food waste management case study

In this section, we present case studies from Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Japan and the Philippines: first, we discuss the current context in relation to policies and practices; then, we consider points of tension and/or opportunities for interventions. Table 12.1 provides a summary of the main findings.

Statistics on food loss and food waste are almost non-existent in Cambodia, save for those based on a few investigations conducted by stand-alone projects - which results in difficulty to delineate the accurate flow of food waste. Similarly, the lack of a standard definition of waste in the available data (where “organic waste” and “food waste” are often used synonymously) also poses an issue given the presumed dominance of food waste in the organic component of MSW in existing statistics. Phnom Penh Capital Administration (2018) reports the dramatic increase of MSW disposal in the past five years, from 492,380 tonnes in 2012 to 808,530 tonnes in 2017 (“Phnom Penh Waste Management Strategy and Action Plan, 2018-2035”), while the organic content accounted for 70% of the disposed waste in 2009 and is considered to occupy more than 50% in the present day (Sang-Arun et al., 2011).

Policy discussions and interventions have traditionally treated food waste as organic waste under the frame of MSW management. Improvements of waste collection and disposal are given higher priority than treatment in response to weak collection and disposal systems. On the other hand, less attention has been given to the upstream considerations such as food loss at production stage, food waste reduction at consumption stage, or utilization of food waste as a resource at post-consumption stage. There is a significant potential to introduce various recycling methodologies due to the high organic content (51.9% in 2014) in the waste collected in Phnom Penh (MoEC, 2018).

National legal frameworks on waste management such as the “Environmental Guideline on Solid Waste Management in Cambodia” (2006), Sub-decree 113 on Urban Solid Waste Management (2015) and the current draft “National Strategy on Waste Management (2018—2035)” promotes source segregation, collection, and utilization of organic waste based on the 3R approach. Citizens are advised to segregate waste and sub-national governments are expected to develop legal instruments toward implementation of these policies. In addition, more recently, “Technical Guidelines on Urban Solid Waste Management” (2016) were developed with the aim of promoting local implementation, in which anaerobic digestion and composting are listed as primary methodologies for treating food waste.”

In Phnom Penh, the “Waste Management Strategy and Action Plan of Phnom Penh (2018-2035)” adopted in 2018 sets out the overall plan and detailed list of action to improve the city’s waste management system and to promote the 3Rs. Organic waste management including food waste is positioned as a key component where the gradual development of resource utilization capacity and phased approach to the introduction of source segregation are planned (Phnom Penh Capital Administration, 2018). In the absence of effective waste collection, treatment and disposal systems, implementation of the 3Rs for food waste is still limited. Sales of food waste to livestock farmers has been a preferred choice for some waste generators (households, restaurants, hotels, etc.) although statistics are lacking to assess its impact. Seng et al. (2012) report a decline of this waste stream due to “marketable animal feed, difficulty of food waste transport and the speed of the animal production”. Private initiatives for food waste reduction, albeit not large scale,

(Continued)

Legend:--very weak; — weak; + strong; + + very strong are emerging in Phnom Penh. For instance, many restaurants have started to charge penalties for excessive leftovers in response to wasteful consumption in buffet restaurants that are recently gaining popularity (Shafik, 2015).

Two issues prevail in relation to waste management in Cambodia: the decentralization of waste management responsibilities from provincial to municipal level can be an issue, depending on what resources are available at the municipal level. Similar to many other developing countries, including Indonesia, the amount of food waste is estimated from the total amount of solid waste. Efforts are needed to collect the necessary data on food waste and make the data accessible for decision making. In terms of opportunities for intervention, the high organic content (51.9% in 2014 [Denney, 2016)) suggests a large potential for introducing various recycling methodologies, thereby reducing organic waste entering the city’s final disposal sites. There are numerous opportunities for upper-stream interventions, including efforts to reduce food loss through improving post-harvest infrastructure, as well as food waste reduction campaigns by both private and civil sectors. For instance, Seng et al. (2012) reports high willingness for source segregation and low penetration of knowledge on small-scale organic waste recycling among waste generators in Phnom Penh, suggesting an untapped potential for reduction.

India (Bengaluru)

In 2013, a study on harvest and post-harvest loss in India (except at the consumer level) estimated that the annual value of this loss for 45 crops was in the order of USD 12.60 billion' (Jha et al., 2015). This loss was primarily due to the lack of infrastructure for short-term storage (especially at the farm level) and the lack of processing facilities in the production catchment. To address these issues the government continues to increase storage capacity and promote new food processing technologies (GOI, 2018). At the consumer level, citizen initiatives such as The Robin Hood Army (currently active in 13 cities in India) (Vijaykumar, 2015), and the Bangalore Food Bank supported by Griffith Foods (Sinha, 2018) channel surplus food from processing industries and hotels to the homeless and hungry in urban areas.

Although Bengaluru city does not have any food waste policies per se, it has seen significant citizen action to address the problem of post-consumer food waste. In India, around 60 to 75% of MSW consists of wet-waste (food and garden waste) (Ranrachandra, 2011). In response to seven public interest litigations, in 2013, the Karnataka Municipal Corporations Act of 1976 was amended to mandate the segregation of MSW at source into dry, wet and sanitary waste (GOK, 2013). This was followed by rules brought out by the city corporation Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagar Palike (BBMP) to mandate bulk generators (any organization generating more than 10 kg of total waste per day and housing complexes with more than 50 units) to either treat segregated wet-waste onsite using composting or anaerobic digestion, or to procure the services of authorized private vendors to process segregated waste fractions (BBMP, 2013). These rules were influential in framing the 2016 national-level Solid Waste Management Rules to mandate segregation of waste at source and that bulk generators treat wet-waste onsite or use the services of authorized private vendors across the country.

In Bengaluru city, several actors are responsible for the management of food waste generated at the level of markets, households, restaurants and commercial establishments (Ziherl & Steffen, 2015a, 2015c). At the public sector level, there are elected representatives of the BBMP with its elected head and administrative staff. There are also the waste contractors who employ waste-workers or pourakarmikas who sweep streets and collect waste from houses, and authorized private vendors who manage segregated waste from bulk generators. From the community side, there are NGOs and social ventures, citizen groups and resident welfare associations (Ziherl & Steffen, 2015a, 2015c).

