essay based on power

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Essay on Knowledge is Power: Samples in 100, 200, 300 Words

• Updated on  
• Dec 15, 2023

‘ Knowledge is power’ phrase is derived from a Latin term, which is attributed to Sir Francis Bacon, a well-known essayist of all times. Knowledge is power has been accepted widely and timelessly as it underscores the significance of knowledge in empowering people, societies and countries . 

Benjamin Franklin once said, ‘An investment in knowledge pays the best interest.’ Knowledge not only improves a person’s understanding of the world but also teaches them life lessons to develop decision-making skills and contribute to the betterment of society. Below we have discussed some essays on knowledge is power in different word limits.

Table of Contents

• 1 Essay on Knowledge is Power in 100 Words
• 2 Essay on Knowledge is Power in 200 Words
• 3 Essay on Knowledge is Power in 300 Words

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Essay on Knowledge is Power in 100 Words

‘Knowledge is power’ is a timeless truth. A person with knowledge can empower himself to make informed decisions, enhance personal growth and contribute to the development of society. Knowledge equips us with effective tools to navigate the challenges of life and achieve our goals in real-time. The pursuit of knowledge is education. A person who is educated and has the right knowledge will find success in life. 

The world we live in is driven by knowledge-based education and innovations. From agriculture to healthcare, every activity and field requires you to have proper knowledge and understanding of it. Whether it is at the individual level or global level, people who prioritize education and knowledge enjoy economic prosperity and influence.

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Essay on Knowledge is Power in 200 Words

Knowledge is so powerful that it can reshape the entire world or destroy it, depending on the purpose for which it is used. The phrase, ‘Knowledge is Power’ was given by Sir Francis Bacon. With knowledge, one can have a profound impact on their life and the people surrounding it.

Knowledge emperors a person in various ways, from personal growth to changes at the global level. With knowledge, we gain new skills, insights and perspectives about a particular subject. This equips us to excel in our chosen field, pursue all our aspirations and fulfil our dream life.

A person with the right knowledge can make informed decisions. If you are someone who possesses broad knowledge about different subjects, it will be very easy for you to critically analyze any situation, weigh options and make choices that best suit your plans. This not only leads to better personal outcomes but also fosters a sense of autonomy and self-determination. Knowledge is considered as the driving force behind progress. Scientific discoveries, technological innovations, cultural evolution and social developments are all fueled by accumulated knowledge. A very classic example of this is the history of human civilization. We must use knowledge knowledge ethically and ensure its equitable distribution or access.

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Essay on Knowledge is Power in 300 Words

Knowledge is deemed as the most powerful tool a human possesses. It is the cornerstone of power in our modern society. The universally acknowledged phrase ‘Knowledge is power’ highlights the profound impact knowledge has on individuals and society, and both.

The first thing to know about knowledge is that it is the key to personal development and empowerment. When a person acquires knowledge, they open doors to personal growth and development. Depending on the person’s expertise and field, this empowerment can come in various forms. I person with the right knowledge often finds himself confident, adaptable, and capable of overcoming obstacles in life.

Moreover, knowledge equips you to make informed decisions. We are living in a world which is driven by information. A person who is well-equipped with knowledge about his or her specific field can critically assess a situation, evaluate the options and make choices that best suit their individual needs and values. This not only enhances their personal lives but also fosters a sense of agency and self-determination.

Knowledge is the driving force behind progress, development and innovation. From the time of industrialization to the invention of the internet, knowledge has been the deciding factor for transformative change, improving the quality of life for countless individuals. 

The importance of knowledge is not only limited to individual benefits of scientific discoveries. It also plays a critical role in a country’s governance. It allows you to make informed political decisions, and actively participate in the democratic process. In this way, knowledge serves as a safeguard against tyranny and injustice.

At last, the phrase ‘knowledge is power’ remains a timeless truth that highlights the profound impact of knowledge on a person’s development and societal changes. With this power comes the responsibility to use knowledge ethically and ensure equal access for all, as knowledge remains a vital path to personal and collective empowerment in our ever-changing world.

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The phrase ‘knowledge itself is power’ denotes the meaning that knowing empowers your understanding of the world so that you can make informed decisions for yourself and others. In this way, knowledge is equal to power, as it can help in shaping the future of an individual to an entire country.

Knowledge is considered as an accumulation of information, skills facts and understanding acquired through deep learning, experience and observation. It represents a deep and organised awareness of the world around us, encompassing various fields of knowledge, such as culture, science and technology, history and practical know-how. Knowledge empowers individuals by providing the tools to make informed decisions, solve problems, and navigate life’s complexities. It serves as a foundation for personal growth, innovation, and societal progress, shaping our perceptions and actions. 

A person can improve their knowledge by reading informative articles, newspapers and books, enrolling in courses related to their field of study, attending workshops and seminars, engaging in discussions, etc.

For more information on such interesting topics, visit our essay writing page and follow Leverage Edu .

Shiva Tyagi

With an experience of over a year, I've developed a passion for writing blogs on wide range of topics. I am mostly inspired from topics related to social and environmental fields, where you come up with a positive outcome.

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• Knowledge is Power Essay

Essay on Knowledge is Power

Knowledge means understanding of something such as facts, information, description and skills. It is the source of power to man and this distinguishes him from other creatures of the universe. Though man is physically weaker than many animals, for he cannot see as far as an eagle, nor carry heavy loads as some animals. Nevertheless he is the most powerful creature on earth. This power basically comes to him from knowledge not from physical strength. ‘Knowledge is power’ means that a man has education and a complete control on his life by using the strength of knowledge. 

The ability to acquire knowledge, preserve and pass it on to the future generation makes man powerful. It enables him to control the forces of nature and use them for his benefit. This power of knowledge, if used wisely can bring happiness to mankind. Knowledge leads to wisdom, respect and consequently power. 

Why is Knowledge Powerful?

Knowledge does not always come with power. Knowledge is the state of awareness or understanding and learning of specific information about something and it is gained from experience or study. This means a person has the resources to express his views dynamically and make intelligent decisions based on his every day situations, awareness and understanding. 

This doesn’t make a man powerful. A man is said to be powerful when he uses his knowledge to mobilize in the right direction. When a man has the ability or capacity to act or perform effectively with his knowledge then he gains Power.

Benefits of Knowledge

Knowledge is important to shape our personality and perfect our behavior and dealings with people. 

Knowledge hones thinking skills. Knowledge is necessary in order to be able to formulate an opinion or develop a line of thought.

A person gets the power to analyze and assert situations by his knowledge. 

With knowledge, a man can master the techniques of adjusting and accommodating with changes in the surroundings and life situations. 

Knowledge helps a man to face adversities and stay balanced.

It is a key to removing the darkness of ignorance.

Knowledge helps in enhancing more options in the professional career of the individuals.

Knowledge helps in boosting confidence in individuals.

Education and knowledge together can provide better governance to the country.

A nation can have true democracy when the citizens of the country are knowledgeable about both social and economic conditions.

Prospective of Knowledge

Education is a key to success and this statement holds true as being knowledgeable can lead to a successful life. Knowledge will never diminish like any physical entities. In fact, the evolution of civilization in our society has happened due to the increase in the knowledge base of humans. Progress in the medical field has been made possible by developing rational thinking through the use of knowledge. Knowledge is the foremost tool of empowerment. It is the key to success in life. Knowledge, along with the power to think and analyze, differentiate men from animals. Knowledge teaches us to be humble and compassionate. People with very humble backgrounds have risen to power and wealth, on the strength of knowledge and skill. Only this can maintain harmony in the society.

Writing the Knowledge is Power Essay

Writing the Knowledge is Power Essay can be quite easy. Before you start the essay, collect all the details about the proverb to understand its meaning. This way, you can curate a meaningful essay with all the right facts and relevant points. Moreover, you should know the correct format for writing an essay. You can refer to the Knowledge is Power Essay available on Vedantu’s website to understand the format and learn more about the topic. Here are some tips to follow while writing your own essay on Knowledge is Power: 

Gather all the information you can from textbooks to the Internet about knowledge before you begin the essay. 

Once you have collected all the details, start your essay with an insightful introduction to the topic to give the readers an idea of what they will be learning from the essay. 

While writing the main body, do not go off-topic and write irrelevant points. Everything you write should be entirely focused on the topic i.e. Knowledge is Power. 

Add a good conclusion at the end to summarize the entire essay and give your final statement about the topic i.e. Knowledge is Power. 

Once you have completed the essay, proofread it to find mistakes and rectify them immediately. 

If you have time, revise the essay and check whether you can add more powerful points to make your writing more effective.

Points to be included in the Knowledge is Power Essay

Before you start writing your Knowledge is Power Essay, you should have a clear understanding of what points to include. This will save a lot of your time and help you finish the essay in much less time. You can gather all the information regarding the topic i.e. Knowledge is Power, and then start writing. Here are the points that you can add in the essay: 

In the introduction, write mainly about that specific proverb, i.e. Knowledge is Power, to give your reader an idea of what you are reading. 

When you come to the main body, add relevant points and explain your opinions on the topic. For example, you can write about why knowledge is considered powerful or the benefits of knowledge. 

Try adding quotes related to the topic in your essay to make it more impactful. You can use these quotes before your opening statement or support the information in the main body. 

While writing your conclusion, add a broad statement that summarizes the essay. Do not add any new ideas or information in the conclusion. You only have to sum up the entire Knowledge is Power Essay at this stage.    

FAQs on Knowledge is Power Essay

1. How Do You Define Knowledge?

Knowledge means understanding of facts, information, description and skills. It refers to awareness of something gained by education or experience. Here are the three different types of knowledge: 

Explicit Knowledge: It refers to the type of knowledge that can be easily documented, stored, curated, and accessed. For example, information available in textbooks, the internet, etc. 

Implicit Knowledge: The practical application of explicit knowledge is known as implicit knowledge. For example, how to drive a car or how to swim. 

Tacit Knowledge: Any knowledge gained from personal experiences and context is known as tacit knowledge. For example, body language, leadership, humour, etc.  

2. Why is Knowledge Considered Powerful?

Knowledge is powerful because a man can mobilize his life into the right direction. Knowledge can be both creator and destructive of our society. Through knowledge only, one can differentiate between right and wrong and make an informed decision. It also helps you plan your future and takes you on the path to success. With more knowledge, you will be able to overcome your weaknesses and gain more self-confidence. It encourages a positive attitude towards life and keeps you motivated to survive and thrive in the real world.

3. Mention Two Benefits Of Knowledge.

Knowledge is something that you gain throughout your life. It comes with an infinite number of benefits and keeps you on the right track. Knowledge encourages you to act morally and help others in any way possible. Moreover, it boosts your confidence to face any difficulty without being dependent on others. The two benefits of knowledge are:

Knowledge shapes our personality and behavior with others.

Knowledge with proper education can provide better governance to a nation.

4. Why is Less Knowledge Dangerous?

Less knowledge or half knowledge is very dangerous as it leads a man to a benighted condition for the rest of his life. He will never be able to excel in any field to the fullest. Less knowledge can mislead a person into making wrong decisions that have a negative impact on his/her life. Usually, people with less knowledge are only aware of the major aspects of a subject. They do not focus on the minor aspects, which gives them an unbalanced view of that particular subject.

5. From where can I get the Knowledge is Power Essay?

You can get the Knowledge is Power Essay from Vedantu’s official website and mobile app. Vedantu provides you with the Knowledge is Power Essay without charging you anything. You can just visit our website and search for the essay to get access to it. Moreover, we offer a huge variety of study material for the English language to help students get better at the subject. You will find various topics of grammar, letter writing, speech writing, and much more only on Vedantu.com. Use all this study material to improve your writing skills and gain more knowledge about the English language.

Concept of Power in Shakespeare’s “Macbeth” Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Power may corrupt those who wield it, and the pursuit of power is frequently harmful. People whose life objective is to obtain power over others are condemned to fail since human ambition frequently leads to sinful behaviors, which are inevitably punished. While The government is the system that makes laws and ensures that they are followed, it is the person who wields power who is responsible for the equality and impartiality of its enforcement.

Tragedies lie at the heart of Shakespeare’s creative legacy. They represent the strength of his brilliant mind as well as the essence of his period, which is why, if following epochs looked to Shakespeare for comparison, they first understood their struggles via him. Shakespeare’s tragedies have been influenced by a growing number of fresh interpretations. Macbeth, one of Shakespeare’s most renowned tragedies, depicts characters who have been damaged by their ambition and reveals the devastating nature of the desire for power for the sake of authority. Shakespeare’s Macbeth is the most comprehensive portrayal of the individualist as a person who actively and consistently prioritizes what reflects her interests over the interests of others. Macbeth, driven by ambition, is eager to liberate his mind from moral ideals and domestic norms, seeing them as stumbling blocks and meaningless preconceptions.

People, like the play’s major protagonists, who are consumed by the concept of obtaining the throne, are frequently corrupted by power and eventually wreck their own lives and the lives of others. Macbeth is a tragedy of overwhelming ambition; therefore, it’s no surprise that its leitmotif is the hero’s words: “I dare everything a man dares,” which are addressed to death itself in the finale: “I wish to experience the last. Macbeth is a tragedy about a colossal personality who had the same chances for victory as death, but valor without wisdom drove it to full isolation from humanity and its soul.

Macbeth is willing to kill and betray even close friends to gain the crown and the kingdom. With a dagger, the hero assassinates the sleeping monarch. He also orders the Banquo and Macduff families to be killed. Macbeth does not see individuals; rather, he sees impediments on his route to the throne. After realizing that he might inherit the throne, Macbeth, a brave and powerful warrior and dedicated servant of the king, transforms into a greedy and vicious killer.

Lady Macbeth seems to be a more ambitious woman than her husband Macbeth., so Macbeth is far from the only person whose life has been tainted by power. This woman persuades her husband that Duncan should be murdered if he visits their home. “Look like an innocent flower, but be a serpent behind it,” she says to her husband. Lady Macbeth, who aspires to be queen, encourages her husband to commit crimes, therefore defining their fate. Without his wife’s convictions, Macbeth would not have committed all of these heinous acts.

The play’s conclusion, which discusses Lady Macbeth’s lunacy and Macbeth’s death, is the primary revelation demonstrating the corrupting nature of power. When Lady Macbeth notices blood on her hands, Macbeth, who thought he was unstoppable, is murdered. This couple loses something more important: intelligence and humanity because of their ambition for the throne. As a result, the government frequently not only discloses a person’s underlying undesirable tendencies but also leads to a fatal ending.

On the other hand, power does not always lead to corruption for individuals who strive to improve the lives of others. It also leaves behind those who are uninterested in receiving it. However, there are few such people: power is typically given to those who seek it. The throne, for example, was meant to belong to Duncan in Macbeth and later to his son, who may also be a fabulous king. Macbeth, on the other hand, receives the power because he went to such lengths to obtain it. Although power does not always corrupt, it does destroy individuals in the majority of situations because it is attained by those who are inclined to destroy.

Power corrupts those who possess it, and the chase of power tends to result in suffering. Macbeth shows individuals who have suffered as a result of their aspirations, revealing the fatal nature of the desire for power for its own sake. The play’s finale, which recounts Lady Macbeth’s insanity and Macbeth’s death, thus, becomes a key revelation that demonstrates how power corrupts. In Macbeth, the author demonstrates the corrupting influence of power: the protagonist’s and his wife’s life spent pursuing the throne ended tragically. Macbeth kills innocent people, including children, in his quest for power. The wife’s desire becomes the driving force behind everything that occurs: the image of the crown becomes more essential than anything else in her life. The play’s conclusion suggests that individuals should not seek power only for the sake of power. This performance teaches individuals that power and those in positions of authority are not essential aspects of their life.

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IvyPanda. (2022, December 23). Concept of Power in Shakespeare’s “Macbeth”. https://ivypanda.com/essays/concept-of-power-in-shakespeares-macbeth/

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1. IvyPanda . "Concept of Power in Shakespeare’s “Macbeth”." December 23, 2022. https://ivypanda.com/essays/concept-of-power-in-shakespeares-macbeth/.

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Feminist Perspectives on Power

Although any general definition of feminism would no doubt be controversial, it seems undeniable that much work in feminist theory is devoted to the tasks of critiquing gender subordination, analyzing its intersections with other forms of subordination such as racism, heterosexism, and class oppression, and envisioning prospects for individual and collective resistance and emancipation. Insofar as the concept of power is central to each of these theoretical tasks, power is clearly a central concept for feminist theory as well. And yet, curiously, it is one that is not often explicitly thematized in feminist work (exceptions include Allen 1998, 1999, Caputi 2013, Hartsock 1983 and 1996, Yeatmann 1997, and Young 1992). Indeed, Wendy Brown contends that “Power is one of those things we cannot approach head-on or in isolation from other subjects if we are to speak about it intelligently” (Brown 1988, 207). This poses a unique challenge for assessing feminist perspectives on power, as those perspectives must first be reconstructed from discussions of other topics. Nevertheless, it is possible to identify three main ways in which feminists have conceptualized power: as a resource to be (re)distributed, as domination, and as empowerment. After a brief discussion of the power debates in social and political theory, this entry will survey each of these feminist conceptions.

1. Defining power

2. power as resource: liberal feminist approaches, 3.1 phenomenological feminist approaches, 3.2 radical feminist approaches, 3.3 socialist feminist approaches, 3.4 intersectional approaches, 3.5 poststructuralist feminist approaches, 3.6 postcolonial and decolonial feminist approaches, 3.7 analytic feminist approaches, 4. power as empowerment, 5. concluding thoughts, other internet resources, related entries.

In social and political theory, power is often regarded as an essentially contested concept (see Lukes 1974 and 2005, and Connolly 1983). Although this claim is itself contested (see Haugaard 2010 and 2020, 4–10; Morriss 2002, 199–206 and Wartenberg 1990, 12–17), there is no doubt that the literature on power is marked by deep, widespread, and seemingly intractable disagreements over how the term should be understood.

One such disagreement pits those who define power as getting someone else to do what you want them to do, that is, as an exercise of power-over others, against those who define it as an ability or a capacity to act, that is, as a power-to do something. The classic formulation of the former definition is offered by Max Weber, who defines power as “the probability that one actor within a social relationship will be in a position to carry out his own will despite resistance…” (1978, 53). Similarly, Robert Dahl offers what he calls an “intuitive idea of power” according to which “A has power over B to the extent that he can get B to do something that B would not otherwise do” (1957, 202–03). Dahl’s discussion of power sparked a vigorous debate that continued until the mid-1970s, but even his sharpest critics seemed to concede his definition of power as an exercise of power-over others (see Bachrach and Baratz 1962 and Lukes 1974). As Steven Lukes notes, Dahl’s one-dimensional view of power, Bachrach and Baratz’s two-dimensional view, and his own three-dimensional view are all variations of “the same underlying conception of power, according to which A exercises power over B when A affects B in a manner contrary to B’s interests” (1974, 30). Similarly, but from a very different theoretical background, Michel Foucault’s highly influential analysis implicitly presupposes that power is a kind of power-over; and he puts it, “if we speak of the structures or the mechanisms of power, it is only insofar as we suppose that certain persons exercise power over others” (1983, 217). Notice that there are two salient features of this definition of power: power is understood in terms of power-over relations, and it is defined in terms of its actual exercise.

Classic articulations of power understood as power-to have been offered by Thomas Hobbes – power is a person’s “present means…to obtain some future apparent Good” (Hobbes 1985 (1641), 150) – and Hannah Arendt – power is “the human ability not just to act but to act in concert” (1970, 44). Arguing in favor of this way of conceptualizing power, Hanna Pitkin notes that the word “power” is related etymologically to the French pouvoir and the Latin potere , both of which mean to be able. “That suggests,” she writes, “that power is a something – anything – which makes or renders somebody able to do, capable of doing something. Power is capacity, potential, ability, or wherewithal” (1972, 276). Similarly, Peter Morriss (2002) and Lukes (2005) define power as a dispositional concept, meaning, as Lukes puts it, that power “is a potentiality, not an actuality – indeed a potentiality that may never be actualized” (2005, 69). (Note that this statement amounts to a significant revision of Lukes’s earlier analysis of power, in which he argued against defining power as power-to on the grounds that such a definition obscures “the conflictual aspect of power – the fact that it is exercised over people” and thus fails to address what we care about most when we decide to study power (1974, 31). For helpful discussion of whether Lukes’s embrace of the dispositional conception of power is compatible with his other theoretical commitments, see Haugaard (2010)). Some of the theorists who analyze power as power-to leave power-over entirely out of their analysis. For example, Arendt distinguishes power sharply from authority, strength, force, and violence, and offers a normative account in which power is understood as an end in itself (1970). As Jürgen Habermas has argued, this has the effect of screening any and all strategic understandings of power (where power is understood in the Weberian sense as imposing one’s will on another) out of her analysis (Habermas 1994). (Although Arendt defines power as a capacity, she also maintains that “power springs up between men when they act together and vanishes the moment they disperse” (1958, 200); hence, it is not clear whether she fully accepts a dispositional view of power). Others suggest that both aspects of power are important, but then focus their attention on either power-over (e.g., Connolly 1993) or power-to (e.g., Morriss 2002). Still others define power-over as a particular type of capacity, namely, the capacity to impose one’s will on others; on this view, power-over is a derivative form of power-to (Allen 1999, Lukes 2005). However, others have argued power-over and power-to refer to fundamentally different concepts and that it is a mistake to try to develop an account of power that integrates them (Pitkin 1972, Wartenberg 1990).

Another way of carving up the power literature is to distinguish between action-theoretical conceptions – that is, those that define power in terms of either the actions or the dispositional abilities of individual actors – and broader systemic or constitutive conceptions – that is, those that view power as systematically structuring possibilities for action, or, more strongly, as constitutive of social actors and the social world in which they act. On this way of distinguishing various conceptions of power, Hobbes and Weber are on the same side, since both of them understand power in primarily instrumentalist, individualist, and action-theoretical terms (Saar 2010, 10). The systemic conception, by contrast, views power as “the ways in which given social systems confer differentials of dispositional power on agents, thus structuring their possibilities for action” (Haugaard 2010, 425; see Clegg 1989). The systemic conception thus highlights the ways in which broad historical, political, economic, cultural, and social forces enable some individuals to exercise power over others, or inculcate certain abilities and dispositions in some actors but not in others. Saar argues, however, that the systemic conception of power should be understood not as an alternative to the action-theoretical conception of power, but rather as a more complex and sophisticated variant of that model. For, as he says, its “basic scenario remains individualistic at the methodological level: power operates on individuals as individuals, in the form of a ‘bringing to action’ or external determination” (Saar 2010, 14).

