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Historical Research – Types, Methods and Examples

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Historical Research

Definition:

Historical research is the process of investigating and studying past events, people, and societies using a variety of sources and methods. This type of research aims to reconstruct and interpret the past based on the available evidence.

Types of Historical Research

There are several types of historical research, including:

Descriptive Research

This type of historical research focuses on describing events, people, or cultures in detail. It can involve examining artifacts, documents, or other sources of information to create a detailed account of what happened or existed.

Analytical Research

This type of historical research aims to explain why events, people, or cultures occurred in a certain way. It involves analyzing data to identify patterns, causes, and effects, and making interpretations based on this analysis.

Comparative Research

This type of historical research involves comparing two or more events, people, or cultures to identify similarities and differences. This can help researchers understand the unique characteristics of each and how they interacted with each other.

Interpretive Research

This type of historical research focuses on interpreting the meaning of past events, people, or cultures. It can involve analyzing cultural symbols, beliefs, and practices to understand their significance in a particular historical context.

Quantitative Research

This type of historical research involves using statistical methods to analyze historical data. It can involve examining demographic information, economic indicators, or other quantitative data to identify patterns and trends.

Qualitative Research

This type of historical research involves examining non-numerical data such as personal accounts, letters, or diaries. It can provide insights into the experiences and perspectives of individuals during a particular historical period.

Data Collection Methods

Data Collection Methods are as follows:

• Archival research : This involves analyzing documents and records that have been preserved over time, such as government records, diaries, letters, newspapers, and photographs. Archival research is often conducted in libraries, archives, and museums.
• Oral history : This involves conducting interviews with individuals who have lived through a particular historical period or event. Oral history can provide a unique perspective on past events and can help to fill gaps in the historical record.
• Artifact analysis: This involves examining physical objects from the past, such as tools, clothing, and artwork, to gain insights into past cultures and practices.
• Secondary sources: This involves analyzing published works, such as books, articles, and academic papers, that discuss past events and cultures. Secondary sources can provide context and insights into the historical period being studied.
• Statistical analysis : This involves analyzing numerical data from the past, such as census records or economic data, to identify patterns and trends.
• Fieldwork : This involves conducting on-site research in a particular location, such as visiting a historical site or conducting ethnographic research in a particular community. Fieldwork can provide a firsthand understanding of the culture and environment being studied.
• Content analysis: This involves analyzing the content of media from the past, such as films, television programs, and advertisements, to gain insights into cultural attitudes and beliefs.

Data Analysis Methods

• Content analysis : This involves analyzing the content of written or visual material, such as books, newspapers, or photographs, to identify patterns and themes. Content analysis can be used to identify changes in cultural values and beliefs over time.
• Textual analysis : This involves analyzing written texts, such as letters or diaries, to understand the experiences and perspectives of individuals during a particular historical period. Textual analysis can provide insights into how people lived and thought in the past.
• Discourse analysis : This involves analyzing how language is used to construct meaning and power relations in a particular historical period. Discourse analysis can help to identify how social and political ideologies were constructed and maintained over time.
• Statistical analysis: This involves using statistical methods to analyze numerical data, such as census records or economic data, to identify patterns and trends. Statistical analysis can help to identify changes in population demographics, economic conditions, and other factors over time.
• Comparative analysis : This involves comparing data from two or more historical periods or events to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can help to identify patterns and trends that may not be apparent from analyzing data from a single historical period.
• Qualitative analysis: This involves analyzing non-numerical data, such as oral history interviews or ethnographic field notes, to identify themes and patterns. Qualitative analysis can provide a rich understanding of the experiences and perspectives of individuals in the past.

Historical Research Methodology

Here are the general steps involved in historical research methodology:

• Define the research question: Start by identifying a research question that you want to answer through your historical research. This question should be focused, specific, and relevant to your research goals.
• Review the literature: Conduct a review of the existing literature on the topic of your research question. This can involve reading books, articles, and academic papers to gain a thorough understanding of the existing research.
• Develop a research design : Develop a research design that outlines the methods you will use to collect and analyze data. This design should be based on the research question and should be feasible given the resources and time available.
• Collect data: Use the methods outlined in your research design to collect data on past events, people, and cultures. This can involve archival research, oral history interviews, artifact analysis, and other data collection methods.
• Analyze data : Analyze the data you have collected using the methods outlined in your research design. This can involve content analysis, textual analysis, statistical analysis, and other data analysis methods.
• Interpret findings : Use the results of your data analysis to draw meaningful insights and conclusions related to your research question. These insights should be grounded in the data and should be relevant to the research goals.
• Communicate results: Communicate your findings through a research report, academic paper, or other means. This should be done in a clear, concise, and well-organized manner, with appropriate citations and references to the literature.

Applications of Historical Research

Historical research has a wide range of applications in various fields, including:

• Education : Historical research can be used to develop curriculum materials that reflect a more accurate and inclusive representation of history. It can also be used to provide students with a deeper understanding of past events and cultures.
• Museums : Historical research is used to develop exhibits, programs, and other materials for museums. It can provide a more accurate and engaging presentation of historical events and artifacts.
• Public policy : Historical research is used to inform public policy decisions by providing insights into the historical context of current issues. It can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of past policies and programs.
• Business : Historical research can be used by businesses to understand the evolution of their industry and to identify trends that may affect their future success. It can also be used to develop marketing strategies that resonate with customers’ historical interests and values.
• Law : Historical research is used in legal proceedings to provide evidence and context for cases involving historical events or practices. It can also be used to inform the development of new laws and policies.
• Genealogy : Historical research can be used by individuals to trace their family history and to understand their ancestral roots.
• Cultural preservation : Historical research is used to preserve cultural heritage by documenting and interpreting past events, practices, and traditions. It can also be used to identify and preserve historical landmarks and artifacts.

Examples of Historical Research

Examples of Historical Research are as follows:

• Examining the history of race relations in the United States: Historical research could be used to explore the historical roots of racial inequality and injustice in the United States. This could help inform current efforts to address systemic racism and promote social justice.
• Tracing the evolution of political ideologies: Historical research could be used to study the development of political ideologies over time. This could help to contextualize current political debates and provide insights into the origins and evolution of political beliefs and values.
• Analyzing the impact of technology on society : Historical research could be used to explore the impact of technology on society over time. This could include examining the impact of previous technological revolutions (such as the industrial revolution) on society, as well as studying the current impact of emerging technologies on society and the environment.
• Documenting the history of marginalized communities : Historical research could be used to document the history of marginalized communities (such as LGBTQ+ communities or indigenous communities). This could help to preserve cultural heritage, promote social justice, and promote a more inclusive understanding of history.

Purpose of Historical Research

The purpose of historical research is to study the past in order to gain a better understanding of the present and to inform future decision-making. Some specific purposes of historical research include:

• To understand the origins of current events, practices, and institutions : Historical research can be used to explore the historical roots of current events, practices, and institutions. By understanding how things developed over time, we can gain a better understanding of the present.
• To develop a more accurate and inclusive understanding of history : Historical research can be used to correct inaccuracies and biases in historical narratives. By exploring different perspectives and sources of information, we can develop a more complete and nuanced understanding of history.
• To inform decision-making: Historical research can be used to inform decision-making in various fields, including education, public policy, business, and law. By understanding the historical context of current issues, we can make more informed decisions about how to address them.
• To preserve cultural heritage : Historical research can be used to document and preserve cultural heritage, including traditions, practices, and artifacts. By understanding the historical significance of these cultural elements, we can work to preserve them for future generations.
• To stimulate curiosity and critical thinking: Historical research can be used to stimulate curiosity and critical thinking about the past. By exploring different historical perspectives and interpretations, we can develop a more critical and reflective approach to understanding history and its relevance to the present.

When to use Historical Research

Historical research can be useful in a variety of contexts. Here are some examples of when historical research might be particularly appropriate:

• When examining the historical roots of current events: Historical research can be used to explore the historical roots of current events, practices, and institutions. By understanding how things developed over time, we can gain a better understanding of the present.
• When examining the historical context of a particular topic : Historical research can be used to explore the historical context of a particular topic, such as a social issue, political debate, or scientific development. By understanding the historical context, we can gain a more nuanced understanding of the topic and its significance.
• When exploring the evolution of a particular field or discipline : Historical research can be used to explore the evolution of a particular field or discipline, such as medicine, law, or art. By understanding the historical development of the field, we can gain a better understanding of its current state and future directions.
• When examining the impact of past events on current society : Historical research can be used to examine the impact of past events (such as wars, revolutions, or social movements) on current society. By understanding the historical context and impact of these events, we can gain insights into current social and political issues.
• When studying the cultural heritage of a particular community or group : Historical research can be used to document and preserve the cultural heritage of a particular community or group. By understanding the historical significance of cultural practices, traditions, and artifacts, we can work to preserve them for future generations.

Characteristics of Historical Research

The following are some characteristics of historical research:

• Focus on the past : Historical research focuses on events, people, and phenomena of the past. It seeks to understand how things developed over time and how they relate to current events.
• Reliance on primary sources: Historical research relies on primary sources such as letters, diaries, newspapers, government documents, and other artifacts from the period being studied. These sources provide firsthand accounts of events and can help researchers gain a more accurate understanding of the past.
• Interpretation of data : Historical research involves interpretation of data from primary sources. Researchers analyze and interpret data to draw conclusions about the past.
• Use of multiple sources: Historical research often involves using multiple sources of data to gain a more complete understanding of the past. By examining a range of sources, researchers can cross-reference information and validate their findings.
• Importance of context: Historical research emphasizes the importance of context. Researchers analyze the historical context in which events occurred and consider how that context influenced people’s actions and decisions.
• Subjectivity : Historical research is inherently subjective, as researchers interpret data and draw conclusions based on their own perspectives and biases. Researchers must be aware of their own biases and strive for objectivity in their analysis.
• Importance of historical significance: Historical research emphasizes the importance of historical significance. Researchers consider the historical significance of events, people, and phenomena and their impact on the present and future.
• Use of qualitative methods : Historical research often uses qualitative methods such as content analysis, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis to analyze data and draw conclusions about the past.

Advantages of Historical Research

There are several advantages to historical research:

• Provides a deeper understanding of the past : Historical research can provide a more comprehensive understanding of past events and how they have shaped current social, political, and economic conditions. This can help individuals and organizations make informed decisions about the future.
• Helps preserve cultural heritage: Historical research can be used to document and preserve cultural heritage. By studying the history of a particular culture, researchers can gain insights into the cultural practices and beliefs that have shaped that culture over time.
• Provides insights into long-term trends : Historical research can provide insights into long-term trends and patterns. By studying historical data over time, researchers can identify patterns and trends that may be difficult to discern from short-term data.
• Facilitates the development of hypotheses: Historical research can facilitate the development of hypotheses about how past events have influenced current conditions. These hypotheses can be tested using other research methods, such as experiments or surveys.
• Helps identify root causes of social problems : Historical research can help identify the root causes of social problems. By studying the historical context in which these problems developed, researchers can gain a better understanding of how they emerged and what factors may have contributed to their development.
• Provides a source of inspiration: Historical research can provide a source of inspiration for individuals and organizations seeking to address current social, political, and economic challenges. By studying the accomplishments and struggles of past generations, researchers can gain insights into how to address current challenges.

