of clay. Then We placed within him a small quantity of nutfa (sperm to fertilize) in a safe place. Then We have fashioned the nutfa into an ‘alaqa (clinging clot or cell cluster), then We developed the ‘alaqa into mudgha (a lump of flesh), and We made mudgha into bones, and clothed the bones with flesh, then We brought it into being as a new creation. So Blessed is Allah, the Best of Creators.” [52]

Many scholars of Islam estimate the time of soul installment, marked by the angel breathing in the soul to bring the individual into creation, as 120 days from conception. [53] Personhood begins at this point, and the value of life would prohibit research or experimentation that could harm the individual. If the fetus is more than 120 days old, the time ensoulment is interpreted to occur according to Islamic law, abortion is no longer permissible. [54] There are a few opposing opinions about early embryos in Islamic traditions. According to some Islamic theologians, there is no ensoulment of the early embryo, which is the source of stem cells for ESC research. [55]

In Buddhism, the stance on stem cell research is not settled. The main tenets, the prohibition against harming or destroying others (ahimsa) and the pursuit of knowledge (prajña) and compassion (karuna), leave Buddhist scholars and communities divided. [56] Some scholars argue stem cell research is in accordance with the Buddhist tenet of seeking knowledge and ending human suffering. Others feel it violates the principle of not harming others. Finding the balance between these two points relies on the karmic burden of Buddhist morality. In trying to prevent ahimsa towards the embryo, Buddhist scholars suggest that to comply with Buddhist tenets, research cannot be done as the embryo has personhood at the moment of conception and would reincarnate immediately, harming the individual's ability to build their karmic burden. [57] On the other hand, the Bodhisattvas, those considered to be on the path to enlightenment or Nirvana, have given organs and flesh to others to help alleviate grieving and to benefit all. [58] Acceptance varies on applied beliefs and interpretations.

Catholicism does not support embryonic stem cell research, as it entails creation or destruction of human embryos. This destruction conflicts with the belief in the sanctity of life. For example, in the Old Testament, Genesis describes humanity as being created in God’s image and multiplying on the Earth, referencing the sacred rights to human conception and the purpose of development and life. In the Ten Commandments, the tenet that one should not kill has numerous interpretations where killing could mean murder or shedding of the sanctity of life, demonstrating the high value of human personhood. In other books, the theological conception of when life begins is interpreted as in utero, [59] highlighting the inviolability of life and its formation in vivo to make a religious point for accepting such research as relatively limited, if at all. [60] The Vatican has released ethical directives to help apply a theological basis to modern-day conflicts. The Magisterium of the Church states that “unless there is a moral certainty of not causing harm,” experimentation on fetuses, fertilized cells, stem cells, or embryos constitutes a crime. [61] Such procedures would not respect the human person who exists at these stages, according to Catholicism. Damages to the embryo are considered gravely immoral and illicit. [62] Although the Catholic Church officially opposes abortion, surveys demonstrate that many Catholic people hold pro-choice views, whether due to the context of conception, stage of pregnancy, threat to the mother’s life, or for other reasons, demonstrating that practicing members can also accept some but not all tenets. [63]

Some major Jewish denominations, such as the Reform, Conservative, and Reconstructionist movements, are open to supporting ESC use or research as long as it is for saving a life. [64] Within Judaism, the Talmud, or study, gives personhood to the child at birth and emphasizes that life does not begin at conception: [65]

“If she is found pregnant, until the fortieth day it is mere fluid,” [66]

Whereas most religions prioritize the status of human embryos, the Halakah (Jewish religious law) states that to save one life, most other religious laws can be ignored because it is in pursuit of preservation. [67] Stem cell research is accepted due to application of these religious laws.

We recognize that all religions contain subsets and sects. The variety of environmental and cultural differences within religious groups requires further analysis to respect the flexibility of religious thoughts and practices. We make no presumptions that all cultures require notions of autonomy or morality as under the common morality theory , which asserts a set of universal moral norms that all individuals share provides moral reasoning and guides ethical decisions. [68] We only wish to show that the interaction with morality varies between cultures and countries.