The constitutive conception of power pushes the insight of the systemic conception further by focusing on the constitutive relationships between power, individuals, and the social worlds they inhabit. The roots of this constitutive conception can be traced back to Spinoza (2002a and 2002b; Saar 2013), but variants of this view are also found in the work of more contemporary theorists such as Arendt and Foucault. Here it is important to note that Foucault’s work on power contains both action-theoretical and constitutive strands. The former strand is evident in his claim, cited above, that “if we speak of the structures or the mechanisms of power, it is only insofar as we suppose that certain persons exercise power over others” (Foucault 1983, 217), whereas the latter strand is evident in his definition of power as “the multiplicity of force relations immanent in the sphere in which they operate and which constitute their own organization; as the processes which, through ceaseless struggles and confrontations, transforms, strengthens, or reverses them;…thus forming a chain or system” (Foucault 1979, 92).

What accounts for the highly contested nature of the concept of power? One explanation is that how we conceptualize power is shaped by the political and theoretical interests that we bring to our study of it (Lukes 1986, Said 1986). For example, democratic theorists are interested in different things when they study power than are social movement theorists or critical race theorists or postcolonial theorists, and so on. Thus, a specific conceptualization of power could be more or less useful depending on the specific disciplinary or theoretical context in which it is deployed, where usefulness is evaluated in terms of how well it “accomplishes the task the theorists set for themselves” (Haugaard 2010, 426). On this view, if we suppose that feminists who are interested in power are interested in understanding and critiquing gender-based relations of domination and subordination as these intersect with other axes of oppression and thinking about how such relations can be transformed through individual and collective resistance, then we would conclude that specific conceptions of power should be evaluated in terms of how well they enable feminists to fulfill those aims.

Lukes suggests another, more radical, explanation for the essentially contested nature of the concept of power: our conceptions of power are, according to him, themselves shaped by power relations. As he puts it, “how we think about power may serve to reproduce and reinforce power structures and relations, or alternatively it may challenge and subvert them. It may contribute to their continued functioning, or it may unmask their principles of operation, whose effectiveness is increased by their being hidden from view. To the extent that this is so, conceptual and methodological questions are inescapably political and so what ‘power’ means is ‘essentially contested’…” (Lukes 2005, 63). The thought that conceptions of power are themselves shaped by power relations is behind the claim, made by many feminists, that the influential conception of power as power-over is itself a product of patriarchal domination (for further discussion, see section 4 below).

Those who conceptualize power as a resource understand it as a positive social good that is currently unequally distributed. For feminists who understand power in this way, the goal is to redistribute this resource so that women will have power equal to men. Implicit in this view is the assumption that power is, as Iris Marion Young puts it, “a kind of stuff that can be possessed by individuals in greater or lesser amounts” (Young 1990, 31).

The conception of power as a resource is arguably implicit in the work of some liberal feminists (Mill 1970, Okin 1989). For example, in Justice, Gender, and the Family , Susan Moller Okin argues that the modern gender-structured family unjustly distributes the benefits and burdens of familial life amongst husbands and wives. Okin includes power on her list of the benefits, which she calls “critical social goods.” As she puts it, “when we look seriously at the distribution between husbands and wives of such critical social goods as work (paid and unpaid), power, prestige, self-esteem, opportunities for self-development, and both physical and economic security, we find socially constructed inequalities between them, right down the list” (Okin, 1989, 136). Here, Okin seems to presuppose that power is a resource that is unequally and unjustly distributed between men and women; hence, one of the goals of feminism would be to redistribute this resource in more equitable ways.

Although she doesn’t discuss Okin’s work explicitly, Young offers a compelling critique of this view, which she calls the distributive model of power. First, Young maintains that it is wrong to think of power as a kind of stuff that can be possessed; on her view, power is a relation, not a thing that can be distributed or redistributed. Second, she claims that the distributive model tends to presuppose a dyadic, atomistic understanding of power; as a result, it fails to illuminate the broader social, institutional and structural contexts that shape individual relations of power. According to Young, this makes the distributive model unhelpful for understanding the structural features of domination. Third, the distributive model conceives of power statically, as a pattern of distribution, whereas Young, following Foucault (1980), claims that power exists only in action, and thus must be understood dynamically, as existing in ongoing processes or interactions. Finally, Young argues that the distributive model of power tends to view domination as the concentration of power in the hands of a few. According to Young, although this model might be appropriate for some forms of domination, it is not appropriate for the forms that domination takes in contemporary industrial societies such as the United States (Young 1990a, 31–33). On her view, in contemporary industrial societies, power is “widely dispersed and diffused” and yet it is nonetheless true that “social relations are tightly defined by domination and oppression” (Young 1990a, 32–33).

3. Power as Domination

Young’s critique of the distributive model points toward an alternative way of conceptualizing power, one that understands power not as a resource or critical social good, but instead views it as a relation of domination. Although feminists have often used a variety of terms to refer to this kind of relation – including “oppression,” “patriarchy,” “subjection,” and so forth –the common thread in these analyses is an understanding of power as an unjust or illegitimate power-over relation. In the remainder of this entry, I use the term “domination” simply to refer to unjust or oppressive power-over relations. In this section, I discuss the specific ways in which feminists with different political and philosophical commitments – influenced by phenomenology, radical feminism, Marxist socialism, intersectionality theory, post-structuralism, postcolonial and decolonial theory, and analytic philosophy – have conceptualized domination.

The locus classicus of feminist phenomenological approaches to theorizing male domination is Simone de Beauvoir’s The Second Sex . Beauvoir’s text provides a brilliant analysis of the situation of women: the social, cultural, historical, and economic conditions that define their existence. Her diagnosis of women’s situation relies on the distinction between being for-itself – self-conscious subjectivity that is capable of freedom and transcendence – and being in-itself – the un-self-conscious things that are incapable of freedom and mired in immanence. Beauvoir argues that whereas men have assumed the status of the transcendent subject, women have been relegated to the status of the immanent Other. As she puts it in a famous passage from the Introduction to The Second Sex : “She is defined and differentiated with reference to man and not he with reference to her; she is the incidental, the inessential as opposed to the essential. He is the Subject, he is the Absolute – she is the Other” (Beauvoir, xxii). This distinction – between man as Subject and woman as Other – is the key to Beauvoir’s understanding of domination or oppression. She writes, “every time transcendence falls back into immanence, stagnation, there is a degradation of existence into the ‘en-soi’ – the brutish life of subjection to given conditions – and liberty into constraint and contingence. This downfall represents a moral fault if the subject consents to it; if it is inflicted upon him, it spells frustration and oppression. In both cases it is an absolute evil” (Beauvoir, xxxv). Although Beauvoir suggests that women are partly responsible for submitting to the status of the Other in order to avoid the anguish of authentic existence (hence, they are in bad faith) (see Beauvoir xxvii), she maintains that women are oppressed because they are compelled to assume the status of the Other, doomed to immanence (xxxv). Women’s situation is thus marked by a basic tension between transcendence and immanence; as self-conscious human beings, they are capable of transcendence, but they are compelled into immanence by cultural and social conditions that deny them that transcendence (see Beauvoir, chapter 21).

Some feminists have criticized Beauvoir's conception of oppression for its reliance on a problematic analogy between race and gender (see, for example, her claim that “there are deep similarities between the situation of woman and that of the Negro,” (Beauvoir, xxix)). Beauvoir's frequent use of such analogies, critics contend, erases the experience of Black women by implicitly coding all women as white and all Blacks as male (Gines (Belle) 2010 and 2017, Collins 2019, 194–198, and Simons 2002). As Kathryn T. Gines (now Kathryn Sophia Belle) argues further, Beauvoir's analysis deploys “comparative and competing frameworks of oppression” (Gines (Belle) 2014a). At times, Beauvoir treats not just sexism and racism but also antisemitism, colonialism, and class oppression comparatively, arguing that they rest of similar dynamics of Othering. Her comparative analysis of race and gender is most problematic in her frequent analogy between the situation of women and that of the slave. As Belle argues, this analogy not only obscures the experiences of Black female slaves, it also leads Beauvior to “engage in an appropriation of Black suffering in the form of slavery to advance her philosophical discussion of woman's situation” (265). At other times, Beauvoir treats racism, sexism, antisemitism, colonialism, and class oppression as competing frameworks and argues that gender subordination is the most significant and constitutive form of oppression. Both moves are problematic, according to Belle, the former for its erasure of the oppression of Black women and the latter for its privileging of gender oppression over other forms of oppression.

Feminist phenomenologists have engaged critically with Beauvoir's work while extending her insights into power. For example, Young argues that Beauvoir pays relatively little attention to the role that female embodiment plays in women’s oppression (Young 1990b, 142–3). Although Beauvoir does discuss women’s bodies in relation to their status as immanent Other, she tends to focus on women’s physiology and how physiological features such as menstruation and pregnancy tie women more closely to nature, thus, to immanence. In her essay, “Throwing Like a Girl,” Young draws on Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s phenomenological analysis of the lived body to analyze “the situatedness of the woman’s actual bodily movement and orientation to its surroundings and its world” (Young 1990b, 143). She notes that girls and women often fail to use fully the spatial potential of their bodies (for example, they throw “like girls”), they try not to take up too much space, and they tend to approach physical activity tentatively and uncertainly (Young 1990b, 145–147). Young argues that feminine bodily comportment, movement, and spatial orientation exhibit the same tension between transcendence and immanence that Beauvoir diagnoses in The Second Sex . “At the root of those modalities,” Young writes, “is the fact that the woman lives her body as object as well as subject. The source of this is that patriarchal society defines woman as object, as a mere body, and that in sexist society women are in fact frequently regarded by others as objects and mere bodies” (Young 1990b, 155). And yet women are also subjects, and, thus, cannot think of themselves as mere bodily objects. As a result, woman “cannot be in unity with herself” (Young 1990b, 155). Young explores the tension between transcendence and immanence and the lack of unity characteristic of feminine subjectivity in more detail in several other essays that explore pregnant embodiment, women’s experience with their clothes, and breasted experience (See Young 1990b, chapters 9–11).

Much important work in feminist phenomenology follows Young in drawing inspiration from Merleau-Ponty’s analyses of embodiment and intercorporeality (see Heinamaa 2003, Weiss 1999); like Young, these authors use a Merleau-Pontyian approach to phenomenology to explore the fundamental modalities of female embodiment or feminine bodily comportment. Feminists have also mined the work of Edmund Husserl, the founder of phenomenology, for useful resources for feminist phenomenology (Al-Saji 2010 and Oksala 2016).

More generally, Oksala defends the importance of feminist phenomenology as an exploration of gendered experience against poststructuralist critics who find such a project hopelessly essentialist. While Oksala acknowledges that essentialism is a danger found in some work in feminist phenomenology – for example, she is critical of Sonia Kruks (2001) for “considering ‘female experience’ as an irreducible given grounded in a female body” (Oksala 2016, 72) – she also insists that a phenomenological analysis of experience is crucial for feminism. As she puts it, “it is my contention that feminist theory must ‘retrieve experience’, but this cannot mean returning to a pre discursive female experience grounded in the commonalities of women’s embodiment” (40). On her view, experience is always constructed in such a way that it “reflects oppressive discourses and power relations” (43); and yet, experience and thought or discourse are not co-extensive. This means that there is always a gap between our personal experience and the linguistic representations that we employ to make sense of that experience, and it is this gap that provides the space for contestation and critique. Thus, Oksala concludes, “experiences can contest discourses even if, or precisely because, they are conceptual through and through” (50). For Oksala, experience plays a crucial role in reinforcing and reproducing oppressive power relations, but radical reflection on our experience opens up a space for individual and collective resistance to and transformation of those power relations.

The concept of experience is also central to Mariana Ortega's analysis of Latina feminist phenomenology (Ortega 2016). Ortega reads the prominent Latina feminists Gloria Anzaldúa and María Lugones as phenomenologists “whose writings are deeply informed by their lived experience, specifically by their experience of marginalization and oppression as well as their experience of resistance” (7). By highlighting the experience of marginalized and oppressed selves who live their lives at the borderlands or in a state of in-betweenness, Latina feminist phenomenology, as Ortega reads it, offers an important corrective to and expansion of the critique of modern subjectivity in the European phenomenological tradition.

For other influential feminist-phenomenological analyses of domination see Bartky 1990, 2002, Bordo 1993, and Kruks 2001. For helpful overviews of feminist phenomenology, see Fisher and Embree 2000, and Heinamaa and Rodemeyer 2010. For a highly influential articulation of queer phenomenology, drawing on the work of Husserl, Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty, and Fanon, see Ahmed (2006). For a compelling phenomenological analysis of transgender experience, see Salamon (2010).

Unlike liberal feminists, who view power as a positive social resource that ought to be fairly distributed, and feminist phenomenologists, who understand domination in terms of a tension between transcendence and immanence, radical feminists tend to understand power in terms of dyadic relations of dominance/subordination, often understood on analogy with the relationship between master and slave.

For example, in the work of legal theorist Catharine MacKinnon, domination is closely bound up with her understanding of gender difference. According to MacKinnon, gender difference is simply the reified effect of domination. As she puts it, “difference is the velvet glove on the iron fist of domination. The problem is not that differences are not valued; the problem is that they are defined by power” (MacKinnon 1989, 219). If gender difference is itself a function of domination, then the implication is that men are powerful and women are powerless by definition. As MacKinnon puts it, “women/men is a distinction not just of difference, but of power and powerlessness….Power/powerlessness is the sex difference” (MacKinnon 1987, 123). (In this passage, MacKinnon glosses over the distinction, articulated by many second-wave feminists, between sex – the biologically rooted traits that make one male or female, traits that are often presumed to be natural and immutable – and gender – the socially and culturally rooted, hence contingent and mutable, traits, characteristics, dispositions, and practices that make one a woman or a man. This passage suggests that MacKinnon, like Judith Butler (1990) and other critics of the sex/gender distinction, thinks that sex difference, no less than gender difference, is socially constructed and shaped by relations of power.) If men are powerful and women powerless as such, then male domination is, on this view, pervasive. Indeed, MacKinnon claims that it is a basic “fact of male supremacy” that “no woman escapes the meaning of being a woman within a gendered social system, and sex inequality is not only pervasive but may be universal (in the sense of never having not been in some form” (MacKinnon 1989, 104–05). For MacKinnon, heterosexual intercourse is the paradigm of male domination; as she puts it, “the social relation between the sexes is organized so that men may dominate and women must submit and this relation is sexual – in fact, is sex” (MacKinnon 1987, 3). As a result, she tends to presuppose a dyadic conception of domination, according to which individual women are subject to the will of individual men. If male domination is pervasive and women are powerless by definition, then it follows that female power is “a contradiction in terms, socially speaking” (MacKinnon 1987, 53). The claim that female power is a contradiction in terms has led many feminists to criticize MacKinnon on the grounds that she denies women’s political agency and presents them as helpless victims (for exemplary versions of this criticism, see Brown 1995 and Butler 1997a).

Marilyn Frye likewise offers a radical feminist analysis of power that seems to presuppose a dyadic model of domination. Frye identifies several faces of power, one of the most important of which is access. As Frye puts it, “total power is unconditional access; total powerlessness is being unconditionally accessible. The creation and manipulation of power is constituted of the manipulation and control of access” (Frye 1983, 103). If access is one of the most important faces of power, then feminist separatism, insofar as it is a way of denying access to women’s bodies, emotional support, domestic labor, and so forth, represents a profound challenge to male power. For this reason, Frye maintains that all feminism that is worth the name entails some form of separatism. She also suggests that this is the real reason that men get so upset by acts of separatism: “if you are doing something that is so strictly forbidden by the patriarchs, you must be doing something right” (Frye 1983, 98). Frye frequently compares male domination to a master/slave relationship (see, for example, 1983, 103–105), and she defines oppression as “a system of interrelated barriers and forces which reduce, immobilize, and mold people who belong to a certain group, and effect their subordination to another group (individually to individuals of the other group, and as a group, to that group)” (Frye 1983, 33). In addition to access, Frye discusses definition as another, related, face of power. Frye claims that “the powerful normally determine what is said and sayable” (105). For example, “when the Secretary of Defense calls something a peace negotiation…then whatever it is that he called a peace negotiation is an instance of negotiating peace” (105). Under conditions of subordination, women typically do not have the power to define the terms of their situation, but by controlling access, Frye argues, they can begin to assert control over their own self-definition. Both of these – controlling access and definition – are ways of taking power. Although she does not go so far as MacKinnon does in claiming that female power is a contradiction in terms, Frye does claim that “if there is one thing women are queasy about it is actually taking power” (Frye 1983, 107).

A similar dyadic conception of male domination can arguably be found in Carole Pateman’s The Sexual Contract (1988) (although Pateman's work is heavily influenced by socialist feminism, her account of power is closer to radical feminism). Like MacKinnon, Pateman claims that gender difference is constituted by domination; as she puts it, “the patriarchal construction of the difference between masculinity and femininity is the political difference between freedom and subjection” (Pateman 1988, 207). She also claims that male domination is pervasive, and she explicitly appeals to a master/subject model to understand it; as she puts it, “in modern civil society all men are deemed good enough to be women’s masters” (Pateman 1988, 219). In Pateman’s view, the social contract that initiates civil society and provides for the legitimate exercise of political rights is also a sexual contract that establishes what she calls “the law of male sex-right,” securing male sexual access to and dominance over women (1988, 182). As Nancy Fraser has argued, on Pateman’s view, the sexual contract “institutes a series of male/female master/subject dyads” (Fraser 1993, 173). Fraser is highly critical of Pateman’s analysis, which she terms the “master/subject model,” a model that presents women’s subordination “first and foremost as the condition of being subject to the direct command of an individual man” (1993, 173). The problem with this dyadic account of women’s subordination, according to Fraser, is that “gender inequality is today being transformed by a shift from dyadic relations of mastery and subjection to more impersonal structural mechanisms that are lived through more fluid cultural forms” (1993, 180). Fraser suggests that, in order to understand women’s subordination in contemporary Western societies, feminists will have to move beyond the master/subject model to analyze how women’s subordination is secured through cultural norms, social practices, and other impersonal structural mechanisms. (For Pateman’s response to Fraser’s criticism, see Pateman and Mills (2007, 205–06)).

Although feminists such as Fraser, Judith Butler, and Wendy Brown have been highly critical of the radical feminist account of domination, analytic feminists have found this account more productive. For example, Rae Langton (2009) has used speech act theory to defend MacKinnon's claims that pornography both causes and constitutes women's subordination. More generally, Langton (2009) and Sally Haslanger (2012) have drawn on MacKinnon's work to develop an account of sexual objectification and to explore the ways that objectification is often obscured by claims to objectivity (for further discussion of Haslanger's work, see section 3.7 below).

According to the traditional Marxist account of power, domination is understood on the model of class exploitation; domination results from the capitalist appropriation of the surplus value that is produced by the workers. As many second wave feminist critics of Marx have pointed out, however, Marx’s categories are gender-blind (see, for example, Firestone 1970, Hartmann 1980, Hartsock 1983, Rubin 1976). Marx ignores the ways in which class exploitation and gender subordination are intertwined; because he focuses solely on economic production, Marx overlooks women’s reproductive labor in the home and the exploitation of this labor in capitalist modes of production. As a result of this gender-blindness, second wave Marxist or socialist feminists argued that Marx’s analysis of class domination must be supplemented with a radical feminist critique of patriarchy in order to yield a satisfactory account of women’s oppression; the resulting theory is referred to as dual systems theory (see, for example, Eisenstein 1979, Hartmann 1980). As Young describes it, “dual systems theory says that women’s oppression arises from two distinct and relatively autonomous systems. The system of male domination, most often called ‘patriarchy’, produces the specific gender oppression of women; the system of the mode of production and class relations produces the class oppression and work alienation of most women” (Young 1990b, 21). Although Young agrees with the aim of theorizing class and gender domination in a single theory, she is critical of dual systems theory on the grounds that “it allows Marxism to retain in basically unchanged form its theory of economic and social relations, on to which it merely grafts a theory of gender relations” (Young 1990b, 24). Young calls instead for a more unified theory, a truly feminist historical materialism that would offer a critique of the social totality.

In a later essay, Young offers a more systematic analysis of oppression, an analysis that is grounded in her earlier call for a comprehensive socialist feminism. Young identifies five faces of oppression: economic exploitation, socio-economic marginalization, lack of power or autonomy over one’s work, cultural imperialism, and systematic violence (Young 1992, 183–193). The first three faces of oppression in this list expand on the Marxist account of economic exploitation, and the last two go beyond that account, bringing out other aspects of oppression that are not well explained in economic terms. According to Young, being subject to any one of these forms of power is sufficient to call a group oppressed, but most oppressed groups in the United States experience more than one of these forms of power, and some experience all five (Young 1992, 194). She also claims that this list is comprehensive, both in the sense that “covers all the groups said by new left social movements to be oppressed” and that it “covers all the ways they are oppressed” (Young 1992, 181; for critical discussion, see Allen 2008b).

Nancy Hartsock offers a different vision of feminist historical materialism in her book Money, Sex, and Power : Toward a Feminist Historical Materialism (1983). In this book, Hartsock is concerned with “(1) how relations of domination along lines of gender are constructed and maintained and (2) whether social understandings of domination itself have been distorted by men’s domination of women” (Hartsock 1983, 1). Following Marx’s conception of ideology, Hartsock maintains that the prevailing ideas and theories of a time period are rooted in the material, economic relations of that society. This applies, in her view, to theories of power as well. Thus, she criticizes theories of power in mainstream political science for presupposing a market model of economic relations – a model that understands the economy primarily in terms of exchange, which is how it appears from the perspective of the ruling class rather than in terms of production, which is how it appears from the perspective of the worker. She also argues that power and domination have consistently been associated with masculinity. Because power has been understood from the position of the socially dominant – the ruling class and men – the feminist task, according to Hartsock, is to reconceptualize power from a specifically feminist standpoint, one that is rooted in women’s life experience, specifically, their role in reproduction. Conceptualizing power from this standpoint can, according to Hartsock, “point beyond understandings of power as power over others” (Hartsock 1983, 12). (We’ll come back to this point in section 4).

Socialist feminism fell largely out of fashion during the latter part of the 20th century, fueled in part by the rise of poststructuralism, the prominence of identity and recognition based politics, and the emergence of a neoliberal consensus (for a trenchant critique of these developments, see Fraser 1996 and 2013). However, in the wake of the global financial crisis of 2008, socialist feminism, now often referred to as Social Reproduction Theory (SRT), has made a comeback. SRT has a long history, with important early contributions by Silvia Federici (1975) and Maria Mies (1986) and connections to the Italian wages for housework campaign that began in the 1970s; for more recent discussions, see Tithi Bhattacharya (2017), Federici (2014 and 2019), and Alessandra Mezzadri (2019). SRT is a Marxist feminist project that orients itself to a question that remains implicit in Marx's theory of value: how is labor power, which is the source of value and thus of exploitation in Marx's account, itself produced, reproduced, and maintained? SRT maintains that labor power is produced and reproduced outside of the official economy, largely through women's unpaid labor within the family or domestic sphere. For social reproduction theorists, the production of goods and services is thus possible only on the basis of (largely) unpaid social reproduction, which includes childbirth, domestic work, caring for children, the elderly and others who cannot work for wages, and so on. For Federici, this represents an ongoing process of expropriation akin to Marx's notion of primitive accumulation (Federici 2014). Social reproduction theorists understand production and reproduction as parts of an integrated system; indeed, they view the distinction between the two as ultimately misleading inasmuch as it obscures the ways in which social reproduction is itself productive of value (Mezzadri 2019). For a related attempt to understand capitalism as a social totality whose relations of production are made possible by the expropriation of socially reproductive labor, environmental resources, and the labor of dispossessed and colonized peoples, see Fraser in Fraser and Jaeggi (2018).