Limitations of Historical Research

Some Limitations of Historical Research are as follows:

• Reliance on incomplete or biased data: Historical research is often limited by the availability and quality of data. Many primary sources have been lost, destroyed, or are inaccessible, making it difficult to get a complete picture of historical events. Additionally, some primary sources may be biased or represent only one perspective on an event.
• Difficulty in generalizing findings: Historical research is often specific to a particular time and place and may not be easily generalized to other contexts. This makes it difficult to draw broad conclusions about human behavior or social phenomena.
• Lack of control over variables : Historical research often lacks control over variables. Researchers cannot manipulate or control historical events, making it difficult to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
• Subjectivity of interpretation : Historical research is often subjective because researchers must interpret data and draw conclusions based on their own biases and perspectives. Different researchers may interpret the same data differently, leading to different conclusions.
• Limited ability to test hypotheses: Historical research is often limited in its ability to test hypotheses. Because the events being studied have already occurred, researchers cannot manipulate variables or conduct experiments to test their hypotheses.
• Lack of objectivity: Historical research is often subjective, and researchers must be aware of their own biases and strive for objectivity in their analysis. However, it can be difficult to maintain objectivity when studying events that are emotionally charged or controversial.
• Limited generalizability: Historical research is often limited in its generalizability, as the events and conditions being studied may be specific to a particular time and place. This makes it difficult to draw broad conclusions that apply to other contexts or time periods.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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PROMOTING CULTURAL HERITAGE PRESERVATION: ANALYZING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHING HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE ON CONTEMPORARY FILIPINO CULTURE

• October 2023

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Struggling with historical significance: Reasoning, reading, and writing processes

The concept of historical significance is seen as a key concept of historical reasoning. Assigning significance is based on criteria and related to the identity of who assigns significance. However, little is known about reasoning-, reading-, and writing processes when students attribute significance. The aim of this study is to investigate how students and experienced history teachers with a master’s degree reason, read, and write about historical significance while thinking aloud. We analyzed the think-aloud protocols of twelve 10th-grade students and four history teachers on reasoning, reading, and writing processes. While thinking aloud, participants read two contrasting accounts after which they wrote an argumentative text about the historical significance of Christopher Columbus. Analysis of participants’ think-aloud protocols and their written texts showed that students did not recognize historical accounts as perspectives—influenced by the historical context. In contrast, teachers looked for the authors’ judgement, evidence, and context. In addition, students’ limited use of metaknowledge regarding texts and the concept of historical significance hampered them. These out-comes provide direction for teaching reasoning, reading, and writing with respect to historical significance.

Zusammenfassung

Das Konzept der historischen Bedeutung wird als Schlüsselbegriff des historischen Denkens betrachtet. Bedeutung wird auf Grundlage von Kriterien zugewiesen und hängt zusammen mit der Identität desjenigen, der die Bedeutung zuweist. Allerdings ist wenig über Argumentations-, Lese- und Schreibprozesse bekannt, wenn Schüler Bedeutung zuschreiben. Das Ziel dieser Studie ist, zu untersuchen wie Schüler und Geschichtslehrer in der Oberstufe über historische Bedeutung argumentieren, lesen und schreiben, während sie laut denken. Wir haben die Protokolle des lauten Denkens von zwölf Schülern der 10. Klasse und vier Geschichtslehrer in der Oberstufe auf Argumentations-, Lese- und Schreibprozesse analysiert. Während sie laut dachten, lasen die Teilnehmer zwei kontrastierende Berichte. Danach verfassten sie einen argumentativen Text über die historische Bedeutung von Christoph Kolumbus. Die Analyse der Denkprotokolle der Teilnehmer und ihrer schriftlichen Texte ergab, dass die Schüler historische Berichte nicht als Perspektiven erkannten, die durch den historischen Kontext beeinflusst werden. Im Gegensatz dazu suchten die Lehrer nach dem Urteil der Autoren, den Beweisen und dem Kontext. Darüber hinaus wurden die Schüler von ihrer begrenzten Nutzung von Metawissen zu Texten und dem Konzept der historischen Bedeutung behindert. Diese Ergebnisse bieten dem Unterricht eine Richtung für das Argumentieren, Lesen und Schreiben in Bezug auf historische Bedeutung.

El concepto de significado histórico es considerado como la clave del razonamiento histórico. La asignación de significado a la historia se basa en determinados criterios y está relacionada con la identidad de quien asigna el significado. Sim embargo se sabe poco sobre los procesos de razonamiento, lectura y escritura que utilizan los estudiantes cuando atribuyen dicho significado. El objetivo de este estudio es investigar como estudiantes y profesores titulados en máster razonan, leen y escriben sobre la importancia histórica mientras piensan en voz alta. Hemos analizado los protocolos de pensamiento orales de doce estudiantes de décimo grado y cuatro profesores de historia con máster en procesos de razonamiento, lectura y escritura. Mientras pensaban en voz alta, los participantes leyeron dos relatos comparativos y después escribieron un tex-to argumentativo sobre la importancia histórica de Cristóbal Colón. El análisis de los protocolos de pensamiento orales de los participantes y sus textos escritos, reveló que los estudiantes no reconocían los relatos históricos como perspectivas – influenciados por el contexto histórico. En contraposición los profesores buscaron el juicio, la evidencia y el contexto de los autores. Además, el uso limitado de los metaconocimientos por parte de los estudiantes con respecto a los textos y el concepto de significado histórico, les obstaculizó. Los resultados de esta investigación proporcionan una guía para la enseñanza del razona-miento, la lectura y la escritura con respecto al significado histórico.

1 Introduction

People in the past have left traces such as weapons and diaries, which can be studied by historians. Historians judge these traces on their usefulness and use them when constructing a substantiated interpretation of the past. Secondary sources or historical accounts contain historians’ interpretations and may be evaluated critically by other historians (e. g., Chapman , 2011; Megill , 2007; Seixas , 2016). Although procedural knowledge of reading historical accounts is important to understand history, our knowledge of how students read historical accounts is limited ( Cercadillo et al., 2017; Innes , 2020).

R easoning about historical significance is a key aspect of history ( Lévèsque , 2008; Seixas & Morton , 2012). Significance is assigned from a perspective and, due to different historical circumstances, can change over time ( Lévèsque , 2008; Seixas & Morton , 2012). For example, Columbus could be considered as significant because he contributed to the “discovery” and conquest of America or (seen more critically) because his journey opened an era of genocide of the native Americans. Historical significance is defined as everything that is considered important according to historians when they evaluate the past from a certain perspective.

The concept of historical significance is also important for history education. Hunt (2000) argued that reflecting on historical significance makes history meaningful to students. Focusing on historical significance gives teachers the opportunity to clarify long-term developments, which may contribute to a better understanding of present society ( Hunt , 2000). Despite the widespread importance assigned to historical significance, little is known about how students reason when attributing significance.

The interface between language and subjects such as history has been widely acknowledged, but is still ill-defined ( Lorenzo & Trujillo , 2017). When investigating the significance of an historical person, reasoning processes, reading processes, and writing processes are highly intertwined. For example, in order to argue for the significance of a person, a researcher must read accounts in which historians assign significance to that particular person. When individuals read and write, they employ explicit reasoning in order to comprehend and to create a text. Because students might encounter problems with these activities, it is relevant to study their learning processes while they reason, read, and write.

We aimed to investigate students’ reasoning, reading, and writing processes as they assigned historical significance to Christopher Columbus and to evaluate how the assignment of significance is influenced by historians’ perspectives. With this knowledge as well as knowledge regarding students’ struggles, researchers can develop interventions regarding reading historical accounts. For this reason, we compared the approaches of 12 tenth-grade students and four history teachers.

2 Theoretical Framework

2.1 reasoning about historical significance.

Reasoning with respect to historical significance encompasses a claim about the significance of a particular person, event, or development and the arguments that support the claim. These arguments relate to aspects of change and continuity as well as causes and consequences ( van Boxtel & van Drie , 2018). The focus on (long-term) consequences provides opportunities to examine the relationships between events and between the past and the present ( Hunt , 2000).

When students are asked to evaluate how significance is assigned to people in the past, they must understand that criteria are used in the process of assigning historical significance. Most criteria focus on the consequences of events in the past or on the importance of an event for the present time. (e. g., Hunt , 2000; see also Cercadillo , 2001; Counssel , 2004; Lévèsque , 2008). However, few studies exist that have investigated whether criteria for significance were applied when students argued for the significance of a past event or person.

In addition, students need to understand that historians are influenced by their historical context ( Megill , 2007). Prior research shows students’ (basic) awareness of perspectives when they assign significance. As Peck (2010) shows, students with different ethnic backgrounds regard the same facts as significant, but they construct different narratives. These findings align with others ( Barton , 2005; Cercadillo , 2001; Seixas , 1994; 1997; Yeager, et al., 2001). However, previous studies have shown that students struggle with comprehending historical phenomena in their historical context and students tend to consider history from one perspective ( Carretero & Kriger , 2011; Cercadillo , 2001; van Drie et al., 2013). Consequently, students may not understand that the assignment of significance may develop over time and instead may consider significance as unchanging.

2.2 Reading historical accounts

In order to develop and support claims about the historical significance of a particular person, it is important to read what historians have written about the person in question. Most researchers focus on reading primary sources, and there is evidence that heuristics like sourcing, corroboration, and contextualization are useful (e. g., Wineburg , 1991 & 1998; see also List & Du , 2021; Reisman , 2012). In history education, however, little is known about reading historical accounts that contain historians’ perspectives ( Cercadillo et al., 2017, Innes , 2000).

Reading historical accounts entails breaking down the text into small pieces in order to understand the main idea and how it is constructed ( Schoenbach et al., 2012). This breakdown requires several higher order reading processes for reading accounts, such as determination of a reading objective, identifying the theme by summarizing, and discovering the relationships between words, sentences, and paragraphs (Schellings, et al., 2006). Therefore, students need to understand how a specific topic is presented linguistically and to recognize common historical language, like temporal clauses ( Lorenzo & Dalton-Puffer , 2016). Using two or more contrasting accounts seems useful in order to understand an author’s main idea ( Bråten & Strømsø , 2011). Furthermore, there is reason to believe that knowledge of text structures or genre features may improve reading comprehension (Léon & Carretero , 1995).

Previous research shows that (young) students regard accounts as records of the past ( Wolfe & Goldman , 2005). That is, students may consider accounts as sources of information and may struggle with comprehending accounts as substantiated perspectives on the past.

2.3 Writing historical accounts

The result of reasoning about the significance of a person is often presented in a text written in an argumentative style. In order to write a convincing text in the domain of history, arguments should be underpinned with evidence extracted from historical sources, which are accurately interpreted and comprehended within the historical context ( Monte-Sano , 2010).

Students need to apply several processes when they write a text. During the first phase, content is retrieved from memory and organized. Afterwards, the generated ideas are translated into written text. Finally, the written text is edited during the review phase. While writing, it is important to monitor all processes. Awareness of the audience is also required ( Hayes , 2012; Kellog, 2008). General writing processes may be subdivided into microprocesses, such as planning, monitoring, evaluating, and revising (Martinez et al., 2015).

Coffin (2006) describes three main genres (recording, explanation, and arguing) that belong to writing in history. Every main genre contains several subgenres. The subgenre “discussion” is part of the main genre “arguing” and is relevant for this study. The general structure of a discussion contains an explanation of background and issues, description of perspectives, and position ( Coffin , 2006). In order to describe perspectives of other historians and to develop an own position, researchers may use phrases and words like “in addition” and “however” to describe historians’ argumentation or to develop their own positions. Researchers may then use (temporal) clauses like “the consequences were significant or temporal” in order to make historical events more or less important ( Lorenzo & Dalton-Puffer , 2016; Schleppegrell & de Oliveira, 2006). In addition, former research has shown that sourcing might be particularly relevant for writing in order to convince the audience ( List & Du , 2021).

Students may struggle with higher order functions of language like involving counterarguments and using weighting strategies in order to integrate both sides while describing their own position ( van Drie et al., 2006; Lorenzo & Dalton-Puffer , 2016; behing Matteos et a., 2018). Given that students regard historical texts as records ( Wolfe & Goldman , 2005), students may encounter problems with describing historians’ perspectives (by using their historical context).

2.4 Aim of the research

Our aim was to explore students’ reasoning about historical significance in the context of reading multiple accounts and writing a text while thinking aloud. To our knowledge, it is unknown how students reason, read, or write about contrasting historical accounts written in different times when they are tasked with developing their own perspective on the historical significance of a particular person.

