essay about indian history

History of India

India is a land of ancient civilization. India's social, economic, and cultural configurations are the products of a long process of regional expansion. Indian history begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization and the coming of the Aryans. These two phases are usually described as the pre-Vedic and Vedic age. Hinduism arose in the Vedic period. 

The fifth century saw the unification of India under Ashoka, who had converted to Buddhism, and it is in his reign that Buddhism spread in many parts of Asia. In the eighth century Islam came to India for the first time and by the eleventh century had firmly established itself in India as a political force. It resulted into the formation of the Delhi Sultanate, which was finally succeeded by the Mughal Empire, under which India once again achieved a large measure of political unity. 

It was in the 17th century that the Europeans came to India. This coincided with the disintegration of the Mughal Empire, paving the way for regional states. In the contest for supremacy, the English emerged 'victors'. The Rebellion of 1857-58, which sought to restore Indian supremacy, was crushed; and with the subsequent crowning of Victoria as Empress of India, the incorporation of India into the empire was complete. It was followed by India's struggle for independence, which we got in the year 1947.

India Timeline

Indian timeline takes us on a journey of the history of the subcontinent. Right from the ancient India, which included Bangladesh and Pakistan, to the free and divided India, this time line covers each and every aspect related to the past as well as present of the country. Read on further to explore the timeline of India.

Economic History of India

Indus valley civilization, which flourished between 2800 BC and 1800 BC, had an advanced and flourishing economic system. The Indus valley people practiced agriculture, domesticated animals, made tools and weapons from copper, bronze and tin and even traded with some Middle East countries. 

Medieval Indian History

After the death of Harsha the Rajputs came into prominence on the political horizons of North India. The Rajputs were known for their bravery and chivalry but family feuds and strong notions of personal pride often resulted into conflicts. The Rajputs weakened each other by constant wrangling.

Emperor Akbar, also known as Akbar the Great or Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar, was the third emperor of the Mughal Empire, after Babur and Humayun. He was the son of Nasiruddin Humayun and succeeded him as the emperor in the year 1556, when he was only 13 years old.

Shah Jahan, also known as Shahbuddin Mohammed Shah Jahan, was a Mughal Emperor who ruled in the Indian Subcontinent from 1628 to 1658. He was the fifth Mughal ruler, after Babur, Humayun, Akbar and Jahangir. Shah Jahan succeeded the throne after revolting against his father, Jahangir. 

Chhatrapati Shivaji

Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was the founder of the Maratha Empire in western India. He is considered to be one of the greatest warriors of his time and even today, stories of his exploits are narrated as a part of the folklore. King Shivaji used the guerrilla tactics to capture a part of, the then, dominant Mughal empire.

Ancient India

The History of India begins with the Indus Valley Civilization and the coming of the Aryans. These two phases are generally described as the pre-Vedic and Vedic periods. The earliest literary source that sheds light on India's past is the Rig Veda. It is difficult to date this work with any accuracy on the basis of tradition and ambiguous astronomical information contained in the hymns.

Modern Indian History

During the late 16th and the 17th Centuries, the European trading companies in India competed with each other ferociously. By the last quarter of the 18th Century the English had outdone all others and established themselves as the dominant power in India. The British administered India for a period of about two centuries and brought about revolutionary changes in the social, political and the economic life of the country.

Ancient India

India is a country in South Asia whose name comes from the Indus River. The name 'Bharata' is used as a designation for the country in their constitution referencing the ancient mythological emperor, Bharata, whose story is told, in part, in the Indian epic Mahabharata .

According to the writings known as the Puranas (religious/historical texts written down in the 5th century CE), Bharata conquered the whole subcontinent of India and ruled the land in peace and harmony. The land was, therefore, known as Bharatavarsha (`the subcontinent of Bharata'). Hominid activity in the Indian subcontinent stretches back over 250,000 years, and it is, therefore, one of the oldest inhabited regions on the planet.

Archaeological excavations have discovered artifacts used by early humans, including stone tools, which suggest an extremely early date for human habitation and technology in the area. While the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt have long been recognized for their celebrated contributions to civilization , India has often been overlooked, especially in the West, though its history and culture is just as rich. The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 7000-c. 600 BCE) was among the greatest of the ancient world, covering more territory than either Egypt or Mesopotamia and producing an equally vibrant and progressive culture.

It is the birthplace of four great world religions - Hinduism , Jainism , Buddhism , and Sikhism - as well as the philosophical school of Charvaka which influenced the development of scientific thought and inquiry. The inventions and innovations of the people of ancient India include many aspects of modern life taken for granted today including the flush toilet, drainage and sewer systems, public pools, mathematics, veterinary science , plastic surgery, board games, yoga and meditation, as well as many more.