Theories of intersectionality highlight the complex, interconnected, and cross-cutting relationships between diverse modes of domination, including (but not limited to) sexism, racism, class oppression, and heterosexism. The project of intersectional feminism grew out of Black feminism, which, as scholars have recently noted, has a long tradition of examining the interconnections between racism and sexism, stretching back to the writing and activism of late 19th and early 20th century black feminists such as Maria W. Stewart, Ida. B. Wells, Anna Julia Cooper, and Sojourner Truth (see Gines 2014b and Cooper 2016). Because these thinkers and activists did not use the term intersectionality, Gines (now Belle) characterizes their work as proto-intersectional, which she defines as follows: “identifying and combating racism and sexism – through activist organizing and campaigning – not only as separate categories impacting identity and oppression, but also as systems of oppression that work together and mutually reinforce one another, presenting unique problems for black women who experience both, simultaneously and differently than white women and/or black men” (Gines 2014b, 14). Other important antecedents to contemporary intersectionality theory include the Combahee River Collective’s notion of “interlocking systems of oppression” (CRC 1977), Deborah King’s analysis of multiple jeopardy and multiple consciousness (King 1988), and the work from the 1980s of Black feminists such as Audre Lorde (1984), Angela Davis (1984), and bell hooks (1981). As Mariana Ortega has argued (2016), there are also important conceptions of intersectionality developed in Latina feminism, particularly in Anzaldúa's account of the borderlands and mestiza consciusness (Anzaldúa 1987) and Lugones's account of the intermeshedness of race, sex, gender, sexual orientation, and class (Lugones 2003).

In other words, the concept of intersectionality has a long history and a complex genealogy (for discussions, see Cooper 2016, Collins 2011 and 2019, 123–126, and Nash 2019). Still, it is widely acknowledged that the contemporary discussion and use of the term intersectionality was sparked by the work of legal theorist Kimberle Crenshaw (Crenshaw 1991a and 1991b), specifically, by her critique of single-axis frameworks for understanding domination in the context of legal discrimination. A single-axis framework treats race and gender as mutually exclusive categories of experience. In so doing, such a framework implicitly privileges the perspective of the most privileged members of oppressed groups – sex or class-privileged Blacks in race discrimination cases; race or class-privileged women in sex discrimination cases. Thus, a single-axis framework distorts the experiences of Black women, who are simultaneously subject to multiple and intersecting forms of subordination. As Crenshaw explains, “the intersection of racism and sexism factors into Black women’s lives in ways that cannot be captured wholly by looking at the race or gender dimensions of those experiences separately” (Crenshaw 1991b, 1244).

In the thirty years since the publication of Crenshaw’s essays on intersectionality, this framework has become extraordinarily influential in women’s, gender, and sexuality studies. Indeed, it has been called “the most important contribution that women’s studies, in conjunction with other fields, has made so far” (McCall 2005, 1771). However, feminist philosophers have noted that this influence has yet to be felt within the mainstream of the discipline of philosophy, where “intersectionality is largely ignored as a philosophical theme or framework” (Goswami, O’Donovan and Yount 2014, 6). Moreover, intersectionality is not without its feminist critics.

Some sympathetic critics of intersectionality have suggested that the concept is limited in that it focuses primarily on the action-theoretical level. A full analysis of the intertwining of racial, gender, and class-based subordination also requires, on this view, a systemic or macro-level concept that corresponds to the concept of intersectionality. Echoing the Combahee River Collective (CRC 1977), Patricia Hill Collins proposes the term “interlocking systems of oppression” to fulfill this role. As she explains, “the notion of interlocking oppressions refers to the macro-level connections linking systems of oppression such as race, class, and gender. This is the model describing the social structures that create social positions. Second, the notion of intersectionality describes micro-level processes – namely, how each individual and group occupies a social position within interlocking structures of oppression described by the metaphor of intersectionality. Together they shape oppression” (Collins et al . 2002, 82).

Others have worried that discussions of intersectionality tend to focus too much on relations and sites of oppression and subordination, without also taking into account relations of privilege and dominance. As Jennifer Nash has argued, this has led to “the question of whether all identities are intersectional or whether only multiply marginalized subjects have an intersectional identity” (Nash 2008, 9). Although some feminist scholars claim that intersectionality encompasses all subject positions, not just those that are marginalized or oppressed, Nash notes that “the overwhelming majority of intersectional scholarship has centred on the particular positions of multiply marginalized subjects” (Nash 2008, 9–10). The over-emphasis on oppression in theories of intersectionality leads theorists “to ignore the intimate connections between privilege and oppression,” for example, by “ignor[ing] the ways in which subjects might be both victimized by patriarchy and privileged by race” (Nash 2008, 12). In response to this concern, philosophers such as Ann Garry have offered a broader, more inclusive conception of intersectionality that emphasizes both oppression and privilege (see Garry 2011).

Rather than supplementing the notion of intersectionality with a macro-level concept of interlocking systems of oppression or broadening it to include relations of oppression and privilege, Naomi Zack argues that feminists should move beyond it. Zack maintains that intersectionality undermines its own goal of making feminism more inclusive. It does this, on Zack’s view, by dividing women into smaller and smaller groups, formed by specific intersections of race, class, gender, sexuality, and so forth. As Zack puts it, “as a theory of women’s identity, intersectionality is not inclusive insofar as members of specific intersections of race and class create only their own feminisms” (Zack 2005, 2). Because it tends toward “the reification of intersections as incommensurable identities,” Zack maintains that “intersectionality has not borne impressive political fruit” (Zack 2005, 18).

From a very different perspective, queer theorists such as Lynne Huffer and Jasbir Puar have also criticized intersectionality as a theory of identity. Unlike Zack, however, their concern is not with the proliferation of incommensurable identities but rather with the ways in which the notion of intersectionality remains, as Puar says, “primarily trapped within the logic of identity” (Puar 2012, 60). As Huffer puts the point: “the institutionalization of intersectionality as the only approach to gender and sexuality that takes difference seriously masks intersectionality’s investment in a subject-making form of power-knowledge that runs the risk of perpetuating precisely the problems intersectionality had hoped to alleviate” (Huffer 2013, 18). Puar argues further that the primary concepts of intersectionality, including gender, race, class, and sexuality, are themselves the product of Eurocentric, modernist, and colonial discourses and practices and, as such, are problematic from the point of view of postcolonial and transnational feminism (Puar 2012).

Finally, Anna Carastathis has argued that the problem with intersectionality theory lies in its very success (Carastathis 2013 and 2014). Intersectionality has been, on her view, too easily appropriated by white-dominated feminist theory, cut off from its roots in Black and women of color feminism, and incorporated into a self-congratulatory progressivist narrative according to which “intersectionality is celebrated as a methodological triumph over ‘previous’ essentialist and exclusionary approaches to theorizing identity and power relations” (Carastathis 2014, 59; for related critiques, see Nash 2008 and 2019 and Puar 2012). Carastathis cites Kimberle Crenshaw’s lament that intersectionality’s reach is wide but not very deep, and suggests that this may be the result of aversive racism – that is, a desire to assert or establish racial innocence, but without really coming to terms with their own internalized racism – on the part of white feminists (Carastathis, 2014, 68–69).

In response to these sorts of criticisms of intersectionality, some scholars have attempted to reformulate the concept by understanding it as a family resemblance concept (Garry 2011) or by highlighting its provisionality (Carastathis, 2014). Others have argued for an expansion of the intersectional framework to better account for the experiences of diasporic subjects (Sheth 2014) or for a rethinking of this framework in relation to a Deleuzian notion of assemblage (Puar 2007 and 2012). Collins (2019) has proposed the development of intersectionality as a critical social theory through a reflection on its genealogy, epistemology, and methodology.

Most of the work on power done by post-structuralist feminists has been inspired by Foucault. In his middle period works (Foucault 1977, 1978, and 1980), Foucault analyzes modern power as a mobile and constantly shifting set of force relations that emerge from every social interaction and thus pervade the social body. As he puts it, “power is everywhere, not because it embraces everything, but because it comes from everywhere” (1978, 93). Foucault endeavors to offer a “micro-physics” of modern power (1977, 26), an analysis that focuses not on the concentration of power in the hands of the sovereign or the state, but instead on how power flows through the capillaries of the social body. Foucault criticizes previous analyses of power (primarily Marxist and Freudian) for assuming that power is fundamentally repressive, a belief that he terms the “repressive hypothesis” (1978, 17–49). Although Foucault does not deny that power sometimes functions repressively (see 1978, 12), he maintains that it is primarily productive; as he puts it, “power produces; it produces reality; it produces domains of objects and rituals of truth” (1977, 194). It also, according to Foucault, produces subjects. As he puts it, “the individual is not the vis-à-vis of power; it is, I believe, one of its prime effects” (1980, 98). According to Foucault, modern power subjects individuals, in both senses of the term; it simultaneously creates them as subjects by subjecting them to power. As we will see in a moment, Foucault’s account of subjection and his account of power more generally have been extremely fruitful, but also quite controversial, for feminists interested in analyzing domination.

It should come as no surprise that so many feminists have drawn on Foucault’s analysis of power. Foucault’s analysis of power has arguably been the most influential discussion of the topic over the last forty years; even those theorists of power who are highly critical of Foucault’s work acknowledge this influence (Lukes 2005 and, in a somewhat backhanded way, Morriss 2002). Moreover, Foucault’s focus on the local and capillary nature of modern power clearly resonates with feminist efforts to redefine the scope and bounds of the political, efforts that are summed up by the slogan “the personal is political.” At this point, the feminist work that has been inspired by Foucault’s analysis of power is so extensive and varied that it defies summarization (see, for example, Allen 1999 and 2008a, Bartky 1990, Bordo 2003, Butler 1990, 1993, 1997, Diamond and Quinby (eds) 1988, Fraser 1989, Hekman (ed) 1996, Heyes 2007, McLaren 2002, McNay 1992, McWhorter 1999, Sawicki 1990, and Young 1990). I will concentrate on highlighting a few central issues from this rich and diverse body of scholarship.

Several of the most prominent Foucaultian-feminist analyses of power draw on his account of disciplinary power in order to critically analyze normative femininity. In Discipline and Punish , Foucault analyzes the disciplinary practices that were developed in prisons, schools, and factories in the 18th century – including minute regulations of bodily movements, obsessively detailed time schedules, and surveillance techniques – and how these practices shape the bodies of prisoners, students and workers into docile bodies (1977, 135–169). In a highly influential essay, Sandra Bartky criticizes Foucault for failing to notice that disciplinary practices are gendered and that, through such gendered discipline, women’s bodies are rendered more docile than the bodies of men (1990, 65). Drawing on and extending Foucault’s account of disciplinary power, Bartky analyzes the disciplinary practices that engender specifically feminine docile bodies – including dieting practices, limitations on gestures and mobility, and bodily ornamentation. She also expands Foucault’s analysis of the Panopticon, Jeremy Bentham’s design for the ideal prison, a building whose spatial arrangement was designed to compel the inmate to surveil himself, thus becoming, as Foucault famously put it, “the principle of his own subjection” (1977, 203). With respect to gendered disciplinary practices such as dieting, restricting one’s movement so as to avoid taking up too much space, and keeping one’s body properly hairless, attired, ornamented and made up, Bartky observes “it is women themselves who practice this discipline on and against their own bodies….The woman who checks her make-up half a dozen times a day to see if her foundation has caked or her mascara run, who worries that the wind or rain may spoil her hairdo, who looks frequently to see if her stocking have bagged at the ankle, or who, feeling fat, monitors everything she eats, has become, just as surely as the inmate in the Panopticon, a self-policing subject, a self committed to relentless self-surveillance. This self-surveillance is a form of obedience to patriarchy” (1990, 80).

As Susan Bordo points out, this model of self-surveillance does not adequately illuminate all forms of female subordination – all too often women are actually compelled into submission by means of physical force, economic coercion, or emotional manipulation. Nevertheless, Bordo agrees with Bartky that “when it comes to the politics of appearance, such ideas are apt and illuminating” (1993, 27). Bordo explains that, in her own work, Foucault’s analysis of disciplinary power has been “extremely helpful both to my analysis of the contemporary disciplines of diet and exercise and to my understanding of eating disorders as arising out of and reproducing normative feminine practices of our culture, practices which train the female body in docility and obedience to cultural demands while at the same time being experienced in terms of power and control” (ibid). Bordo also highlights and makes use of Foucault’s understanding of power relations as inherently unstable, as always accompanied by, even generating, resistance (see Foucault 1983). “So, for example, the woman who goes into a rigorous weight-training program in order to achieve the currently stylish look may discover that her new muscles give her the self-confidence that enables her to assert herself more forcefully at work” (1993, 28).

Whereas Bartky and Bordo focus on Foucault’s account of disciplinary power, Judith Butler draws primarily on his analysis of subjection. For example, in her early and massively influential book, Gender Trouble (1990), Butler notes that “Foucault points out that juridical systems of power produce the subjects they subsequently come to represent. Juridical notions of power appear to regulate political life in purely negative terms…..But the subjects regulated by such structures are, by virtue of being subjected to them, formed, defined, and reproduced in accordance with the requirements of those structures” (1990, 2). The implication of this for feminists is, according to Butler, that “feminist critique ought also to understand how the category of ‘women’, the subject of feminism, is produced and restrained by the very structures of power through which emancipation is sought” (1990, 2). This Foucaultian insight into the nature of subjection – into the ways in which becoming a subject means at the same time being subjected to power relations – thus forms the basis for Butler’s trenchant critique of the category of women, and for her call for a subversive performance of the gender norms that govern the production of gender identity. In Bodies that Matter (1993), Butler extends this analysis to consider the impact of subjection on the bodily materiality of the subject. As she puts is, “power operates for Foucault in the constitution of the very materiality of the subject, in the principle which simultaneously forms and regulates the ‘subject’ of subjectivation” (1993, 34). Thus, for Butler, power understood as subjection is implicated in the process of determining which bodies come to matter, whose lives are livable and whose deaths grievable. In The Psychic Life of Power (1997b), Butler expands further on the Foucaultian notion of subjection, bringing it into dialogue with a Freudian account of the psyche. In the introduction to that text, Butler notes that subjection is a paradoxical form of power. It has an element of domination and subordination, to be sure, but, she writes, “if, following Foucault, we understand power as forming the subject as well, as providing the very condition of its existence and the trajectory of its desire, then power is not simply what we oppose but also, in a strong sense, what we depend on for our existence and what we harbor and preserve in the beings that we are” (1997b, 2). Although Butler credits Foucault with recognizing the fundamentally ambivalent character of subjection, she also argues that he does not offer an account of the specific mechanisms by which the subjected subject is formed. For this, Butler maintains, we need an analysis of the psychic form that power takes, for only such an analysis can illuminate the passionate attachment to power that is characteristic of subjection.

Although many feminists have found Foucault’s analysis of power extremely fruitful and productive, Foucault has also had his share of feminist critics. In a very influential early assessment, Nancy Fraser argues that, although Foucault’s work offers some interesting empirical insights into the functioning of modern power, it is “normatively confused” (Fraser 1989, 31). In his writings on power, Foucault seems to eschew normative categories, preferring instead to describe the way that power functions in local practices and to argue for the appropriate methodology for studying power. He even seems to suggest that such normative notions as autonomy, legitimacy, sovereignty, and so forth, are themselves effects of modern power (this point has been contested recently in the literature on Foucault; see Allen 2008a and Oksala 2005). Fraser claims that this attempt to remain normatively neutral or even critical of normativity is incompatible with the politically engaged character of Foucault’s writings. Thus, for example, although Foucault claims that power is always accompanied by resistance, Fraser argues that he cannot explain why domination ought to be resisted. As she puts it, “only with the introduction of normative notions of some kind could Foucault begin to answer such questions. Only with the introduction of normative notions could he begin to tell us what is wrong with the modern power/knowledge regime and why we ought to oppose it” (1989, 29). Other feminists have criticized the Foucaultian claim that the subject is an effect of power. According to feminists such as Linda Martín Alcoff and Seyla Benhabib, such a claim implies a denial of agency that is incompatible with the demands of feminism as an emancipatory social movement (Alcoff 1990, Benhabib 1992, and Benhabib et al. 1995; for a reply to this line of criticism, see Allen 2008a chs. 2 and 3). Finally, Nancy Hartsock (1990 and 1996) calls into question the usefulness of Foucault’s work as an analytical tool. Hartsock makes two related arguments against Foucault. First, she argues that his analysis of power is not a theory for women because it does not examine power from the epistemological point of view of the subordinated; in her view, Foucault analyzes power from the perspective of the colonizer, rather than the colonized (1990). Second, Foucault’s analysis of power fails to adequately theorize structural relations of inequality and domination that undergird women’s subordination; this is related to the first argument because “domination, viewed from above, is more likely to look like equality”(1996, 39; for a response to this critique, see Allen 1996 and 1999).

Despite these and other trenchant feminist critiques of Foucault (see, for example, Hekman, ed. 1996 and Ramazanoglu, ed. 1993), his analysis of power continues to be an extremely useful resource for feminist conceptions of domination. For recent important feminist work that draws on Foucault’s genealogical method to offer an intersectional analysis of racism and gender or sexual oppression see Feder (2007) and McWhorter (2009).

Postcolonial and decolonial theory offer overlapping critiques of historical and contemporary practices and discourses of imperial and colonial domination. Yet they also have distinct lineages, theoretical commitments, and implications (for helpful discussion, see Bhambra 2014 and Ramamurthy and Tambe 2017). Postcolonial theory rose to prominence in the late 20th century, in association with the groundbreaking work of Edward Said (1979) and the Subaltern Studies Collective, and has been most influential in literary and cultural studies. Taking as its primary point of reference the northern European colonization of Southeast Asia and focusing primarily on the discursive and cultural effects of colonialism, postcolonial theory is deeply (though not uncritically) influenced by poststruturalism, particularly the work of Foucault and Jacques Derrida. Decolonial theory emerged somewhat later, in the early 2000s, in association with the Latin American and Carribean scholars in the Modernity/Coloniality group. Its primary point of reference is the colonization of the Americas that began in 1492. Heavily influenced by Latin American Marxism, world systems theory, and indigenous political struggles, decolonial theory focuses on the connections between capitalism, colonialism, and racial hierarchies. Although these two approaches are not mutually exclusive, decolonial theory is often viewed as the more radical of the two, due to its broader historical range and its calls for epistemic decolonization and delinking from capitalist modernity/coloniality (Ruíz 2021).

Gayatri Spivak's “Can the Subaltern Speak?” (1988) is widely viewed as the watershed text in postcolonial feminism. Spivak's essay opens with a critical discussion of an exchange betweeen Foucault and Gilles Deleuze, in which they reject the idea of speaking for the oppressed, insisting instead that the oppressed should speak for themselves. The first part of her essay is devoted to a critique of this claim and of the myriad ways in which Foucault and Deleuze ignore the epistemic violence of imperialism. It is Foucault and Deleuze’s insistence that the oppressed “can speak and know their conditions” that leads Spivak to formulate her famous question, “can the subaltern speak?” (78). If, as Spivak goes on to suggest, the subaltern can not speak, then the “subaltern as female is even more deeply in shadow” (83). Drawing on the example of the British banning the practice of sati in colonial India, Spivak suggests that the subaltern cannot speak because she is caught between imperialist discourse and patriarchal traditionalism, neither of which enables her to voice her experience: “Between patriarchy and imperialism, subject-constitution and object-formation, the figure of the woman disappears, not into a pristine nothingness, but into a violent shuttling which is the displaced figuration of the ‘third world woman’ caught between tradition and modernization” (102). In other words, there is no space from which the subaltern as female can speak and no way she can be heard or read.

Another emblematic text in postcolonial feminism is Chandra Talpade Mohanty's “Under Western Eyes” (1988). Mohanty's essay is framed as a critique of Western feminist analyses of “Third World Women” for their reductive and overly simplistic understandings of power and oppression. In such discourses, as Mohanty explains, “power is automatically defined in binary terms: people who have it (read: men) and people who do not (read: women). Men exploit, women are exploited. Such simplistic formulations are historically reductive; they are also ineffectual in designing strategies to combat oppressions” (73). By contrast, Mohanty calls for an intersectional understanding of power that refuses to homogenize or falsely universalize women's experience: “the…homogenization of class, race, religion, and daily material practices of women in the Third World can create a false sense of the commonality of oppressions, interests, and struggles between and among women globally. Beyond sisterhood there are still racism, colonialism, and imperialism” (77). Furthermore, by representing “Third World Women” as mere passive objects or victims of oppression, Western feminists implicitly position themselves as active subjects of resistance and revolutionary agents – which Mohanty calls “the colonialist move” (79).

Much of the agenda for decolonial feminism was set by Lugones in a pair of essays published in Hypatia (2007 and 2010). Building on the work of Anibal Quijano (2000), who argued that racialization is rooted in the structure of colonial capitalism, Lugones contends that gender itself is “a colonial concept and mode of organization of relations of production, property relations, of cosmologies and ways of knowing” (2007, 186). Seeing gender as a colonial concept enables feminists to break out of the ahistorical framework of patriarchy. As she explains: “To understand the relation of the birth of the colonial/modern gender system to the birth of global colonial capitalism–with the centrality of the coloniality of power to that system of global power–is to understand our present organization of life anew” (2007, 187). Lugones's decolonial feminist framework combines the insights of intersectionality theory with Quijano’s understanding of the coloniality of power (2007, 187–88). This brings into focus what Lugones calls the “modern/colonial gender system” (2007, 189), a system that is characterized by strict sexual dimorphism and presumed correspondence between biological sex and gender. In the later essay, Lugones simplifies her formulation somewhat: “I call the analysis of racialized, capitalist, gender oppression ”the coloniality of gender.“ I call the possibility of overcoming the coloniality of gender ”decolonial feminism“” (2010, 747).

Although most of the approaches to dominaiton discussed above have been informed by the Continental philosophical tradition, analytic feminists have made important contributions to the feminist literature on domination as well. For example, Ann Cudd (2006) draws on the framework of rational choice theory to analyze oppression (for related work on rational choice theory and power, see Dowding 2001 and 2009; for critical discussion, see Allen 2008c).