To encompass these unknown factors, we formulated the following research question: How do reasoning, reading, and writing processes differ between 10th-grade students and experienced history teachers as they reason, read, and write about historical significance? We strove to answer the research question by analyzing think-aloud protocols and texts written by students and teachers.

3.1 Instruments

In order to answer our research question, we used the think-aloud method. Although the think-aloud method has some shortcomings, it is widely seen as a reliable method to gain insight into thinking and reasoning processes (e. g., Charters , 2003; Pressley & Afflerbach , 1995; van Someren et al., 1994; Wineburg 1991).

In order to strengthen the trustworthiness of the think-aloud method, methodological triangulation is recommended (Chartres, 2003). To achieve this end, we also asked participants to write a text, all of which were incorporated into our analysis.

3.2 Participants

Participants of this study were twelve 10th-grade higher secondary students and four history teachers. All names were blinded and participation was voluntary. An equal number of men and women participated.

Students were selected from two classes at a suburban school in the center of the Netherlands. None of the students had been diagnosed with learning problems or struggled with the Dutch language. The task was formulated and performed in L1. All students were unfamiliar with our study’s tasks and the concept of historical significance.

In order to trace students’ weaknesses, we asked four teachers from the same school who were familiar with reading historical accounts to participate in this study. All participating teachers possess a master’s degree in history and wrote a master’s thesis about the western world after 1850; their teaching experiences ranged from eight to 23 years.

We developed a task that centered on the historical significance of Columbus. The topic of Columbus fits within the curriculum of 10th-grade higher secondary education in the Netherlands, and this topic was chosen in consultation with the involved school.

Participants were asked to write a text in which they evaluated how the significance of Columbus has developed over time and whether Columbus Day should still be celebrated, which invited students to think about Columbus’ significance in present times. This kind of authentic tasks (Appendix A) may elicit historical reasoning ( van Boxtel & van Drie , 2018).

Participants received two accounts that contained the perspectives of Washington Irving (nineteenth century) and Howard Zinn (twentieth century). Although Irving’s interpretation does not fit current historians’ standards, his interpretation of Columbus is seen as representative for many historians in the nineteenth century. In terms of uniting the people of the United States of America (USA), Irving presents Columbus as a relevant figure in the “discovery” and in the founding of the USA. Zinn holds Columbus responsible for the culture clashes between European people and the native Americans, ending in the extermination of Native Americans. Although Zinn was criticized ( Wineburg , 2013), his account is seen as representative for many center-left historians in the twentieth century. These different perspectives might enable students to recognize both accounts as interpretations of the past. Both texts, in particular the language of the nineteenth century, are considered too difficult for students. Therefore, we reduced the texts to approximately 500 words and we avoid complex sentences. In order to recognize different arguments, we prefaced these using words and phrases such as “therefore,” “however,” and “in that time.” These words where always used as sentence-starter. A Flesch-Kincaid readability test ( Kincaid et al., 1975) made clear that both texts were appropriate for 10th-grade students.

In order to discover that historians’ interpretations are influenced by their context, participants received additional background information about the political and cultural context of the USA in both the nineteenth and twentieth century. Students also received a brief biography of Columbus to ensure that all had access to the same factual information.

3.4 Procedure

To ensure that students possessed enough background knowledge, students sat through two introductory lessons regarding the consequences of Columbus’ journey. We provided no specific instruction on reasoning, reading, or writing. The first author—an experienced teacher—taught the lessons, which were based on principles that should enhance historical reasoning, for example, using open questions, interacting in small groups, and employing whole-class discussions ( van Boxtel & van Drie , 2018).

During the first lesson, the teacher instructed students on the consequences of Columbus for (some) people in (some) parts of Europe and America during Columbus’ life, after his dead, and in the present. The teacher also instructed students on the symbolic value of his journey (Hunt, 200). Afterwards, the consequences of Columbus’ journey for the inhabitants of Europe and the native Americans were discussed. The lesson finished with a short whole-class discussion. The second lesson centered on the different perspectives of Columbus’ journey. In pairs or triads, students discussed how inhabitants from different countries in the present could interpret Columbus. In a second round, students discussed how people living in different periods interpreted Columbus’ journey. Each small-group discussion was followed by a whole-class discussion. The participating teachers were not informed about the content of the lessons.

The three authors and a fourth person, who is a specialist in assessing students, gathered data on students and teachers. All think-aloud sessions with students and teachers were organized in a separate room at school during school hours. Participants wrote their text on the computer and were allowed to work on the task for 60 minutes. All sessions were videotaped and transcribed afterwards.

3.5 Analysis

All think-aloud data were coded using a coding scheme that consisted of five main categories: Task, Reading, Reasoning About Significance, Writing, and General—all of which were divided into subcategories relevant for our purposes (Appendix B).

The subcategories related to Task included Reading, Rereading, Comprehension, Monitoring, and Evaluation. The subcategories related to Reading were Reading, Rereading, Summarizing, Monitoring, and Evaluating ( Kendeou et al., 2011; Schellings et al., 2006). The subcategories that fall under Reasoning About Significance were partly derived from studies on historical thinking and reasoning: Background Author, Contextualization, Explicit or Implicit Use of Criteria Used for Significance, Asking Historical Questions, and Comparing Historical Eras ( Hunt , 2000; Reisman , 2012; van Boxtel & van Drie , 2018; Wineburg , 1991). The task required participants to take into account and to compare several points of view and to develop their own point of view, so we added the following subcategories: Authors’ Point of View, Own Point of View, Comparing Texts, and Comparing Authors’ Backgrounds. We derived these subcategories from research on reading multiple texts ( Bråten & Strømsø , 2011; List & Du , 2021; Wineburg 1991) and matched them to the two main categories, Reading and Reasoning About Significance. We considered these subcategories important for history and thus placed them in the category Reasoning About Significance. The category Writing consisted of the following subcategories: Reading Written Text, Formulating Text, Writing, Monitoring Writing Process, Evaluating Written Text, and Planning Text. These processes are considered important in writing research ( Hayes , 2012; Martinez et al., 2015). Finally, the category General consisted of non-relevant talk and general talk related to the task.

All protocols were divided into segments (i. e., the units of analysis) under the same topic: utterances. Consequently, utterances were of different lengths. Except for (re)reading, most utterances contained one or two (sometimes incomplete) sentences. Two coders (the first and second author) coded and discussed differences in coding and the quality of the coding scheme as well as two protocols in a training phase, after which interrater agreement was calculated for three student protocols and one teacher protocol (516 segments, about 19.9 % of all segments). Cohen’s Kappa was .81, which is considered good.

The written texts were analyzed using a coding scheme—a four-point scale rubric (Appendix C). The coding scheme consisted of three main categories (Text Structure, General Writing Quality, and Domain-Specific Reasoning) and was an adaption of a previously used coding scheme that included writing and domain-specific elements ( van Drie et al., 2018). All categories were divided into subcategories. The first category, Text Structure, consisted of Introduction, Arguments Pro, Arguments Contra/Rebuttal, and Conclusion. The second category, General Writing Quality, consisted of Audience Awareness and Coherence. The final category, Domain-Specific Reasoning, consisted of Perspectives on Columbus, Contextualization, Reasoning About Significance, and Use of First-Order Knowledge.

All texts were coded by the first and third author. Two texts were coded and discussed in a training session. The remaining 14 texts were coded separately. In the second session, Cohen’s Kappa varied between .71 (Use Criteria Significance) and 1.00 (e. g., Conclusion), which is considered to be acceptable or good. All differences were discussed until an agreement was achieved.

For every protocol, we calculated the percentage of all utterances related to each subcategory. Based on these calculations, differences in the think-aloud protocols between students and teachers were identified in several rounds. Themes were selected and representative utterances were presented in the Results section. This is in line with the thematic-analysis method as proposed by Braun and Clarke (2006).

4.1 Think-aloud protocols

Table 1 presents the results of the analyses of the think-aloud protocols and shows that students’ protocols contain 154.33 utterances and teachers’ protocols 186.75. Participants mostly engaged in writing activities. Students, compared to teachers, engaged more often in activities related to the main categories Task (17.79 %) and Reading (26.21 %). Teachers, compared to students, showed more utterances related to the main categories Reasoning About Significance (10.97 %) and Writing (52.90 %).

Most students (11) started by reading all the materials and then wrote their texts. While writing, they searched for information in the materials by rereading. One student took some notes between reading and writing. Three teachers used another approach. After reading (parts of) the materials, they reflected on the text(s). Finally, the teachers wrote their text. In the next sections, we discuss reading, reasoning, and writing processes more in detail.

4.1.1 Reasoning processes

Differences in reasoning processes are presented in Table 1 . Students were less active with respect to background author/author’s viewpoint (1.05 % and 0.05 %, respectively), their own subjectivity (0.15 %), and historical context (0.93 %) compared to teachers (background author: 3.59 %, author’s viewpoint: 0.98 %, own subjectivity: 0.71 %, historical context: 1.90 %). We found relatively fewer utterances in which students (1.67 %) or teachers (0.89 %) implicitly or explicitly stated criteria for significance. Overall, however, teachers’ protocols showed more reasoning activities than students.

The variation in reasoning processes can be illustrated using the protocols from student Jayden and teacher Jill. Jayden was the only student who seriously reflected on the historical context and on the background of the author. He seemed aware that it was important to focus on the background of the author in order to comprehend the text—as evidenced by his rereading of Irving’s account: “That is about history. It is not important.” It appears that Jayden reflected on the historical context when he said, “Nineteenth century...Slavery is not acceptable in that time.” However, Jayden did not relate Irving’s scientific statements to his historical context during reasoning or writing.

Illustrative for teachers’ method of reasoning is Jill’s comment: “I am determining his position. How he, as an historian, is affected by his time.” Jill tried to understand the authors’ point of view by reconstructing their backgrounds through contextualization. She considered the historical context when she commented, “It is the era of slavery. Therefore, he [Irving] is a witness of the consequences.” Contrary to students, she seemed aware of the importance of her own subjectivity when she said, “This is about peoples’ suffering. That is important for me; that is why I am critical.”

4.1.2 Reading processes

The protocols of both students and teachers, as shown in Table 1 , may have featured comparable percentages of activities as reading, summarizing, and monitoring, but we found differences with respect to the activities rereading (students: 11.37 %, teachers: 2.04 %) and evaluating texts (students: 0.62 %, teachers: 2.49 %).

Mean Percentages and Standard Deviations for Activities in the Think-Aloud Protocols for Students and Experts

The differences in the reading processes can be illustrated by the protocols of student Emmely and teacher Patrick. Emmely started by reading all materials. She read without comment, breaks, or rereading and seemed to comprehend the aim of the task as well as both texts and background information. When she was finished, she read the task again and started writing. During the writing process, she constantly reread substantial parts of the text to extract information for her own text.

When Patrick read Irving’s account, he expressed doubts about both accounts and commented on the text. Illustrative were his comments on a passage about supposed resistance from the Catholic Church against the voyage of Columbus. He commented, “I thought, the church has already accepted that point of view.” In contrast with Emmely, Patrick barely reread while writing parts of the accounts or the assignment; he did go back for some details such as Irving’s first name.

Patrick’s comments exposed an idea of historical accounts as being perspectives on the past. The following segment is typical for Patrick’s way of reading:

He [Irving] is positive about Columbus. The European people were very important for the USA. Thanks to Columbus. However, .... uhm.... He is troubling with slavery. Irving states that he does not want to use the idea that slavery was common in Columbus’ time to justify Columbus’ mistakes. [...] He disliked slavery....It is before the civil war...the tensions between both parties could be noticeable....That is his point of view.

This strategy enabled Patrick to gain deep understanding of both authors’ points of view and seemed to make rereading unnecessary. Emmely’s protocol did not contain utterances pertaining to the authors’ perspectives.