Prehistory of India

The areas of present-day India, Pakistan, and Nepal have provided archaeologists and scholars with the richest sites of the most ancient pedigree. The species Homo heidelbergensis (a proto-human who was an ancestor of modern Homo sapiens ) inhabited the subcontinent of India centuries before humans migrated into the region known as Europe . Evidence of the existence of Homo heidelbergensis was first discovered in Germany in 1907 and, since, further discoveries have established fairly clear migration patterns of this species out of Africa .

Recognition of the antiquity of their presence in India has been largely due to the fairly late archaeological interest in the area as, unlike work in Mesopotamia and Egypt, western excavations in India did not begin in earnest until the 1920s. Though the ancient city of Harappa was known to exist as early as 1829, its archaeological significance was ignored and the later excavations corresponded to an interest in locating the probable sites referred to in the great Indian epics Mahabharata and Ramayana (both of the 5th or 4th centuries BCE) while ignoring the possibility of a much more ancient past for the region.

The village of Balathal (near Udaipur in Rajasthan), to cite only one example, illustrates the antiquity of India's history as it dates to 4000 BCE. Balathal was not discovered until 1962 and excavations were not begun there until the 1990s CE. Even older is the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh, dated at c. 7000 BCE but showing evidence of even earlier habitation, which was not discovered until 1974.

Archaeological excavations in the past 50 years have dramatically changed the understanding of India's past and, by extension, world history. A 4000-year-old skeleton discovered at Balathal in 2009 provides the oldest evidence of leprosy in India. Prior to this find, leprosy was considered a much younger disease thought to have been carried from Africa to India at some point and then from India to Europe by the army of Alexander the Great following his death in 323 BCE.

It is now understood that significant human activity was underway in India by the Holocene Period (10,000 years ago) and that many historical assumptions, based upon earlier work in Egypt and Mesopotamia, need to be reviewed and revised. The beginnings of the Vedic tradition in India, still practiced today, can now be dated, at least in part, to the indigenous people of ancient sites such as Balathal and their interaction and blending with the culture of Aryan migrants who arrived in the region between c. 2000-c. 1500 BCE, initiating the so-called Vedic Period (c. 1500-c.500 BCE) during which the Hindu scriptures known as the Vedas were committed to written form.

Mohenjo-daro & Harappan Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization dates to c. 7000 BCE and grew steadily throughout the lower Gangetic Valley region southwards and northwards to Malwa. The cities of this period were larger than contemporary settlements in other countries, were situated according to cardinal points, and were built of mud bricks, often kiln-fired. Houses were constructed with a large courtyard opening from the front door, a kitchen/workroom for the preparation of food, and smaller bedrooms.

Family activities seem to have centered on the front of the house, particularly the courtyard and, in this, are similar to what has been inferred from sites in Rome , Egypt, Greece , and Mesopotamia. The buildings and homes of the Indus Valley peoples, however, were far more advanced technologically with many featuring flush toilets and "wind catchers" (possibly first developed in ancient Persia ) on the rooftops which provided air conditioning. The sewer and drainage systems of the cities excavated thus far are more advanced than those of Rome at its height.

The most famous sites of this period are the great cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa both located in present-day Pakistan (Mohenjo-daro in the Sindh province and Harappa in Punjab) which was part of India until the 1947 partition of the country which created the separate nation. Harappa has given its name to the Harappan Civilization (another name for the Indus Valley Civilization) which is usually divided into Early, Middle, and Mature periods corresponding roughly to 5000-4000 BCE (Early), 4000-2900 BCE (Middle), and 2900-1900 BCE (Mature). Harappa dates from the Middle period (c. 3000 BCE) while Mohenjo-Daro was built in the Mature period (c. 2600 BCE).

Harappa's buildings were severely damaged and the site compromised in the 19th century when British workers carried away a significant amount of material for use as ballast in constructing the railroad . Prior to this time, many buildings had already been dismantled by citizens of the local village of Harappa (which gives the site its name) for use in their own projects. It is therefore now difficult to determine the historical significance of Harappa save that it is clear it was once a significant Bronze Age community with a population of as many as 30,000 people.

Mohenjo-Daro, on the other hand, is much better preserved as it lay mostly buried until 1922. The name Mohenjo-Daro means `mound of the dead' in Sindhi and was applied to the site by local people who found bones of humans and animals there, as well as ancient ceramics and other artifacts, emerging from the soil periodically. The original name of the city is unknown although various possibilities have been suggested by finds in the region, among them, the Dravidian name `Kukkutarma', the city of the cock, a possible allusion to the site now known as Mohenjo-Daro as a center of ritual cock-fighting or, perhaps, as a breeding center for cocks.