The BBMP has not been effective in ensuring the full implementation of the new Solid Waste Management (SWM) policy that mandates the segregation of waste at source and decentralized treatment of waste fractions. A corrupt nexus between contractors, BBMP elected councillors, and BBMP administrative staff holds the SWM system of the city hostage. Several times, contractors have boycotted the new tendering process that seeks to bring in transparency and accountability (High Court of Karnataka — Bengaluru Bench, 2012). Recently, due to large-scale citizen action, the BBMP is planning to do away with contractors by giving out ward-level contracts, paying pourakarinikas directly and giving separate contracts to those providing machinery and those supplying workforce (Bharadwaj, 2018; Joshi, 2017). Despite the widespread “Not in My Backyard” mindset, a large number of apartment and gated communities have implemented onsite community composting to treat food and garden waste (Anonymous, 2014; Yajaman, 2013).

In relation to opportunities moving forward: although in several countries source segregated wet-waste is composted in a decentralized manner, none of these cities have implemented city-wide community composting at the apartment complex level like Bengaluru has; a map based on self-reported data shows over 300 apartment complexes that segregate waste at source (2binlbag, 2014). Case studies on apartment complexes in Bengaluru (inhabited by middle- and upper-middle-class income households) found that door-to-door collection of segregated waste and space for retrofitted composting facilities are critical prerequisites for this community-level composting (Shenoy et al., 2017).

NGOs and social enterprises organize workshops to educate residents on how to implement segregation and treatment of segregated waste. Additionally, there is access to free resources such as pamphlets, videos and documents on how to implement this system (2bin1bag; SWMRT, 2014). However, there is no systematic continuous monitoring process to ensure implementation of these rules. NGOs have been pushing the city and state government to mandate that builders of apartment complexes and gated communities plan and construct wet-waste treatment facilities such as anaerobic digesters or composting at the time of construction rather than retrofitting them later.

• Hospitality Industry

Food waste management innovations in the foodservice industry

October 06, 2020 •

7 min reading

An insight into what food waste really means and the processes that create it. Reducing food loss is a global, multidimensional challenge, so what can the foodservice industry specifically do to be more mindful of its role in the food value chain?

The current state of food wastage

On September 29, the world celebrated the 1 st International Day of the Food Loss and Waste . This was a good opportunity to emphasize the importance of reducing food waste (FW) as a key sustainability challenge for the hospitality and foodservice industry. FW epitomizes an unsustainable system of food production and consumption. A recent report by the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) calculates that the amount of food wasted each year will rise by a third by 2030, “when 2.1 billion tons will either be lost or thrown away, equivalent to 66 tons per second”.

Food wastage appears to be higher in developed countries, while on the other hand, there are an estimated 842 million people in poor countries experiencing chronic hunger. According to Oxfam , the current pandemic has deepened the hunger crisis and “by the end of the year, 12,000 people per day could die from hunger linked to COVID-19, potentially more than will die from the disease itself”. Ten countries top the list of hunger spots (Figure) accounting for 65% people living in crisis level hunger.

Figure 1: Countries and regions where the food crisis is most severe (Oxfam, 2020)

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), FW is defined as food which is fit for consumption but discarded by choice or because has been left to spoil or expire, with ‘food’ referring to “whether processed, semi-processed or raw edible products going to human consumption.”

Image Credits : Food loss/waste

The fact that FW is perceived as a mounting, yet avoidable, challenge has driven the United Nations to adopt target 12.3 as part of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals to:

By 2030, halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses.

Source : The sustainable Development Goals Report 2020 

The how and where of food wastage

Food loss and waste occur at each stage of the global food value chain, from agricultural production to final consumption. Food production is linked to land conversion and biodiversity loss, energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions, water and pesticide use. At the post-harvest and processing stages, there is also waste in each step of the transport, storage, processing and distribution stages. At the end of the food value chain, final consumption (including commercial and household) accounts for as much as 40% of total food losses. Evidence shows that in developed countries, food is mainly wasted at the final consumer stage of the supply chain.

FW management has thus become a key priority, referring to all the activities related to avoiding, reducing or recycling waste throughout the production and consumption chain. This raises the question as to whether food wastage could also be reduced along the food supply chains.

The FW challenge in tourism and foodservice

Tourism, as a global foodservice industry, is implicated in food consumption and waste generation. Consumer foodservices include restaurants, fast food chains, cafés, cafeterias, canteens and dining halls, as well as event catering. This sector employs more people than any single other retail business, including 14 million in the USA and 8 million in Europe ( Euromonitor International ) and serves billions of meals every year. The Figure shows the average annual food away-from-home expenditure of U.S. households from 2010 to 2019. In 2019, average food away-from-home expenditure of U.S. households amounted to about 3,526 U.S. dollars, compared to 2,505 dollars in 2010. Therefore, the activity has a critical role in the global FW challenge.

Figure 2: Average annual food away-from-home expenditures of United States households from 2010 to 2019 (in U.S. dollars) (Source: Statista , 2020)

FW must be approached as a multidimensional challenge in which different stakeholders in the food value chain play a decisive role on integrating innovations aimed at FW minimization and management.

• Producers : Collaborating with local farmers, e.g. sourcing locally can boost FW source reduction and turn FW into animal feed.
• Suppliers : Partnering with suppliers that are ready to participate in sustainable initiatives (e.g. oil suppliers that collect used oil).
• Retailers : Bargaining an off-spec protocol that consider FW reduction, e.g. acquiring imperfect or off-grade produce before is thrown away.
• Employees : Providing with training for purchasing inventory management, production planning and menu planning & service.
• Consumers : Increasing awareness and engagement of customers (dining out) and households (dining in).
• Collaborative platforms : Partnering with food donation recovery partners, e.g. Too good to go .
• Technology providers : Data feeding restaurants with FW information, e.g. Kitro technology ( article ).