4.1.3 Writing processes

With regard to writing processes, Table 1 shows comparable percentages for students and teachers. Teachers’ protocols contained more segments about planning (2.98 %) and monitoring writing (12.03 %), compared to students (planning: 0.79 %, monitoring writing 4.66 %), but fewer segments about how to formulate written texts (students: 10.07 %, teachers: 8.80 %). Teachers and students showed comparable activities on formulating text, writing, revising, and evaluating written text.

The distinctions in writing processes between teachers and students may be illustrated with the protocols from student Lynn and teacher Nick. Lynn was one of the four students who thought about planning, “I have to present my arguments and counterarguments.” Given the rest of the protocol, this was an isolated remark. She focused her activities concerning monitoring writing on individual sentences within her text: “this sentence needs improvement.” Her revising activities also related to the formulation of sentences. After writing a sentence, she asked, “How do you actually say that?” and subsequently revised the sentence. In contrast to students, teachers developed a structure for their text. Thinking about the structure of his text, Nick said:

First of all, I have to think about the structure of my text. First an introduction with my point of view. uhm...uhm... it is an argumentative text. You are convincing people of something. So, in my introduction I should give my point of view. I have to finish with a conclusion and a recommendation about Columbus Day. In the middle part, I will write my arguments.

Contrary to Lynn, Nick’s approach enabled him to select historical facts and to offer support by selecting usable fragments from both texts: “This is my introduction. Then first...uhm...outlining...uhm...the development in the thinking about Columbus.” Nick’s comments about revising focused on the improvement of the quality of his arguments; for example, Nick would delete a sentence in order to strengthen an argument.

4.2 Written texts

Table 2 shows differences between the written texts of students and teachers. Teachers outperformed students on every aspect. The most outstanding differences are in the subcategory Introduction (teachers: 3.00, students: 1.50) and the main categories General Writing Quality (teachers: 3.13, students: 1.87) and Domain-Specific Reasoning (teachers: 3.44, students: 2.29). These results support the results of the think-aloud protocols. The differences can be illustrated using the texts from student Rayne and teacher Emma.

Although Rayne earned the highest score on his student text, there were remarkable differences between the introductions written by Rayne and Emma. Rayne started his introduction with three sentences about Columbus’ historical context and asked, “What could we learn from Columbus?” Subsequently, he wrote about the changing evaluation of Columbus and his own position. He finished his text, which was divided into clear paragraphs, with a short summary of his text. Teacher Emma wrote a clear and eye-catching introduction that outlined the structure of her text. The body contained a contextualized summary of the accounts of both historians as well as her own position. She finished her text with a short summary.

Compared to the teachers, none of the students related the historical context to the account of Irving or Zinn. Only student Rayne mentioned the changing historical circumstances in his text. Although he made no remarks about the historical context in his think-aloud protocol, Rayne paid attention to the changing historical circumstances of Irving and Zinn:

In the past, people were more respectful of Columbus because they were delighted with the independence. In the second part of the twentieth century, the African-Americans were fighting for their rights. Because the rising focus on the treatment of the Afro-Americans, the respect for Columbus declined.

However, Rayne did not relate this sentence to the account of Irving or Zinn. Teacher Emma used the historical context in order to comprehend the authors. She wrote for instance: “Hundred and fifty years later, the historian Howard Zinn (1980) speaks much more negatively about Columbus. At that time, people were much more critical about the role of Caucasians in history.”

The last noteworthy difference between students and teachers relates to their opinion about Columbus Day. All students used the language from the task, which asked them whether Columbus Day should be celebrated. All students answered this question with a clear statement—either affirming (student Ann: “because of the emerging trade”) or denying (student Rayne: “because someone else would have found the USA”). In contrast, the teachers’ answers were more complex; for example, they changed the word “celebrated” to “remembered” (teacher Emma: “in museums or memorials”). This change enabled teachers to incorporate different perspectives, to avoid sensitivities in the audience, and to defend the existence of a day on which all inhabitants of America could remember Columbus’ journey to America.

Mean Scores (Scale 1–4) on Text Structure, Writing, and Domain-Specific Reasoning

5 Conclusion and Discussion

This study focused on historical significance, an important aspect of historical reasoning, and aimed to gain insight into 12 students’ reasoning, reading, and writing processes. Four history teachers with a master’s degree were added to this study in order to grasp students’ weaknesses. Our data revealed several differences between students and teachers. Judging by their think-aloud protocols, students were more active while working on the main categories Task and Reading. Teachers focused more on Reasoning About Significance and Writing. Students and teachers differed on a wide range of subcategories: Rereading Texts, Evaluating Texts, Background Author, Author’s Viewpoint, Historical Context, their Own Subjectivity, Planning Writing, and Monitoring Writing. Overall, the outcomes of the think-aloud protocols matched the outcomes of the written texts. Teachers scored higher on all categories—especially on domain-specific reasoning and general writing quality.

These results suggest that students seemed unaware of the existence of “contextualized perspectives”; students saw Columbus’ journey as either “positive” or “negative.” Although students recognized the different impact Columbus’ journey to America had on the inhabitants of Spain and the native Americans, most students did not relate this to the perspectives of Irving or Zinn or to the different historical contexts in which both historians lived. This could be explained by Dutch teaching practices. Teachers consider teaching the ongoing interpretation of the past as too difficult for senior high school students ( Wansink et al., 2018). It seems that students considered historical accounts as records of the past. This finding links to students constantly rereading parts of the texts, while writing, in order to extract facts and ignoring the authors’ background, and context. Our findings align with those of Wolfe and Goldman (2005) and suggest that participating students’ (10th grade) understanding of the past did not progress (much) compared to the sixth-grade students participating Wolfe and Goldman’s study. In contrast, teachers regarded historians as interpreters of the past; they knew how authors’ accounts were influenced by their historical circumstances, and some teachers made comments about their own historical subjectivity. Consequently, teachers attempted to reconstruct historians’ perspectives by tracing the main idea, ascertaining how this idea was constructed, and in which context the text was written. Our finding supports findings from earlier research (e. g., Wineburg , 1991).

In addition, students did not expose the use of metaknowledge regarding historical accounts and the concept of historical significance. Students ignored criteria for significance while writing. Being more aware of the existence of criteria for significance might help students to construct a richer picture of the past. Therefore, several researchers stressed the importance of criteria for assigning significance ( Cercadillo , 2001; Lévèsque , 2008) and previous research has found that students seem capable of doing so ( van Drie et al., 2013). Second, students used counterarguments and rebuttals in their written text; however, these counterarguments and rebuttals were poorly written. Participating teachers possessed more metaknowledge regarding texts and used that knowledge to write (more) audience-orientated texts by planning their texts, describing clear perspectives, and revising their texts. This mirrors earlier research on literacy ( Kellogg , 2008).

The results of the current study may provide teachers direction on teaching writing about historical significance. First, instructional practices should focus on metaknowledge about historical accounts and knowledge of text genres. This might help to recognize accounts as “contextualized perspectives” and provide support to students as they read and write. In addition, student need to learn how to apply knowledge of historical significance, which might help them to construct a richer picture of the past. This means that teachers should encourage students to think consciously about questions regarding the authors’ main ideas, the construction of these ideas, and how the main idea is influenced by the historical context.

This study has several limitations. First, it is a small-scale study. All participants were selected from one school and one teacher taught all students, which may have influenced the outcomes of this study. Students who were familiar with other teaching styles may have used other activities and processes. In addition, our task was very complex. Students had to consider not only Columbus’ time, the nineteenth and twentieth century, but also the time in which they live. The multi-layered nature of the task and the demands that writing makes on the available capacity of students’ memory ( Kellogg , 2008) may have been overwhelming. Finally, the aim of this study was to investigate reading, reasoning, and writing processes, but we may have lost sight on some of the details of these processes.

Future researchers should seek more evidence for these conclusions by conducting think-aloud studies with other age groups, other levels of education, or in other cultural settings. Perhaps future researchers could develop tasks that ask more explicitly for the use of criteria for significance. Future researchers should develop and investigate instructional practices which focus on supporting students’ reading, reasoning, and writing. In addition, we recommend that future researchers make a more in-depth analysis of reading, reasoning, and writing processes.

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Columbus Day is celebrated on the second Monday in October in the United States. This day has been officially a national holiday since 1937. However, not all States celebrate this day. Some States find this day an insult to the descendants of the original inhabitants of the United States. The state of South Dakota celebrates this day but calls it “Native American Day.”

The US government wonders whether Columbus Day should be celebrated as a national holiday. A historical committee has been set up to investigate this issue. The committee receives these questions:

How has the assigned significance to Columbus developed over time?

Should Columbus Day be celebrated as a national day or not?

In order to make a decision about Columbus Day, you as a historian are asked to answer these questions.

Write a text to the committee in which you indicate to what extent Columbus is historically important. Also pay attention to how thinking about Columbus has developed over time. Then give a reasoned opinion on whether Columbus Day should be celebrated as a national holiday or not.

Use the texts in which two historians assign significance to Columbus (Text 1 and 2) and a text with background information (Background to the texts). Finally, you will find a brief biography about Columbus.

You can also use the information from the lessons. Write an argumentative text in which you answer the above questions. There is no prescribed length of the text. Attempt to write a text of at least 250 words. For this assignment you have one lesson.

Coding scheme: Think-aloud protocols

Coding scheme: Written Texts

Text Structure

General Writing Quality

Reasoning About Significance

© 2022 Johan van Driel, Jannet van Drie and Carla van Boxtel, published by Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

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• DOI: 10.14324/herj.21.1.02
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Students’ views of historical significance – a narrative literature review

• Cathrine Sjölund Åhsberg
• Published in History Education Research… 14 February 2024
• History, Education, Sociology
• History Education Research Journal

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This guide is an introduction to selected resources available for historical research.  It covers both primary sources (such as diaries, letters, newspaper articles, photographs, government documents and first-hand accounts) and secondary materials (such as books and articles written by historians and devoted to the analysis and interpretation of historical events and evidence).

"Research in history involves developing an understanding of the past through the examination and interpretation of evidence. Evidence may exist in the form of texts, physical remains of historic sites, recorded data, pictures, maps, artifacts, and so on. The historian’s job is to find evidence, analyze its content and biases, corroborate it with further evidence, and use that evidence to develop an interpretation of past events that holds some significance for the present.

Historians use libraries to

• locate primary sources (first-hand information such as diaries, letters, and original documents) for evidence
• find secondary sources (historians’ interpretations and analyses of historical evidence)
• verify factual material as inconsistencies arise"

( Research and Documentation in the Electronic Age, Fifth Edition, by Diana Hacker and Barbara Fister, Bedford/St. Martin, 2010)

This guide is meant to help you work through these steps.

Other helpful guides

This is a list of other historical research guides you may find helpful:

• Learning Historical Research Learning to Do Historical Research: A Primer for Environmental Historians and Others by William Cronon and his students, University of Wisconsin A website designed as a basic introduction to historical research for anyone and everyone who is interested in exploring the past.
• Reading, Writing, and Researching for History: A Guide for College Students by Patrick Rael, Bowdoin College Guide to all aspects of historical scholarship—from reading a history book to doing primary source research to writing a history paper.
• Writing Historical Essays: A Guide for Undergraduates Rutgers History Department guide to writing historical essays
• History Study Guides History study guides created by the Carleton College History Department

• Next: Books >>
• Last Updated: Mar 4, 2024 12:48 PM
• URL: https://researchguides.library.wisc.edu/introhist

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Introductions & Conclusions

The introduction and conclusion serve important roles in a history paper.  They are not simply perfunctory additions in academic writing, but are critical to your task of making a persuasive argument.