Mohenjo-Daro was an elaborately constructed city with streets laid out evenly at right angles and a sophisticated drainage system. The Great Bath, a central structure at the site, was heated and seems to have been a focal point for the community. The citizens were skilled in the use of metals such as copper , bronze , lead, and tin (as evidenced by artworks such as the bronze statue of the Dancing Girl and by individual seals) and cultivated barley, wheat, peas, sesame, and cotton. Trade was an important source of commerce and it is thought that ancient Mesopotamian texts which mention Magan and Meluhha refer to India generally or, perhaps, Mohenjo-Daro specifically. Artifacts from the Indus Valley region have been found at sites in Mesopotamia though their precise point of origin in India is not always clear.

Decline of Harappan Civilization

The people of the Harappan Civilization worshipped many gods and engaged in ritual worship. Statues of various deities (such as Indra , the god of storm and war ) have been found at many sites and, chief among them, terracotta pieces depicting the Shakti (the Mother Goddess) suggesting a popular, common worship of the feminine principle. In c. 2000 - c.1500 BCE it is thought another race, known as the Aryans , migrated into India through the Khyber Pass and assimilated into the existing culture, bringing their gods and the language of Sanskrit with them which they then introduced to the region's existing belief system. Who the Aryans were and what effect they had on the indigenous people continues to be debated but it is generally acknowledged that, at about the same time as their arrival, the Harappan culture began to decline.

Scholars cite climate change as one possible reason noting evidence of both drought and flood in the region. The Indus River is thought to have begun flooding the region more regularly (as evidenced by approximately 30 feet or 9 meters of silt at Mohenjo-Daro) and this destroyed crops and encouraged famine. It is also thought the path of the monsoon, relied upon for watering the crops, could have changed and people left the cities in the north for lands in the south. Another possibility is loss of trade relations with Mesopotamia and Egypt, their two most vital partners in commerce, as both of those regions were undergoing domestic conflicts at this same time.

Racialist writers and political philosophers of the early 20th century, following the lead of the German philologist Max Muller (l. 1823-1900), claimed the Indus Valley Civilization fell to an invasion of light-skinned Aryans but this theory has now long been discredited. Equally untenable is the theory that the people were driven south by extra-terrestrials. Among the most mysterious aspects of Mohenjo-daro is the vitrification of parts of the site as though it had been exposed to intense heat which melted the brick and stone. This same phenomenon has been observed at sites such as Traprain Law in Scotland and attributed to the results of warfare . Speculation regarding the destruction of the city by some kind of ancient atomic blast, however, (the work of aliens from other planets) is not generally regarded as credible.

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The Vedic Period

Whatever the reason for the abandonment of the cities, the period that followed the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization is known as the Vedic Period, characterized by a pastoral lifestyle and adherence to the religious texts known as The Vedas . Society became divided into four classes (the Varnas ) popularly known as 'the caste system' which were comprised of the Brahmana at the top (priests and scholars), the Kshatriya next (the warriors), the Vaishya (farmers and merchants), and the Shudra (laborers). The lowest caste was the Dalits , the untouchables, who handled meat and waste, though there is some debate over whether this class existed in antiquity.

At first, it seems this caste system was merely a reflection of one's occupation but, in time, it became more rigidly interpreted to be determined by one's birth and one was not allowed to change castes nor to marry into a caste other than one's own. This understanding was a reflection of the belief in an eternal order to human life dictated by a supreme deity.

While the religious beliefs which characterized the Vedic Period are considered much older, it was during this time that they became systematized as the religion of Sanatan Dharma ('Eternal Order') known today as Hinduism (this name deriving from the Indus (or Sindus) River where worshippers were known to gather, hence, 'Sindus', and then 'Hindus'). The underlying tenet of Sanatan Dharma is that there is an order and a purpose to the universe and human life and, by accepting this order and living in accordance with it, one will experience life as it is meant to be properly lived.

While Sanatan Dharma is considered by many a polytheistic religion consisting of many gods, it is actually monotheistic in that it holds there is one god, Brahman (the Self but also the Universe and creator of the observable universe), who, because of his greatness, cannot be fully apprehended save through the many aspects which are revealed as the different gods of the Hindu pantheon.

It is Brahman who decrees the eternal order and maintains the universe through it. This belief in an order to the universe reflects the stability of the society in which it grew and flourished as, during the Vedic Period, governments became centralized and social customs integrated fully into daily life across the region. Besides The Vedas , the great religious and literary works of the Puranas , the Mahabharata , Bhagavad -Gita , and the Ramayana all come from this period.