Study findings

Despite the significance of this issue to the global foodservice industry , the link between innovation practices and FW management has received limited attention. An exception is Martin-Rios et al. ( article ) recent research on the interrelationships of foodservice provisions and innovations in FW management through the lenses of innovation theory.

The study presents a range of waste management initiatives using the distinction between incremental innovations (those revolving around work processes and technologies) and radical innovations (innovations exploring opportunities to significantly change waste management approaches). The study also points out different approaches to FW based on FW characterization, management practices and management’s beliefs, knowledge and awareness to identify practices that suggest some type of innovation.

Table: Summary of FW innovations for the hospitality and commercial foodservice

The main objectives

The concepts discussed in this research could help practitioners to become more aware of the factors that drive the adoption of FW innovations. Any initiative towards FW minimization and management must necessarily address the following two objectives:

• Customization : Identify which innovative food management practices contribute to the avoidance (reducing and rethinking), re-use or recycling of food waste in each particular foodservice establishment.
• Awareness : Evaluate foodservice managers’ perspectives regarding the opportunities, challenges, costs and benefits of various FW innovations.

A traditional waste management program that ignores social aspects of management and professional skills can be a barrier to the effective implementation of FW innovations. Results also show that interest in innovation as a systematic process to minimize waste and facilitate waste management is limited.

Foodservice providers implement innovations based on a cost-saving analysis. Interviews highlighted a general lack of concern and knowledge about FW management. Food industry professionals face an array of daily organizational and financial challenges linked to waste sorting, storage and disposal, and they mostly count on the standard recycling/waste procedures their local councils make available to cope with them. Professionals tend to approach waste reduction from a practical, experience-based approach, but there is no systematic implementation of waste reduction strategies based on forms of institutional knowledge. What they really need is proper training and achievable goals to be set by governments.

A key finding is that many companies are not actively innovating in the waste domain. They are however increasingly aware of the economic and social importance of waste management. The foodservice industry is not leading the way when it comes to innovation. There are only a few low- or zero-waste restaurants, and just a few chefs who are creating meals out of food scraps.

One important finding academic research highlights is the importance of developing partnerships between foodservice providers and other businesses, non-for-profits, and institutional players. Closer collaboration underlines the importance of bringing together different (and sometimes competing) stakeholders, and combining between them innovation types and innovation generation and adoption with greater efficiency. This calls for more research, tools and concepts to design the innovative practices supporting the next generation of FW management systems if the situation is to ever improve.

Foodservice, as a labor-intensive activity where innovation has tended to be slow, can benefit from other firms and institutions sharing knowledge, insights and experiences, helping the industry get on track to hit the goal of halving food waste by 2030.

• Martin-Rios, C., Zizka, L., Varga, P., & Pasamar, S. (2020). KITRO: technology solutions to reduce food waste in Asia-Pacific hospitality and restaurants. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research , 1-8.
• Martin-Rios, C., Demen-Meier, C., Gössling, S., & Cornuz, C. (2018). Food waste management innovations in the foodservice industry. Waste management , 79 , 196-206.
• Martin-Rios, C., Gössling, S., Arboleya, J.C., Bolton, J. & Erhardt, N. (2020). Sustainable food waste management: Research Topic. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems . Available here 

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• Published: 13 August 2024

Unintended food safety impacts of agricultural circular economies, with case studies in arsenic and mycotoxins

• Christian Kelly Scott   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4869-9151 1 &
• Felicia Wu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0493-0451 1 , 2  

npj Science of Food volume  8 , Article number:  52 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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For millennia, food systems worldwide have employed practices befitting a circular economy: recycling of agricultural and food waste or byproducts, environmentally sustainable production methods, and food preservation to reduce waste. Many modern-day agricultural practices may also contribute to a circular economy through the reuse of waste products and/or reducing agricultural inputs. There are, however, food safety impacts. This paper describes two sustainable agricultural practices that have unintended positive and negative impacts on food safety: alternative rice cultivation practices and no-till agriculture. We highlight how alternative rice cultivation practices have intended benefits of water conservation and economic savings, yet also unintended effects on food safety by reducing foodborne arsenic levels while increasing cadmium levels. No-till agriculture reduces soil erosion and repurposes crop residues, but can lead to increased foodborne mycotoxin levels. Trade-offs, future research, and policy recommendations are discussed as we explore the duality of sustainable agricultural practices and food safety.

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Introduction.

Agriculture in the circular economy is often referenced in terms of sustainable food systems. While minimizing food waste, food loss, and pollution is often the introductory entry point into the discussion of food, the interconnectedness of the principles of the circular economy also includes repurposing/reusing products and materials and regenerating natural systems 1 , 2 , 3 .

Yet another important component of sustainability is health—not only the health of ecosystems but also human health. Agricultural practices focused on advancing the usefulness of byproducts, like crop residuals and soil management, and/or practices that focus on regenerative cultivation techniques to conserve water and limit inputs, like alternate wetting–drying cultivation (AWD) and furrow irrigation (FI), can have important unintended impacts on food safety—with either human health risks or benefits. Figure 1 demonstrates where these issues fit conceptually within the circular economy. In this paper, we present the evidence of unintended food safety impacts stemming from agricultural practices generally regarded as sustainable: alternative cultivation practices for rice (ACP) and no-till agriculture, in the circular economy and the resulting food system.

Figure shows the progression of sustainable production in an orange circle containing a self-loop and a progression to a blue sustainable use circle. Sustainable use circle contains a self-loop and a progression to yellow circle recycling/reusing. Recycling/reusing is linked to sustainable production. No-till agriculture text box is placed within the recycling/reusing circle. Alternative cultivation practices for rice text boxes are placed in the sustainable production circle. The figure demonstrates alternative cultivation practices for rice are a form of sustainable production through reduced water use, no-till agriculture prevents soil erosion and reuses crop residue for soil protection and nutrients, and sustainable use of water and residues relates to both these practices. Authors original creation referencing van Buren et al. 3 and Helgason et al. 2 .