A successful introduction will:

• draw your readers in
• culminate in a thesis statement that clearly states your argument
• orient your readers to the key facts they need to know in order to understand your thesis
• lay out a roadmap for the rest of your paper

A successful conclusion will:

• draw your paper together
• reiterate your argument clearly and forcefully
• leave your readers with a lasting impression of why your argument matters or what it brings to light

How to write an effective introduction:

Often students get slowed down in paper-writing because they are not sure how to write the introduction.  Do not feel like you have to write your introduction first simply because it is the first section of your paper.  You can always come back to it after you write the body of your essay.  Whenever you approach your introduction, think of it as having three key parts:

• The opening line
• The middle “stage-setting” section
• The thesis statement

“In a 4-5 page paper, describe the process of nation-building in one Middle Eastern state.  What were the particular goals of nation-building?  What kinds of strategies did the state employ?  What were the results?  Be specific in your analysis, and draw on at least one of the scholars of nationalism that we discussed in class.”

Here is an example of a WEAK introduction for this prompt:

“One of the most important tasks the leader of any country faces is how to build a united and strong nation.  This has been especially true in the Middle East, where the country of Jordan offers one example of how states in the region approached nation-building.  Founded after World War I by the British, Jordan has since been ruled by members of the Hashemite family.  To help them face the difficult challenges of founding a new state, they employed various strategies of nation-building.”

Now, here is a REVISED version of that same introduction:

“Since 1921, when the British first created the mandate of Transjordan and installed Abdullah I as its emir, the Hashemite rulers have faced a dual task in nation-building.  First, as foreigners to the region, the Hashemites had to establish their legitimacy as Jordan’s rightful leaders.  Second, given the arbitrary boundaries of the new nation, the Hashemites had to establish the legitimacy of Jordan itself, binding together the people now called ‘Jordanians.’  To help them address both challenges, the Hashemite leaders crafted a particular narrative of history, what Anthony Smith calls a ‘nationalist mythology.’  By presenting themselves as descendants of the Prophet Muhammad, as leaders of the Arab Revolt, and as the fathers of Jordan’s different tribal groups, they established the authority of their own regime and the authority of the new nation, creating one of the most stable states in the modern Middle East.”

The first draft of the introduction, while a good initial step, is not strong enough to set up a solid, argument-based paper.  Here are the key issues:

• This first sentence is too general.  From the beginning of your paper, you want to invite your reader into your specific topic, rather than make generalizations that could apply to any nation in any time or place.  Students often run into the problem of writing general or vague opening lines, such as, “War has always been one of the greatest tragedies to befall society.”  Or, “The Great Depression was one of the most important events in American history.”  Avoid statements that are too sweeping or imprecise.  Ask yourself if the sentence you have written can apply in any time or place or could apply to any event or person.  If the answer is yes, then you need to make your opening line more specific.
• Here is the revised opening line: “Since 1921, when the British first created the mandate of Transjordan and installed Abdullah I as its emir, the Hashemite rulers have faced a dual task in nation-building.”
• This is a stronger opening line because it speaks precisely to the topic at hand.  The paper prompt is not asking you to talk about nation-building in general, but nation-building in one specific place.
• This stage-setting section is also too general.  Certainly, such background information is critical for the reader to know, but notice that it simply restates much of the information already in the prompt.  The question already asks you to pick one example, so your job is not simply to reiterate that information, but to explain what kind of example Jordan presents.  You also need to tell your reader why the context you are providing matters.
• Revised stage-setting: “First, as foreigners to the region, the Hashemites had to establish their legitimacy as Jordan’s rightful leaders.  Second, given the arbitrary boundaries of the new nation, the Hashemites had to establish the legitimacy of Jordan itself, binding together the people now called ‘Jordanians.’  To help them address both challenges, the Hashemite rulers crafted a particular narrative of history, what Anthony Smith calls a ‘nationalist mythology.’”
• This stage-setting is stronger because it introduces the reader to the problem at hand.  Instead of simply saying when and why Jordan was created, the author explains why the manner of Jordan’s creation posed particular challenges to nation-building.  It also sets the writer up to address the questions in the prompt, getting at both the purposes of nation-building in Jordan and referencing the scholar of nationalism s/he will be drawing on from class: Anthony Smith.
• This thesis statement restates the prompt rather than answers the question.  You need to be specific about what strategies of nation-building Jordan’s leaders used.  You also need to assess those strategies, so that you can answer the part of the prompt that asks about the results of nation-building.
• Revised thesis statement: “By presenting themselves as descendants of the Prophet Muhammad, as leaders of the Arab Revolt, and as the fathers of Jordan’s different tribal groups, they established the authority of their regime and the authority of the new nation, creating one of the most stable states in the modern Middle East.”
• It directly answers the question in the prompt.  Even though you will be persuading readers of your argument through the evidence you present in the body of your paper, you want to tell them at the outset exactly what you are arguing.
• It discusses the significance of the argument, saying that Jordan created an especially stable state.  This helps you answer the question about the results of Jordan’s nation-building project.
• It offers a roadmap for the rest of the paper.  The writer knows how to proceed and the reader knows what to expect.  The body of the paper will discuss the Hashemite claims “as descendants from the Prophet Muhammad, as leaders of the Arab Revolt, and as the fathers of Jordan’s different tribal groups.”

If you write your introduction first, be sure to revisit it after you have written your entire essay.  Because your paper will evolve as you write, you need to go back and make sure that the introduction still sets up your argument and still fits your organizational structure.

How to write an effective conclusion:

Your conclusion serves two main purposes.  First, it reiterates your argument in different language than you used in the thesis and body of your paper.  Second, it tells your reader why your argument matters.  In your conclusion, you want to take a step back and consider briefly the historical implications or significance of your topic.  You will not be introducing new information that requires lengthy analysis, but you will be telling your readers what your paper helps bring to light.  Perhaps you can connect your paper to a larger theme you have discussed in class, or perhaps you want to pose a new sort of question that your paper elicits.  There is no right or wrong “answer” to this part of the conclusion: you are now the “expert” on your topic, and this is your chance to leave your reader with a lasting impression based on what you have learned.

Here is an example of an effective conclusion for the same essay prompt:

“To speak of the nationalist mythology the Hashemites created, however, is not to say that it has gone uncontested.  In the 1950s, the Jordanian National Movement unleashed fierce internal opposition to Hashemite rule, crafting an alternative narrative of history in which the Hashemites were mere puppets to Western powers.  Various tribes have also reasserted their role in the region’s past, refusing to play the part of “sons” to Hashemite “fathers.”  For the Hashemites, maintaining their mythology depends on the same dialectical process that John R. Gillis identified in his investigation of commemorations: a process of both remembering and forgetting.  Their myth remembers their descent from the Prophet, their leadership of the Arab Revolt, and the tribes’ shared Arab and Islamic heritage.  It forgets, however, the many different histories that Jordanians champion, histories that the Hashemite mythology has never been able to fully reconcile.”

This is an effective conclusion because it moves from the specific argument addressed in the body of the paper to the question of why that argument matters.  The writer rephrases the argument by saying, “Their myth remembers their descent from the Prophet, their leadership of the Arab Revolt, and the tribes’ shared Arab and Islamic heritage.”  Then, the writer reflects briefly on the larger implications of the argument, showing how Jordan’s nationalist mythology depended on the suppression of other narratives.

Introduction and Conclusion checklist

When revising your introduction and conclusion, check them against the following guidelines:

Does my introduction:

• draw my readers in?
• culminate in a thesis statement that clearly states my argument?
• orient my readers to the key facts they need to know in order to understand my thesis?
• lay out a roadmap for the rest of my paper?

Does my conclusion:

• draw my paper together?
• reiterate my argument clearly and forcefully?
• leave my readers with a lasting impression of why my argument matters or what it brings to light?

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If you are just starting out in HPS, this will be the first time for many years – perhaps ever – that you have done substantial library or museum based research. The number of general studies may seem overwhelming, yet digging out specific material relevant to your topic may seem like finding needles in a haystack. Before turning to the specific entries that make up this guide, there are a few general points that apply more widely.

Planning your research

Because good research and good writing go hand in hand, probably the single most important key to successful research is having a good topic. For that, all you need at the beginning are two things: (a) a problem that you are genuinely interested in and (b) a specific issue, controversy, technique, instrument, person, etc. that is likely to offer a fruitful way forward for exploring your problem. In the early stages, it's often a good idea to be general about (a) and very specific about (b). So you might be interested in why people decide to become doctors, and decide to look at the early career of a single practitioner from the early nineteenth century, when the evidence for this kind of question happens to be unusually good. You can get lots of advice from people in the Department about places to look for topics, especially if you combine this with reading in areas of potential interest. Remember that you're more likely to get good advice if you're able to mesh your interests with something that a potential supervisor knows about. HPS is such a broad field that it's impossible for any department to cover all aspects of it with an equal degree of expertise. It can be reassuring to know that your topic will evolve as your research develops, although it is vital that you establish some basic parameters relatively quickly. Otherwise you will end up doing the research for two, three or even four research papers or dissertations, when all you need is the material for one.

Before beginning detailed work, it's obviously a good idea to read some of the secondary literature surrounding your subject. The more general books are listed on the reading lists for the Part II lecture courses, and some of the specialist literature is listed in these research guides. This doesn't need to involve an exhaustive search, at least not at this stage, but you do need to master the fundamentals of what's been done if you're going to be in a position to judge the relevance of anything you find. If there are lectures being offered in your topic, make sure to attend them; and if they are offered later in the year, try to see if you can obtain a preliminary bibliography from the lecturer.

After that, it's usually a good idea to immerse yourself in your main primary sources as soon as possible. If you are studying a museum object, this is the time to look at it closely; if you're writing about a debate, get together the main papers relevant to it and give them a close read; if you're writing about a specific experiment, look at the published papers, the laboratory notebook, and the relevant letters. Don't spend hours in the early stages of research ferreting out hard-to-find details, unless you're absolutely positive that they are of central importance to the viability of your topic. Start to get a feel for the material you have, and the questions that might be explored further. Make an outline of the main topics that you hope to cover, organized along what you see as the most interesting themes (and remember, 'background' is not usually an interesting theme on its own).

At this stage, research can go in many different directions. At some point, you'll want to read more about the techniques other historians have used for exploring similar questions. Most fields have an established repertoire of ways of approaching problems, and you need to know what these are, especially if you decide to reject them. One of the advantages of an interdisciplinary field like HPS is that you are exposed to different and often conflicting ways of tackling similar questions. Remember that this is true within history itself, and you need to be aware of alternatives. This may well involve looking further afield, at classic books or articles that are not specifically on 'your' subject. For example, it may be that you could find some helpful ideas for a study of modern scientific portraiture in a book on the eighteenth century. The best books dealing with educational maps may not be on the astronomical ones you are studying, but on ones used for teaching classical geography. See where the inspiration for works you admire comes from, and have a look at the sources they have used. This will help you develop the kind of focussed questions that make for a successful piece of work.

As you develop an outline and begin to think through your topic in more detail, you'll be in good position to plan possible lines of research. Don't try to find out everything about your topic: pick those aspects that are likely to prove most fruitful for the direction your essay seems to be heading. For example, it may be worth spending a long time searching for biographical details about a person if their career and life are central to your analysis; but in many other cases, such issues may not be very important. If your interest is in the reception of a work, it is likely to be more fruitful to learn a lot about a few commentaries or reviews (where they appeared, who wrote them, and so forth) than to gather in randomly all the comments you can find.

Follow up hints in other people's footnotes. Works that are otherwise dull or outdated in approach are sometimes based on very solid research. One secondary reference to a crucial letter or newspaper article can save you hours of mindless trawling, and lead you straight to the information you need. Moreover, good historians often signal questions or sources that they think would be worth investigating further.

Remember that the best history almost always depends on developing new approaches and interpretations, not on knowing about a secret archive no one has used before. If you give your work time to develop, and combine research with writing, you will discover new sources, and (better still) a fresh importance for material that has supposedly been known for a long time. As you become familiar with your topic, you are likely to find that evidence you dug out at the beginning of your project is much more significant than you thought it was. In historical research, the most important evidence often isn't sitting there on the surface – it's something you need to dig out through close reading and an understanding of the situation in which the document you are studying was written, or in which the object was produced. This is especially true of instruments, paintings and other non-textual sources.