III.     A Flexible Ethical Approach

The plurality of different moral approaches described above demonstrates that there can be no universally acceptable uniform law for ESC on a global scale. Instead of developing one standard, flexible ethical applications must be continued. We recommend local guidelines that incorporate important cultural and ethical priorities.

While the Declaration of Helsinki is more relevant to people in clinical trials receiving ESC products, in keeping with the tradition of protections for research subjects, consent of the donor is an ethical requirement for ESC donation in many jurisdictions including the US, Canada, and Europe. [69] The Declaration of Helsinki provides a reference point for regulatory standards and could potentially be used as a universal baseline for obtaining consent prior to gamete or embryo donation.

For instance, in Columbia University’s egg donor program for stem cell research, donors followed standard screening protocols and “underwent counseling sessions that included information as to the purpose of oocyte donation for research, what the oocytes would be used for, the risks and benefits of donation, and process of oocyte stimulation” to ensure transparency for consent. [70] The program helped advance stem cell research and provided clear and safe research methods with paid participants. Though paid participation or covering costs of incidental expenses may not be socially acceptable in every culture or context, [71] and creating embryos for ESC research is illegal in many jurisdictions, Columbia’s program was effective because of the clear and honest communications with donors, IRBs, and related stakeholders.  This example demonstrates that cultural acceptance of scientific research and of the idea that an egg or embryo does not have personhood is likely behind societal acceptance of donating eggs for ESC research. As noted, many countries do not permit the creation of embryos for research.

Proper communication and education regarding the process and purpose of stem cell research may bolster comprehension and garner more acceptance. “Given the sensitive subject material, a complete consent process can support voluntary participation through trust, understanding, and ethical norms from the cultures and morals participants value. This can be hard for researchers entering countries of different socioeconomic stability, with different languages and different societal values. [72]

An adequate moral foundation in medical ethics is derived from the cultural and religious basis that informs knowledge and actions. [73] Understanding local cultural and religious values and their impact on research could help researchers develop humility and promote inclusion.

IV.     Concerns

Some may argue that if researchers all adhere to one ethics standard, protection will be satisfied across all borders, and the global public will trust researchers. However, defining what needs to be protected and how to define such research standards is very specific to the people to which standards are applied. We suggest that applying one uniform guide cannot accurately protect each individual because we all possess our own perceptions and interpretations of social values. [74] Therefore, the issue of not adjusting to the moral pluralism between peoples in applying one standard of ethics can be resolved by building out ethics models that can be adapted to different cultures and religions.

Other concerns include medical tourism, which may promote health inequities. [75] Some countries may develop and approve products derived from ESC research before others, compromising research ethics or drug approval processes. There are also concerns about the sale of unauthorized stem cell treatments, for example, those without FDA approval in the United States. Countries with robust research infrastructures may be tempted to attract medical tourists, and some customers will have false hopes based on aggressive publicity of unproven treatments. [76]

For example, in China, stem cell clinics can market to foreign clients who are not protected under the regulatory regimes. Companies employ a marketing strategy of “ethically friendly” therapies. Specifically, in the case of Beike, China’s leading stem cell tourism company and sprouting network, ethical oversight of administrators or health bureaus at one site has “the unintended consequence of shifting questionable activities to another node in Beike's diffuse network.” [77] In contrast, Jordan is aware of stem cell research’s potential abuse and its own status as a “health-care hub.” Jordan’s expanded regulations include preserving the interests of individuals in clinical trials and banning private companies from ESC research to preserve transparency and the integrity of research practices. [78]

The social priorities of the community are also a concern. The ISSCR explicitly states that guidelines “should be periodically revised to accommodate scientific advances, new challenges, and evolving social priorities.” [79] The adaptable ethics model extends this consideration further by addressing whether research is warranted given the varying degrees of socioeconomic conditions, political stability, and healthcare accessibilities and limitations. An ethical approach would require discussion about resource allocation and appropriate distribution of funds. [80]

While some religions emphasize the sanctity of life from conception, which may lead to public opposition to ESC research, others encourage ESC research due to its potential for healing and alleviating human pain. Many countries have special regulations that balance local views on embryonic personhood, the benefits of research as individual or societal goods, and the protection of human research subjects. To foster understanding and constructive dialogue, global policy frameworks should prioritize the protection of universal human rights, transparency, and informed consent. In addition to these foundational global policies, we recommend tailoring local guidelines to reflect the diverse cultural and religious perspectives of the populations they govern. Ethics models should be adapted to local populations to effectively establish research protections, growth, and possibilities of stem cell research.