In the 6th century BCE, the religious reformers Vardhamana Mahavira (l. c. 599-527 BCE) and Siddhartha Gautama (l. c. 563 to c. 483 BCE) developed their own belief systems and broke away from mainstream Sanatan Dharma to eventually create their own religions of Jainism and Buddhism, respectively. These changes in religion were a part of a wider pattern of social and cultural upheaval which resulted in the formation of city-states and the rise of powerful kingdoms (such as the Magadha Kingdom under the ruler Bimbisara ) and the proliferation of philosophical schools of thought which challenged orthodox Hinduism.

Mahavira rejected the Vedas and placed the responsibility for salvation and enlightenment directly on the individual and the Buddha would later do the same. The philosophical school of Charvaka rejected all supernatural elements of religious belief and maintained that only the senses could be trusted to apprehend the truth and, further, that the greatest goal in life was pleasure and one's own enjoyment. Although Charvaka did not endure as a school of thought, it influenced the development of a new way of thinking which was more grounded, pragmatic, and eventually encouraged the adoption of empirical and scientific observation and method.

Cities also expanded during this time and the increased urbanization and wealth attracted the attention of Cyrus II (the Great, r. c. 550-530 BCE) of the Persian Achaemenid Empire (c. 550-330 BCE) who invaded India in 530 BCE and initiated a campaign of conquest in the region. Ten years later, under the reign of his son, Darius I (the Great, r. 522-486 BCE), northern India was firmly under Persian control (the regions corresponding to Afghanistan and Pakistan today) and the inhabitants of that area subject to Persian laws and customs. One consequence of this, possibly, was an assimilation of Persian and Indian religious beliefs which some scholars point to as an explanation for further religious and cultural reforms.

The Great Empires of Ancient India

Persia held dominance in northern India until the conquest of Alexander the Great in 330 BCE who marched on India after Persia had fallen. Again, foreign influences were brought to bear on the region giving rise to the Greco- Buddhist culture which impacted all areas of culture in northern India from art to religion to dress. Statues and reliefs from this period depict Buddha, and other figures, as distinctly Hellenic in dress and pose (known as the Gandhara School of Art). Following Alexander 's departure from India, the Mauryan Empire (322-185 BCE) rose under the reign of Chandragupta Maurya (r. c. 321-297 BCE) until, by the end of the third century BCE, it ruled over almost all of northern India.

Chandragupta 's son, Bindusara (r. 298-272 BCE) extended the empire throughout almost the whole of India. His son was Ashoka the Great (r. 268-232 BCE) under whose rule the empire flourished at its height. Eight years into his reign, Ashoka conquered the eastern city-state of Kalinga which resulted in a death toll numbering over 100,000. Shocked at the destruction and death, Ashoka embraced the teachings of the Buddha and embarked on a systematic program advocating Buddhist thought and principles.

He established many monasteries, gave lavishly to Buddhist communities, and is said to have erected 84,000 stupas across the land to honor the Buddha. In 249 BCE, on pilgrimage to sites associated with the Buddha's life, he formally established the village of Lumbini as Buddha's birthplace, erecting a pillar there, and commissioned the creation of his famous Edicts of Ashoka to encourage Buddhist thought and values. Prior to Ashoka's reign, Buddhism was a small sect struggling to gain adherents. After Ashoka sent missionaries to foreign countries carrying the Buddhist vision, the small sect began to grow into the major religion it is today.

The Mauryan Empire declined and fell after Ashoka's death and the country splintered into many small kingdoms and empires (such as the Kushan Empire) in what has come to be called the Middle Period. This era saw the increase of trade with Rome (which had begun c. 130 BCE) following Augustus Caesar 's incorporation of Egypt into the newly established Roman Empire in 30 BCE. Rome now became India's primary partner in trade as the Romans also had already annexed much of Mesopotamia. This was a time of individual and cultural development in the various kingdoms which finally flourished in what is considered the Golden Age of India under the reign of the Gupta Empire (320-550 CE).

The Gupta Empire is thought to have been founded by one Sri Gupta (`Sri' means `Lord') who probably ruled between 240-280 CE. As Sri Gupta is thought to have been of the Vaishya (merchant) class, his rise to power in defiance of the caste system is unprecedented. He laid the foundation for the government which would so stabilize India that virtually every aspect of culture reached its height under the reign of the Guptas. Philosophy , literature , science, mathematics, architecture , astronomy, technology, art, engineering, religion, and astronomy, among other fields, all flourished during this period, resulting in some of the greatest of human achievements.