Cudd defines oppression in terms of four conditions: 1) the group condition, which states that individuals are subjected to unjust treatment because of their membership (or ascribed membership) in certain social groups (Cudd 2006, 21); 2) the harm condition, which stipulates that individuals are systematically and unfairly harmed as a result of such membership (Cudd 2006, 21); 3) the coercion condition, which specifies that the harms that those individuals suffer are brought about through unjustified coercion (Cudd 2006, 22); and 4) the privilege condition, which states that such coercive, group-based harms count as oppression only when there exist other social groups who derive a reciprocal privilege or benefit from that unjust harm (Cudd 2006, 22–23). Cudd then defines oppression as “an objective social phenomenon” characterized by these four conditions (Cudd 2006, 23).

As Cudd sees it, the most difficult and interesting question that an analysis of oppression must confront is the “endurance question: how does oppression endure over time in spite of humans’ rough natural equality?” (Cudd 2006, 25). Any satisfactory answer to this question must draw on a combination of empirical, social-scientific research and normative philosophical theorizing, inasmuch as a theory of oppression is an explanatory theory of a normative concept (Cudd 2006, 26). (That oppression is a normative – rather than a purely descriptive – concept is evident from the fact that it is defined as an unjust or unfair set of power relations). Cudd argues that social-theoretical frameworks such as functionalism, psychoanalysis, and evolutionary psychology are inadequate for theorizing oppression (Cudd 2006, 39–45). Structural rational choice theory, in her view, best meets reasonable criteria of explanatory adequacy and therefore provides the best social-theoretical framework for analyzing oppression. By appealing to a structural theory of rational choice, Cudd’s analysis of oppression avoids relying on assumptions about the psychology of individual agents. Rather, as Cudd puts it, “the structural theory of rational choice assesses the objective social rewards and penalties that are consequent on” the interactions and social status of specific group members and “uses these assessments to impute preferences and beliefs to individuals based purely on their social group memberships” (Cudd 2006, 45). But, as a structural theory of rational choice , the framework assumes “that agents behave rationally in the sense that they choose actions that maximize their (induced) expected utilities” (Cudd 2006, 46). In other words, structural rational choice theory models human actions as “(basically instrumentally rational) individual choice constrained within socially structured payoffs” (Cudd 2006, 37). When utilized to analyze oppression, structural rational choice theory suggests that the key to answering the endurance question lies in the fact that “the oppressed are co-opted through their own short-run rational choices to reinforce the long-run oppression of their social group” (Cudd 2006, 21–22).

Sally Haslanger’s work on gender and racial oppression, like Cudd’s, is heavily informed by the tools of analytic philosophy, though Haslanger also situates her work within the tradition of Critical Theory (see Haslanger 2012, 22–30). Haslanger distinguishes between two kinds of cases of oppression: agent oppression, in which “a person or persons (the oppressor(s)) inflicts harm upon another (the oppressed) wrongfully or unjustly” (314) and structural oppression, in which “the oppression is not an individual wrong but a social/political wrong; that is, it is a problem lying in our collective arrangements, an injustice in our practices or institutions” (314). Having made this distinction, Haslanger then argues for a mixed analysis of oppression that does not attempt to reduce agent oppression to structural oppression or vice versa. The danger of reducing structural oppression to agent oppression – what Haslanger calls the individualistic approach to oppression – is that doing so fails to acknowledge that “sometimes structures themselves, not individuals are the problem” (320). The danger of reducing agent oppression to structural oppression – what Haslanger calls the institutionalist approach – is that such an approach “fails to distinguish those who abuse their power to do wrong and those who are privileged but do not exploit their power” (320). Haslanger’s mixed approach, by contrast, is “attentive simultaneously [and, we might add, non-reductively] to both agents and structures” (11).

Haslanger also connects her account of structural domination and oppression to her analysis of gender. Haslanger offers what she calls a “focal analysis” of gender, according to which the core of gender is “the pattern of social relations that constitute the social classes of men as dominant and women as subordinate” (228). Other things – such as norms, identities, symbols, etc – are then gendered in relation to those social relations. On her analysis, gender categories are defined in terms of how one is socially positioned with respect to a broad complex of oppressive relations between groups that are distinguished from one another by means of sexual difference (see 229–230). As Haslanger explains, the “background idea” informing this account of gender is “that women are oppressed , and that they are oppressed as women ” (231).

By claiming that women are oppressed as women, Haslanger reiterates an earlier claim made by radical feminists such as Catharine MacKinnon (see, for example, MacKinnon 1987, 56–57). Indeed, Haslanger’s analysis is heavily indebted to MacKinnon’s work (see Haslanger 2012, 35–82), though she does not endorse MacKinnon’s strong claims about the link between objectivity and masculinity, nor does she adopt a dyadic (or, to use Haslanger’s terminology, reductively agent focused) understanding of oppression. But, like MacKinnon, Haslanger believes that “gender categories are defined relationally – one is a woman (or a man) by virtue of one’s position in a system of social relations” (58). This means that “one’s gender is an extrinsic property, and…it is not necessary that we each have the gender we now have, or that we have any gender at all” (58). Since the social relations in terms of which gender categories are defined are relations of hierarchical domination and structural oppression, “gender is, by definition, hierarchical: Those who function socially as men have power over those who function socially as women” (61). As Haslanger admits, referencing the sex/gender distinction, this does not mean that all males have power over all females – but it does mean that females who are not subordinated by males are not, strictly speaking, women, and vice versa. Moreover, as Haslanger notes, “MacKinnon’s account of gender, like others that define gender hierarchically, has the consequence that feminism aims to undermine the very distinction it depends upon. If feminism is successful, there will no longer be a gender distinction as such” because the complex of social relations of domination and structural oppression that give gender its meaning will no longer exist (62). While endorsing MacKinnon’s radical conclusion with respect to the currently existing gender categories of ‘man’ and ‘woman’, Haslanger’s own account offers a somewhat more nuanced view that allows for the future possibility of a kind of gender difference that would not be predicted on gender dominance: “gender can be fruitfully understood as a higher order genus that includes not only the hierarchical social positions of man and woman, but potentially other non-hierarchical social positions defined in part by reference to reproductive function. I believe gender as we know it takes hierarchical forms as men and women; but the theoretical move of treating men and women as only two kinds of gender provides resources for thinking about other (actual) genders, and the political possibility of constructing non-hierarchical genders” (235)

Up to this point, this entry has focused on power understood in terms of an oppressive or unjust power-over relationship. I have used the term “domination” to refer to such relationships, though some of the theorists discussed above prefer the terms “oppression” or “subjection,” and others refer to this phenomenon simply as “power.” However, a significant strand of feminist theorizing of power starts with the contention that the conception of power as power-over, domination, or control is implicitly masculinist. In order to avoid such masculinist connotations, many feminists from a variety of theoretical backgrounds have argued for a reconceptualization of power as a capacity or ability, specifically, the capacity to empower or transform oneself and others. Thus, these feminists have tended to understood power not as power-over but as power-to. Wartenberg (1990) argues that this feminist understanding of power, which he calls transformative power, is actually a type of power-over, albeit one that is distinct from domination because it aims at empowering those over whom it is exercised. However, most of the feminists who embrace this transformative or empowerment-based conception of power explicitly define it as an ability or capacity and present it as an alternative to putatively masculine notions of power-over. Thus, in what follows, I will follow their usage rather than Wartenberg’s.

For example, Jean Baker Miller claims that “women’s examination of power…can bring new understanding to the whole concept of power” (Miller 1992, 241). Miller rejects the definition of power as domination; instead, she defines it as “the capacity to produce a change – that is, to move anything from point A or state A to point B or state B” (Miller 1992, 241). Miller suggests that power understood as domination is particularly masculine; from women’s perspective, power is understood differently: “there is enormous validity in women’s not wanting to use power as it is presently conceived and used. Rather, women may want to be powerful in ways that simultaneously enhance, rather than diminish, the power of others” (Miller 1992, 247–248).

Similarly, Virginia Held argues against the masculinist conception of power as “the power to cause others to submit to one’s will, the power that led men to seek hierarchical control and…contractual constraints” (Held 1993, 136). Held views women’s unique experiences as mothers and caregivers as the basis for new insights into power; as she puts it, “the capacity to give birth and to nurture and empower could be the basis for new and more humanly promising conceptions than the ones that now prevail of power, empowerment, and growth” (Held 1993, 137). According to Held, “the power of a mothering person to empower others, to foster transformative growth, is a different sort of power from that of a stronger sword or a dominant will” (Held 1993, 209). On Held’s view, a feminist analysis of society and politics leads to an understanding of power as the capacity to transform and empower oneself and others.

This conception of power as transformative and empowering is also a prominent theme in lesbian feminism and ecofeminism. For example, Sarah Lucia Hoagland is critical of the masculine conception of power with its focus on “state authority, police and armed forces, control of economic resources, control of technology, and hierarchy and chain of command” (Hoagland 1988, 114). Instead, Hoagland defines power as “power-from-within” which she understands as “the power of ability, of choice and engagement. It is creative; and hence it is an affecting and transforming power but not a controlling power” (Hoagland 1988, 118). Similarly, Starhawk claims that she is “on the side of the power that emerges from within, that is inherent in us as the power to grow is inherent in the seed” (Starhawk 1987, 8). For both Hoagland and Starhawk, power-from-within is a positive, life-affirming, and empowering force that stands in stark contrast to power understood as domination, control or imposing one’s will on another.

A similar understanding of power can also be found in the work of the prominent French feminists Luce Irigaray and Hélène Cixous. Irigaray, for example, urges feminists to question the definition of power in phallocratic cultures, for if feminists “aim simply for a change in the distribution of power, leaving intact the power structure itself, then they are resubjecting themselves, deliberately or not, to a phallocratic order” (Irigaray 1985, 81), that is, to a discursive and cultural order that privileges the masculine, represented by the phallus. If we wish to subvert the phallocratic order, according to Irigaray, we will have to reject “a definition of power of the masculine type” (Irigaray 1985, 81). Some feminists interpret Irigaray’s work on sexual difference as suggesting an alternative conception of power as transformative, a conception that is grounded in a specifically feminine economy (see Irigaray 1981 and Kuykendall 1983). Similarly, Cixous claims that “les pouvoirs de la femme” do not consist in mastering or exercising power over others, but instead are a form of “power over oneself” (Cixous 1977, 483–84).

Along similar lines, Nancy Hartsock refers to the understanding of power “as energy and competence rather than dominance” as “the feminist theory of power” (Hartsock 1983, 224). Hartsock argues that precursors of this theory can be found in the work of some women who did not consider themselves to be feminists – most notably, Hannah Arendt, whose rejection of the command-obedience model of power and definition of ‘power’ as “the human ability not just to act but to act in concert” overlaps significantly with the feminist conception of power as empowerment (1970, 44). Arendt’s definition of ‘power’ brings out another aspect of the definition of ‘power’ as empowerment because of her focus on community or collective empowerment (on the relationship between power and community, see Hartsock 1983, 1996). This aspect of empowerment is evident in Mary Parker Follett’s distinction between power-over and power-with; for Follett, power-with is a collective ability that is a function of relationships of reciprocity between members of a group (Follett 1942). Hartsock finds it significant that the theme of power as capacity or empowerment has been so prominent in the work of women who have written about power. In her view, this points in the direction of a feminist standpoint that “should allow us to understand why the masculine community constructed…power, as domination, repression, and death, and why women’s accounts of power differ in specific and systematic ways from those put forward by men….such a standpoint might allow us to put forward an understanding of power that points in more liberatory directions” (Hartsock 1983, 226).

The notion of empowerment has also been taken up widely by advocates of so-called “power feminism.” A reaction against a perceived over-emphasis on women’s victimization and oppression in feminism of the 1980s, power feminism emerged in the 1990s in the writings of feminists such as Camille Paglia, Katie Roiphe, Christina Hoff Sommers, and Naomi Wolf. Although this movement has had more influence in mainstream media and culture than in academia – indeed, in many ways it can be read as a critique of academic feminism – it has also sparked scholarly debate. As Mary Caputi argues in her book Feminism and Power: The Need for Critical Theory (2013), power feminists reject not only the excessive focus on women’s victimization but also the claim, made by earlier empowerment theorists, that women are “sensitive creatures given more to a caring, interconnected web of human relationships than to the rugged individualism espoused by men” (Caputi 2013, 4). In contrast, power feminists endorse a more individualistic, self-assertive, even aggressive conception of empowerment, one that tends to define empowerment in terms of individual choice with little concern for the contexts within which choices are made or the options from which women are able to choose. Caputi argues that power feminism relies on and mimetically reproduces a problematically masculinist conception of power, one “enthralled by the display of ‘power over’ rather than ‘power with’…” (Caputi 2013, xv). As she puts it: “feminism must query the uncritical endorsement of an empowerment aligned with a masculinist will to power, and disown the tough, sassy, self-assured but unthinking ‘feminist’” (Caputi 2013, 17). Because of its tendency to mimic an individualistic, sovereign, and masculinist conception of power over, power feminism, according to Caputi, “does little, if anything, to rethink our conception of power” (Caputi 2013, 89). In order to prompt such a rethinking, Caputi turns to the resources of the early Frankfurt School of critical theory and to the work of Jacques Derrida.

Serene Khader’s Adaptive Preferences and Women’s Empowerment offers another rethinking of empowerment in feminist theory. Focusing on empowerment in the context of international development practice, Khader develops a deliberative perfectionist account of adaptive preferences. Rather than defining adaptive preferences in terms of autonomy deficits, Khader defines them as preferences “inconsistent with basic flourishing…that are formed under conditions nonconductive to basic flourishing and…that we believe people might be persuaded to transform upon normative scrutiny of their preferences and exposure to conditions more conducive to flourishing” (Khader 2011, 42). The perfectionism in her account leads her to emphasize the distinction between merely adaptive preferences – those formed through adaptation to existing social conditions – and what she calls “inappropriately adaptive preferences” (IAPs) – preferences that are adaptive to bad or oppressive social conditions and that are harmful to those who adopt them (52–53). She also insists that IAPs are most often selective rather than global self-entitlement deficits (109), which means that they impact individuals’ sense of their own worth or entitlement to certain goods not globally but rather in particular domains and contexts and in relation to certain specific individuals or groups. This allows her to acknowledge the psychological effects of oppression working through the mechanism of IAPs without denying the possibility of agency on the part of the oppressed.

Khader draws on her deliberative perfectionist account of IAPs to diagnose and move beyond certain controversies over the notion of empowerment that have emerged in feminist development practice and theorizing. As the concept of women’s empowerment has become central to international development practice, feminists have raised concerns about the ideological effects of this shift. While acknowledging that the language of empowerment in development practice can have ideological effects, Khader addresses these concerns by providing a clearer conception of empowerment than the one implicit in the development literature and emphasizing what she understands as the normative core of this concept, its relation to human flourishing. She defines empowerment as the “ process of overcoming one or many IAPs through processes that enhance some element of a person’s concept of self-entitlement and increase her capacity to pursue her own flourishing ” (Khader 2011, 176). This definition of empowerment enables her to rethink certain dilemmas of empowerment that have emerged in development theory and practices. For example, many development practitioners define empowerment in terms of choice, and then struggle to make sense of apparently self-subordinating choices. If choice equals empowerment, then does this mean that the choice to subordinate or disempower oneself is an instance of empowerment? Khader’s finely grained analysis provides an elegant way out of this dilemma by emphasizing the conditions under which choices are made and the tradeoffs among different domains or aspects of flourishing that these conditions may necessitate. Discussing a case of young women in Tanzania who chose to undergo clitoridectomy after receiving education about the practice aimed at empowering them, Khader writes: “Are the young women who choose clitoridectomy disempowered because they have few options for unambiguously pursuing their flourishing or are they empowered because they have exercised agential capacities by making a choice? My analysis of IAP allows us to say both” (187). For Khader, empowerment is a messy, complex, and incremental concept. Her analysis of empowerment enables us to see that “self-subordinating choices can have selective empowering effects under disempowering conditions” (189). But the normative core of her account, its deliberative perfectionism, insists that “a situation where one cannot seek one’s basic flourishing across multiple domains is a tragic one” (189).

The concept of power is central to a wide variety of debates in feminist philosophy. Indeed, the very centrality of this concept to feminist theorizing creates difficulties in writing an entry such as this one: since the concept of power is operative on one way or another in almost all work in feminist theory, it is extremely difficult to place limits on the relevant sources. Throughout, I have emphasized those texts and debates in which the concept of power is a central theme, even if sometimes an implicit one. I have also prioritized those authors and texts that have been most influential within feminist philosophy, as opposed to the wider terrain of feminist theory or gender studies, though I acknowledge that this distinction is difficult to maintain and perhaps not always terribly useful. Debatable as such framing choices may be, they do offer some much needed help in delimiting the range of relevant sources and providing focus and structure to the discussion.

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Student Essay: The Power of Stories to Inspire Strong Leaders

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Maya S. is a Muslim, Egyptian and student athlete who has lived in Saudi Arabia for most of her life. She is 16 and a junior at the American International School of Riyadh, where she is enrolled in the International Baccalaureate program.

In this Student Essay of the Week, Maya talks about how building a platform for others to share their stories has helped her understand why welcoming diversity of thought and experience will make her a stronger, more empathetic leader.

Three steps forward and two steps back. That was my reality during the privilege walk.

In October 2018, I was selected along with 50 other high school students to attend a leadership trip to a farm outside Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. We believed that we were all going to learn about how to become leaders with strong voices. However, the trip took a completely unexpected and inspiring turn. Instead, we left knowing how to listen first and speak second.

At the farm, we participated in an activity called a privilege walk , where we were asked to step forward or backward in response to certain questions. From the responses, it became obvious that all of us were struggling with something that those around us knew nothing about.

I learned that the girl beside me once wondered where her next meal would come from. The girl beside her was afraid to leave the house at night because she had been assaulted. The boy to my left had been held at gunpoint. And the boy beside him had a mental disorder. This realization hit me hard. I was able to understand that although it’s impossible for us all to experience the same things, it is possible for us to try and listen to each other and understand each other’s differences. I began to appreciate the meaning of finding beauty in diversity. During that trip I learned that true leaders listen to the voices of others, and as a result they are able to enrich their own points of view.

“Living with anxiety is like feeling alive through the motions of life, but never freely living. It’s being aware of my surroundings, but lost in another world inside my head.”

During the summer of that year, someone I loved dearly was faced with medical issues, and my family began dealing with a lot of uncertainty. Even when it was all over, I felt lost and changed. I couldn’t explain it, but I wished that someone understood. I then began thinking of the people standing around me that day in Riyadh during the privilege walk, and everyone around the world like us. Did we all feel the same desire to be understood? How could we all feel seen and valued, regardless of our stories? I wanted to hear more about the stories of all those kids I met that day in line. I wanted to understand how we all ended up there, despite our different paths. I wanted to create something that would allow them to express their stories.

That summer, I started Voice of Change , a weblog that allows other teenagers to contribute writing that reflects the experiences that have shaped them. The first story I received was “Purpose,” from a girl struggling with depression. She wrote, “Purpose: a reason, a given, motivation , a point. We all live life because we have a purpose. We realize that there is a point, we have motivation and a reason to live. We look forward to things and create opportunities for ourselves. We see a future. Imagine living life feeling as though you have no purpose… That means no reason, no motivation, simply no point… the best way to describe this feeling is as if [you’re] dead. This feeling is depression.”

After I posted the article, which talked about how depression impacted the author’s life, I received comments, emails and texts from others saying that the article communicated what they needed to hear and couldn’t put into words. This initial response fueled the rest of my work. I began receiving other stories about challenging experiences, ranging from sexual assault and racial discrimination, to losing a loved one and struggling with body image. Here are a few powerful quotes from these articles:

“I’m not sure who or what I’m living for, but I’d never want to risk my family members feeling as I do right now. It’s okay that I’m suffering right now, because I have faith that it will pass, eventually it will.” – “Live On”

“I am not ignorant because I’m Arab. I’m not a terrorist because I’m Muslim. I am not a thug because I’m black. I am not who I am because of what you see on the news. I am who I am because of what I’ve been through, and what I have become.” – “Assume”

“Living with anxiety is like feeling alive through the motions of life, but never freely living. It’s being aware of my surroundings but lost in another world inside my head.” – “I Choose Life”

I see my Voice of Change journey as having so much to do with becoming a better leader. It has helped me to see clearly the type of leader I hope to become. I have developed a stronger perspective by understanding the voices and stories of others. I have become more empathetic to other people’s struggles, a quality I will need when I run my own business one day. You can’t understand your customers’ wants or your employees’ needs if you don’t listen and appreciate where they’re coming from. Also, Voice of Change has shown me how much our experiences shape us and contribute to how we see the world and solve problems. Each person offers a unique voice and a different perspective – all powerful and important in their own way.

Related Links

• The Privilege Walk
• What Is Empathy? (Sesame Street)
• Knowledge@Wharton: The Emotional Intelligence Deficit
• Wharton’s McNulty Leadership Program

Conversation Starters

What is empathy and why is it such an important leadership quality? How is empathy related to storytelling? Use the Related Links with this article if you need to better understand empathy.

How have your experiences shaped you? Share your story in the Comment section of this article.

Maya writes that she has come to appreciate “how much our experiences shape us and contribute to how we see the world and solve problems.” Diversity of thought is incredibly powerful in the business world. Why does it hold such value? How does it enrich the team dynamic and important outcomes?

7 comments on “ Student Essay: The Power of Stories to Inspire Strong Leaders ”

Hi Maya, Thank you for sharing your fantastic story with us. Being able to appreciate the people around you and, in first place, yourself is one of the major keys to success and, most importantly, happiness in life, at least according to my experience. We all come from different environments and experiences, the same ones which make us who we are, in our uniqueness and diversity, as you clearly and beautifully stated in your essay. Appreciation is one of those emotions, if that’s how we want to define it, I have learned to consider and embrace later in life, but it is surely the one all the rest comes down to: appreciation for life, appreciation for love from our beloved ones… Having dealt throughout life with friends who coped with depression and anxiety, I can say I have experienced the emotional upheaval that tends to follow this kind of acknowledgements. It gives you a completely different perspective on the world, on the people that surround you and on the way you look at your very own life. On the other hand, I’ve been lucky enough to feel the wonderful sense of relief and joy which comes after helping this people, which taught me the value of the word, indeed, appreciation. In the same way I’ve been able to help my dearest friends deal with these horrible feelings and find a way out of them, I find what you have done with this very same individuals awesome: not only giving them a voice through the blog, but giving their peers the chance to find sympathy and reassurance in their words. Keep it up! And take care.