For example, in countries with strong beliefs in the moral sanctity of embryos or heavy religious restrictions, an adaptive model can allow for discussion instead of immediate rejection. In countries with limited individual rights and voice in science policy, an adaptive model ensures cultural, moral, and religious views are taken into consideration, thereby building social inclusion. While this ethical consideration by the government may not give a complete voice to every individual, it will help balance policies and maintain the diverse perspectives of those it affects. Embracing an adaptive ethics model of ESC research promotes open-minded dialogue and respect for the importance of human belief and tradition. By actively engaging with cultural and religious values, researchers can better handle disagreements and promote ethical research practices that benefit each society.

This brief exploration of the religious and cultural differences that impact ESC research reveals the nuances of relative ethics and highlights a need for local policymakers to apply a more intense adaptive model.

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[5] Concerning the moral philosophies of stem cell research, our paper does not posit a personal moral stance nor delve into the “when” of human life begins. To read further about the philosophical debate, consider the following sources:

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[7] Socially, at its core, the Western approach to ethics is widely principle-based, autonomy being one of the key factors to ensure a fundamental respect for persons within research. For information regarding autonomy in research, see: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, & National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1978). The Belmont Report. Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research.; For a more in-depth review of autonomy within the US, see: Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (1994). Principles of Biomedical Ethics . Oxford University Press.

[8] Sherley v. Sebelius , 644 F.3d 388 (D.C. Cir. 2011), citing 45 C.F.R. 46.204(b) and [42 U.S.C. § 289g(b)]. https://www.cadc.uscourts.gov/internet/opinions.nsf/6c690438a9b43dd685257a64004ebf99/$file/11-5241-1391178.pdf

[9] Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005, H. R. 810, 109 th Cong. (2001). https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/hr810/text ; Bush, G. W. (2006, July 19). Message to the House of Representatives . National Archives and Records Administration. https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/07/20060719-5.html

[10] National Archives and Records Administration. (2009, March 9). Executive order 13505 -- removing barriers to responsible scientific research involving human stem cells . National Archives and Records Administration. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/removing-barriers-responsible-scientific-research-involving-human-stem-cells

[11] Hurlbut, W. B. (2006). Science, Religion, and the Politics of Stem Cells.  Social Research ,  73 (3), 819–834. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40971854

[12] Akpa-Inyang, Francis & Chima, Sylvester. (2021). South African traditional values and beliefs regarding informed consent and limitations of the principle of respect for autonomy in African communities: a cross-cultural qualitative study. BMC Medical Ethics . 22. 10.1186/s12910-021-00678-4.

[13] Source for further reading: Tangwa G. B. (2007). Moral status of embryonic stem cells: perspective of an African villager. Bioethics , 21(8), 449–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8519.2007.00582.x , see also Mnisi, F. M. (2020). An African analysis based on ethics of Ubuntu - are human embryonic stem cell patents morally justifiable? African Insight , 49 (4).

[14] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics , 22 (2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[15] Jecker, N. S., & Atuire, C. (2021). Bioethics in Africa: A contextually enlightened analysis of three cases. Developing World Bioethics, 22(2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12324

[16] Jackson, C.S., Pepper, M.S. Opportunities and barriers to establishing a cell therapy programme in South Africa.  Stem Cell Res Ther   4 , 54 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1186/scrt204 ; Pew Research Center. (2014, May 1). Public health a major priority in African nations . Pew Research Center’s Global Attitudes Project. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2014/05/01/public-health-a-major-priority-in-african-nations/

[17] Department of Health Republic of South Africa. (2021). Health Research Priorities (revised) for South Africa 2021-2024 . National Health Research Strategy. https://www.health.gov.za/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/National-Health-Research-Priorities-2021-2024.pdf