The Puranas of Vyasa were compiled during this period and the famous caves of Ajanta and Ellora, with their elaborate carvings and vaulted rooms, were also begun. Kalidasa the poet and playwright wrote his masterpiece Shakuntala and the Kamasutra was also written, or compiled from earlier works, by Vatsyayana. Varahamihira explored astronomy at the same time as Aryabhatta, the mathematician, made his own discoveries in the field and also recognized the importance of the concept of zero, which he is credited with inventing. As the founder of the Gupta Empire defied orthodox Hindu thought, it is not surprising that the Gupta rulers advocated and propagated Buddhism as the national belief and this is the reason for the plentitude of Buddhist works of art, as opposed to Hindu, at sites such as Ajanta and Ellora.

The Decline of Empire & the Coming of Islam

The empire declined slowly under a succession of weak rulers until it collapsed around 550 CE. The Gupta Empire was then replaced by the rule of Harshavardhan (590-647 CE) who ruled the region for 42 years. A literary man of considerable accomplishments (he authored three plays in addition to other works) Harsha was a patron of the arts and a devout Buddhist who forbade the killing of animals in his kingdom but recognized the necessity to sometimes kill humans in battle .

He was a highly skilled military tactician who was only defeated in the field once in his life. Under his reign, the north of India flourished but his kingdom collapsed following his death. The invasion of the Huns had been repeatedly repelled by the Guptas and then by Harshavardhan but, with the fall of his kingdom, India fell into chaos and fragmented into small kingdoms lacking the unity necessary to fight off invading forces.

In 712 CE the Muslim general Muhammed bin Quasim conquered northern India, establishing himself in the region of modern-day Pakistan. The Muslim invasion saw an end to the indigenous empires of India and, from then on, independent city-states or communities under the control of a city would be the standard model of government. The Islamic Sultanates rose in the region of modern-day Pakistan and spread north-west.

The disparate world views of the religions which now contested each other for acceptance in the region and the diversity of languages spoken, made the unity and cultural advances, such as were seen in the time of the Guptas, difficult to reproduce. Consequently, the region was easily conquered by the Islamic Mughal Empire. India would then remain subject to various foreign influences and powers (among them the Portuguese, the French, and the British) until finally winning its independence in 1947.

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Bibliography

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• Archaeological Sites In India,Famous Archaeological Sites In India,Indian Archaeological Sites,Archaeology India - Indiasite , accessed 1 Dec 2016.
• Keay, J. India: A History. Grove Press, 2010.
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history of India

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areas of study

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Great britain.

General elections in India in 1946 strengthened the Muslim League. In subsequent negotiations, punctuated by mass violence, the Congress Party leaders finally accepted partition as preferable to civil war, and in 1947 the British evacuated the subcontinent, leaving India and a territorially divided Pakistan to contend with problems…

Yet India, “the brightest jewel in the British crown,” was held not by consent but by conquest. The Indian Mutiny of 1857–58 was suppressed, and a year later the East India Company was abolished and the new title of viceroy was instituted. Imperial control was tightened…

…its demand for self-government was India. The Indian independence movement had come of age during World War I and had gained momentum with the Massacre of Amritsar of 1919. The All-India Congress Party, headed by Mohandas K. Gandhi, evoked sympathy throughout the world with its policy of nonviolent resistance, forcing…

In India the evolution of the office of governor-general was slightly different. In accordance with the provisions of the Regulating Act of 1773, Warren Hastings became the first governor-general. When the rule of the East India Company came to an end and authority passed to the…

…major nonviolent protest action in India led by Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi in March–April 1930. The march was the first act in an even-larger campaign of civil disobedience ( satyagraha ) Gandhi waged against British rule in India that extended into early 1931 and garnered Gandhi widespread support among the Indian

India, law enacted in 1878 to curtail the freedom of the Indian-language (i.e., non-English) press. Proposed by Lord Lytton, then viceroy of India (governed 1876–80), the act was intended to prevent the vernacular press from expressing criticism of British policies—notably, the opposition that had grown…

…Kashmir that is claimed by India to be part of Ladakh union territory.

…in their mountain strongholds in India, whereas against the Qarakhanids of Transoxania, force was used. In the west, where Alp-Arslan was to gain all his glory, he was faced with a more complicated situation. On the one hand, he decided to go to Egypt to crush the Ismāʿīlī Fāṭimid heresy,…

Myanmar (Burma), Ceylon (Sri Lanka), India, and Pakistan—which took place April 18–24, 1955, in Bandung, Indonesia. In all, 29 countries representing more than half the world’s population sent delegates.

…the kingdom of Bhutan by India, to one that is a masked form of annexation, in the manner of the German protectorate established in Czechoslovakia in March 1939.