The current global food system is arguably less oriented around sustainability and more focused on economic viability and food availability. As a result of this emphasis, agricultural production has increasingly moved towards large-scale production, crop monocultures, mechanized farming, and yield maximization. Conventional market production for agricultural products is both highly resource-intensive (land, water, chemical inputs, fossil fuels) and impactful to the environment. A shift in agricultural production away from conventional practices can help to abate these concerns. For many, novel agricultural practices that are integrated into the circular economy paradigm represent the way forward: a focus on sustainability in the food system while improving access to safe, sufficient, healthy, and nutritious food for the world’s growing population.

In the circular economy, a change in agricultural policy or practice that is focused on one aspect of the food system sector can have numerous unintended impacts in other areas. For example, previous work focusing on agricultural products resulting from the circular economy includes the promotion of oilcakes that reduce food waste having unintended anti-nutritional impacts on human food and animal feed 4 . By contrast, plant byproducts in the application of the circular economy in the food system can have positive unintended impacts through human consumption of more nutritional products 5 or environmental benefits of using fewer chemical inputs 6 . Other scholars have noted that targeted changes focusing exclusively on food safety can have widespread unintended impacts throughout the economy and food system 7 .

However, in this area of growing scientific inquiry, little attention has been given to how agricultural practices regarded as sustainable may have unintended consequences on food safety. In the examples presented below, we demonstrate how those risks can unintentionally be decreased with ACP of rice or increased with no-till cultivation.

Alternative cultivation practices for rice: reduced water use and food safety benefits and risks

For thousands of years, rice has been cultivated around the world in highly water-intensive ways: most often, farmers will keep paddies continuously flooded from early rice plant growth stages through to harvest. Indeed, continuous flooding can be regarded as the conventional rice production method worldwide. Alternative cultivation practices for rice (ACPs), on the other hand, are methods to reduce water use throughout the rice growing season. Two practices that are receiving growing attention in this area are alternate wetting–drying (AWD) and furrow irrigation (FI) cultivation. AWD is the practice of intermittent flooding of fields as opposed to keeping a field flooded throughout the growing stages of the crop. FI is the practice of cultivating rice along elevated beds to deliver water to plant roots from an irrigation system pumping water into furrows without flooding the entire field.

These ACPs have gained traction for three primary reasons relating to the circular economy paradigm: water conservation, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, and reduced input costs. However, the traditional continuous flooding method of rice production had its rationale in maximizing yield and reducing weed damage. Therefore, a reasonable concern is whether ACPs can provide rice yields similar to those afforded by conventional continuous flooding production.

In addition to these economic considerations, an important question is whether using ACPs can reduce the uptake of soilborne arsenic into rice. Arsenic, a naturally occurring metalloid in soil and water, has been known for thousands of years to cause toxicological effects in humans and other animals. Today, humans worldwide are exposed to arsenic through drinking water and food. Under continuously flooded conditions, rice plants take up soilborne arsenic easily through all parts of the plant, including the rice grains. If the soil is not continually wet, arsenic uptake is reduced. Hence, in both AWD and FI cultivation practices, lower arsenic levels may accumulate in rice. This would be an additional benefit of these ACPs. Conversely, however, any soilborne cadmium (also naturally occurring in water and soil) may be taken up more easily when soil is dry: the difference in these cases is that soilborne arsenic is often in the form of anionic metalloids (more easily taken up by plants in wet conditions), while soilborne cadmium is in the form of cationic metal ions (more easily taken up by plants in dry conditions).

No-till agriculture and the risk of foodborne mycotoxins

No-till agriculture refers simply to the practice of forgoing tilling (turning over the soil) on farmlands, either before planting, after harvest, or both. Tilling is common on agricultural fields to remove weeds at the start of the planting season, as well as to remove crop residues after harvest. This practice can, however, increase risks of soil erosion and loss of important soil nutrients for crop plants. No-till agriculture is seen as a potentially more sustainable method of farming; crop residues after harvest are left on the soil to protect nutrients and to prevent erosion.

However, when crop residues are left on farm fields, they can harbor microorganisms and fungal sclerotia, which can then infect the crops planted on those fields in the next season. In the case of overwintering fungi that then colonize crops in the next season, the risk is that some of these fungi produce mycotoxins (fungal toxins) that cause a variety of adverse health effects to humans and animals. The state of the evidence linking no-till practices to mycotoxin risks in subsequent seasons is explored in this paper.

Alternative cultivation practices for rice: impacts on yield, water use, and arsenic levels

The link between alternative cultivation practices (ACPs) for rice production and targeted outcomes (both positive and negative) has been examined in multiple studies, shown in Table 1 . These ACPs—specifically, alternate wetting–drying and furrow irrigation—have been tested extensively and shown to reduce water usage and abate water scarcity concerns 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 . The practices are useful for the environmental conservation of fresh water and reducing the economic costs of farmers by reducing the use of inputs (like fuel used to power irrigation in AWD) 8 , 15 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 . The practices reduce run-off from fields and aid in rainfall capture efificacy 8 , 15 , 25 , 30 , 31 . AWD and FI have also been shown to reduce greenhouse gases and emissions compared to continuous flooding 10 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 . These benefits are notable, given evidence that suggests that, under the proper conditions, there is no reduction in yield in AWD or FI rice compared to continuous flooding cultivation 8 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 . These are practical financial and environmental reasons for ACPs to further the principles of the circular economy while preserving rice farmers’ overall profitability.