[18] Oosthuizen, H. (2013). Legal and Ethical Issues in Stem Cell Research in South Africa. In: Beran, R. (eds) Legal and Forensic Medicine. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32338-6_80 , see also: Gaobotse G (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[19] United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services. (1998). Tunisia: Information on the status of Christian conversions in Tunisia . UNHCR Web Archive. https://webarchive.archive.unhcr.org/20230522142618/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3df0be9a2.html

[20] Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[21] Kooli, C. Review of assisted reproduction techniques, laws, and regulations in Muslim countries.  Middle East Fertil Soc J   24 , 8 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43043-019-0011-0 ; Gaobotse, G. (2018) Stem Cell Research in Africa: Legislation and Challenges. J Regen Med 7:1. doi: 10.4172/2325-9620.1000142

[22] Pang M. C. (1999). Protective truthfulness: the Chinese way of safeguarding patients in informed treatment decisions. Journal of medical ethics , 25(3), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.25.3.247

[23] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[24] Wang, Y., Xue, Y., & Guo, H. D. (2022). Intervention effects of traditional Chinese medicine on stem cell therapy of myocardial infarction.  Frontiers in pharmacology ,  13 , 1013740. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.1013740

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[27] Luo, D., Xu, Z., Wang, Z., & Ran, W. (2021). China's Stem Cell Research and Knowledge Levels of Medical Practitioners and Students.  Stem cells international ,  2021 , 6667743. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6667743

[28] Zhang, J. Y. (2017). Lost in translation? accountability and governance of Clinical Stem Cell Research in China. Regenerative Medicine , 12 (6), 647–656. https://doi.org/10.2217/rme-2017-0035

[29] Wang, L., Wang, F., & Zhang, W. (2021). Bioethics in China’s biosecurity law: Forms, effects, and unsettled issues. Journal of law and the biosciences , 8(1).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jlb/lsab019 https://academic.oup.com/jlb/article/8/1/lsab019/6299199

[30] Chen, H., Wei, T., Wang, H.  et al.  Association of China’s two-child policy with changes in number of births and birth defects rate, 2008–2017.  BMC Public Health   22 , 434 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-12839-0

[31] Azuma, K. Regulatory Landscape of Regenerative Medicine in Japan.  Curr Stem Cell Rep   1 , 118–128 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40778-015-0012-6

[32] Harris, R. (2005, May 19). Researchers Report Advance in Stem Cell Production . NPR. https://www.npr.org/2005/05/19/4658967/researchers-report-advance-in-stem-cell-production

[33] Park, S. (2012). South Korea steps up stem-cell work.  Nature . https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2012.10565

[34] Resnik, D. B., Shamoo, A. E., & Krimsky, S. (2006). Fraudulent human embryonic stem cell research in South Korea: lessons learned.  Accountability in research ,  13 (1), 101–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/08989620600634193 .

[35] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[36] Association for the Advancement of Blood and Biotherapies.  https://www.aabb.org/regulatory-and-advocacy/regulatory-affairs/regulatory-for-cellular-therapies/international-competent-authorities/saudi-arabia

[37] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia.  BMC medical ethics ,  21 (1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

[38] Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: Interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics , 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6

Culturally, autonomy practices follow a relational autonomy approach based on a paternalistic deontological health care model. The adherence to strict international research policies and religious pillars within the regulatory environment is a great foundation for research ethics. However, there is a need to develop locally targeted ethics approaches for research (as called for in Alahmad, G., Aljohani, S., & Najjar, M. F. (2020). Ethical challenges regarding the use of stem cells: interviews with researchers from Saudi Arabia. BMC medical ethics, 21(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-020-00482-6), this decision-making approach may help advise a research decision model. For more on the clinical cultural autonomy approaches, see: Alabdullah, Y. Y., Alzaid, E., Alsaad, S., Alamri, T., Alolayan, S. W., Bah, S., & Aljoudi, A. S. (2022). Autonomy and paternalism in Shared decision‐making in a Saudi Arabian tertiary hospital: A cross‐sectional study. Developing World Bioethics , 23 (3), 260–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12355 ; Bukhari, A. A. (2017). Universal Principles of Bioethics and Patient Rights in Saudi Arabia (Doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University). https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/124; Ladha, S., Nakshawani, S. A., Alzaidy, A., & Tarab, B. (2023, October 26). Islam and Bioethics: What We All Need to Know . Columbia University School of Professional Studies. https://sps.columbia.edu/events/islam-and-bioethics-what-we-all-need-know