Sonder – n. The realization that each random passerby is living a life as vivid and complex as your own—populated with their own ambitions, friends, routines, worries and inherited craziness (The Dictionary of Obscure Sorrows).

I believe that sonder, a short and simple made-up word to describe a complex feeling, perfectly captures the spirit of Maya and her article. Maya realized the complexity of the lives of those around her, that every stranger on the leadership trip had their own unique story to tell, filled with their personal struggles. She reaches the conclusion that “each person offers a unique voice and a different perspective – all powerful and important in their own way.”

Sonder, and more broadly, empathy, is a crucial element of being a good leader. I had my own moment of sonder last summer when I had the opportunity to volunteer at my local Chinese senior center. I started volunteering there because I had to fill my school’s requirement for service hours but ended up gaining much more out of it than that. At first, I was wary of taking on the job because my Chinese conversational skills were acceptable at best and rudimentary at worst. However, I quickly found that the seniors were very welcoming and were just happy that someone was willing to sacrifice their time to help out. I performed tasks such as preparing and serving food as well as helped teach ESL and citizenship classes. I learned about the hard work ethic of the workers and volunteers around me while washing apples. I learned about the amiability and habits of the seniors in the lunchroom. There would always be those in the back table playing cards, the younger seniors chatting in the front, and the seasoned mahjong players upstairs. I even had the chance to hear some of their rich stories, stories of their journeys of emigrating from communist China, stories of their successful children, stories of their war experiences, and stories of their hope in America. I truly understood that these seniors, whom I would not have given a second glance on the street, lived such deep and meaningful lives, each of which would be a thrilling standalone novel.

Just like Maya learned to understand those from different backgrounds, I was able to empathize with these seniors and develop an appreciation for their experiences. We should all have empathy for each other in this world full of division and hatred. Sonder helps us have that empathy not only with those close to us but with everyone around us.

When I became the youngest Student Council President of my school, my idea of a strong leader was someone who could command and lead a group of people with total authority the way they like it. So, that’s what I tried to do during my early days as a leader. I thought I would be a strong leader by commanding the student council and demonstrating my full authority over the rest. But after the first month, like Maya, the experience of being a leader took a completely unexpected and inspiring turn. I learned, like Maya, that you have to listen first and speak second. It is by listening to others that makes you a stronger leader because it is easier to command and display your authority. But it is harder to swallow your pride and listen to others when their opinions or stories differ from yours.

Therefore, in the Student Council that I am in, I launched an initiative called “Listen Monday” with the purpose of listening to everyone’s opinions and views in the student council and utilizing them for the betterment of the school.

By understanding the voices of others it has helped me develop a better perspective. I have become more empathetic to others. Listening to others has allowed me to see the full picture that I have never seen. And because I see the bigger picture, I realized that other’s experiences can help shape how I see the world and solve problems. As Maya said, each person offers a unique voice and a different perspective, all-powerful and important in their own way.

I want to thank Maya for inspiring me.

When I became the youngest Student Council President of my school, my idea of a strong leader was someone who could command and lead a group of people with total authority the way they like it. So, that’s what I tried to do during my early days as a leader. I thought I would be a strong leader by commanding the student council and demonstrating my full authority over the rest. But after the first month, like Maya, the experience of being a leader took a completely unexpected and inspiring turn. I learned, like Maya, that you have to listen first and speak second. It is by listening to others that makes you a stronger leader because it is easier to command and display your authority. But it is harder to swallow your pride and listen to others when their opinions or stories differ from yours.

Therefore, in the Student Council that I am in, I launched an initiative called “Listen Monday” with the purpose of listening to everyone’s opinions and views in the student council and utilizing them for the betterment of the school.

By understanding the voices of others it has helped me develop a better perspective. I have become more empathetic to others. Listening to others has allowed me to see the full picture that I have never seen. And because I see the bigger picture, I realized that other’s experiences can help shape how I see the world and solve problems. As Maya said, each person offers a unique voice and a different perspective, all-powerful and important in their own way. I realized exhaustively now that a strong leader is someone that listens first and speak second.

I want to thank Maya for inspiring me to become a better leader.

Hello L Dau K!

Thank you for sharing your experience and lessons as a student council president. Listening to your implementation of listening Mondays has brought me back to a time when I was the storyteller, pouring my life out, not to a student council president, but to my mother.

Before the story begins, I must tell you about my mother. She is a very successful corporate leader of hundreds of people. Of course, when it comes to life, she’s never lost her footing when it comes to parenting. Her dogma for me was always the same as that for her employees. She required me to write a time schedule and reflect on life every day and report my academic progress to her with a PowerPoint presentation every week. Similar to your listening Mondays, but coerced. Of course, these rules also apply to her employees. I argued with her countless times, berating her for treating me, at the time, a 12-year-old, as her employee. Perhaps you have already begun to detest my mother’s parenting philosophy, or that she is just another derelict mother who neglects her children’s emotional needs to give her career 100%. But she was a mother for the first time, and I as her oldest child witnessed her growth and how she became a leader, both to her employees and to me.

Where should I begin my story with this leader? As I counted the episodes that flashed through my mind, neither the long conversation in the evening breeze nor the laughing conversation in the dark living room seemed like the most appropriate beginning of the story. Puzzled, I put down my thoughts and sat down to recall the beginning of our conversations. There’s no longer nameless fear and tension when she approaches me, dreading to hear what she has to say. Instead, I always walked up to her when I found her alone, and the dialogue always began with a sigh. I told her many stories about young love, friends, hobbies, and self-reflection, all parts of me that I was reluctant to reveal in PowerPoints. She is busy all day but never said no when I started a conversation. I could feel that she valued every part of our communication, regardless of how nonsensical it was, taking it wholeheartedly. She would sit down and listen to every word I had to say, and she would take to heart every hint of emotion I tried to convey. She did her best to understand my passions, cater to my needs, and embrace my sentiments. And that’s one of the most valuable lessons she’s taught me as a leader.

My mother’s growth as a leader came naturally to her as she listened to every ebullient story and every heart-wrenching sob. She did what many leaders, even in family relationships, fail to do: give the most attention to her children and subordinates, dwelling on their stories, bringing herself into their emotions, and living their experiences. Simply receiving a comment differentiates from understanding the root of their feedback. Through sharing stories with my mother, as my thoughts became words and leaped out of my mouth, my thoughts received a carrier. The stories I told were imparted with meaning through the process of communication. These words made me who I am and marked every footprint of mine. Not only giving her a chance to guide me but giving me a chance to recourse, bonding two unknown souls by building emotional bridges rather than giving ice-cold PowerPoint presentations. I myself am walking on those bridges, and I will be learning to build them up. Through open communication, we can build bridges high enough to see the world from a bigger view, see the tips of Mt. Everest, hear the mumbles of rhinoceros and vaquitas, and unveil a side of the world that we have never seen before.

In her essay “The Power of Stories to Inspire Strong Leaders”, Maya S. quotes “I was able to understand that although it’s impossible for us to all experience the same things, it is possible for us to try and listen to each other and understand each other’s differences. I began to appreciate the meaning of finding beauty in diversity. During that trip I learned that true leaders listen to the voices of others, and as a result they are able to enrich their own points of view.” This quote taught me that in order to be understood, one must learn to understand.

As an international student living in the states, my school days were certainly different from most of my classmates. There were a lot more plane rides, more hours of memorizing English vocabulary, and less people that paid attention to the struggles I went through. It was hard to focus on the upside of life when I knew that my comfort zone was about 6800 miles away. I felt like I was drowning in my own world, and was unsure of what I needed to do to get out of it.

As time passed, I did learn to embrace my new home. That started with a simple step: Learning about how people here lived. I added Kendrick Lamar and Olivia Rodrigo to my playlist, started to watch the NBA, and reached out for corrections when I didn’t recognize an English word. As I began to understand and appreciate what was around me, it was way easier to fit in. My struggles started to pay off as I received multiple honors and varsity MVP awards. Apart from Academics, I also became much more active in the social circle. I learned more about life here from my new friends, and also taught them some parts of life that I left behind back in Korea. After these changes, I could proudly say that I’m definitely leading my own life.

Maya’s story of the privilege walk reminded me of the change in my perspective before and after trying to understand American culture. At first I was hesitant in getting to know the new environment, but now I see the hidden value of entirely different customs, just like how Maya was able to understand the children with more depth. Furthermore, something Maya did that I greatly appreciate is that she didn’t just stop from enlightenment and took action to advocate for her beliefs. I believe that Maya’s propulsion of creating the “Voice of Change” weblog exemplifies what leaders do to promote their voice to the world. As a person aspiring to be a global leader and a businessman, I was greatly inspired by Maya’s quotes of insight and her action to spread her words.

Our world today is heavily interconnected, and the effects of collaborating across diverse backgrounds have never been more apparent. As I reflect on Maya’s quote and my own understanding, I am reminded that true leaders are distinguished by their ability to seek harmony in differences. My journey from a foreign student drowning in isolation to a confident participant in a global community underscores the transformative power of understanding others to be understood. Of course there are still customs that I cannot resonate with, like pineapple on pizza. But as I step forward into a world of connections and communications, I carry with me the invaluable lesson that true understanding is the cornerstone of meaningful process.

My life has been quite secure from the start, so I can’t say that I very much connect with various problems like this. However, studying about various issues like in schools and textbooks has made me aware of the seriousness of the various social problems. Today, its funny how with increase in awareness and campaign to see how these problems have just been a thing to pass time and maybe get certificates for college without taking issue seriously and then chat-gpting few stuff to say how much gravely you understand the issue. I witnessed this a certain. person which made me wonder maybe this all has just become propaganda for achieving selfish desires instead of really addressing these problems. Instead of making jokes in friend circles do body shaming etc it is necessary to really respect and help others. There were many good quotes in the essay. People should if not participating in camping at least should help others and be aware of these problems around them.

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Knowledge Is Power Essay

Knowledge is power. It can change one’s life and how one views oneself. Besides, it gives us the ability to influence what people do and how they act. This means that knowledge helps positively shape society, which benefits everyone. Education is essential for kids and can aid them greatly. When they learn, they are more likely to do well in school and life. Education is also a vital factor for children’s future. It helps them with future career planning, financial security and social connections. BYJU’S knowledge is power essay is an eye-opener for kids to understand the significance of knowledge.

Importance of Knowledge

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Benefits of Knowledge

Knowledge is an essential part of life. It provides us with opportunities like learning new things and understanding others. Knowledge can help us in our professional lives, which can sometimes be more difficult when we lack knowledge.

Knowledge comes in different forms; it can be the books we read, the speech we listen to, the informative videos we watch, etc.

Some people may think that knowing more is a disadvantage, but they are wrong. If you think about it, driving without knowing properly can be dangerous because you lack the skills required for safe driving. By increasing our knowledge, we can gain control over our life.

Potential of Knowledge

Knowledge is a powerful thing. It can enlighten, empower, and inspire people to do great things. The power of knowledge is seen through its ability to make us understand others and make positive choices for all of us.

The potential of knowledge is to know what one does not know yet. One can be in a situation where they are unsure about something and have questions about it, or it can be a problem where there is too much information, and it’s difficult to filter through. The possibility of knowledge allows people to think outside the box and make connections that others cannot.

The knowledge is power essay in English PDF explores how it can help people grow as a person and change society for good. BYJU’S essay on the topic knowledge is power is enlightening for the little ones. For more essays to improve kids’ learning experience, visit BYJU’S website.

Frequently Asked Questions on Knowledge is Power Essay

Why is knowledge essential.

Knowledge is necessary for the betterment of society and humanity’s progress in the world. It also enhances our life experience by enlightening, empowering, and inspiring people to do great things. The power of knowledge is seen through its ability to make us understand others and make positive choices for all of us.

What is the potential of knowledge?

The potential of knowledge is a term used to describe the idea that the more knowledge we gain, the more our potential increases. This concept can be applied to multiple subjects.

Why should kids refer to BYJU’S knowledge is power essay?

Kids must refer to BYJU’S knowledge is power essay because it helps them understand the importance and potential of knowledge. It also helps them to comprehend the structure and process of writing an essay.

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Essay on Knowledge is Power for Students in 1000 Words

This article, this paper deals with an Essay on Knowledge is Power for Students. It is a very crucial topic and will surely benefit all in your life. Here you will get the proof why it is called ‘Knowledge is Power’.

Table of Contents

Introduction (Essay on Knowledge is Power)

Knowledge brings a lot of favors to those who want to try it for themselves. It gives them the profound meaning of the different designs in the lives within the background of the society where they live & practice. Why awareness has changed society’s direction in recent years is something that needs to be carefully understood although there is some evidence suggesting this very same reason.

Bacon’s statement is in line with modern society’s standards and principles, even though the community as a whole appreciates persons that have the tacit knowledge within their folds and can, therefore, build with no difficulty onto the verbal and conversational dictum.

Importance of Knowledge

There are very few other people who understand the significance of the information. Not that every educated person is intelligent, but every qualified person is educated . The statement might sound strange, but it is real. Almost anyone in today’s world is trained, yet they don’t have an understanding of the issue they have learned.

Benefits of Knowledge

Besides, awareness is an essential tool for bringing about positive changes in society and the country. Knowledge provides us with a glimpse of our potential and what we should do there. The consequence of the information is all the countries around the world using technologically advanced machinery and equipment, and several other things. Weapons or bombs may not make a country secure but knowledge.

It is simple as well as simplistic to attribute this to the abundant natural resources as well as the surplus amount of new technologies if you look at America’s rise to prominence during most of the previous war era. We need to remember how these innovations came across and how they are used for a successful end.

Perspective of Knowledge

In conclusion, we may say real knowledge allows an individual to flourish. It also holds people away from war and abuse. Besides, knowledge is bringing the nation peace and prosperity. Knowledge, most of all opens doors for everybody to succeed. I hope you will like this Essay on Knowledge is Power.

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Essay on If I Have a Superpower

Students are often asked to write an essay on If I Have a Superpower in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on If I Have a Superpower

Introduction.

Imagine a world where you have a superpower. The ability to do something extraordinary, beyond human capabilities, is thrilling. If I have a superpower, I would choose the power of invisibility.

Why Invisibility?

Invisibility can make me unseen to everyone. It’s a unique power that can help me explore uncharted territories without being noticed.

Benefits of Invisibility

With invisibility, I can help others secretly. I can prevent accidents, stop crimes, and ensure safety, becoming an unseen hero.

Having a superpower like invisibility can be exciting and beneficial. It’s a power I would love to have.

250 Words Essay on If I Have a Superpower

Rectifying past mistakes.

The ability to travel back in time would enable me to fix past errors. We all have moments in our lives we regret and wish to change. With such a power, I could revisit those moments and make better decisions, leading to improved outcomes.

Foreseeing Future Consequences

Equally captivating is the potential to leap into the future. This would allow me to understand the implications of my present actions and make necessary adjustments. It would provide a unique perspective on life, where I could balance my actions based on their future impact.

Challenges and Ethical Dilemmas

This superpower, however, would come with its own set of challenges and ethical dilemmas. Would it be right to change the past and alter the course of history? Would knowing the future rob life of its spontaneity and thrill? These are questions that need careful consideration.

In conclusion, having a superpower such as time manipulation could be a double-edged sword, offering remarkable advantages but also posing significant ethical concerns. It’s a fascinating thought experiment that encourages us to reflect on our actions and their consequences, thus promoting personal growth and responsibility.

500 Words Essay on If I Have a Superpower

Superpowers have always been a fascinating concept, capturing the imagination of many, especially in popular culture. If I were to have a superpower, I would choose the ability to manipulate time. This essay explores the implications of this power, its potential uses, and the ethical considerations it would entail.

The Power to Manipulate Time

Implications and applications.

In a personal context, this power could be used for self-improvement. It could provide unlimited time to learn and acquire new skills, to read every book one has ever wanted to read, or to simply take a moment’s respite in an increasingly fast-paced world. On a broader scale, it could be used to avert disasters, solve complex problems, or even prevent crimes before they happen.

However, it is important to consider the ethical implications of such power. The ability to manipulate time could easily be misused, leading to a form of temporal tyranny. It could disrupt the natural flow of life and potentially result in catastrophic consequences.

Ethical Considerations

Furthermore, there’s the question of who gets to decide what events should be changed. The power to alter the course of history is a significant responsibility, and it’s uncertain whether any individual could handle such a responsibility without bias or error.

In conclusion, while the ability to manipulate time could be a powerful tool for personal growth and societal improvement, it is fraught with ethical dilemmas and potential risks. It underscores the importance of using power responsibly and the need for checks and balances even in hypothetical scenarios. The allure of superpowers often lies in their potential for good, but it is equally important to consider their potential for harm. This introspection can serve as a metaphor for our use of power in general, reminding us to wield it with care, responsibility, and respect for the autonomy of others.

Apart from these, you can look at all the essays by clicking here .

Happy studying!

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Essay on Women Empowerment for Students and Children

500+ words essay on women empowerment.

Women empowerment refers to making women powerful to make them capable of deciding for themselves. Women have suffered a lot through the years at the hands of men. In earlier centuries, they were treated as almost non-existent. As if all the rights belonged to men even something as basic as voting. As the times evolved, women realized their power. There on began the revolution for women empowerment.

As women were not allowed to make decisions for them, women empowerment came in like a breath of fresh air. It made them aware of their rights and how they must make their own place in society rather than depending on a man. It recognized the fact that things cannot simply work in someone’s favor because of their gender. However, we still have a long way to go when we talk about the reasons why we need it.

Need for Women Empowerment

Almost every country, no matter how progressive has a history of ill-treating women. In other words, women from all over the world have been rebellious to reach the status they have today. While the western countries are still making progress, third world countries like India still lack behind in Women Empowerment.

Moreover, the education and freedom scenario is very regressive here. Women are not allowed to pursue higher education, they are married off early. The men are still dominating women in some regions like it’s the woman’s duty to work for him endlessly. They do not let them go out or have freedom of any kind.

In addition, domestic violence is a major problem in India. The men beat up their wife and abuse them as they think women are their property. More so, because women are afraid to speak up. Similarly, the women who do actually work get paid less than their male counterparts. It is downright unfair and sexist to pay someone less for the same work because of their gender. Thus, we see how women empowerment is the need of the hour. We need to empower these women to speak up for themselves and never be a victim of injustice .

How to Empower Women?

There are various ways in how one can empower women. The individuals and government must both come together to make it happen. Education for girls must be made compulsory so that women can become illiterate to make a life for themselves.

Women must be given equal opportunities in every field, irrespective of gender. Moreover, they must also be given equal pay. We can empower women by abolishing child marriage. Various programs must be held where they can be taught skills to fend for themselves in case they face financial crisis .

Most importantly, the shame of divorce and abuse must be thrown out of the window. Many women stay in abusive relationships because of the fear of society. Parents must teach their daughters it is okay to come home divorced rather than in a coffin.

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• How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

Published on January 11, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on August 15, 2023 by Eoghan Ryan.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . It usually comes near the end of your introduction .

Your thesis will look a bit different depending on the type of essay you’re writing. But the thesis statement should always clearly state the main idea you want to get across. Everything else in your essay should relate back to this idea.

You can write your thesis statement by following four simple steps:

• Start with a question
• Write your initial answer
• Develop your answer
• Refine your thesis statement

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Table of contents

What is a thesis statement, placement of the thesis statement, step 1: start with a question, step 2: write your initial answer, step 3: develop your answer, step 4: refine your thesis statement, types of thesis statements, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about thesis statements.

A thesis statement summarizes the central points of your essay. It is a signpost telling the reader what the essay will argue and why.

The best thesis statements are:

• Concise: A good thesis statement is short and sweet—don’t use more words than necessary. State your point clearly and directly in one or two sentences.
• Contentious: Your thesis shouldn’t be a simple statement of fact that everyone already knows. A good thesis statement is a claim that requires further evidence or analysis to back it up.
• Coherent: Everything mentioned in your thesis statement must be supported and explained in the rest of your paper.

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The thesis statement generally appears at the end of your essay introduction or research paper introduction .

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts and among young people more generally is hotly debated. For many who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education: the internet facilitates easier access to information, exposure to different perspectives, and a flexible learning environment for both students and teachers.

You should come up with an initial thesis, sometimes called a working thesis , early in the writing process . As soon as you’ve decided on your essay topic , you need to work out what you want to say about it—a clear thesis will give your essay direction and structure.

You might already have a question in your assignment, but if not, try to come up with your own. What would you like to find out or decide about your topic?

For example, you might ask:

After some initial research, you can formulate a tentative answer to this question. At this stage it can be simple, and it should guide the research process and writing process .

Now you need to consider why this is your answer and how you will convince your reader to agree with you. As you read more about your topic and begin writing, your answer should get more detailed.

In your essay about the internet and education, the thesis states your position and sketches out the key arguments you’ll use to support it.

The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education because it facilitates easier access to information.

In your essay about braille, the thesis statement summarizes the key historical development that you’ll explain.

The invention of braille in the 19th century transformed the lives of blind people, allowing them to participate more actively in public life.

A strong thesis statement should tell the reader:

• Why you hold this position
• What they’ll learn from your essay
• The key points of your argument or narrative

The final thesis statement doesn’t just state your position, but summarizes your overall argument or the entire topic you’re going to explain. To strengthen a weak thesis statement, it can help to consider the broader context of your topic.

These examples are more specific and show that you’ll explore your topic in depth.

Your thesis statement should match the goals of your essay, which vary depending on the type of essay you’re writing:

• In an argumentative essay , your thesis statement should take a strong position. Your aim in the essay is to convince your reader of this thesis based on evidence and logical reasoning.
• In an expository essay , you’ll aim to explain the facts of a topic or process. Your thesis statement doesn’t have to include a strong opinion in this case, but it should clearly state the central point you want to make, and mention the key elements you’ll explain.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

Follow these four steps to come up with a thesis statement :

• Ask a question about your topic .
• Write your initial answer.
• Develop your answer by including reasons.
• Refine your answer, adding more detail and nuance.

The thesis statement should be placed at the end of your essay introduction .

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Home — Essay Samples — Science — Language — The Power of Language: How Words Shape Our World

The Power of Language: How Words Shape Our World

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The essence of language and communication, the complex relationship between language and power, using language to promote transparency, accountability, and equity.

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Incident in the Park Question

Lack of courtesy between the police and civilians leads to lethal conflicts. Justify the validity of this statement using illustrations from Meja Mwangi’s incident in the park.

Lack of courtesy between the police and civilians leads to lethal conflicts. justify the validity of thisstatement using illustrations from meja mwangi’s incident in the park. (20 marks).