Nonetheless, it is important to consider the food safety impacts of these ACPs. In continuous flooding (conventional) cultivation, the anaerobic conditions lead to increased phyto availability and uptake of soilborne arsenic by rice plants 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 . Arsenic is a metalloid that occurs naturally in soils and water worldwide and causes multiple adverse effects in humans: acute toxicity at high doses, several human cancers—most notably lung cancer, skin cancer, and bladder cancer, hyperkeratosis and black foot disease, and cardiovascular disease 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 . In multiple studies worldwide, AWD and FI cultivation practices have shown reduced arsenic levels in rice 8 , 10 , 15 , 30 , 39 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 . These studies are summarized, with corresponding arsenic reductions in ACPs vs. continuously flooded rice, in Table 2 . In practice, therefore, these ACPs could reduce human exposures to foodborne arsenic, with potentially significant health effects—especially for populations where rice is a dietary staple. Indeed, policymakers worldwide are increasingly focusing on reducing arsenic in food. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is implementing a Closer-to-Zero Action Plan, with the intent of setting action levels for foodborne arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury by 2024. This was followed by a US Congressional Report in 2021, describing high levels of arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury in infant foods pulled from grocery shelves 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 . As rice is a common component not just in adult diets but in infant foods, it is all the more critical to find methods to reduce arsenic levels in rice.

ACPs, however, are not uniformly beneficial to human welfare and the environment. ACPs can be tactically demanding compared to continuously flooding rice 8 , 10 , 12 , 75 , 76 . If a field has soils that dry out quickly, yields can be reduced substantially, even if the other benefits of the practice, such as arsenic reduction, are increased 10 , 12 , 23 . In general, ACPs are often associated with reduced yields compared to continuous flooding cultivation 12 , 44 , 66 , 77 , 78 . Many studies have examined the relationship between rice yields under conventional vs. alternative cultivation practices, summarized in Table 3 . Adoption of ACPs has been slow because they are often difficult to scale up, and, in the case of quickly drying soils, present potential economic risks to farmers who cannot afford to switch rice cultivation techniques for a relatively unproven practice 8 , 10 , 12 , 13 , 27 , 28 , 79 . Some studies suggest that ACPs may be related to decreased carbon availability in soils 80 , 81 , 82 .

There is a countervailing potential food safety risk as well, in that drier soils have increased bioavailability of cadmium that can be taken up by the plants, thereby increasing the consumption of the harmful metals and metalloids in diets 39 , 66 , 68 , 83 , 84 , 85 . Several studies have demonstrated the link between ACPs and increased cadmium uptake in rice, as shown in Table 4 . Cadmium exposure has been associated with diverse cancers and with neurotoxic and nephrotoxic effects 86 . This is far from an ideal solution, with increased exposure to cadmium as arsenic decreases in alternate wetting-drying rice production. Even so, from a public food safety risk perspective, arsenic is generally regarded as the more toxic element compared to cadmium, from a human health perspective 87 . Moreover, interestingly, cadmium uptake in rice has been shown to be correlated with other essential elements such as copper and selenium 88 , which may help to reduce the biologically effective dose of cadmium in the body. Hence, in a literal ‘pick your poison’ decision, reducing arsenic levels through ACP has been considered preferable to reducing cadmium levels in continuous flooding cultivation 39 , 68 , 87 . Nevertheless, ACPs are not all-or-nothing strategies, and farmers must often weigh the specific amount of flooding and dry field management in a manner that provides an optimal reduction in both arsenic and cadmium uptake by their crops 39 , 68 , 87 , 88 , 89 .

No-till crop cultivation: impacts on mycotoxin concentrations in crops

Mycotoxins are toxic and carcinogenic chemicals produced by fungi that colonize crops 90 . Among the most agriculturally important mycotoxins worldwide are aflatoxins, produced primarily by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus ; fumonisins, produced primarily by Fusarium verticillioides and F. proliferatum ; deoxynivalenol (DON, vomitoxin) and zearalenone, produced primarily by F. graminearum and F. culmorum ; and ochratoxin A, produced by Penicillium verrucosum and A. ochraceus 91 . These mycotoxins, which can co-occur in field conditions 92 , cause a diversity of harmful health effects in humans and animals, ranging from liver cancer to neural tube defects in babies to immunosuppression and growth impairment. These fungi frequently colonize crops such as maize, nuts, and cereal grains in the field, where they may produce these mycotoxins; and can also continue to grow in storage or to overwinter in fields, particularly if crop residues are still present.

One growing practice that is often discussed in the context of the circular agricultural economy is no-till agriculture—in which crop residues play a key role. No-till agriculture is a practice of soil management that involves minimal disruption of the topsoil both before planting and after harvest. Where much of the conventional contemporary farming practices involve turning over the topsoil and crop residues following the harvest to prepare the soil for the next season’s crops, no-till farming involves minimal soil disturbance between harvest and planting and typically means leaving crop residue on fields. The practice of no-till agriculture has several important economic, environmental, and health benefits: it can preserve soil organic carbon, improve biodiversity, reduce soil erosion, reduce labor and agricultural input costs, and reduce emissions of PM 2.5 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 .

However, the discourse around no-till farming has almost exclusively focused on comparison to conventional tilling of agricultural and environmental outcomes, such as yields, soil health, weed abundance, and ecosystem services; with little attention given to the quality and safety of the food crops produced in each scenario 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 . Indeed, non-tilled soils may retain harmful characteristics that conventional tilling could reduce or eliminate. It has been shown that pathogens may survive more efficiently and colonize the following season’s crops under no-till conditions 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 . Untilled soil may result in immobilized nutrients, leading to problems with crop nutrition availability and uptake 105 , 106 , 107 . In many commercial fields, no-till cultivation has led to greater use of chemical controls for pests and weeds because these are not cleared from the field as they would be if tilled; which may increase human health and ecosystem risks from pesticide and herbicide exposures 101 , 108 . Specific to food and feed safety, the primary concern of no-till agriculture’s effect on the crops grown in following seasons is what some authors have described as ‘the mycotoxin problem’ 109 , 110 , 111 .

Under no-till agricultural cultivation, crop residues left in the field serve as a refuge for fungal sclerotia to overwinter in the field: to survive between harvest and the next planting. These sclerotia can serve as an inoculum for fungal infection on crops grown in the following season 110 , 111 , 112 , 113 , 114 . This can pose a food safety danger in that certain fungi produce mycotoxins that contribute to cancer, immunosuppression, and growth impairment in humans; as well as economic losses to farmers 115 , 116 , 117 , 118 . The explicit link between the targeted fungal species/fungal mycotoxins and no-till agriculture has been examined in a wide variety of contexts—mycotoxins, fungi, crops, and different geographic regions worldwide—shown in Table 5 . While several studies did not find any significant differences in fungal infection rates and mycotoxin levels in no-till vs. conventionally tilled fields, the preponderance of evidence to date is that no-till agriculture results in higher levels of fungal infection and subsequent mycotoxin contamination in crops grown in no-till agricultural conditions.