… began establishing trading posts in India in 1600, and the Straits Settlements (Penang, Singapore, Malacca, and Labuan) became British through an extension of that company’s activities. The first permanent British settlement on the African continent was made at James Island in the Gambia River in 1661. Slave trading had begun…

…1858 until the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947. The raj succeeded management of the subcontinent by the British East India Company, after general distrust and dissatisfaction with company leadership resulted in a widespread mutiny of sepoy troops in 1857, causing the British to reconsider the structure of governance…

…exposed to successive waves of Indian influence and, in the 8th century ce , to Indo-Malayan influence, perhaps including immigration from Java. Immigrations of Tai peoples occurred from the 10th to the 15th century, of Vietnamese beginning in the 17th century, and of Chinese in the 18th and 19th centuries.

…Khmer empire owed much to Indian influence, but its achievements also represented original contributions to Asian civilization. The magnificent architecture and sculpture of the Angkor period (802–1432), as seen in the temple complexes at Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom, marked a high point of Khmer creativity. Following the capture of…

Indian influences were the most important in Cambodia’s early history during the first centuries ce , when Chinese and Indian pilgrims and traders stopped along the coasts of present-day Cambodia and Vietnam and exchanged silks and metals for spices, aromatic wood, ivory, and gold. Written sources…

>India. In its heyday, under Kujula Kadphises (Qiu Juique) during the 1st century ce , this empire extended from the vicinity of the Aral Sea to Varanasi in the Gangetic Plain and southward as far as Nashik, near modern Mumbai. The Kushan were thus able to…

…China trade with traffic in Indian opium. After monopolizing the opium trade in 1779, the East India Company’s government began to sell the drug at auction to private British traders in India, who shipped it to buyers in China. The silver acquired from the sale of opium in China was…

From 1959 to 1962 both India and China, initially as a by-product of the uprising in Tibet, resorted to military force along their disputed border. On October 12, 1962, a week before the Chinese moved troops into disputed border territories as part of the monthlong Sino-Indian War, Indian Prime Minister…

…1959 intensified China’s disagreements with India, which had given asylum to the Dalai Lama. In 1962 Chinese forces proved the efficiency of the new communications they had established in Tibet by invading northeastern Assam, although they soon withdrew.

…and sent a mission to India to seek more knowledge and bring back Buddhist literature. Thereafter Indian missionaries as well as Chinese scholars translated Buddhist scriptures and other writings into Chinese.

…the civilizations of China and India had a profound effect on both the spiritual life and the education of the Japanese. Toward the 6th century the assimilation of Chinese civilization became more and more rapid, particularly as a result of the spread of Confucianism. Buddhism was also an important intellectual…

…discussions by the governments of India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Australia, New Zealand, and Great Britain. The United States, Japan, and a number of Southeast Asian, East Asian, and Pacific countries joined later. The plan came into full operation in 1951. Its name was changed following the end of participation

India in particular had been a special case within the British Empire; by title an empire in its own right, it had a viceroy, a separate secretary of state in London, its own army, and even, to a certain degree, its own foreign policy. When…

India was the first country to enter into such an arrangement, and by the 1990s it had been joined by most of the other Commonwealth nations. See also Commonwealth.

Ancient India was home to an equally sophisticated but very different diplomatic tradition. This tradition was systematized and described in the Artha-shastra (one of the oldest books in secular Sanskrit literature) by Kautilya, a clever and reputedly unscrupulous scholar-statesman who helped the

…defeat of the Portuguese in India (1612) won them trading concessions from the Mughal Empire. The company settled down to a trade in cotton and silk piece goods, indigo, and saltpetre, with spices from South India. It extended its activities to the Persian Gulf, Southeast Asia, and East Asia.

…indigenous Fijians were outnumbered by Indians. However, after the government was overthrown in 1987, many Indians fled to Australia, New Zealand, and Canada, and Fijians regained a plurality. With rapid urbanization, especially on the fringes of Suva, came the emergence of squatter settlements and some social problems. The disparities of…

…promoted the introduction of indentured Indian labourers and investment by an Australian concern, the Colonial Sugar Refining Company, to establish sugar plantations and processing mills. Indian migrants were encouraged to become permanent settlers at the conclusion of their contracts, even though little land was available for sale and the migrants’…

…as well, in North America, India, Africa, and the Caribbean.

but by Brahmans from India who taught Shaivism and the message of personal immortality. Sanskrit inscriptions, attributed to the 5th and 6th centuries, have been found in eastern Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo), a considerable distance from the international trade route, and also in western Java. They reveal that Indian literati,…

…drawn toward the conquest of India—Alexander was confronted by two human factors that were of the greatest importance for the future of his empire. The first of these was the powerful local aristocracy of this part of the Achaemenian Empire, which held enormous properties and dominated the indigenous population. The…

…the subject of dispute between India and Pakistan since the partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947. The northern and western portions are administered by Pakistan and comprise three areas: Azad Kashmir, Gilgit, and Baltistan, the last two being part of a single administrative unit called Gilgit-Baltistan (formerly Northern Areas).…