• Across the world, over centuries, the behaviour of some of the police officers has caused dire repercussions. Sometimes this happens due to excessive use of force or simply wrongful application of the law and policies, but majorly this occurs as a result of impolitel interactions between the two parties.
• Incident in the Park shows how city dwellers, hawkers and loafers find themselves in conflicts with the police over flimsy and petty reasons often ending unpleasantly. When the two constables accost the fruit peddler, he gets startled and confused. They demand for his licence and identity card which he obviously doesn’t have. Then he offers five shillings which doesn’t seem good enough as one constable shrugs. This means that at times if the offer were attractive, they would have accepted it and left him.
• The police refuse to listen to the fruit merchant and harshly shove him along the street to the city telling him he will explain to the judge. This complicates matters even more because the fruit- seller fears the judge more, It throws him into more panic as he has a case that is coming up the following week and the judge is a “tyrant”. He explains further that he is selling this time so that he can afford a fine but all his entreaties fall on deaf ears They remain unimpressed saying nothing until he breaks away and flees into the crowded city.
• The situation escalates when the constables chase the fleeing man shouting for help from the passers-by. They actually betroth him unto the mob. A city man intercepts him and another man lunges for him as shouts increase. Tossed here and there as a suspect, the desperate fruit peddler stumbles and falls into a ditch, No one seems to care to find out what really is happening before taking action. No one listens as he pleads for mercy, This is where he meets his Verdict’ which is death. According to the crowd, ‘justice’ is administered. The mob universally condemn him without plausible evidence.
• ​By the time the police arrive at the scene, it is too late. Their action is irreversible and fatal. The mob has already killed him for being a “thief”. They who are supposed to ensure public safety and security have aided the killing of a hardworking hawker by their silly mistake. This should not have happened if they had treated the man politely. An innocent life is so unnecessarily lost. This makes the public lose confidence in the police. After investigations the truth will come out and it will be hard to trust the police.
• ​In a nutshell, wanton conflicts and deaths of innocent citizens could be averted if the police handled matters with courtesy and sobriety

Drawing illustrations from Meja Mwangi's an incident in the park, write an essay to discuss the problems of urbanization

Points of interpretation

• Unemployment
• Overpopulation
• Social injustice/mob justice
• Conflict between the constables and the hawkers
• Unhygienic condition

A man of Awesome Power Question

“When one is given power, he/she should use it only for good but more often than not, people use it for wrong purpose.” Support this statement basing your argument from Nagulb  Mahfouz’s A man of Awesome Power.

• When one is given power, he/she should use it only for good but more often than not people us it f or wrong purposes. Support this statement basing your argument from Naguib Mahfouz’s ‘A Man of Awesome Power’ Many people who are in powerful positions or who have been gifted with some sort of power tend to abuse it. Instead of utilizing it for improvement of the society at large, they use if for their own selfish interests or to punish those that have wronged them, scenario is seen it ‘A Man of Awesome Power through a number of illustrations. We see Tayyib al-Mahdi utilizing the power given to him for revenge. This is not a good a way of power utilization as it causes harm to others. Tayyib realizes that he has power to order things to be and he sets out to utilize the power to change’ his country. However, the first episode where he utilizes this power shows that he is utilizing it to hit back at a person who offends him. The driver of the taxi that he hails suffers his wrath for refusing to stop. When Tayyib is on his way to the heart of the town, he hails a taxi but the driver simply waves a hand at him in haughty refuses. Tayyib’s irritation makes him stare at the rear wheels of the taxi and the two explode suddenly.
• Revenge:   He ignores the voice that reminds him that he should only use his power for good and lets his anger control him. This act of revenge was deliberate since as Tayyib bypasses the driver he feels that he has taught the man a lesson. By utilizing his power to hit back at the taxi driver. Tayyib shows that people with power use it for wrong purposes .
• Stomach pain:  We further see wrong utilization of power where Tayyib causes the man in the bus to suffer stomach pains. Although the man had physically attacked a woman, causing him to suffer stomach cramps not justified. Tayyib encounters a confrontation between the man and a woman in a public bus and the man ends up slapping the woman. Just like the incident with the taxi driver. Tayyib lets his anger control him where he focused it on the man’s stomach and immediately the man suffers severe cramps that cause him to moan and scream in pain. The pain is so intense that an ambulance had to be called to fetch him.
• Slap paisn: Allowing his anger to control him and causing pain to the man who had slapped a woman is a vengeful act which is wrong thus showing how people with power use it for wrong purposes.
• Radio: Beside. Tayyib uses the power bestowed on him to interfere with the radio presentation by causing the presenter to start sneezing. While seated in the café, he hears a radio announcer expounding on the developments that were to be expected in the future. Tayyib feels that the announce should report on what has been achieved yet instead of giving false hopes to the people. Tayyib thus decided to cause some sneezing to attack the announcer since it was the only way to stop him. Soon after, the announcer develops massive sneezes that prevent him from carrying on with the presentation. Tayyib feels happy and victorious after the unexpected conclusion of the announcement. Although his desire is to purify the broadcasting sector, the approach of causing massive sneezing to the presenter is harmful and thus wrong.
• Passion: Lastly , Tayyib is seen to sue the power given to him to satisfy his sexual passion and desires Tayyib utilizes the power to make a woman that he is attracted to notice him. While he is seated at the tea garden planning how to effectively use his power Tayyib notices a beautiful woman approaching the entrance of the garden. The woman does not notice him at first and Tayyib thinks of how through his powers he can cause her to be head-over-heels with him. He then send her a hidden message and she responds to him. He sees nothing wrong with satisfying his desires as a way of repairing himself. He closes his note book and they surrender to fate. This is an immoral act since Tayyib is married to Haniya whom he had remained faithful to throughout their marriage. People gifted with power should strive to use it only for good purposes and not to cause pain suffering to others or for immoral deeds like Tayyib did.

The Neighbourhood Watch

People living on the streets apply wisdom in order to survive the difficult conditions. Write an essay to qualify this statement citing illustrations from Rem'y Ngamije’s The Neighbourhood Watch.

On the streets, conditions are challenging. One needs experience, knowledge, and sound judgment in addition to dedication and effort to survive.

To endure the harsh conditions on the streets, Neighbourhood Watch members use wisdom.

They  are  shrewd  enough  to  get  up  early  in  the  morning  to  go  food  hunting.  Before  the  full  dawn,  Elias,  Lazarus,  and  Omagano  leave.  They  depart  early  so  they  can  find  the  overflowing  trash  cans  behind  eateries,  which  are  the  true  rewards. One  can  purchase  palatable,  semi-fresh  morsels  in  the  early  morning. The  food  begins  to  spoil  in  the  late  morning.  "The  early  bird  does  not  catch  the  worm,"  the  neighborhood  watch  is  aware.  Elias,  Lazarus,  and  Omagano  prolong  their  strides  in  order  to  arrive  on  time. They  are  aware  that  in  the  streets,  time  is  of  the  importance.

The crew is aware that maintaining strong relationships with other people is essential to their survival. The vast majority of the city's kitchen personnel like working with Elias. They call him "Soldier" or "Captain," respectively. For him and his crew, they occasionally leave produce that is nearly rotting away. Elias occasionally found himself lucky enough to receive rotting mangoes, wrinkled carrots, and potatoes with broken skins due to the positive relationship. The employees would be kind enough to provide them the night before's smushed leftovers, such as half-eaten burgers, sauce-drenched chips, or salads. Since the majority of the kitchen staff is underpaid, they frequently have to carry leftovers home to their own families. It is It is amazing that Elias manages to get some food from them.

Because the Neighbourhood Watch team is so clever, they have divided into specialized units. While Silas and Martin are charged with looking for additional necessities, Elias, Lazarus, and Omagano are always on duty. Elias had previously been living alone, but when he met Lazarus, he suggested that they form a partnership because it was exhausting to scavenge for food and other necessities of life on the streets. Lazarus first resisted. The chilly evenings compelled him to cooperate. Since two individuals could cover more ground, it worked for them.

When not out on a foraging mission, the crew is wise enough to secure a safe haven where they can sleep or simply hide. The Neighbourhood Watch considers the underside of the bridge to be valuable real estate. When it rains and on chilly winter evenings, it provides a crucial shelter. The letters NW painted on the columns have the same impact as a leopard's territory bordering musty pee.Other crews are wise to avoid intruding there for fear of bloody vengeance. Additionally, it provides a secure location to store their supplies so they won't have to carry their sparse belongings with them wherever they go. They would move more slowly if they had more luggage while they searched their neighborhoods for food and other necessities. Elias dials their regional command center. He wakes up the rest of the team in the morning, and they all share a can of water to wash their faces. A safe area is essential to a street family.

They might accomplish more in a day if one searched for food and the other for other necessities. They are aware now that women and children make excellent recruits. Some obstinate guards demand a 10 or 20 dollar bribe before allowing them to go through gated containers. Elias typically pays them, but when he is strapped for cash, Omagano takes care of business alongside a guard behind the garbage. On the other hand, the treasures team offers discarded blankets, beds, clothes, reusable shoes, trolleys, etc. While trolleys are practical, they can also be exchanged for more helpful items. Separately working, the two crews come together in the late afternoon. Bread, mashed potatoes, grapes, and water are shared as food. The valuables crew brings newspapers, plastic piping and poorboy caps.

Additionally, the Neighbourhood Watch is familiar with the city and its neighborhoods. Elias requests the group's rest because they will be going foraging in Ausblick tonight. Right now, it's too hot to be outside. The Neighbourhood Watch is better and more profitable at night. The crew is aware that by hitting the bins early, they may be able to find some useful items in Ausblick, such as broken toasters, blenders, water bottles, teflon pots or pans, flat-screen TV cardboard boxes, and even some food. In Ausblick, people still know how to dispose of stuff.

While Martin and Omagano push the cart, Elias, Lazarus, and Silas will scan the area in front of them for valuables. They are aware that Ausblick, like Olympia and Suiderhof, will soon be congested. Previously, Pionierspark was worthwhile, but not any longer. Presently, the Neighbourhood Watch are dissuaded by ocular prowls, canine barking, and patrol vehicles manned by irate, screaming individuals. They are aware that the faster they can arrive at Ausblick, the better.

The neighborhood watch is aware that living on the streets requires a present-focused mindset rather than one that is preoccupied with the past or the future. Each person enters the streets with a history. Lazarus' tattoos are proof of his time spent in jail. Since he was shot at by the South African Defense Forces, Elias does not fear him. They don't have time to reflect on the past because of their hunger or need for food on the streets. Lazarus and Elias both have some street smarts. He claims that there is only now and no future for the streets. "You must eat today. Your need for refuge today. You have today's needs to attend to.

The staff stays away from the streets on Fridays and Saturdays and makes a secure retreat to Headquarters. They take this action to prevent scuffles with police on patrol. Martin can't go with Silas, despite his desire to do so. Elias and Lazarus make fun of the fools who wait by the side of the road in Klein Windhoek and Eros to fix a window, paint a room, install a sink, or lay some tiles because they are too proud to go scavenging for food. They ultimately return home hungry. Martin believes that if those "fools" could occasionally find employment, perhaps things might improve. There is only now, says Elias, and "maybe is tomorrow." To survive on the streets, one must pay attention to the here and now. "Today is every day."

The rest of the team hears Elias and Lazarus' observations from the streets, including how they came to their decision to switch directions. The group discovered that being near people who are striving to survive is not a good way to survive. When foraging in the underprivileged areas, you only find what people don't require to survive.

The Neighbourhood Watch is aware that poor people only discard filthy waste and useless newborns. You had to be prepared to find shit in the impoverished areas: expired food, condoms that had been used, women's items that had been stained with blood, and broken items. Once, while searching for newspapers to start a fire, Elias and Lazarus were horrified to discover a dead infant. They realized that an upgrade was necessary. Only because they had to survive did they go there.

You do everything and travel everywhere to survive. Being picky is impossible. But now they are aware that they need to advance and visit locations where there is enough trash to go around. Such people live in neighborhoods where there are both white people and black people attempting to pass for white. They finally make the wise decision to leave the impoverished who have nothing to discard on their own.

Finally, the Neighbourhood Watch is astute enough to recognize that some neighborhoods must be avoided. They stay away from Khomsadal because it is busy and overly drunken there. Due of his pride and drunkenness, they lost their friend Amos there. He formerly called people names, used foul language, and never asked for forgiveness. Then he was fatally stabbed.

The neighborhood watch is aware of the problem of dead bodies on the streets. Police would essentially ask witnesses to provide explanations. They beat people with batons, caused paperwork headaches, and detained innocent people. Everyone, including Elias and Lazarus, understood they had to flee when Amos died. When the police caught up with them, they had the good sense to stay with their original explanation that they had nothing to do with the murder. They had fractured ribs, swollen eyes, bruises, bleeding, damaged skin, and injured limbs, but that was better than dying. They know enough to stay far away from Khomsadal.

In conclusion, adversity teaches people how to adapt and survive. Survival depends on acuity.

People with admirable traits stand out. Basing your illustrations on Vrenika Pather's Ninema , write an essay to validate this assertion.

Exemplary attributes arouse respect and approval. Ninema is a young beautiful woman whose praiseworthy character makes her the embodiment of magnificence. She stands out from the pack at the market place.

First, Ninema is industrious. She rises early at 4:00 AM to reap her herbs from her garden. She has green fingers and her crops are healthy. She is also an enterprising businesswoman. To earn a living, she sells fresh produce at the Indian market. She learned the trade from her parents. Her business makes good profit. At the end of a long working day, her hanky bulges with notes and coins. Her diligence makes her remarkably superior to others.

Secondly, Ninema is resilient. She is as tough as old boots. She is contented and accepts her situation but does not resign to it. She faces many challenges and wins. She is thus respected.

Ninema is also focused. She does not pay heed to the trifles when people admire her for her physical beauty. She is indeed a beautiful woman with long black hair. Her beauty turns heads. As she walks balancing her baskets on her head, her hips sway from side to side. Her sari drapes around her perfect body kept in place by her high, firm breasts. Her long, toned arms and cinched waist cause men to stop and stare. She faces them with piercing black eyes. Women admire her high cheekbones. She does not pay heed to the attention. She has laser-like focus on earning a living. She doesn’t waste time chatting with other women at the market because she has no time to waste. Indeed Ninema is focused.

Ninema is good-natured and she treats her customers well. She is wise enough to provide genial customer service. She takes extra care of her first and last customer. She says they bring luck. She learned her trade from her parents and thus she believes in the grace and power of generational knowledge. She is also good at accounting. She can count faster than you can utter the word “herb”. She treats all her loyal customers with respect and appreciation. She masterfully handles the stubborn Mrs. Singh and respectfully calls her auntie.

Furthermore, Ninema is affable and the clients like her. Mr. Chimran is always the first to support her. The other women joke that he is in love with Ninema. He is a rich lawyer from the high Brahmin caste. Nonetheless, he is infatuated with Ninema a poor girl from the low caste. She makes his days. He buys too much from her until the mother complains. He cannot fathom the idea of an arranged marriage which will deny him the chance of visiting Ninema's stall. Mrs. Singh is rich but she also enjoys buying her herbs from Ninema. She haggles for lower prizes simply to spend more time with Ninema, away from the boredom of her big lonely house. She lingers bargaining in order to interact with Ninema more. Ninema also takes personal interest in the lives of her customers. She knows whose son is studying medicine in India, whose daughter just got married, and who moved into a new house and where they bought it.

Ninema is self assured and confident. She runs her business with an iron fist. She is her own person – acts independently with confidence. She does not give in to what other people expect of her. This thrills as much as it irks many people. It makes the ladies in the other stands fond of her. They often compromised themselves at work and at home. This makes them angry with themselves. They look up to Ninema. They admire her since she is different though she’s one of them. They want to learn her secret. Mrs. Singh relentlessly bargains for lower prices but Ninema does not budge.

• Ninema is organized and that is why her business flourishes. She has a steady flow of customers. She arranges her herbs appetizingly. The customers are attracted by the look and smell of her stall. There is high demand for Ninema’s herbs. She is always busy at lunchtime when the rich professionals patronize her during their lunch break.
• Ninema is also tough. When an amorous man blocks her way and tries to harass her, she stares directly at him. She defends herself by fighting him so ferociously that the shameless man is left astounded. This attracts cheers and jeers and hearty laughs of approval from the other women at the market.

Lastly, Ninema is prudent. She is a poor girl living a modest lifestyle but she has big plans. She saves part of her money with a view of buying a big house of her own. Currently her house has neither hot running water nor a kitchen inside. She has to wash her face and feet using cold water in the outside tap. However, with the money she’s saving she plans to buy a house with the running hot water and a kitchen inside. It will have a big garden where she can plant fruits.

In conclusion, Ninema is the pinnacle of magnificence. Because of her praiseworthy traits, she seems remarkably superior to her peers. Indeed, exemplary attributes attract respect and make us stand out.

Ivory Bangles by Eric Ng'maryo. Question

Love knows no bounds though it can lead one to misery if not handled cautiously', write an essay to bring out the truth in this assertion basing your illustrations from the story Ivory Bungles by Eric Ng'maryo.

Introduction.

Affection has no limits, however, it can make one suffer if not handled with care. The old man and his wife love each other too much that he fails to give his wife a ritual beating as demanded by the pebblee earning his wife an untimely demise.

• Out of Love, the old man. fails/refuses to give his wife a ritual beating as demanded by the pebbles. Pg 21, "The seer's pebble said someone was going to die. The pebbles said a wife was going to die. The pebbler said the spirits were jealous of a happy wife, a woman unmolested by her husband until old age, until she was called 'Grandmother'. He is over-whelmed by the love he has for his wife and what he can do to avert the beating. (Pg 22) He suggests they could be appeased by any number of goats. He began telling the wife where he had gone but is carried away when she offers the meals and the warmth. He says, "This was not the atmosphere for discussing the words of the pebbles. He delays this until they agree to hatch a plan to counter attack. In the end, he losesr his wife just as the pebbles had prophesied.
• Out of Love, the old man fails to heed to the advice of the ageing chief to get himself another wife.This was shortly after he was made Councillor as a reward for bravery shown in the Battle of Five Rainy Day, he answers mwith a riddle on why he cannot marry other wives. In the end he loses the wife. Pg 22, "He still was the chief's councillor, much respected, but also much talked about because he had only one wife and a councillor was a small chief and whoever heard of a chief with one wife? The old man fails to marry another wife Out of the love and satisfaction he derived from the one wife he had. In the end, he loses the wife and remains a wifeless chief.
• Out of Love, the Old Man goes out of his way to poach an elephant, extract its tusks which he uses to make coweries for his wife. Pg 23, "She is very comely in the many ivory bangles. she wears. I made them, Sir and the ivory was from the elephant I shot with a poisoned arrow. I brought one of the tusks as it is custom. "People say you bought the bangles, He pretends to a carver. The woman pleased him in the bangles. The ones on her hands were etched with mnemonic marks for a long love poem. He had presented the bangles to her when their first born child, now their only son, was given a name. She had looked like a chief's bride. She later becomes the victim of human-animal conflict when The elephants whose tusks she adorns kill her mercilessly. her. 
• The Old Man's wife out of love for the husband remarks that she knows the seer and that he once wanted to marry. She agrees to hatch a plan in order to go to her mbrother's place in pretence that she has been beaten. Then later call for reconciliation by the parents (Pg 24). She deliberately delays her going to the brother and decides to go first weed the garden, In her own words she says his son has beaten the wife to near death. "Why is my son so different ,from his father?" Pg. 25. As she plans to go while weeding her garden, a rouge elephant trumps her down. In conclusion, Love is good. It knows no limits but coupled with defiance or lack of caution can lead us to unforseen misery. This is clearly seen in the lives of the old man and his wife.

Ninema People with admirable traits stand out. Basing your illustrations on Vrenika Pather's Ninema, write an essay to validate this assertion.

•  Ninema is industrious. She rises early at 4:00 AM to reap her herbs from her garden. She has green fingers and her crops are healthy. She is also an enterprising businesswoman. To earn a living, she sells fresh produce at the Indian market. She learned the trade from her parents. Her business makes a good profit. At the end of a long working day, her hanky bulges with notes and coins. Her diligence makes her remarkably superior to others.
• Ninema is resilient. She is as tough as old boots. She is contented and accepts her situation but does not resign to it. She faces many challenges and wins. She is thus respected.
• Ninema is also focused. She does not pay heed to the trifles when people admire her for her physical beauty. She is indeed a beautiful woman with long black hair. Her beauty turns heads. As she walks balancing her baskets on her head, her hips sway from side to side. Her sari drapes around her perfect body kept in place by her high, firm breasts. Her long, toned arms and cinched waist cause men to stop and stare. She faces them with piercing black eyes. Women admire her high cheekbones. She does not pay heed to the attention. She has a laser-like focus on earning a living. She doesn’t waste time chatting with other women at the market because she has no time to waste. Indeed, Ninema is focused.
• Ninema is good-natured and she treats her customers well. She is wise enough to provide genial customer service. She takes extra care of her first and last customers. She says they bring luck. She learned her trade from her parents and thus she believes in the grace and power of generational knowledge. She is also good at accounting. She can count faster than you can utter the word “herb”. She treats all her loyal customers with respect and appreciation. She masterfully handles the stubborn Mrs. Singh and respectfully calls her auntie.
• Ninema is affable and the clients like her. Mr. Chimran is always the first to support her. The other women joke that he is in love with Ninema. He is a rich lawyer from the high Brahmin caste. Nonetheless, he is infatuated with Ninema a poor girl from the low caste. She makes his days. He buys too much from her until the mother complains. He cannot fathom the idea of an arranged marriage that will deny him the chance of visiting Ninema's stall. Mrs. Singh is rich but she also enjoys buying her herbs from Ninema. She haggles for lower prizes simply to spend more time with Ninema, away from the boredom of her big lonely house. She lingers on bargaining in order to interact with Ninema more. Ninema also takes a personal interest in the lives of her customers. She knows whose son is studying medicine in India, whose daughter just got married, and who moved into a new house and where they bought it.
• Ninema is self-assured and confident. She runs her business with an iron fist. She is her own person – acts independently with confidence. She does not give in to what other people expect of her. This thrills as much as it irks many people. It makes the ladies in the other stands fond of her. They often compromised themselves at work and at home. This makes them angry with themselves. They look up to Ninema. They admire her since she is different though she’s one of them. They want to learn her secret. Mrs. Singh relentlessly bargains for lower prices but Ninema does not budge.
• Ninema is prudent. She is a poor girl living a modest lifestyle but she has big plans. She saves part of her money with a view to buying a big house of her own. Currently, her house has neither hot running water nor a kitchen inside. She has to wash her face and feet using cold water from the outside tap. However, with the money she’s saving she plans to buy a house with running hot water and a kitchen inside. It will have a big garden where she can plant fruits.

In conclusion, Ninema is the pinnacle/embodiment of magnificence. Because of her praiseworthy traits, she seems remarkably superior to her peers. Indeed, exemplary attributes attract respect and make us stand out.

A Man of Awesome Power

Lack of sound judgment results in regret. Making reference to A Man of Awesome Power , write an essay to justify this claim.