Given the food safety (and other previously mentioned) concerns, a careful balance between ecological, health, and economic factors must be calculated by farmers in choosing a tillage system for their crops. This is simultaneously a public health, agricultural science, and livelihood-economic calculation. If the agricultural products that farmers produce exceed the limits of consumable mycotoxins, they cannot be sold for human or animal consumption, due to regulations on allowable mycotoxin levels in over 100 nations worldwide. Further complicating the matter is that mycotoxins are expected to become a greater risk in the future due to near-term climate change impacts 118 , 119 , 120 , 121 .

When the agricultural circular economy is discussed in the context of sustainable food production, it is important to consider food safety and food quality impacts. In 2016, Stahel 122 wrote of the circular economy paradigm: “It would change economic logic because it replaces production with sufficiency: reuse what you can recycle what cannot be reused, repair what is broken, remanufacture what cannot be repaired.” Later, he states that this paradigm applies to “arable land;” grouped with his discussions of cars, buildings, mobile phones, and cultural heritage. Indeed, since this writing, agricultural studies have examined applications of the circular economy to promote sustainable food production practices. However, somewhat differently from other applications of the circular economy listed in Stahel’s article, food safety and its attendant human health effects must be key considerations when it comes to agricultural contexts.

In this review, we described two very different and arguably sustainable agricultural practices befitting of the “circular economy” designation: alternative cultivation practices (ACPs) for rice production that use significantly less water than the conventional continuous flooding method and no-till farming. In both cases, these practices reduce certain important agricultural inputs such as water and labor, and foster other environmental benefits such as reduced carbon emissions and reduced soil erosion and PM 2.5 emissions. However, the food safety effects of these practices must be considered in a truly circular paradigm.

In the case of alternate wetting–drying and furrow irrigation production methods of rice production, a key food safety benefit is the reduced uptake of soilborne arsenic into rice grains. This could translate into significantly lower foodborne arsenic exposures, which could lead to meaningful health benefits in populations worldwide where rice is a dietary staple. On the other hand, there is some evidence of increased cadmium uptake in rice grains when ACPs are employed—a tradeoff resulting from the anionic vs. cationic natures of arsenic vs. cadmium in wet or dry soil. The extent to which these concentrations may differ in rice grains under different cultivation practices and the imputed human health effects are important areas to study in the future; as around the world, rice farmers may adopt these ACPs at higher rates due to meeting new food safety standards. Other means of reducing arsenic and cadmium exposure through rice include removal of the hull and bran, which typically bioaccumulate more of these metals; and soaking rice grains and discarding the water before cooking.

In the case of no-till agriculture, diverse microorganisms, including mycotoxigenic fungi, are more likely to survive in fields that contain crop residues—which are common in untilled fields. The overwintering fungi can then colonize the crops planted in the subsequent season, and produce mycotoxins on those crops that pose health risks to humans and animals. There is a large body of evidence for the five most agriculturally important mycotoxins—aflatoxins, fumonisins, deoxynivelanol, zearalenone, and ochratoxin A—that no-till agriculture increases the risk that the fungi that produce these toxins will colonize food crops. Because the aforementioned mycotoxins cause such a wide diversity of serious health effects, this food safety issue must be taken into account when considering the benefits and costs of adopting no-till farming systems. While tilling is far from the only solution to reduce mycotoxin risks—others include good agricultural practices in the field, improved (cool, dry, pest-free) food storage practices, and a variety of plant breeding and chemical application strategies—tillage choices by farmers can have an important impact on this key food safety risk.

Incorporating food safety considerations into sustainable agricultural practices is crucial and, in fact, fulfills the true “circular economy” paradigm by extending to human health effects. Healthier populations are better able to sustainably produce safe and nutritious food worldwide, and the circular nature of human health and agricultural production can result in improved food security while protecting environmental resources.

We conducted a systematic review of the published literature on alternative vs. conventional rice production practices, with a focus on alternate wetting–drying and furrow irrigation compared with continuous flooding (the traditional and conventional method of rice production). We examined the evidence for a variety of economic and environmental outcomes, as well as the evidence for arsenic and cadmium uptake in each of these cultivation practices. We also conducted a systematic review of the literature on the impact of tilling vs. no-till agriculture on the concentrations of five agriculturally important mycotoxins—aflatoxins, fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and ochratoxin A—in a diversity of crops. We compared results across studies for concentrations of these mycotoxins in tilled vs. no-till fields.

Boolean search terms were used to conduct a systematic literature review to identify extractable data sources for summary tables for ACP rice/grain impacts and no-till agriculture/mycotoxin relationships. The review consisted of a systematic and additional examination of relevant sources and citations from these documents for additional references (see refs. 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ). Searching took place in Google Scholar and the Michigan State University Library database search tool. The Michigan State University (MSU) Library database search tool allowed for simultaneous searching from multiple databases. The top identified databases where articles were sourced were Complementary Index; Environmental Complete; Academic Search Complete; and Springer Nature Journals. In total, 7 searches took place (reference in Fig. 2 a and b ): (1) alternate wetting–drying cultivation of rice (AWD) and reduced arsenic; (2) furrow irrigation (FI) and reduced arsenic; (3) AWD and yield; (4) FI and yield; (5) AWD and increased cadmium; (6) FI and increased cadmium; and (7) no-till agriculture and mycotoxin occurrence. Peer-reviewed publications from the last 30 years (since 1994) were considered for review for the alternative cultivation practices’ (ACP) impacts. Detailed review of 143 sources allowed for the identification of 28 sources with extractable data. A study is needed to provide synthesizable evidence of ACP compared to conventional cultivation for the desired impact, arsenic/cadmium content, or yield to be included in our review. For the no-till and mycotoxin review, selection criteria were not limited to the last 30 years and the search criteria stipulated peer-reviewed sources.