Some standard reference works

Your research should become more focussed as time goes on. Don't just gather randomly: you should always have at least some idea of why you are looking for something, and what you might hope to find. Make guesses, follow up hunches, see if an idea you have has the possibility to work out. At the beginning, it can be valuable to learn the full range of what is available, but eventually you should be following up specific issues, a bit like a detective tracing the clues to a mystery. It is at this stage of research, which is often best done in conjunction with writing up sections of your project, that knowing where to find answers to specific questions is most useful. There is nothing more disheartening than spending a week to find a crucial fact, only to discover that it's been sitting on the shelf next to you all term. The Whipple has a wide variety of guides, biographical dictionaries and bibliographies, so spend a few minutes early on looking at the reference shelves.

Every major country has a national biographical dictionary (the new version of the British one is the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , available 2004 online). For better-known scientists, a good place to start is Charles C. Gillispie (ed.) Dictionary of Scientific Biography (1970–1980). There are more specialized dictionaries for every scientific field, from entomology to astronomy. The University Library has a huge selection of biographical sources; ask your supervisor about the best ones for your purpose.

Preliminary searching for book titles and other bibliographical information is now often best done online, and every historian should know how to use the British Library's online search facility; COPAC (the UK national library database); and WorldCat (an international database). All of these are accessible through the HPS Whipple Library website (under 'other catalogues'). At the time of writing, the University Library is remains one of the few libraries of its size to have many of its records not available online, so remember that you have to check the green guard-book catalogues (and the supplementary catalogues) for most items published before 1977. It is hoped that this situation will be rectified soon. There are also numerous bibliographies for individual sciences and subjects, together with catalogues of relevant manuscripts. Most of these are listed elsewhere in this guide.

As questions arise, you will want to be able to access books and articles by other historians that touch upon your subject. There are many sources for this listed elsewhere in this guide, but you should definitely know about the Isis Current Bibliography and The Wellcome Bibliography for the History of Medicine . Both are available online, the former through the RLG History of Science, Technology and Medicine database, the latter through the website of the Wellcome Library.

Libraries and museums

Finally, a word in praise of libraries and museums. As the comments above make clear, the internet is invaluable for searching for specific pieces of information. If you need a bibliographical reference or a general reading list from a course at another university, it is an excellent place to begin. If you are looking for the source of an unidentified quotation, typing it into Google (or an appropriate database held by the University Library) will often turn up the source in seconds. Many academic journals are now online, as are the texts of many books, though not always in a paginated or citable form.

For almost all historical topics, however, libraries filled with printed books and journals will remain the principal tools for research, just as museums will continue to be essential to any work dealing with the material culture of past science. The reason for this is simple: what is on the internet is the result of decisions by people in the past decade, while libraries and museums are the product of a continuous history of collecting over several thousand years. Cambridge has some of the best collections for the history of science anywhere. Despite what is often said, this is not because of the famous manuscripts or showpiece books (these are mostly available in other ways), but because of the depth and range of its collections across the whole field. The Whipple Library is small and friendly, and has an unparalleled selection of secondary works selected over many years – don't just go for specific titles you've found in the catalogue, try browsing around, and ask the librarians for help if you can't see what you are looking for. Explore the Whipple Museum and talk to the curator and the staff. There are rich troves of material in these departmental collections, on topics ranging from phrenology and microscopy to the early development of pocket calculators. Become familiar with what the University Library has to offer: it is large and sometimes idiosyncratic, but worth getting to know well if you are at all serious about research. It is a fantastic instrument for studying the human past – the historian's equivalent of CERN or the Hubble Telescope. And all you need to get in is a student ID.

Further reading

Wayne C. Booth, Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. William, The Craft of Research , 2nd ed. (University of Chicago Press, 2003).

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Significance of Scholarly Journal Articles and Academic Historians: Discussion, and a Necessary Tension?

• Published: 02 July 2020
• Volume 36 , pages 446–458, ( 2020 )

Cite this article

• Jean-Pierre V. M. Hérubel 1  

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History journal articles constitute a large and diverse body of scholarly literature in history. This discussion frames the relative importance of articles as a communication ecology within the professionalization of historians and to the body of historical knowledge. Their discrete nature is examined and their particular characteristics are tied to the complex position they occupy in the dissemination of research and value to academic historians vis-à-vis promotion and tenure. The status of the article, its perceived purpose and value in relation to the importance of the monograph to academic historians, further frames this tension, characterising the political economy of academic historical scholarship. Examples of journals and specialization are discussed within academic history’s publishing ecosystem.

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Hérubel, JP.V.M. Significance of Scholarly Journal Articles and Academic Historians: Discussion, and a Necessary Tension?. Pub Res Q 36 , 446–458 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12109-020-09744-y

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How Institutions Use Historical Research Methods to Provide Historical Perspectives

An Overview of Historical Research Methods

Historical research methods enable institutions to collect facts, chronological data, and other information relevant to their interests. But historical research is more than compiling a record of past events; it provides institutions with valuable insights about the past to inform current cultural, political, and social dynamics.

Historical research methods primarily involve collecting information from primary and secondary sources. While differences exist between these sources, organizations and institutions can use both types of sources to assess historical events and provide proper context comprehensively.

Using historical research methods, historians provide institutions with historical insights that can give perspectives on the future.

Individuals interested in advancing their careers as historians can pursue an advanced degree, such as a Master of Arts in History , to help them develop a systematic understanding of historical research and learn about the use of digital tools for acquiring, accessing, and managing historical information.

Historians use historical research methods to obtain data from primary and secondary sources and, then, assess how the information contributes to understanding a historical period or event. Historical research methods are used with primary and secondary sources. Below is a description of each type of source.

What Is a Primary Source?              

Primary sources—raw data containing first-person accounts and documents—are foundational to historical and academic research. Examples of primary sources include eyewitness accounts of historical events, written testimonies, public records, oral representations, legal documents, artifacts, photographs, art, newspaper articles, diaries, and letters. Individuals often can find primary sources in archives and collections in universities, libraries, and historical societies.

A primary source, also known as primary data, is often characterized by the time of its creation. For example, individuals studying the U.S. Constitution’s beginnings can use The Federalist Papers, a collection of essays by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison, written from October 1787 to May 1788, as a primary source for their research. In this example, the information was witnessed firsthand and created at the time of the event.

What Is a Secondary Source?              

Primary sources are not always easy to find. In the absence of primary sources, secondary sources can play a vital role in describing historical events. A historian can create a secondary source by analyzing, synthesizing, and interpreting information or data provided in primary sources. For example, a modern-day historian may use The Federalist Papers and other primary sources to reveal historical insights about the series of events that led to the creation of the U.S. Constitution. As a result, the secondary source, based on historical facts, becomes a reliable source of historical data for others to use to create a comprehensive picture of an event and its significance.

The Value of Historical Research for Providing Historical Perspectives

Current global politics has its roots in the past. Historical research offers an essential context for understanding our modern society. It can inform global concepts, such as foreign policy development or international relations. The study of historical events can help leaders make informed decisions that impact society, culture, and the economy.

Take, for example, the Industrial Revolution. Studying the history of the rise of industry in the West helps to put the current world order in perspective. The recorded events of that age reveal that the first designers of the systems of industry, including the United States, dominated the global landscape in the following decades and centuries. Similarly, the digital revolution is creating massive shifts in international politics and society. Historians play a pivotal role in using historical research methods to record and analyze information about these trends to provide future generations with insightful historical perspectives.

In addition to creating meaningful knowledge of global and economic affairs, studying history highlights the perspectives of people and groups who triumphed over adversity. For example, the historical fights for freedom and equality, such as the struggle for women’s voting rights or ending the Jim Crow era in the South, offer relevant context for current events, such as efforts at criminal justice reform.

History also is the story of the collective identity of people and regions. Historical research can help promote a sense of community and highlight the vibrancy of different cultures, creating opportunities for people to become more culturally aware and empowered.

The Tools and Techniques of Historical Research Methods

A primary source is not necessarily an original source. For example, not everyone can access the original essays written by Hamilton because they are precious and must be preserved and protected. However, thanks to digitization, institutions can access, manage, and interpret essential information, artifacts, and images from the essays without fear of degradation.

Using technology to digitize historical information creates what is known as digital history. It offers opportunities to advance scholarly research and expand knowledge to new audiences. For example, individuals can access a digital copy of The Federalist Papers from the Library of Congress’s website anytime, from anywhere. This digital copy can still serve as a primary source because it contains the same content as the original paper version created hundreds of years ago.

As more primary and secondary sources are digitized, researchers are increasingly using artificial intelligence (AI) to search, gather, and analyze these sources. An AI method known as optical character recognition can help historians with digital research. Historians also can use AI techniques to close gaps in historical information. For example, an AI system developed by DeepMind uses deep neural networks to help historians recreate missing pieces and restore ancient Greek texts on stone tablets that are thousands of years old.

As digital tools associated with historical research proliferate, individuals seeking to advance in a history career need to develop technical skills to use advanced technology in their research. Norwich University’s online Master of Arts in History program prepares students with knowledge of historical research methods and critical technology skills to advance in the field of history.

Prepare to Make an Impact

Through effective historical research methods, institutions, organizations, and individuals can learn the significance of past events and communicate important insights for a better future. In museums, government agencies, universities and colleges, nonprofits, and historical associations, the combination of technology and historical research plays a central role in extending the reach of historical information to new audiences. It can also guide leaders charged with making important decisions that can impact geopolitics, society, economic development, community building, and more.

Norwich University’s online Master of Arts in History prepares students with knowledge of historical research methods and skills to use technology to advance their careers across many industries and fields of study. The program’s curriculum offers students the flexibility to choose from four concentrations—Public History, American History, World History, or Legal and Constitutional History—to customize their studies based on their career goals and personal interests.

Learn how Norwich University’s online Master of Arts in History degree can prepare individuals for career success in the field of history.

Recommended Readings

What Is Digital History? A Guide to Digital History Resources, Museums, and Job Description Old World vs. New World History: A Curriculum Comparison How to Become a Researcher

Getting Started with Primary Sources , Library of Congress What Is a Primary Source? , ThoughtCo. Full Text of The Federalist Papers , Library of Congress Digital History , The Inclusive Historian’s Handbook Historians in Archives , American Historical Association How AI Helps Historians Solve Ancient Puzzles , Financial Times  

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8 Archives and Historical Research

While a larger and larger proportion of primary sources have been digitized, there will always be physical archives.  In this section, you’ll learn what archives are, why they exist, and how to take advantage of them. Sifting through actual documents and artifacts from the past can be great fun, and if you have the opportunity to visit an archive as a part of writing a historical research paper for a class, you should do so. Read up here and consider visiting an archival collection near you to locate unique sources.

Archives are the documents and records from individuals, organizations, and governments that have been preserved and made available to researchers because of their enduring value.  Archives aren’t just for historians, of course, they are saved for everyone. They are important because they provide evidence of activities and tell us more about individuals and institutions. They also tell stories and increase our sense of identity and understanding of cultures, societies, and human actions. They can even be used to protect hard-won civil, political, legal, and economic rights and to ensure justice. The bottom-line is archives are important to understanding the past and to documenting and protecting our rights as citizens.

Libraries and Archives

Chances are you have used libraries in the past for leisure reading, special programs, school projects, or a host of other activities. Libraries and their look, feel, and organization are familiar to most of us. Not so much archives. On the most basic level, libraries and archives are information providers, though they deliver information in different ways, and the type of information they contain is often different.