Lack of good sense results in misguided decisions which may torment us eternally. In A Man of Awesome Power Tayyib al-Mahdi misuses and in turn loses his awesome power due to moments of rash imprudence.

Tayyib al-Mahdi uses his awesome power to punish the taxi driver who ignores him when he hails it. Tayyib al-Mahdi tries to flag down the taxi but the driver ignores him disdainfully. Unlike when this happened in the past, now Tayyib al-Mahdi is filled with greater irritation. In this moment of anger, he makes an impulsive decision to punish the man. He considers that he could make the driver suffer an accident. He decides to shatter the taxi's rear wheels instead. He knows that he should use his powers only for good but his anger results in his recklessness. As he walks by the helpless man, Tayyib al-Mahdi stares at him, resentful and enraged. He feels like he had taught the man a much needed lesson .

Tayyib al-Mahdi hastily punishes the radio announcer only because he is irritated with his views. The announcer was expounding on promising developments expected in the future this is after Tayyib al-Mahdi's memorable services were mistaken for an awakening of the state or outright renaissance. Tayyib al-Mahdi fills a gaping pothole, locks a dangerously hanging electrical box, removes a pile of rubbish and drains a sewer using his awesome power. Tayyib al-Mahdi is irked by the announcer’s promises who talks about the future instead of talking about what has been accomplished. Tayyib al-Mahdy is overcome with fury and thoughtlessly punishes the man with a bout of incessant sneezing. He sneezes uncontrollably until he cannot speak and instead plays a recorded song “Walk Around and See”. Al-Mahdi plans to censor mass media by stopping any talk that annoys him. He would make speakers that displease him to sneeze spontaneously, emit shrill cries like women at a wedding, or suffer uncontrollable diarrhoea. Tayyib al-Mahdi is drunk with happiness and joy.

Tayyib al-Mahdi also misuses his awesome power when he uses it to chase the gorgeous woman at the zoo at the expense of the righteous plans he has. Tayyib al-Mahdi visits the tea garden at the zoo purposely to properly plan how to put his new powers to greater use. However, he instead uses it to seduce a gorgeous and enticing woman that catches his eye. Tayyib al-Mahdi is filled with an inexplicable desire - one that is not ordinary and his inappropriate since he has a tremendous burden of proper planning and awareness of need. This woman does not take notice of Tayyib al-Mahdi until he sends her a hidden message using his awesome powers, instantly setting her head-over-heels. He decides to heal himself instead of repairing the world. This ill-advised move results in the loss of his powers and his vibrant mood. The miracle disappears like a dream because of his selfish imprudence. He will be haunted eternally by an awesome sadness.

Tayyib al-Mahdi also makes the unwise decision of applying his power before properly planning how to use it. First, he performs random miracles. Some are memorable services like removing a pile of rubbish and draining an open sewer. Others are born out of sheer resentment and unwise personal vendetta for example shattering the taxi wheels. He later realizes that he had to consciously plan how to best utilize the powers. He obtains guides to the department of government, factories and private companies coastal among the things he plans to fix our prisons schools and universities commercial markets, then the press etc. He plans to map out every phase deliberately. He intends to quell any clamor, and deter any digression. He plans to fix his country then later the world. However, he fails to remain focused on the plan and is distracted by the beautiful woman at the zoo. He puts his plans on hold as he instead chooses to use the powers to pursue the woman. This imprudent resolve results in the loss of his power end he is forlornly tormented by an eternal sadness.

Truly, poor decisions are preceded by lack of good judgment and Tayyib al-Mahdi learns this the hard way.

Ninema serves as an example of a virtuous woman who should be emulated in the society. Using illustrations from the short story “Ninema” by Vrenika Pather, discuss this assertion.

• V1. Hardwork Ninema works very hard, selling her fresh produce at the Indian market so as to earn a living. She is Independent and does not wait for handouts from anyone but works very hard to earn herself a decent living
• V2. Resilient Ninema is as tough as old boots. Despite the challenges that Ninema faces, she has her eyes fixed on her goal which is to achieve a good lifestyle (buy her own house) after working so hard. We are told that she has never had running hot water and has to make do with washing her face and feet with cold water from the outside tap. She has to contend with boiling water on the open fire to take her weekly bath.
• V3. Generous Ninema gifts her new customers, the last customer of the day, a bunch of mint for free, which makes the customer very happy and she promiss to always shop for her herbs at Ninema’s stall.
• V4. Self-respecting and courageous Ninema does not condone being disrespected by anyone. When an arrogant man pinched her erect nipple at the market, she stood up for herself to the encouragement and cheers and jeers of the other women. She roughed up the man single-handedly for his immoral and unbecoming behaviour. The other women were so encouraged by this courage and cheered her for having stood firm against the disrespect.
• V5. Ambitious and determined Ninema dreams of owning a home so that she does not have to contend with bullying from landlords, a home where she will have hot water and the kitchen will be in the inside. She vows to work hard to single handedly achieve this.
• V6. Humble Ninema is beautiful and she knows it. Everyone admires her beauty. She however does not let the idea of her beauty get into her head or the idea of peoples’ admiration get into her heart as her chief concern is to earn a living.
• V7. Respectful and accomodative Ninema knows her place in the society, as a woman from the lower caste, she does not entertain Mr. Chinran’s infatuation. He is a rich lawyer from Brahmin caste. Ninema however treats him as she treats all other customers, with respect and appreciation. She also takes a personal intrest in each of her customers despite being very busy. In conclusion, the character of ninema as discussed in this essay is truly admirable and all women should emulate and try to be like her. (Accept any other valid conclusion)

Ivory Bangles

Write a composition to illustrate effects of human-animal conflict drawing illustrations from Eric Ng‟maryo‟s „‟ Ivory Bangles‟‟.

Introduction

Confrontation between wild animals and human being is becoming more rampant in the modern world. During such scenarios, the result becomes adverse both for humans and the animals including and destruction of property. Accept any other relevant introduction

• C1: Death of people Human-animal conflict sometimes gives rise to casualties. People may lose their lives during human-animal confrontation. The Councilors’ wife is killed by a bull elephant. As the scouts chased the elephants which invaded the village with noise and arrows, the bull elephant is wounded. Instead of following the cows into the banana grove, the he elephant picks the path up from the stream out of rage. The elephant enters the Councilors’ grove where his wife had been weeding. The bull attacked the woman, lifting her bodily. It then bashed her on trees and banana plants before putting her on the ground and stamping on her repeatedly. In this manner the woman loses her life.
• C2: Destruction of property Conflict between human and animals also leads to destruction of property. When the councilor’s wife goes to the market, she gets to learn that a herd of elephants have invaded the village. The people express fear that the beasts would be devastating to the young plants. The scouts warn people of the invasion by a herd of elephants. The elephants have invaded the area including banana groves. The animals cross river Marwe into Mtorobo village. The scouts shout to warn the people of Mtoboro that five she elephants have invaded their banana groves. The wounded bull also invades the grove where the wife of the chief’s councilor had been weeding.
• C3: Killing of animals Animals are also killed during confrontation between humans and animals. The killing of animals happens for various reasons. On one the one hand, the scouts strike to scare the animals out of their property as in the case of the wounded bull. Also, at the market, the councilor’ wife gets wind that the village has been invaded by elephants,. People however, are somehow relieved because people who know how to use poisoned arrows are already following the herd. They hope that with poisoned arrows, some can be killed. On the other hand, people kill animals for aesthetics and for money. The Chief appreciates the councilor’s wife saying she is comely in the twenty-four bangles she adorned. The chief is privy to the fact the councilor bought them but he is made to understand that the councilor carved them from the elephant he short with a poisoned arrow. This proves that people may kill animals during human- animal conflict.
• C4: Disturbance There is disturbance during conflict between human beings and animals. When the elephants invade the village, people who know how to use poisoned arrows are appointed to follow them. The scouts monitor the elephants and warn the public the whole day. They climb on top of trees and make noise relaying warning from one scout to another. They warn people as the elephants move from Sangeyo across river Marwe to Mtoboro homestead in Bware village. The elephants cause great disturbance to the people disrupting their activities.
• C5: Injuries to the animals Conflict between people and animals leads to animals being injured by people who attack with a view to driving them away. The bull elephant which eventually kills the woman is enraged because it had been wounded. The elephants are also followed by people who are trained to trained to use arrows.

Conclusion Humans and animals sometimes experience strife with far reaching effects. Animal and humans may cross each other’s paths leading to retaliation and counter-retaliation which turn calamitous as lives and property are lost in the duel.

The Sins of the Fathers

Basing your argument on ‘The Sins of the Fathers’ by Charles Mungoshi, show how Rondo’s scars are as a result of his father’s wrongdoings.

In “The Sins of the Father” by Charles Mungoshi, pain from past experiences and childhood trauma affect present lives and events. For example, Rondo's low self-esteem and bitterness emanates from how his father handled him while growing up.

{Any plausible introduction=2mks}

Points of Interpretations

• Si. Rondo at four/an old guitar/ first disappointment Mr. Rwafa destroys Rondo’s guitar when he is four which guts all the courage out of Rondo and destroys his self-esteem.( Pg. 30-31) Rondo’s uncle gives him an old guitar and his father comes home only to find him strumming tunelessly on the instrument. Out of anger, Mr. Rwafa breaks the guitar strings ultimately throwing the guitar into the fire while claiming that no child of his would be irresponsible rolling stones and idle like Mick Jagers and John Whites. The images of the burning guitar gut all the courage in him. The experience is so traumatizing that he even pees in his shorts. As a result, the incident implants fear in Rondo and he grows up scared of his father. Rondo cannot remember of a time when he was close to his father since his past makes him cry. (pg. 31, 40). His father destroying his guitar creates more rift and space between them ultimately becoming his first disappointment.
• Sii. Stammer. Additionally, Rondo develops a stammer and cannot speak freely due to his father’s harshness towards him. . (Pg. 31-32) Rondo’s father is a disappointed man based on many reasons including the fact that he only has one son. He pursues his duties zealously and fails to distinguish being a father from being a minister. Mr. Rwafa seems to be on a mission to destroy his son perhaps in the quest of searching for a duplicate heir. Rondo cannot answer his father’s questions thus develops a stammer due to his father’s angry nature.
• Siii. Rondo at eight/thrashing/neighbors garden/ripe mangoes Furthermore, Rondo grows up with the feeling of powerlessness based on his past traumatic encounter with his father at eight after helping himself to a neighbor’s ripe mangoes. . (Pg. 40) At that formative stage, Rondo is still learning what is right or wrong. As such, he does not see any problem going into a neighbor’s farm to eat ripe mangoes. His mother comes to his defense only to fail to help even after lifting her skirt in the man’s face. Disparaging names are thrown around. Unfortunately, Mr. Rwafa comes with his thick elephant-hide belt and, even without bothering to find out what the matter was, joins in to thrash his son. Although his mother desperately moves from one man to the other pleading for his release, Rondo feels completely uncomfortable. Consequently, the humiliating experience brings with it a sense of powerlessness that continually haunts him even in his old age. Therefore, his father failing to defend him when he was eight affects his personality later as he becomes powerless in handling life issues.
• Siv. Shadow/fool Also, Rondo continuously thinks of his father as his shadow and he has to rely on him on many things such as his new journalism job. He always thinks his father must be right and is too diminished to think otherwise. As such Rondo is even afraid for his mother whenever she has to oppose Rwafa. His father always does everything for him. His failure to think independently reduces him to a laughing stock at his place of work. His friends think he is a fool and he acts as one. His wife Selina also cautions him to stop being under his father’s shadow. His father finds him a job deciding for him that it is time he earned his upkeep money. Rondo also cannot talk against Mr. Rwafa’s sentiments when in the car back “duck shooting.” It is as though his father controls his every move while directing his life. As a result of remaining in his father’s shadow, Rondo feels as though Selina has always been the main decision maker in their marriage. At work, he also feels incapable of being a good journalist. . (Pg. 28, 29, 32, 41)
• Sv. Birthday party Moreover, during Yuna’s and Rhoda’s birthday party, Mr. Rwafa refers to Rondo as an effeminate spineless son of the family who marry into their enemies’ families, poisoning the pure blood of the Rwafa clan. . (Pg. 39, 40) This the watershed and defining moment in the already sour relationship between a father and son. It is like the proverbial straw that broke the camel’s back. The disrespect that his father shows him makes Rondo feel dejected and he cannot bring himself to look at his father. Rondo cannot bring himself to his feet to even bid farewell to the departing guests. His father’s rant made him feel ashamed and powerless at the same time.
• Svi. Suspicions Rondo suspects that his father Rwafa could have been the one who orchestrated the murders of his daughters Yuna, six and Rhoda, five; and his father-in-law, Basil Mzamane. Recent events have been driving Rondo insane and making him see something else that he had always taken for granted. This is when his friend, Gaston, ask him whether he knows about the Second Street accidents. (pg 33) Rondo feels trapped by this revelation. However, he now accepts what he had refused to think about why his father left the house in morning and what he did before he returned in the evenings. Consequently, the accumulation of events and the history behind them makes him so numb that he is almost a zombie when he has the butt of a gun pointing at his father.
• Svii. Wedding/ marriage/ignominy Rondo’s father fails to acknowledge his marriage to Selina. His father actually frowns and even spit at it instead thus bringing tension in the whole family. Rwafa is one bombed-out battlefield of scars and cannot forgive his ‘enemies’. He calls it an ignominy of marrying a muNdevere and further chagrins his son for having a granddaughter with Ndevere blood as first in the family. After this marriage, nothing can appease Mr. Rwafa. It is as if his son has been written out, written off, disappeared. . (Pg. 31, 34) This has always brought tears to Rondo’s eyes to see his mother and wife together. Due to this tension Rwafa conveniently leaves town ‘on State Business’ for two weeks and does not attended his son’s wedding. Not surprising, the bill for the couples wedding is met by Basil Mzamane though his mother helps in tears. Another result of this strained relationship is that Rondo has lost touch with his father. He feels more close to his father-in-law, Basil Mzamane and would choose him as his father if he had a choice. {Any 4 well developed points=3x4=12marks}

In conclusion, Rondo’s troubles, bitterness, misgivings, powerlessness and low self-esteem are as a result of what his father did or did not do while he was growing up.

‘War can cause a lot of problems in our society and should be avoided at all costs’ With close reference to ‘Boyi’ by Gloria Mwaniga , Write an essay justifying this assertion.

INTRODUCTION (2MKS)

Conflict destroys family ties and communal bonds. Family members are separated from one another, some are traumatized and others are killed as a result of conflict. In Gloria Mwaniga’s ‘Boyi’ the militia which should protect the community land ends up being the one terrorizing the community they vowed to protect. Below are illustrations showing the challenges the community faced as result of conflict within the community.(It can be general/contextual or both)

• W1 Displacement Conflict causes displacement of people who leave their homes in huge masses to Bungoma and Uganda. The family of the narrator’s friend Chemutai moves to Chwele.The villages of Kopsiro, Saromet, Chepyuk and Chebei are engulfed by a fog of fear. The did not understand the Militia’s motive anymore. The Militia took away girls to go cook for them. People’s heads were chopped off and bodies were thrown into river Cheptap-burbur. The Militia also raped their own relatives resulting to children born who were transparent as plastic bags. The narrator imagines Boyi’s children playing appearing transparent as the plastic bags. This horrifies her terribly. Since school is disrupted by the conflict such thoughts haunts the narrator and she spends most of her time idle under the flame tree at home.
• W2 Family Disintegration Most of the families are disunited from the rest of their members. The Militia demanded 40,000 land protection tax, 10,000 land protection tax and 30,000 betrayal tax. Boyi’s father could raise the amount and suggested giving away his savings, precious radio and hunting gun and promises to give his bull Mtabakaki to raise the cash but the Militia is adamant and threatens to kill his entire family. Therefore resulted to giving away Boyi who is only 15years old until he could raise the amount. Boyi’s mother falls into depression, talking in monologues. She shouts at her husband for giving their son away she tears her Kitenge head scurf and tells him that their son is not cloth that one gives away casually. Boyi’s mother and father’s relationship disintegrated as a result of them losing their son to the Militia. Baba tries to justify his action by saying that he had to give him away otherwise the entire family would have have been tortured to death. He, however, is saddened that the boys who had vowed to protect their land had turned on them like a hungry chameleon that eats its intestines. Conflict really ruined their community.
• D3 Mental anguish. Conflict causes devastation that pushes Boyi’s mother to a state of insanity. The narrator finds the mother seated alone on a kiti moto in the kitchen. She neither looks up nor respond to greetings.She screams at the narrator to leave some tea for Boyi who will return from the caves hungry. The screaming goes on for weeks ‘stupid girl you want to finish tea for your brother and he will come from the caves hungry’, she bawls. She would sit stunned gazing at the wall declaring she envisions her son returning home after escaping from the snare of the militia. After her monologues, she would sit sadly and silently. When her madness takes a walk they would brew tea together with the narrator and would nostalgically reminisce stories about Boyi; about how he saved her marriage being a testament that her womb was not tied by Djinis. Conflict drives Baba to partake in strange tradition of burying a banana stem to drive the spirit of death away and appease Boyi’s spirit. The narrator is surprised by her father turning his back on religion. The mother refuses to be part of the ritual of sending her son’s spirit away. She has lost touch with reality and lives in denial. Boyi’s family was traumatized by the militia.
• D4 Misery In her anguish, Mama is too despondent to eat. She sits muttering to herself without touching her ugali until it would form a brown crust. The narrator would take it and throw it away in the chicken coop. She sits and talks to herself for hours on end lamenting about her suffering. She asks God to tie a rope around her stomach. Boyi’s family was devasted that he had been recruited by the militia by force.
• D5 Work disruption Conflict disrupts work in the village. That December the farmers do not clear their farms for the second planting of maize. The militia steals young crops from the fields and goats from pens. Instead of working, men and women sit and exchange dreadful tales of the horrendous cruelty of the militia. The militia cut people and throw their bodies in rivers, pit latrines and wells. They recruit boys as young as ten years who are forced to kill their own relatives. Instead of protecting the land, the militia goes on an indiscriminate killing spreeand their kins are victims of the aggression instead of beneficiaries. Boyi’s sister has a terrible dream that her brother attacks her and chops her head off into small pieces. She is traumatized by this dream.
• D6 Dehumanisation As result of war, innocent children turn into savages. These young boys are forced to murder or rape their own kinsmen. Boyi has gone from a God fearing young man to a wanted criminal. Chesaina tells his parents that he is now a marked man. The distressing news crashes Boyi’s parents and reduces oth of them to tears. They cannot wrap their heads around the fact that their good son who recited Psalms devotedly is now Matwakei’s right hand man and an enemy of the state. War truly ruins families.
• D7 Killings Boyi’s family is devastated by the news of his killing. The nation newspaper headlines screams coldly ‘Ragtag militia leaders killed by Army Forces’ Baba crumples like an old coat due to shock. Mama is too stunned to cry. She simply laughs. Boyi’s sister is too gutted to cry. War has robbed them of their kin in the prime of his youth. Boyi is murdered brutally after being flung out of a helicopter which was mid air. There was no body to bury or for Mama to slap for that matter. She does not roll on the ground as is custom. She is neither bitter nor sad. She only has eyes of lunacy and a voice of death. She truly is devastated. She sits on Boyi’s bed together with the daughter who weeps uncontrollably, her tears soaking her clothes. Boyi’s family was deeply destroyed by the war.

CONCLUSION(2 MKS)

It is evident that conflict or crisis has no positive outcome. It instead destroys families and communities and should therefore be shunned.

 Essay 13

“War causes a lot of harm and thus should be avoided at any cost.” Validate this statement basing your illustrations from Chimamanda Adichie's 'Ghosts'

INTRODUCTION:

Whenever people engage in some form of conflict and fighting, there are grave implications that follow as is seen in Ghosts' where the civil war that happened from the events of July 6, 1967 causing untold suffering and pain to the people.

• (Si) Displacement of people. Many people are forced to run away from their country and their homes when the civil war broke out. Prof. James and Ikenna's meeting take James down the memory lane where he recounts how they were forced to evacuate Nsukka in a hurry in July 6, 1967 when the war began. Through their conversation, we learn that Ikenna has lived in Sweden ever since the war began and has only come back to Nsukka recently. He discloses that he was flown out on Red Cross planes just like many other children had been airlifted to Gabon. Prof. James did not escape the displacement since he and his wife, Ebere had to move to America when the war broke out. Many people are seen to have been forced to leave their motherland as a result of the civil war.
• (Sii) War leads to loss of lives. Several people had their lives cut short due to the civil war. The return of Ikenna comes as a surprise to Prof, James since Ikenna was thought to have died in the war. It is no wonder that Prof initially thought of throwing a handful of sand at him just like his people did to ensure that it was not a ghost. Actual loss of life is seen through Ikenna's family. While explaining to prof the reason why he never returned to Nsukka after the war, Ikenna tells him that his whole family was killed when Orlu was bombed during the war thus he had nobody to come back to. It is not just Ikenna who lost loved ones but Prof too. His first daughter Zik died in the war. He tells Ikenna that the war took Zik. It is no wonder they named their second daughter Nkiruka which means: what is ahead is better.
• (Siii) Massive destruction and loss of property. When Prof James and his wife first returned to Nsukka when the war ended in 1970, they noticed major destructions that had occurred. Prof recounts how they found their house and items destroyed. His books were lying in front of the gate, his Mathematical Annals torn and used as tissue paper, the bath tab used as toilet and their photos ripped and their frames broken. The massive destruction of their house was too much that they had to be assigned a different house in a different street to avoid seeing their old house. In the process of their house being destroyed, they lose their Piano that belonged to Ebere. Prof also remembers the landscape as he drove back to Nsukka after the war. The massive destruction is recounted by Prof shows how destructive war is.
• (Siv) Psychological suffering. Those who experienced and the memories of it. Prof James is seen to have lived with the memories of the war. He easily remembers every detail of the war as he recounts it to Ikenna. Ikenna has suffered psychologically as is seen from the fact that he lost all his family in Orlu hence the reason he does not return to Nsukka. His psychological suffering is further seen from the fact that he never remarries after the war took his wife. Further evidence of psychological pain is seen where Prof observes how his people avoided the topic of war and if they engaged in it, it was with some vagueness. The naming of their second daughter Nkiruka- what is ahead is better, also shows the pain that Prof and Ebere: were trying to avoid. The people also suffer physical pain. Prof.James remembers how a wounded soldier was shoved in their car on the day they returned to Nsukka.

CONCLUSION:

War causes loss of lives, displacement of people and destruction of properties among other effects. People should thus strive to live in harmony and avoid it at all costs.

A Silent Song

People living with disability may face certain limitations. Using illustrations from Leonard Kibera’s A Silent Song, write an essay to validate this statement.