Panel A shows the selection and inclusion criteria of studies related to rice production methods. Search numbers refer to (1) alternate wetting-drying cultivation of rice (AWD) and reduced arsenic; (2) furrow irrigation (FI) and reduced arsenic; (3) AWD and yield; (4) FI and yield; (5) AWD and increased cadmium; and (6) FI and increased cadmium. 1, 3, and 5 on the left with 159 initial records. The primary search term was “alternate wetting-drying” with secondary terms OR “alternative wetting drying” or “AWD rice”. The number of studies evaluated at each step is included in the boxes. Panel B shows the selection and inclusion criteria of studies related to no-till agriculture and mycotoxin occurrence (Search 7). The primary search term was “no-till agriculture” with secondary “no-till agriculture” or “tillage”. Progresses to 2 records excluded due to language/subject review; leading to 11 records assessed. Right side demonstrates 100 initial records identified with “mycotoxin occurrence” in the title. Secondary terms were “mycotoxin concentration”, “aflatoxin”, “fumonisin”, “deoxynivalenol”, “zearalenone”, or “ochratoxin A”. The number of studies evaluated at each step is included in the boxes.

The systematic inclusion/exclusion process of studies related to rice cultivation practices and diverse effects, and no-till agriculture and mycotoxin risks, can be seen in Fig. 2 a and b , respectively. Our review consisted of extensive consideration of in-text citations and referenced studies drawing from the initial systematic search. However, despite extensive searching, evaluating, and reference-checking, there is a potential for introduced bias in utilizing peer-reviewed publications that are indexed in the MSU database registry and in Google Scholar. By only including indexed, peer-reviewed, and English-language publications, potential alternative perspectives and non-traditional theoretical/methodological approaches may have been excluded from our analysis and presentation of findings.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its references.

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This work was supported by the Institute for the Advancement of Food and Nutrition Sciences (IAFNS) through contract IAFNS-MICHIGANSTATE-20220328; and US Department of Agriculture (USDA) Grant MICL02527. IAFNS is a nonprofit science organization that pools funding from industry collaborators and advances science through in-kind and financial contributions from public and private sector participants. IAFNS and USDA had no role in the design, analysis, interpretation, or presentation of the data and results.

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Food Waste Management: A Case Study of the Employment of Artificial Intelligence for Sorting Technique

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Food waste (FW) is a subcategory of municipal solid waste (MSW). FW management has received growing interest from a national, regional, and international level due to social, economic, and environmental impacts. The situation in Malaysia is no exception. Sorting waste is a labor-intensive process, and the development of the sorting system plays a vital role. Several technologies have been reported for waste sorting systems, and many have successfully been implemented in the actual field. However, most of the work limited to sorting certain groups of materials. Recently, the field of Artificial Intelligence (AI) has drawn researchers’ attention in various fields, including waste sorting. Thus, the purpose of this chapter is to gain an insight of employment of AI in waste sorting and how it can benefit the FW sorting. The research focuses on the most salient progress of the available method or technique in AI for waste sorting. Three different classifications of studies in sorting waste that make use of AI technology are assessed. It is followed by a presentation of challenges of artificial intelligent sorting techniques, suggesting that whether every single methodology can effectively provide the accuracy of sorting, flexibility, and systems’ reliability. Some of the potential concerns and recommendations for future research are presented in the conclusion.

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Home » Infographics » Case Study: SWOT Analysis of a Waste Management Company

Case Study: SWOT Analysis of a Waste Management Company

• Posted on August 20, 2024
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Introduction

In this case study, we will explore a SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) analysis for a waste management company. The SWOT analysis is a strategic planning tool used to identify the internal and external factors that can impact an organization’s performance. The image provided offers a clear visual representation of these factors.

SWOT Analysis Breakdown

• Low labor cost:  The company benefits from lower operational costs due to affordable labor.
• Strong specialization in electrical services:  Expertise in electrical services sets the company apart from competitors.
• Well-recognized national brand name:  A strong brand presence enhances customer trust and loyalty.
• Good relationship with major investors:  Strong investor relations ensure financial stability and support for growth initiatives.

Weaknesses:

• Lack of expertise in renewable energy:  The company needs to develop skills in renewable energy to stay competitive.
• Lack of industrial partners in capital creation:  Limited partnerships hinder the company’s ability to raise capital.
• Low international market share:  The company has a minimal presence in international markets.
• Policy standards capability:  The company struggles to meet policy standards, affecting its operational efficiency.

Opportunities:

• 2-year government subsidies:  Government support provides financial incentives for growth.
• Fast-growing sector:  The waste management industry is expanding rapidly, offering new business opportunities.
• High social acceptance:  Increasing public awareness and acceptance of waste management practices.
• Well-established legal framework:  A robust legal framework supports the storage, manufacturing, and transportation of commodities.
• Potentially high R&D expenses:  Research and development for new waste management technologies can be costly.
• High waste management fees:  Rising fees can impact profitability.
• The “Not In My Backyard” philosophy:  Public opposition to waste management facilities can create operational challenges.
• Large competitors:  Dominant players in the market can capture a significant market share.

Additional Examples of SWOT Analysis

• Strengths:  Dominant retail presence, efficient logistics, strong bargaining power.
• Weaknesses:  Dependence on the U.S. market, low-profit margins.
• Opportunities:  Expansion into emerging markets, e-commerce growth.
• Threats:  Intense competition, regulatory challenges 1 .
• Strengths:  Strong brand recognition, innovative products, extensive distribution network.
• Weaknesses:  High production costs, reliance on third-party manufacturers.
• Opportunities:  Growth in emerging markets, increasing demand for athleisure.
• Threats:  Counterfeit products, changing consumer preferences 2 .