[39] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[40] Ababneh, M. A., Al-Azzam, S. I., Alzoubi, K., Rababa’h, A., & Al Demour, S. (2021). Understanding and attitudes of the Jordanian public about clinical research ethics.  Research Ethics ,  17 (2), 228-241.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016120966779

[41] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[42] Dajani, R. (2014). Jordan’s stem-cell law can guide the Middle East.  Nature  510, 189. https://doi.org/10.1038/510189a

[43] The EU’s definition of autonomy relates to the capacity for creating ideas, moral insight, decisions, and actions without constraint, personal responsibility, and informed consent. However, the EU views autonomy as not completely able to protect individuals and depends on other principles, such as dignity, which “expresses the intrinsic worth and fundamental equality of all human beings.” Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[44] Council of Europe. Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine: Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (ETS No. 164) https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list?module=treaty-detail&treatynum=164 (forbidding the creation of embryos for research purposes only, and suggests embryos in vitro have protections.); Also see Drabiak-Syed B. K. (2013). New President, New Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research Policy: Comparative International Perspectives and Embryonic Stem Cell Research Laws in France.  Biotechnology Law Report ,  32 (6), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1089/blr.2013.9865

[45] Rendtorff, J.D., Kemp, P. (2019). Four Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw: Autonomy, Dignity, Integrity and Vulnerability. In: Valdés, E., Lecaros, J. (eds) Biolaw and Policy in the Twenty-First Century. International Library of Ethics, Law, and the New Medicine, vol 78. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05903-3_3

[46] Tomuschat, C., Currie, D. P., Kommers, D. P., & Kerr, R. (Trans.). (1949, May 23). Basic law for the Federal Republic of Germany. https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf

[47] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Germany . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-germany

[48] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Finland . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-finland

[49] Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Spain . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-spain

[50] Some sources to consider regarding ethics models or regulatory oversights of other cultures not covered:

Kara MA. Applicability of the principle of respect for autonomy: the perspective of Turkey. J Med Ethics. 2007 Nov;33(11):627-30. doi: 10.1136/jme.2006.017400. PMID: 17971462; PMCID: PMC2598110.

Ugarte, O. N., & Acioly, M. A. (2014). The principle of autonomy in Brazil: one needs to discuss it ...  Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes ,  41 (5), 374–377. https://doi.org/10.1590/0100-69912014005013

Bharadwaj, A., & Glasner, P. E. (2012). Local cells, global science: The rise of embryonic stem cell research in India . Routledge.

For further research on specific European countries regarding ethical and regulatory framework, we recommend this database: Regulation of Stem Cell Research in Europe . Eurostemcell. (2017, April 26). https://www.eurostemcell.org/regulation-stem-cell-research-europe   

[51] Klitzman, R. (2006). Complications of culture in obtaining informed consent. The American Journal of Bioethics, 6(1), 20–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265160500394671 see also: Ekmekci, P. E., & Arda, B. (2017). Interculturalism and Informed Consent: Respecting Cultural Differences without Breaching Human Rights.  Cultura (Iasi, Romania) ,  14 (2), 159–172.; For why trust is important in research, see also: Gray, B., Hilder, J., Macdonald, L., Tester, R., Dowell, A., & Stubbe, M. (2017). Are research ethics guidelines culturally competent?  Research Ethics ,  13 (1), 23-41.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1747016116650235

[52] The Qur'an  (M. Khattab, Trans.). (1965). Al-Mu’minun, 23: 12-14. https://quran.com/23

[53] Lenfest, Y. (2017, December 8). Islam and the beginning of human life . Bill of Health. https://blog.petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2017/12/08/islam-and-the-beginning-of-human-life/

[54] Aksoy, S. (2005). Making regulations and drawing up legislation in Islamic countries under conditions of uncertainty, with special reference to embryonic stem cell research. Journal of Medical Ethics , 31: 399-403.; see also: Mahmoud, Azza. "Islamic Bioethics: National Regulations and Guidelines of Human Stem Cell Research in the Muslim World." Master's thesis, Chapman University, 2022. https://doi.org/10.36837/ chapman.000386

[55] Rashid, R. (2022). When does Ensoulment occur in the Human Foetus. Journal of the British Islamic Medical Association , 12 (4). ISSN 2634 8071. https://www.jbima.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/2-Ethics-3_-Ensoulment_Rafaqat.pdf.