For example, libraries contain published works (books, journals, magazines, newspapers, electronic databases, etc.) created to educate, inform, and entertain, while archives contain mostly unpublished materials produced by individuals, organizations, and governments through normal day-to-day activities and only later are saved because they tell us something important about the past. A library’s collection is not unique, since most of the works it acquires are produced in multiple copies and sold to other libraries across the country. Archival holdings, however, are unique. You won’t find archival records in one repository duplicated anywhere else. There is an old cliché that says “libraries are for readers, while archives are for writers.” All sorts of people use libraries, but those planning to create knowledge for others use archives. While there are exceptions to this cliché, of course, we hope you get the point.

Because of their unique holdings, archival institutions oftentimes have well developed preservation, conservation, and security plans in place designed to protect and preserve their collections. After all, if an archival document is destroyed or stolen, it can’t be replaced. The limiting factor for libraries to replace missing items is money—does the library have the funds to purchase replacements? As a result, most libraries allow their materials to circulate outside the library and then replace lost and stolen items as needed. Archival materials are almost never allowed to leave the archives because they can’t be replaced.

Libraries and archives also process materials differently. Generally speaking, libraries catalog resources at the item level. You can search a library’s online catalog by subject, author, title, keyword, etc., and find discrete items focusing on your subject. Archives collections are maintained and processed at the collection level, and many collections have literally thousands of items in them (some considerably more). Rather than cataloging individual items in archival collections, archivists produce finding aids for collections as a whole. These finding aids, rather than library catalog records, are the access tools for researchers.  You can read more about how finding aids work below , but archives are also staffed by archivists, who help researchers as part of their jobs.  Don’t hesitate to ask them for help!

For a full discussion of the principles behind collecting for archives and the pathway to becoming an archivist, see the chapter on archiving as a profession – “Becoming an Archivist.”

Archives in the Dallas-Fort Worth Region

If you’re ready to work with an archive as part of your research project, there are plenty of options in the Dallas-Fort Worth region. These archives could be important for any number of different research topics from those pertaining to local history or to federal history, from cultural or religious history, to the history of technology or politics and many different topics in between.What follows is a list of some of the archives in the DFW metroplex, along with links to their homepages. Accessing their websites will give you information about the types of historical sources they have and what their use policies are.

City Archives

Dallas Municipal Archives

Dallas Public Library Special Collections (has a number of collections focusing on Dallas)

Fort Worth Public Library Genealogy, History, and Archives Department (houses numerous Fort Worth collections)

Most of the public libraries in the suburbs have local history collections too. Many of these collections also contain archival materials.

County Archives

Tarrant County Archives

Museum Collections

Amon Carter Museum of American Art

Dallas Historical Society

Dallas Holocaust and Human Rights Museum, Library and Archives

Dallas Jewish Historical Society

Dallas Museum of Art Archives

Documentary Arts, Dallas, Texas African American Photography Archive

Fort Museum of Science and History, Library and Archives

Frontiers of Flight Museum Research Library

Perot Museum of Nature and Science

University Collections

SMU Bridwell Library Archives

SMU DeGolyer Library

SMU Hamon Arts Library Bywaters Special Collections

Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary J. T. and Zelma Luther Archives

TCU Library Special Collections

Texas Woman’s University Library Woman’s Collection

University of Dallas Library Archives and Special Collections 

University of North Texas Library Special Collections

University of Texas at Arlington Libraries Special Collections

University of Texas at Dallas Library Special Collections

Researching in Archives

As mentioned earlier, archives are different animals than libraries, and their policies and procedures reflect this. When visiting an archive for research purposes, be prepared to follow their rules, but also try to understand why these rules are in place. Remember, archival repositories hold unique collections that are impossible to replace, so user policies are more restrictive than those of libraries.

Most archives have a similar set of policies and procedures, including requiring you to register once you arrive to conduct research. In most archives, you will be asked to register as a user by showing some form of personal identification and completing a user form (which the archives will keep to document your visit). You may also be asked to lock up purses, backpacks, notebooks, and other non-essential items, only bringing paper, pencil (ink is prohibited in most archives because an errant mark can damage materials), or a computer into the research room for note-taking. A staff member will then conduct a reference interview with you to find out about your research focus and to help determine if, or how, the archives’ collection can help.

Once appropriate collections are identified, an archivist may provide a finding aid to each collection you want to use. A finding aid is an important access and descriptive tool for archival collections. Finding aids reveal information about who or what organization created the collection, the scope of the topics reflected in the collection, the dates of the materials in the collection, and a container list, showing what is in each box of the collection. By using the finding aid, you will be able to request specific boxes and folders from the collection. (A helpful site to finding aids in a number of archival institutions across Texas can be found at Texas Archival Resources Online .)

At this point, the archives staff will probably ask you to fill out “call-slips,” where you request specific boxes and/or folders from the collections you are interested in. The staff will retrieve the boxes/folders and bring them to you in the research room. Don’t be surprised if they give you one box at a time and require you to sit at a table that is being monitored by staff and/or video cameras. Keep in mind that security is a priority in all archival institutions. You will not be allowed to take the materials out of the research room, so your research must be conducted when the archives is open. Budget your time accordingly, keeping in mind that archives have limited hours, and archival research takes time and is unlike using books and other sources, which have indexes and other precise access tools.

Be sure when taking notes from an archives collection that you include bibliographic information that you will need later in order to cite the collection and its contents in your footnotes and bibliography. Many finding aids will show you how to cite a collection, but not all will. If the finding aid you are using doesn’t give you the bibliographic citation, then record the complete title of the collection, the collection’s unique identifying number (if it has one), the box and folder numbers you used, as well as the folder titles. As long as you have this information, then you will be able to write your footnotes and bibliography using any footnoting style and format.

When you find material that you want to copy or scan, then ask the staff about the archives’ copy policy. Some archives will allow you to scan documents using your phone or camera, while others may require that all copies and scans be done by staff members, who will charge you a fee to defray costs. If you think that publishing some of the items you are using may occur in the future (or even if there is only a remote possibility), then be aware that some archives have publication fees associated with the reproduction of archival materials in books, videos, advertisements, television, and other products, especially if these products are commercial in nature (as opposed to being sponsored by non-profits). It never hurts to request the archives’ fee schedule, so you will have this information.

Once you have completed your research, then return the archival boxes/folders to the staff member at the reference desk, retrieve the personal items you locked up when you registered, and depart. If you find that you have questions after leaving the archives, feel free to contact the archives staff to get the answers. They are happy to help.

How History is Made: A Student’s Guide to Reading, Writing, and Thinking in the Discipline Copyright © 2022 by Stephanie Cole; Kimberly Breuer; Scott W. Palmer; and Brandon Blakeslee is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Raising Resilient Muslim Youth: Strategies for Building a Strong Muslim Identity in Children

Published: September 4, 2024 • Updated: September 5, 2024

Author s : Najwa Awad and Sarah Sultan

بِسْمِ اللهِ الرَّحْمٰنِ الرَّحِيْمِ

In the name of God, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.

I. Case Study

II. Goals of this chapter

• What is the importance of establishing a healthy identity in children and how can it affect resilience?
• What do the Qur’an and Sunnah teach us about identity?
• How can parents foster a strong Muslim identity in children?
• What role do I play as a parent in my child’s identity development?
• What are concrete everyday actions I can take to help my child develop a strong Islamic core, confidence, and identity as a Muslim?
• How can I navigate obstacles that may impact my child’s ability to create a healthy identity?

III. Introduction

• The sheltered Muslim teenager who moves away to college and becomes friends with his non-Muslim roommate. The teenager may have a good Islamic identity which his friend respects, but sometimes seeing his friend engage in what appear to be fun but unIslamic social behaviors makes him feel tempted and weak.
• The loyal husband who moves his aging mother into his home, trying to balance his role as a husband and son in accordance with his Islamic identity, but finds it challenging when the two roles appear to be in competition due to different expectations of his mother and wife.
• The devout Muslimah who loves reading Qur’an, fasting, and praying  sunnah  prayers throughout the day and night, and so struggles with her new role as a mother because these acts of worship are now suddenly replaced with different kinds of worship behaviors she is not yet accustomed to, such as caring for her infant’s basic needs.

Allah’s Messenger, when we are in your company, we are reminded of Hell-Fire and Paradise as if we are seeing them with our own eyes, but whenever we go away from you and attend to our wives, children, and business, these things go out of our minds.” Thereupon Allah’s Messenger ﷺ said: “By Him in Whose Hand is my life, if your state of mind remains the same as it is in my presence and you are always busy in remembrance (of Allah), the angels would shake hands with you in your beds and in your paths but, Ḥanẓala, there is a time for this and a time for that.” 7  

But if they (i.e., your parents) pressure you to associate with Me what you have no knowledge of, do not obey them. Still keep their company in this world courteously, and follow the way of those who turn to Me in devotion. 8  

IV. Foundational concepts: The importance of identity development

The role of identity in resilience.

• Surviving setbacks and challenges with as little damage as possible;
• Remaining firm in the face of setbacks and challenges and developing the ability to return to a default state of equilibrium after setbacks;
• Growing from setbacks and challenges. This is the highest form of resiliency, and has been termed  antifragility  or  post-traumatic growth .
• Self-Esteem:  Healthy self-esteem allows children to acknowledge their inherent, God-given worth. This allows them to face difficulties with a stable sense of self and a clear purpose, understanding that Allah has granted them the strengths and qualities needed to navigate challenges.
• Self-Efficacy:  Healthy self-efficacy involves the belief in one’s capabilities to achieve a goal or cope with a difficulty. This empowers children to strive toward their goals with the understanding that, while they must do their part in working toward the outcome they want, relying on Allah’s help is necessary every step of the way. Healthy self-efficacy allows children to face challenges with a feeling of safety in knowing that Allah is our Protector and Provider in every circumstance, while also encouraging their own capabilities to handle difficult situations.
• Self-Trust:  Healthy self-trust involves the belief in one’s ability to act in a way aligned with one’s best interests and personal values. This allows children to feel capable of exercising their God-given free will in a manner that benefits them in this life and the next. It empowers them to view challenges as manageable due to confidence in their capacity to make positive decisions even in difficult moments, and it nurtures trust in Allah that He has not tested them with more than they can bear.

The importance of nurturing a strong Muslim identity 

• Tests of Destiny : These are the tests of fate that Allah has written for us. This includes things in life over which we have no control, including when we are born, when we die, an unexpected diagnosis, an accident that befalls a loved one, etc. Though these tests can superficially manifest as “good” or “evil,” everything that comes from Allah is good despite our personal perceptions of certain struggles. Allah promises that we will be tested in these ways:

Every soul will taste death. And We test you with evil and with good as trial; and to Us you will be returned. 19 And We will surely test you with something of fear and hunger and a loss of wealth and lives and fruits, but give good tidings to the patient. 20

• Tests in Worship : These are tests of revelation and how we choose to respond to the legislation and limitations revealed by Allah, including fulfilling prescribed acts and refraining from prohibited acts. We see this test in the following verses:

For indeed, We created humans from a drop of mixed fluids, [in order] to test them, so We made them hear and see. We already showed them the Way, whether they [choose to] be grateful or ungrateful. 21   We have indeed made whatever is on earth as an adornment for it, in order to test which of them is best in deeds. 22

V. Fostering healthy Islamic identity development: Practical approaches

I. self-esteem.

And strive for Allah with the striving due to Him. He has chosen you and has not placed upon you any difficulty in your religion. [It is] the religion of your father, Abraham. He [i.e., Allah] named you “Muslims” before [in former scriptures] and in this [revelation] that the Messenger may be a witness over you and you may be witnesses over the people… 36

The [true]  believers  are only those who believe in Allah and His Messenger—never doubting—and strive with their wealth and their lives in the cause of Allah. They are the ones true in faith. 38   Say, “Nothing will ever befall us except what Allah has destined for us. He is our Protector.” So in Allah let the  believers  put their trust. 39   The  believers  are but one brotherhood, so make peace between your brothers. And be mindful of Allah so you may be shown mercy. 40   They are those who establish prayer and donate from what We have provided for them. It is they who are the true  believers . They will have elevated ranks, forgiveness, and an honorable provision from their Lord. 41  

• Which of Allah’s Names has been on your mind lately? When do you tend to think about this Name of Allah? How do you feel when you remember it?
• What is something you’ve done recently - or a quality you have - that you hope Allah especially loves?
• What’s your favorite thing to do?
• What makes you feel super energetic and excited?
• If your best friend described you, what do you think they’d say?
• What do you think a successful day looks like? What made it successful?
• What are you good at?
• What feels hard for you right now? How are you dealing with it?
• What’s your favorite thing about school?
• Tell me about something you achieved that you’re really proud of.
• What’s your least favorite thing to do?
• How do you stay motivated when you feel like things are getting difficult?
• Catch your child doing good  behaviors  (helping someone, diligently completing homework, praying without being asked, etc.), identify the behaviors, and then reinforce them through verbal praise or affection.
• Identify positive  traits  in your child as you see them and highlight them. Tie those traits to positive role models if possible. For example, “When you and your brother stood up to that bully at school it reminded me of when Moses (Mūsā) stood up to Pharaoh when he was trying to make everyone do what he said.”
• Tie the positive qualities you see in your child back to Allah. For example, if your child is doing great in math, say something like, “Isn’t it wonderful that Allah blessed you with such a strong brain and made you into such a hard worker? I’m so proud of you.” In this way, your child’s strengths are emphasized but always connected back to Allah, thereby creating a stronger connection between your child’s self-concept and relationship with Allah.
• Consider working with your child on a strengths poster, identifying their skills, positive attributes, and overall virtues. Have your child decorate the poster and make it a work of art that they can hang on a wall in their room.