Recommendation: Visual Paradigm Online

For creating detailed and professional SWOT analysis infographics like the one shown in the image, I recommend using  Visual Paradigm Online . This tool offers a comprehensive suite of diagramming tools that make it easy to create, customize, and share high-quality SWOT analysis diagrams. Its user-friendly interface and extensive template library can help you visualize your strategic planning effectively.

Would you like to know more about how to use Visual Paradigm Online for your projects?

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Assessment of Self-reported Food Waste from Households via Two Routes in Pakistan

• Published: 12 August 2024

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• Sania Zafar 1 , 2 ,
• Ehsan Ullah 3 ,
• Syed Asif Ali Naqvi 1 ,
• Sofia Anwar 1 &
• Bilal Hussain 1 , 4  

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Food loss and waste are consistent threats to food security which, if left unrelieved, may have serious social, economic, and environmental aftermaths. Food waste from consumers is a critical issue which influences the economy and the environment. The resolution of this study is to understand how food waste is influenced by psychological and household routine-related factors and what further research is needed. This study developed a questionnaire and collected data from the consumers in Faisalabad. We conducted data analyses in two stages. At first, the convergent validity and reliability of the measurement scales are tested by executing a preliminary confirmatory factor analysis. Secondly, two proposed models are tested by applying the Structural Equation Model. The outcomes of this study revealed that the pooled model including both psychological and routinized factors proved to be more explanatory as compared to the restricted model. The significant contribution of this study is considering the behavior of consumers which may help to ensure the implementation of food waste reduction campaigns.

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Zafar, S., Ullah, E., Naqvi, S.A.A. et al. Assessment of Self-reported Food Waste from Households via Two Routes in Pakistan. J Knowl Econ (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13132-024-02244-w

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Two decades of advancements in cold supply chain logistics for reducing food waste: a review with focus on the meat industry.

1. Introduction

Objective and scope of study.

• What is the current state of the art on beef CSCL in terms of management, sustainability, network design, and the use of information technologies for red meat waste reduction?
• To provide an overview of the current state of the art and to identify the gaps and contemporary challenges to red meat waste reduction;
• To identify key research themes and their potential role and associated elements in mitigating red meat waste reduction, especially across the beef CSCL systems;
• To pinpoint the directions in each theme that warrant further research advancement.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. literature retrieval and selection, 2.2. extracting the research themes, 3.1. the literature review identified themes and subjects, 3.2. the literature’s evolution and descriptive results, 3.3. management, 3.3.1. logistics management and chronological evolution, 3.3.2. management and regulations, 3.3.3. management and collaboration, 3.3.4. management and costs, 3.3.5. management and inventory, 3.3.6. management and decision-making, 3.3.7. management and risks, 3.3.8. management and waste reduction, 3.3.9. management and information, 3.3.10. management and cold chain deficiencies, 3.4. sustainability, 3.4.1. sustainability and closed-loop scs (clscs), 3.4.2. sustainability and business models, 3.4.3. sustainability and wastage hotspots, 3.4.4. sustainability and packing, 3.4.5. sustainability and information flow, 3.5. network design optimisation, 3.5.1. network design and decision levels, 3.5.2. network design and the location–inventory problem, 3.5.3. network design and routing-inventory problem, 3.5.4. network design and the location routing problem, 3.5.5. network design and the integrated location–inventory routing problem, 3.5.6. network design and sustainability, 3.5.7. network design and information flow, 3.6. information technologies, 3.6.1. it and meat sc transformation, 3.6.2. emerging information technologies and meat scs, technical instruments, technological systems, 4. discussion, 4.1. management, 4.2. sustainability, 4.3. network design, 4.4. information technology, 5. conclusions.

• Management: ◦ Effective management practices are crucial for addressing FLW in beef CSCL systems. ◦ There is a notable transition from LM to FLM and SFLM, with the potential for emerging technologies to create an “Intelligent Sustainable Food Logistics Management” phase. ◦ Suboptimal management practices continue to contribute significantly to FLW, underscoring the need for enhanced strategies and adherence to regulations and standards.
• Sustainability: ◦ Sustainability in beef CSCL involves addressing social, economic, and environmental benefits. ◦ Reducing FLW can lead to increased profits, improved customer satisfaction, public health, equity, and environmental conservation by minimising resource use and emissions. ◦ Comprehensive research integrating all sustainability dimensions is needed to fully understand and mitigate FLW. Current efforts often address only parts of sustainability. A more holistic approach is required to balance environmental, economic, and social dimensions effectively.
• Network Design: ◦ Effective network design and optimisation are pivotal in reducing FLW within beef CSCL systems. ◦ There is a necessity for integrating all three levels of management decisions in the logistics network design process. Decision levels in network design must be considered to understand trade-offs among sustainability components in this process. ◦ Future research should focus on integrating management decisions and network design, CSCL uncertainties, sustainability dimensions, and advanced technologies to enhance efficiency and reduce waste in beef CSCL systems.
• Information Technologies: ◦ Information technologies such as Digital Twins (DTs) and Blockchain (BC) play a significant role in improving efficiency and reducing FLW in beef CSCL. ◦ The integration of these technologies can enhance understanding of fluid dynamics, thermal exchange, and meat quality variations, optimising the cooling process and reducing energy usage. ◦ Challenges like data security and management efficiency need to be addressed to maximise the benefits of these technologies.

Author Contributions

Data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Davoudi, S.; Stasinopoulos, P.; Shiwakoti, N. Two Decades of Advancements in Cold Supply Chain Logistics for Reducing Food Waste: A Review with Focus on the Meat Industry. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 6986. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166986

Davoudi S, Stasinopoulos P, Shiwakoti N. Two Decades of Advancements in Cold Supply Chain Logistics for Reducing Food Waste: A Review with Focus on the Meat Industry. Sustainability . 2024; 16(16):6986. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166986

Davoudi, Sina, Peter Stasinopoulos, and Nirajan Shiwakoti. 2024. "Two Decades of Advancements in Cold Supply Chain Logistics for Reducing Food Waste: A Review with Focus on the Meat Industry" Sustainability 16, no. 16: 6986. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166986

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