People living with disability find it more difficult to do certain activities or to interact with the world around them. In the short story A Silent Song, Mbane is visually impaired and disabled, and he finds it difficult to move and to conduct other activities because of his disability. (Any other relevant introduction, 2 marks)

Mbane’s movement is inhibited because of his disability. He gropes slowly towards the door of his hut. He can only crawl weakly on his knees and elbows. He cannot go further since the pain in his spine and stomach gather violence rapidly. The pain pangs paralyze him for a short tormenting moment. The pain soon disappears but with the same savage fury of its onslaught, leaving Mbane cold with sweat. He anticipates another imminent attack. Giving up the fight, he lets go his chin and hits his forehead on the dirty flea-ridden floor. Mbane’s freedom of movement is curtailed by his visual impairment, disability and pain. He is restricted to the lonely hut.

Mbane’s perception of time, day or beauty is limited by his inability to see. Although he is hungry, he does not know what time it is. He wallows in the gloom of his eternal night. Time, day and beauty lie beyond the bitter limits of darkness. He is restricted to feeling, hearing and running away from danger. He is also limited to a world of retreat. Due to his lameness, he can only crawl away. He has no power to hit back. Surely, people living with disability suffer certain restrictions.

When his brother brings him from the streets to his home, Mbane is restricted to his new confinement, the hut. His brother says that he rescued him from the barbaric city so that he could see the light of God. The hut is serene but so suspicious. This is Mbane’s new life away from the streets of the city. His new confinement is devoid of the urban ruggedness and noise. It lacks the quick prancing footsteps of the busy city people. In his limitation, Mbane can never fathom their business. Also, he is restricted to pleading with the people to help him stay alive by offering him some coins.

Due to his disability. Mane had little comprehension or knowledge of the city, though he lived in it. He earns his living on one street only, retreating to the back lane when it was deserted. His condition inhibits him from telling the length, width, beauty or the size of the street. He is just used to the talk of bright weather, lovely morning or beautiful sunset but he cannot take part in the small talk. He feels challenged when pedestrians sing to the blue sky and whistle to the gay morning. In his impediment, he cannot perceive these senses. During the day, Mbane has to endure the overly generous heat of the sun and obstinate flies mobbing the edges of his lips. At night, he cannot escape the hostile biting cold when he retreats to the back lane unsheltered, to surrender to his vulnerability to sleep and is occasionally by some ignoble thieves.

Mbane is constrained in his ability to eke out a living since he is disabled. He is forced to beg on that lonely street of the city. Mbane has come to understand that money is the essence of urban life. He is therefore happy with gay people since they mostly answer his plea. Dull people with heavy tired footsteps and voices have empty pockets. Unlike him, the good men and women of the city have the ability to work in the buildings next to him and more up the street. He has no option but to endure the scorching sun and stubborn flies. At night, he is tempted by the strange rhythms but cannot indulge because of his condition. He is limited to hearing voices cursing and singing and bottles cracking. Mbane is restricted from joining the good men’s women’s merry making after a hard day’s work. Only pimps and whores enjoyed the proceeds of the good men’s sweat.

Mbane’s condition has restricted him from getting married. His brother Ezekiel is married to Sarah. He must have been around Mbane’s age. Mbane would never be able to reach out his hand in fullfilement of his life in the same way. He can only yearn impotently, sadly constrained because of his darkness and lameness. He is overcome by bitter self-pity and can only console himself about his own light and thus he would only smile broadly and bravely. His brother’s wife occasionally brings him some bitter medicine. His condition impedes him from getting a wife of his own and settling down.

Mbane has become accustomed to limited conversation or communication. His brother enters his hut and sits on his bed but for a long time no one speaks. Mbane cannot be expected to start a conversation. All his life, he has been speaking to himself in his thoughts while living on the streets. He had no one to address apart from himself. Occasionally, he would blurt out a mechanical plea of “Yes?”. Now, if anyone speaks to him, he carries the subject on a line of uncommunicative thought in his own mind. When his brother asks if he believes in God, Mbane replies that he does not know, since to him he does not matter.

Mbane’s condition makes him feel alienated and thus he holds a different religious view from his mother’s and his brother’s his mother views men as one stream flowing through the rocks of life. They would twist and turn the pebbles and get dirty in the muddy earth. They cry in the falls and whirlpools of life and laugh and sing when the flow is smooth and undisturbed. Some cry in the potholes of life’s valley, while others laugh triumph elsewhere. Mbane’s condition inhibits him to not only ceaselessly crying but also feeling that he is not even part of the stream. He feels like the bitter fluid in his own throat. His pain gives him no reason to believe in God. No one understands his darkness. God is white cleanliness of eternal light but his life only contains darkness and blackness. He is forgotten and unnoticed. Sometimes, he is cursed and called able-bodied, only crippled by idleness of leisurely begging.

Mbane feels trapped in his unwashed body which reeks of sweat. He craves freedom that he cannot achieve. He dreams of a glorious future away from his pangs of darkness where light lies. Right now he is restricted since his eyes are denied the light. He dreams of a future where someone would understand him and raise the innocence of his cripple life along with the chosen. It gives him hope and he sings his own happy song, silently to himself. He cannot seek refuge in the brothels like other men, so he can only find it in his silent song. His soul has a destination, or so he thinks. But for now, he has to make do with it being incarcerated in his sweaty smelly body, which is unwashed except when in the rain. Surely, disability can be limiting.

Conclusion In conclusion, people living with disability undergo many impediments and limitations that deny them some pleasures or opportunities in life/ unlike those who are not disabled, the disabled people face a lot of limitations and challenges, which deny them the opportunity to enjoy life

An incident in the park

"The efforts employed by different individuals in society barely bear fruits. " Using evidence from the story , "An Incident in the Park." by Meja Mwangi, write an essay in support of this assertion.

Ponits of intepretation

• Identification of a character.
• Explaining the efforts the character employs.
• Show the outcome whihc is inversely proportional to the input.

INTRODUCTION

In our day to day lives, we put a lot of efforts in our endeavors but the outcome sometimes demoralizing since it does not merge with the input. For instance, the Azimio leadership put in place all that is expected to win a presidential election hut the outcome was not only demoralizing but also traumatizing. This is also the case in An Incident in the Park." by Meja Mwangi as explained below.

• Ei) The second ice cream man-sales. When the floodgates open, workers swam down the hill into the park. They pass the first ice cream man but the second one, in an effort to sale, he blocks the only way on to the highway, determined to make a sale that day. The swarm swirls round him and over and away. Irrespective of his efforts, that day. just like the day before, not one bar of ice cream is bought by the hungry ones. His bell to attract customers ring lonely and unwelcome like a lost leper's warning bell. (Page 7) In addition, his cries do not yield to any sales as a few men sitting on the cement bank ignored the ice cream man's cries. (Page 8). He is criticized by the loafer and another man when he rings his bell, they say that he is crazy and that he is always hammering the bell and no one wants to buy his ice cream. In fact they suggest that he should go where children are. (Page 9)
• Eii) The shaggy thin man. From the description, the man has been selling fruits since morning but when he makes his calculation, he looks disillusioned from the returns and falls unceremoniously on his back and covers his rough bearded face with two bony hands. A shaggy thin man sat under a shrub, scratching numbers and letters on his black dry skin with a used match. By his side were the two oversize fruit baskets he had been selling from morning and which he would resume hawking after the lunch break. Now he scratched his head with the matchstick and tried to balance the morning sales. He mumbled to himself, cursed and, rolling up his trouser legs, continued writing on his thigh. Finally, he flung the stick away and, wetting his palm with saliva, violently erased what he had scribbled. Then he fell unceremoniously on his back and covered his rough bearded face with two bony hands. (Page 7-8)
• Eiii) The fishpond board markers. At the fishpond, there is a board with the words DO NOT FEED FISH-BY ORDER. However, a loafer wearing torn slippers sits on it and carelessly tosses debris, tiny bits of grass and soil at the hungry fish. The idler sniggers and throws,more rubbish into the water. (Page 8) A huge piece of rock is added and a flattened cigarette. (Page 9). This is contrary to the board markers instructions that flatly fails to achieve fish feeding.
• Eiv) The fruit-seller-pleas. When the two constables come along, they demand for a licence from him. He is first surprised, he searches himself for a few seconds, shakes his head and helplessly declares that he left it at home. He too lacks his identification card. He tries to bribe the constables with five shillings but he is shoved along. When he is told that he will explain everything to the judge, more pleas follow, "You can't take me to that judge, the man will have me hung this time... I've this other case coming up next week... he will surely have me castrated.... I've ten shillings." He swears and offers all the baskets and the cash but when it looks like the constables won't let him go, he flees. (Page 11) His efforts to save himself comes to a sad end when a mob kills him. Here lay a desperate thief, attired in the unmistakable uniform of his trade- dirty torn clothes and a mean hungry face. (Page 12)
• Ev) The two constables/police. The fellows blatantly refuses to listen to the fruit-seller's pleas and take his bribe. They are all committed to ensure that they take the man to a court of law. One says, "You will explain to the judge. No licence, no identification..." (Page 11). They shoved him even when he offers them ten shillings and offers the two baskets. When he breaks lose, the constables pursue him... The constable shot after the fleeing man across the park shouting for help from passers-by. The shouts from one of the constables instead of making passers-by arrest them and hand him to them, they lynch him thinking that he is a thief. The police feel uneasy and uncertain and leave empty-handed. (Page 12)

In conclusion, efforts put in something must be directly proportional to the output.

People commit unethical acts as a result of lack of care. Citing illustrations from Incident in the Park by Meja Mwangi, write an essay to validate this statement.

• Immorality stems from people’s indifference. Unethical acts like negligence and brutality result from lack of care. Blood thirsty city dwellers brutally murder an innocent fruit seller without batting an eyelid in Incident in the Park. Government workers go about their business ignoring the ravaging effects of the drought on the neglected park. The park is dirty and brown. There was no promise of rain that August. The ground is dusty brown, bare and parched. The ministerial offices, City Hall and parliament buildings and the ominous cathedral are a stone throw away from the pathetic looking park. The ministerial offices are modern fortresses and its occupants conveniently ignore the park which clearly lacks proper care. This is evidenced by the dry bits of grass, dry leaves and thirsty trees. Only delicate flowers, planted like oasis islands at various spots, are watered in a desperate effort to keep the dirty brown park beautiful. The sad-looking boathouse and dirty, muddy water sum up the government's lack of care for the park. Secondly, the park is filled with many idlers who have little care in the world. They waste many hours lying idle in the park. They ignore the city and parliament clocks which strike suddenly, together - reminding them of how much time they had wasted. They care less about being useful. The clocks’ pleas go unheeded. Some insolent loafers simply shake their heads defiantly, curse loudly, face the other way and go back to sleep. Only every now and then, does a misplaced idler heed the clocks nagging disapproval and accusing fingers and walk away. The park people have no intention to go anywhere else but while away. They are here to stay. They have arrived. During the afternoons, the park looks parched and almost dead, dotted with a few loungers. More idlers sit by the lake watching the rowers, day in day out. This unproductive lot is a burden to the city and to society. The neglected pond in the park is another sign of lack of care by relevant authorities. The fish pond is dangerously overgrown with weeds. Colourless weeds choke the yellow, blue and purple water lilies. An ugly mishmash of weeds has replaced the aesthetic blue-green surface of the once beautiful pond. Initially, the pond flowers stuck out buds, thick colorful fingers and proclaimed order but not anymore - the existence of these beautiful fauna has been snuffed out by a riot of unclassifiable intruders and bastard flowers. To make matters worse, the park soil has collapsed, forcing the pond’s murky, brown water and bewildered fish to the deeper, further end. The sorry state of the pond points to acute lack of attention or care. The hairy loafer who feeds the fish is defiant. He ignores the public notice on the board that cautions people against feeding the fish. He carelessly tosses debris, tiny bits of grass and soil at the hungry fish. The fish fight for the useless things but let go when they realize they are worthless. The idler throws in more rubbish and carelessly sniggers - he has no iota of empathy whatsoever. He also drops in a piece of soil at the fish. When he learns that fish feeds on insects, he tries to find some and later decides to throw in a flattened cigarette end when he cannot catch any insects. The big fish that catches the cigarette butt releases it since it is useless. At last, the uncaring idler curses after violently hurling a large rock at the confounded fish. His lack of empathy leads him to defy the order not to feed the fish and as a result he harms the fishes. The police constables are callous. They harass innocent people heartlessly, displaying no shred of sympathy. The two city constables accost the old fruit seller and demand for his license and identification. As fate would have it, he has neither. He cannot afford a licence. The old man nods uncomprehendingly and shakes his head sadly when the police demand for a license. He desperately tries to bribe the constables by offering five shillings; all he had made that day. The policeman grabs him by his old coat and remarks that he would explain it to the judge. The old man swears by his mother. He is devastated because he has another case with the cruel judge. A tyrant who would hang him this time round. The fruit seller cries that the judge is crazy and would castrate him but his pleas fall on deaf ears. He offers the constables a 10- shilling bribe and even his foot baskets. The constables remain indifferent even when he cries that he has a wife and children. They do not care. They match him right ahead. When he realizes that he is talking to a brick wall, he decides to leap and run for it but not before cursing the cops, their wives and their children. The judge is portrayed as being unjust or outrightly cruel. When the police insist on taking him to the judge, the old fruit seller cries desperately. He has no licence and identification. He swears by his mother. He already has a case with the judge and he does not want to be taken back. He believes the judge will hung him. He is selling the fruits in order to afford the fine that was earlier imposed. He pleads with the police men as brothers. He even tells them that the judge is a tyrant - a crazy man who will have him castrated. The allusion to his wife and children does not bear any fruits. He tries to bribe the police with 10 shillings and appease them with his fruit basket but the uncaring constables match him ahead. The fruit seller curses the policemen and their families and decides to bolt. He takes this desperate measure to avoid facing the evil, apathetic judge. The bloodthirsty city dwellers have no regard for human life. Realizing that the city constable were adamant about taking him to the judge, the fruit seller decides to run for it. He leaps, breaking away, leaving the policeman holding onto a piece of his one coat. He runs across the park. The policeman shouts for help. The old man hopes to get protection by disappearing into the city dwellers. That was not to be. The barbarous city dwellers lunge at him trying to nab him. The old man is savagely desperate to escape. When he stumbles and falls into a ditch, the ferocious mob stones him to death. He cries out pleading for mercy. The bloodthirsty crowd leaves him for dead, looking like a broken twisted rag doll, covered in stones and a thick red blood. The crowd mistakenly label him as a thief. Lastly, the injustice witnessed after the innocent fruit seller killed is the height of brutality and lack of care. The constable strives to shift blame. No one looks guilty enough. The constables conveniently withdraw. An inspector confirms that the man is dead. The crowd that stoned him and those that witnessed his savage murder lower their eyes. Unwilling to openly testify, some of the residents hurriedly return to their offices, indifferently. The word ‘thief’ oozes out discreetly from mouth to mouth. They mistakenly condemn the man to be a desperate thief. They judge him by the unmistakable uniform of his trade - dirty torn clothes and a mean hungry face. Even the inspector of police is uneasy and doubtful about his next course of action. The poor man finds no justice even in his death. All and sundry conclude that a thief is a thief. The twisted garbage-strewn dark alleyways are lawlessly governed by one savage unwritten law concerning the fate of apprehended thieves. Ironically, the man is killed before his identity is established. Sadly, he can only be identified by his grieving wife and children in a cold room. An innocent life is cut short due to the heartless nature of idle, uncaring city dwellers and the inept police department. In conclusion, any society that lacks benevolence disintegrates into an abyss of lawlessness and immorality.

Humans are deceitful in nature and can live in pretence before revealing their true nature. Write an essay in support of this. Use the story The Truly Married by Aboise Niol.

• Introduction: Human beings have the ability of keeping appearances without being discovered. This is the case as seen in Ajayi’s wife who keeps appearances until the moment she realized she can do without them. This is seen in the text The Truly Married Woman in the following instances. Body Ayo keeps her husband comfortable before marriage by taking her supportive role keenly. She rises up early to prepare Ajayi his favourite cup of morning tea before serving him his breakfast. After her official marriage she changes and doesn’t do this. She instead tells him to do that by himself. ‘’Get up make yourself a cup of tea’’ (p 48) Ayo is a respectful wife to Ajayi. She does not contradict her husband and does that only when it is absolutely necessary. This state of affairs changes immediately after the wedding and might be the norm as seen in her stand on the issue of making tea. (page 43,48) When told about the visit by the three white missionaries, she makes a few amends in order to disguise their actual state. She borrows a ring, changes her dressing and that of the children and replaces the things in the house and on the walls in order to create an impression of religious family. (Page 44,45) Ayo cleverly presents herself to her husband Ajayi as an innocent naïve woman. It is not until she makes a strong argument against the beating of Oju, their san that Ajayi realizes how his wife informed is. This is one the reasons for his decision to wed her. (page 44,45) Omo for long pretends to be a good friend to Ayo until she learns of Ayo’s planned wedding. When Ayo shows her wedding dress, Omo cannot hide her true nature as she is said to be filled with bitterness and anger. She criticizes Ayo and hopes to dissuade Ayo from using the dress. This instance enable Ayo to learn what type of a person Omo is. Before this Omo had presented herself to Ayo as a good realiable kind-hearted friend who offered her wedding ring to Ayo. (page 45,46) Conclusion: People can have a double appearance as it was with the characters discussed above. (any other relevant)

Life for people living with disabilities may be made better if they are accorded all the support they may need. Referring to the short story “A Silent Song” by Leonard Kibera, write an essay to show how the lives of people living with disabilities can be made worthwhile.

Introduction Life for the people living with disabilities can be traumatising to them. However, it is the duty of everyone in the society to try and make their life better by availing them with all the support and assistance they may require. The short story a silent song tries to show the support we may offer the people living with disabilities in the following ways. (Accept any other valid introduction) Points of interpretation

• Mbane had been living in the streets all his life begging in the city where there was a lot of ruggedness and noise, with quick footsteps of people who would keep him alive with a drop of copper in his hat. His brother rescues him from the streets and brings him to his hut which felt so serene. Mbane no longer had to endure hostile cold nights and the basest of thieves he encountered in the streets.
• After being ‘rescued’ from the streets where he spent his nights on the hard pavement, he recounts how no one spoke to him for a long time. He was accustomed to speaking to himself in his thoughts. Ezekiel and his wife however speaks to him despite the fact that he could not start a conversation after getting so much used to being all alone in streets.
• At his brother Ezekiel’s home, Mbane is offered a bed on which he had tried to accustom himself to since being rescued from the hard pavement he was used to in the streets.
• Mbane was convinced that it was a glorious thing to believe, to cling to a dream of a future life. It was glorious this feeling that far far away beyond the pangs of darkness lay light, bigger and more meaningful than that which his eyes were denied. There, someone would understand and raise the innocence of his crippled life along with the chosen. It gave him hope and sang his own happy song silently to himself, secretly. His soul had a destination.
• Mbane’s brother’s wife Sarah takes care of Mbane and tries to alleviate his pain by giving him medicine. She breaks into his hut, slowly and tenderly raises his head and puts the cup to his mouth. The bitter fluid explodes down Mbane’s throat and another attack of pain tears through his stomach. Sarah then assures him that he would be alright soon and god would be with him. (Accept any other relevant well illustrated point) Conclusion
• We, as the members of society should try to alleviate the pain and suffering that the people living with disabilities might be going through by availing them the necessary need they may require. (Accept any other valid conclusion). Introduction: 2 marks Content: 12 marks Conclusion: 2 marks Language: 4 marks

Some cultural practices do not add value hence should be done away with. Show the truth in this statement basing your illustrations from Eric Ng’maryo’s Ivory Bangles.

Some traditions in our societies have lost meaning and should be done away with/abandoned as seen in the story ivory bangles by Eric Ng’maryo.(accept any other relevant introduction) T1 believe in the seer.

• The only visits the seer considered as the priest of people. (pg. 21)
• He goes the seer because of his superstitious nature. He had to consult the seer since he had noted blood specks on the liver of a goat that he had slaughtered (pg. 21) Tthis is a cultural practice that has lost meaning for its meant to drive a wedge between him and his wife.

T2. Polygamy

• his monogamous state was a concern for the aging chief who told him to get another wife (pg. 23)
• he was still the chief’s counselor much respected but much talked about because he had only one wife (pg. 22)
• this shows that the old man’s society values the tradition of polygamy and one who does not engage is considered a failure.

T3. wife beating/molestation (ritual beating)

• The were jealous of a happy wife. A woman unmolested by the husband until old age. It is not acceptable for a wife to enjoy a comfortable life with her husband in this community.
• The husband is expected to molest his wife to ensure that she doesn’t enjoy happiness. Failure to do so could lead to a disastrous outcome as the pebbles foretell wife’s death.
• The pebbles demand the old man gives his wife a through beating and sent her back to her parents. (pg. 22) This is a practice that does not add any value in the marriage.

T4. Naming of children

• naming of children is seen as an essential practice. twenty-four ivory bangles that the wife wears were gifted to her when their only son was given a name.
• the value of child naming is also seen because the old man’s grandson is named after him. The writer refers to the young boy as her husband. (pg230
• this culture is long overtaken by the modernity

CONCLUSION.

• We should embrace the change and do things that do not harm others in the name of cultural practices. (Accept any other relevant conclusion)

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Renewable Energy Integrated Power System Load Frequency Control Based on Multi-Agent Actor-Double-Critic Deep Reinforcement Learning

20 Pages Posted: 7 Sep 2024

affiliation not provided to SSRN

Yonghui Sun

Hohai University

Venkata Dinavahi

University of Alberta

Liu xiaoping

Carleton University

To achieve optimal performance of load frequency control (LFC), a data driven scheme is proposed for renewable power systems in this paper. A multi-agent Actor-Double-Critic deep reinforcement learning approach is developed to ensure real-time scheduling that complies with system safety operation constraints within the LFC power system. A Self-Critic and Cons-Criticnetwork is employed to improve convergence speed during the multi-agent training process. Simulations on a two-area and a three-area LFC powersystem were performed to verify and validate the analytical results. The comparisons with PI control and fuzzy PI control methods show that the presented approach reduces training difficulties, and mitigates the impact of sparse immediate rewards and safety constraint costs, improving the convergence speed in multi-agent training, and ensuring real-time scheduling such that system safety operation constraints can be demonstrate the validity and feasibility of the proposed method.

Keywords: Data driven, deep reinforcement learning, load frequency control, multi-area power system, renewable energy

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

affiliation not provided to SSRN ( email )

No Address Available

Hohai University ( email )

8 Focheng West Road Jiangning District Nanjing, 211100 China

University of Alberta ( email )

Edmonton, T6G 2R3 Canada

Liu Xiaoping (Contact Author)

Carleton university ( email ).

1125 colonel By Drive Ottawa, K1S 5B6 Canada

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