I saw the Messenger of Allah  circling the Kaaba and saying, “How pure you are and how pure is your fragrance! How great you are and how great is your sanctity! By the one in whose hand is the soul of Muhammad, the sanctity of the believer is greater to Allah than your sanctity, in his wealth, his life, and to assume nothing of him but good.” 54

• Convey that Allah made every person for a purpose and that each person is unique. Highlight Allah’s love and mercy for the believers.
• I saw ____ today and it reminded me of you so I wanted to share it with you.
• What’s been going on lately with____?
• How are you progressing with____?
• When was the last time you did_____? I would love to join you next time.
• I have 15 minutes before making dinner. Can I play ___with you?
• I would love to get your thoughts and insights about______.
• Ask for your child’s input on age-appropriate discussions in the home and in community spaces.
• Ask open-ended questions to show interest in your child’s day (e.g., What was the hardest thing about today? How did you deal with it?)
• Verbalize your favorite things about your child (e.g., I love how thoughtful you are; you give the best hugs, etc.)
• Small acts can demonstrate your care in powerful ways and can make your child feel important (e.g., surprising your child with something small; letting them know you missed them while they were at school, etc.)
• Intentional appreciation helps your child focus on their successes and strengths. Keep an ongoing note on your phone about the small things your child does that you appreciate to share with them.

II. Self-Efficacy (Competence)

[It does not matter] if you [believers] do not support him, for Allah did in fact support him when the disbelievers drove him out [of Mecca] and he was only one of two. While they both were in the cave, he reassured his companion, “Do not worry; Allah is certainly with us.” So Allah sent down His serenity upon the Prophet, supported him with forces you [believers] did not see, and made the word of the disbelievers lowest, while the Word of Allah is supreme. And Allah is Almighty, All-Wise. 75

• Validate the frustration: “It’s so hard when you work so hard and it doesn’t turn out the way you hoped.”
• Help them to consider what they gained despite the end result being disappointing: “Can you tell me something you learned? Is there something you’d do differently next time?”
• Ask questions to illuminate what about this situation cannot be changed as well as what about this situation can be changed. For example: “You can’t control what your friend says to you at school but you can control how you respond to her.” “You can’t control the grade you get on your test but you can control how much you study for it.”
• Help your child to consider small steps they can implement to create change (e.g., have a plan for how to respond when someone says something hurtful; create a study schedule to prepare for an exam, etc.).
• Remind them that Allah is the Most Appreciative (al-Shakūr) and that He sees and appreciates their efforts.
• When your child does something pleasing to Allah, ask, “Did you know Allah is so proud of you and loves what you just did?”
• When something doesn’t work out as hoped for, ask your child, “How many good deeds do you think you got because of how hard you tried?” (e.g., If your child is struggling to memorize a verse in the Qur’an, remind them that they get ten good deeds for every single letter recited so the more they repeat it, the more good deeds they get; 80  if your child is struggling with a friend who is upset with them and is rejected when they try to fix things, emphasize how much Allah loves people who try to mend relationships, 81  etc.)
• When your child is feeling anxious because of the uncertainty of the results despite their effort, use this as a starting point for a discussion on trusting ( tawakkul ) in Allah for the things that are outside of their control based on the hadith of the Prophet ﷺ encouraging us to “tie your camel and trust in Allah.” 82  Explore with your child how they can do their part in this situation and what they have to leave to Allah.
• Make an effort to forgive your child for their mistakes, particularly as a way to highlight redemption and mercy in Islam.
• Discuss mistakes of successful individuals and how this did not undermine their path toward success and achievement. Every child is different so different examples will resonate (e.g., athletes, scientists, etc.).
• “Say, [O Prophet, that Allah says,] ‘O My servants who have exceeded the limits against their souls! Do not lose hope in Allah’s mercy, for Allah certainly forgives all sins. He is indeed the All-Forgiving, Most Merciful.’” 85
• The Prophet ﷺ said, “If your sins were to reach to the heavens and then you repented, Allah would still accept your repentance.” 86
• The Prophet ﷺ said, “By the One in whose hand is my soul, if you did not sin, Allah would replace you with people who would sin, and they would seek forgiveness from Allah and He would forgive them.” 87  
• Provide opportunities for mastery through identifying your child’s strengths and exposing them to related activities, classes, and materials that can help them improve.
• Help your child to set realistic, specific, and actionable goals that are slightly above their current level of experience and skill. Provide support and encouragement to help your child meet their goals especially when they feel challenged.
• Show your child success is possible by sharing your own experiences and stories of the prophets and other heroes. Experiences should inspire motivation and encouragement, not negative comparisons.  

III. Self-Trust (Autonomy)

And few of my servants are grateful. 111 But none believed with him, except a few. 112   In the Gardens of Bliss, a [large] company of the former people, And a few of the later peoples. 113   [It is] a Book whose verses are perfectly explained—a Qur’an in Arabic for people who know, delivering good news and warning. Yet most of them turn away, so they do not hear. 114   And most people will not believe—no matter how keen you are. 115

• Encourage an independent relationship with Allah.
• Give your child the opportunity to make age-appropriate choices on a daily basis (e.g., what to wear, ideas about the next family trip, etc.).
• Allow your children to practice this essential skill of decision-making, and weighing the pros and cons of different choices. Practice this with them verbally and through writing.
• Give your child age-appropriate tasks to give them an opportunity to develop a sense of independent accomplishment and contribution (e.g., picking up toys for a 2-3 year-old; emptying the dishwasher for a 6-7 year-old, etc.).
• Help your child make value-based choices in the midst of opposition from their surroundings. Help foster an Islamic identity as they navigate different environments (home, school, neighborhood, etc.) and expectations (Muslims don’t backbite, Muslims don’t eat pork, Muslims practice prayer throughout the day, etc.) by actively identifying being Muslim as something special.
• Help your child become comfortable with differences. Don’t shy away from discussions about the differences they notice between themselves and others (e.g., religion, physical ability, race, etc.). At the same time, have discussions about the different choices people make (e.g., something their friend does that doesn’t align with your family values, the fact that people worship differently, the fact that people dress differently, etc.). Emphasize the fact that your child is striving to make choices that align with their identity as a Muslim and how wonderful that is in the sight of Allah.
• Nurture positive support by assessing your child’s various support groups, and increase exposure to those that support healthy self-development and expand on your child’s strengths (example: a brothers’  ḥalaqa , soccer team, math club, neighborhood community service group).

VI. Important considerations

Vii. case study revisited, viii. conversation starters.

• Tailor the duration of the mini-lesson to the audience. If these conversations are too lengthy, neither you nor your children will look forward to them because they are draining. About 15-20 minutes is a good length.
• Make the mini-lesson appropriate for the audience in terms of content. Small children are naturally drawn to arts and crafts so drawing related pictures or making visuals with markers can be appealing to them. If there is a wide age gap between your children, consider assigning one parent to the older children and the other parent to the younger children.
• Don’t make this activity/conversation burdensome to prepare. Otherwise, you most likely will not follow through. Prepare for 5-10 minutes max by pulling relevant  ay ā t , hadith, or material from this article.
• If you ever get stuck with a tough question or topic from your child, don’t panic. Tell your child that you will look into it and get back to them. This can be a spiritual learning moment for you both.

IX. Conversation starters and stories

Āsiya: finding an anchor in the storm.

And do not invoke any other god with Allah. There is no god [worthy of worship] except Him. Everything is bound to perish except He Himself. All authority belongs to Him. And to Him you will [all] be returned. 137

My Lord, build for me near You a house in paradise and save me from Pharaoh and his deeds and save me from the wrongdoing people. 141

• Have people ever made you feel badly about your choices? How did you cope with that?
• Self-esteem is confidence in your own worth or abilities, the ability to respect yourself. How do you see this in the story of Āsiya? What was the source of her self-esteem? How about yours?
• How is the fact that Allah is a source of security and stability reflected in the story of Āsiya?
• Have you ever struggled with people pushing you toward something you weren’t comfortable with? What happened? How can we resist pressure from people who encourage us to do something we don’t agree with?
• Have you ever done something because the people around you made it seem normal and then felt badly about it? Have you ever made a choice you felt good about even if the people around you didn’t like it? How did it feel?

Prophet Moses (AS): An example of strong identity

When the two groups came face to face, the companions of Moses cried out, “We are overtaken for sure.” 143

[Moses] said, “Absolutely not! My Lord is certainly with me—He will guide me.” 144

So We inspired Moses: “Strike the sea with your staff,” and the sea was split, each part was like a huge mountain. We drew the pursuers to that place, and delivered Moses and those with him all together. Then We drowned the others. 145

Then We saved Our messengers and those who believed. For it is Our duty to save the believers. 146

When Allah loves a servant, he calls Gabriel and he says: Verily, I love this person so you should love him. Then Gabriel loves him and makes an announcement in the heavens, saying: Allah loves this person and you should love him. Thus, the dwellers of the heavens love him and he is honored on the earth. 149

• When you know that Allah is always taking care of you, how does that make you feel?
• How can you see the Names of Allah, al-Qadīr and al-Muʿizz, reflected in the story of Prophet Mūsā and the Red Sea?
• Have you ever felt stuck and felt there wasn’t a way out of a hard situation? What happened and how did you deal with it?
• Can you name three moments when you achieved something difficult? How did you feel? Turn those moments into a  duʿāʾ  to Allah to thank Him for the ability to do this and for the dignity you experienced in that moment.

Disclaimer: The views, opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed in these papers and articles are strictly those of the authors. Furthermore, Yaqeen does not endorse any of the personal views of the authors on any platform. Our team is diverse on all fronts, allowing for constant, enriching dialogue that helps us produce high-quality research.

Additional resources

publication

General Psychology

How to Overcome Addiction through Faith: Ibn Al-Qayyim's Rehabilitation Program

Faith in Mind: Islam’s Role in Mental Health

The Divine Gift of Gratitude: The Secret of Happiness in the Modern World

The Art of Gratitude: Qur'anic Themes on Shukr

Psychology of Wealth: An Islamic Perspective on Personal Finance

How to Overcome Addiction through Faith: Ibn Al-Qayyim's Rehabilitation Program

The Art of Gratitude: Qur'anic Themes on Shukr