…United States began to rearm India after China’s invasion of northern India in 1962, Ayub established close relations with China and received substantial military aid from it. In the meantime, Pakistan’s dispute with India over Jammu and Kashmir worsened, culminating in the outbreak of war in 1965. After two weeks…

Thousands of Indian labourers were brought into the protectorate to construct the railway. Although most of these labourers returned to India after their contracts were completed, some remained. The opening of the railway encouraged Indian traders who had been living nearer the coast to penetrate farther into…

…century ce , a time when Indian traders and priests began traveling the maritime routes, bringing with them Indian concepts of religion, government, and the arts. Over many centuries the peoples of the region, especially those within the royal courts, synthesized Indian and indigenous ideas, making selective use of Indian models—including…

When Bābur turned toward northern India, it was ruled from Delhi by the Lodī sultans, one of many local Turkic dynasties scattered through the subcontinent. In 1526 at Pānīpat, Bābur met and defeated the much larger Lodī army. In his victory he was aided, like the Ottomans at Chāldirān, by…

…trade route between China and India passed through Myanmar’s borders. Merchant ships from India, Sri Lanka, and even farther west converged on its ports, some of which also were the termini of the portage routes from the Gulf of Thailand across the narrow Isthmus of Kra on the Malay Peninsula.…

…controlled wholesale trade and by Indian and Chinese merchants who controlled retail trade. With land values and rice prices soaring, the Indian moneylenders foreclosed mortgages at the earliest opportunity, especially when the Great Depression disrupted trade.

…of Nepal’s trade is with India. China and the United States are also trade partners of some significance. Attempts have been made to diversify trade through agreements with such countries as China, Japan, South Korea, Pakistan, the United States, Germany, and Poland. The state trading agency, National Trading Limited, has…

The British withdrawal from India in 1947 deprived the Ranas of a vital external source of support and exposed the regime to new dangers. Anti-Rana forces, composed mainly of Nepalese residents in India who had served their political apprenticeship in the Indian nationalist movement, formed an alliance with the…

… and Indonesia in 1947, between India and Pakistan in 1948, between Israel and its neighbours in 1949, between Israel, Great Britain, France, and Egypt in 1956, and between Israel, Jordan, and Egypt in 1970. None of these states was at the time declared an aggressor. On the other hand, Japan…

…the Muslim minority in an India dominated by essentially Hindu authority. Declaring Islam was endangered by a revived Hindu assertiveness, Jinnah and the league posited a “two-nation theory” that argued Indian Muslims were entitled to—and therefore required—a separate, self-governing state in a reconstituted subcontinent.

…in exile took root in India just across the East Pakistani border.

…the first viceroy of Portuguese India.

…Africa and the seaway to India. In July 1497 Vasco da Gama set sail with four ships on the first expedition to India. It reached Calicut (Kozhikode) on the southwestern coast of India the following spring, and the survivors made their way back to Lisbon in the autumn of 1499…

The determination of the Indian government to annex Portuguese India led to a severing of diplomatic relations (August 1955) and to mass invasions of the Portuguese possessions by Indian passive resisters. Portugal disputed but effectively lost the enclaves of Dadra and Nagar Haveli to India (despite a ruling by…

From India, however, there is no evidence of conquests, colonization, or even extensive migration. Indians came to Southeast Asia, but they did not come to rule, and no Indian power appears to have pursued an interest in controlling a Southeast Asian power from afar, a factor…

…way to the island from India, and Indian influence pervaded such diverse fields as art, architecture, literature, music, medicine, and astronomy.

…receptive to initiatives by the Indian government. After prolonged negotiations, an accord signed between India and Sri Lanka on July 29, 1987, offered the Tamils an autonomous integrated province in the northwest within a united Sri Lanka. Later that year, Tamil was recognized as an official language (alongside Sinhalese) by…

…had been in touch with India, at least indirectly. Personal seals of the Indus valley type from the 3rd dynasty and the Larsa period have been found at Ur, while many hundreds of clay tablets show how the foreign trade was organized. The “sea kings” of Ur carried goods for…

In early summer 327 Alexander left Bactria with a reinforced army under a reorganized command. If Plutarch’s figure of 120,000 men has any reality, however, it must include all kinds of auxiliary services, together with muleteers, camel drivers, medical corps, peddlers, entertainers, women, and…

India was the objective in 327, though Alexander did not reach the Indus valley until 326, after passing through Swāt Cas from the district of the Kābul River. In 326, at the great Battle of the Hydaspes (Jhelum), he defeated the Indian king Porus in…

…1707) was the emperor of India from 1658 to 1707, the last of the great Mughal emperors. Under him, the Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent, although his policies helped lead to its dissolution.