[56] Sivaraman, M. & Noor, S. (2017). Ethics of embryonic stem cell research according to Buddhist, Hindu, Catholic, and Islamic religions: perspective from Malaysia. Asian Biomedicine,8(1) 43-52.  https://doi.org/10.5372/1905-7415.0801.260

[57] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[58] Lecso, P. A. (1991). The Bodhisattva Ideal and Organ Transplantation.  Journal of Religion and Health ,  30 (1), 35–41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27510629 ; Bodhisattva, S. (n.d.). The Key of Becoming a Bodhisattva . A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life. http://www.buddhism.org/Sutras/2/BodhisattvaWay.htm

[59] There is no explicit religious reference to when life begins or how to conduct research that interacts with the concept of life. However, these are relevant verses pertaining to how the fetus is viewed. (( King James Bible . (1999). Oxford University Press. (original work published 1769))

Jerimiah 1: 5 “Before I formed thee in the belly I knew thee; and before thou camest forth out of the womb I sanctified thee…”

In prophet Jerimiah’s insight, God set him apart as a person known before childbirth, a theme carried within the Psalm of David.

Psalm 139: 13-14 “…Thou hast covered me in my mother's womb. I will praise thee; for I am fearfully and wonderfully made…”

These verses demonstrate David’s respect for God as an entity that would know of all man’s thoughts and doings even before birth.

[60] It should be noted that abortion is not supported as well.

[61] The Vatican. (1987, February 22). Instruction on Respect for Human Life in Its Origin and on the Dignity of Procreation Replies to Certain Questions of the Day . Congregation For the Doctrine of the Faith. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19870222_respect-for-human-life_en.html

[62] The Vatican. (2000, August 25). Declaration On the Production and the Scientific and Therapeutic Use of Human Embryonic Stem Cells . Pontifical Academy for Life. https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdlife/documents/rc_pa_acdlife_doc_20000824_cellule-staminali_en.html ; Ohara, N. (2003). Ethical Consideration of Experimentation Using Living Human Embryos: The Catholic Church’s Position on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Human Cloning. Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology . Retrieved from https://article.imrpress.com/journal/CEOG/30/2-3/pii/2003018/77-81.pdf.

[63] Smith, G. A. (2022, May 23). Like Americans overall, Catholics vary in their abortion views, with regular mass attenders most opposed . Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/05/23/like-americans-overall-catholics-vary-in-their-abortion-views-with-regular-mass-attenders-most-opposed/

[64] Rosner, F., & Reichman, E. (2002). Embryonic stem cell research in Jewish law. Journal of halacha and contemporary society , (43), 49–68.; Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

[65] Schenker J. G. (2008). The beginning of human life: status of embryo. Perspectives in Halakha (Jewish Religious Law).  Journal of assisted reproduction and genetics ,  25 (6), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10815-008-9221-6

[66] Ruttenberg, D. (2020, May 5). The Torah of Abortion Justice (annotated source sheet) . Sefaria. https://www.sefaria.org/sheets/234926.7?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en

[67] Jafari, M., Elahi, F., Ozyurt, S. & Wrigley, T. (2007). 4. Religious Perspectives on Embryonic Stem Cell Research. In K. Monroe, R. Miller & J. Tobis (Ed.),  Fundamentals of the Stem Cell Debate: The Scientific, Religious, Ethical, and Political Issues  (pp. 79-94). Berkeley: University of California Press.  https://escholarship.org/content/qt9rj0k7s3/qt9rj0k7s3_noSplash_f9aca2e02c3777c7fb76ea768ba458f0.pdf https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520940994-005

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Mifrah Hayath

SM Candidate Harvard Medical School, MS Biotechnology Johns Hopkins University

Olivia Bowers

MS Bioethics Columbia University (Disclosure: affiliated with Voices in Bioethics)

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