>India. Bābur, a descendant of the Mongol conqueror Genghis Khan and also of the Turkic conqueror Timur (Tamerlane), was a military adventurer, a soldier of distinction, and a poet and diarist of genius, as well as a statesman.

…of Bengal (1828–33) and of India (1833–35). An aristocrat who sympathized with many of the liberal ideas of his day, he made important administrative reforms in Indian government and society. He reformed the finances, opened up judicial posts to Indians, and suppressed such practices as suttee, or widow burning, and…

…his labours, was that of India. The commercial activities of a chartered trading concern, the British East India Company, had created an extensive empire there. Burke in the 1760s and ’70s opposed interference by the English government in the company’s affairs as a violation of chartered rights. However, he learned…

…service of the British East India Company.

…two most profitable regions of India for European traders. The year 1757, as a consequence, is often cited as the beginning of Britain’s supremacy over India, the start of Calcutta’s significance as the headquarters of the East India Company, and the beginning of the end of French influence on the…

…he accepted the governor-generalship of India. Before leaving office on August 13, 1793, he brought about a series of legal and administrative reforms, notably the Cornwallis Code (1793). By paying civil servants adequately while forbidding them to engage in private business, he established a tradition of law-abiding, incorruptible British rule…

…a British statesman, viceroy of India (1898–1905), and foreign secretary (1919–24) who during his terms in office played a major role in British policy making.

…was a British governor-general of India from 1847 to 1856, who is accounted the creator both of the map of modern India, through his conquests and annexations of independent provinces, and of the centralized Indian state. So radical were Dalhousie’s changes and so widespread the resentment they caused that his…

…Victoria the title empress of India. There was much opposition, and Disraeli would have gladly postponed it, but the queen insisted. For some time his poor health had made leading the Commons onerous, so he accepted a peerage, taking the titles earl of Beaconsfield and Viscount Hughenden of Hughenden, and…

…on the southwest coast of India, was taken aboard. After a 23-day run across the Indian Ocean, the Ghats Mountains of India were sighted, and Calicut was reached on May 20. There da Gama erected a padrão to prove he had reached India. The welcome of the Zamorin, the Hindu…

…first female prime minister of India, serving for three consecutive terms (1966–77) and a fourth term from 1980 until she was assassinated in 1984.

…30, 1948, Delhi) was an Indian lawyer, politician, social activist, and writer who became the leader of the nationalist movement against the British rule of India. As such, he came to be considered the father of his country. Gandhi is internationally esteemed for his doctrine of nonviolent protest (satyagraha) to…

…he was appointed viceroy of India and raised to the peerage as Baron Irwin. His term of office in India (1925–29) coincided with a period of intense nationalist ferment among Hindus and Muslims alike, but his own deep concern with religious faith (like his father, he was a devout High…

…British diplomat and viceroy of India who improved British relations in India and was instrumental in securing India’s support for Great Britain in World War I.

…viceroy of Canada and of India, secretary for war, and foreign secretary.

…Disraeli appointed Lytton governor-general of India. During his service there, Lytton was concerned primarily with India’s relations with Afghanistan. At the time of his appointment, Russian influence was growing in Afghanistan, and Lytton had orders to counteract it or to secure a strong frontier by force. When negotiations failed to…

In 1834 Macaulay accepted an invitation to serve on the recently created Supreme Council of India, foreseeing that he could save from his salary enough to give him a competence for life. He took his sister Hannah with him and reached India at a…

…his service as viceroy of India, where he improved relations with Afghanistan, conducted the first census, turned a deficit budget into a surplus, and created a department for agriculture and commerce.

…and the last viceroy of India. He had an international royal-family background; his career involved extensive naval commands, the diplomatic negotiation of independence for India and Pakistan, and the highest military defense leaderships.

…first prime minister of independent India (1947–64), who established parliamentary government and became noted for his neutralist (nonaligned) policies in foreign affairs. He was also one of the principal leaders of India’s independence movement in the 1930s and ’40s.

…Admiralty (1857–58) and undersecretary for India (1859–61; 1868–72) and for war (1861–66).

…Ali refused to submit to Indian sovereignty in 1947 when Britain withdrew. Appealing to the special alliance he claimed with the British, he placed his case for the full independence of his state before the United Nations. He rejected an Indian ultimatum that he surrender his authority but, in September…

He seized upon America and India as the main objects of British strategy: he sent his main expeditions to America, to ensure the conquest of Canada, and supported the East India Company and its “heaven-born general,” Robert Clive, in their struggle against the French East India Company.

Fox’s East India Bill had been defeated, but the problems it was designed to solve remained. Britain’s increased possessions in India made it necessary for the administration there to be supervised by the government rather than be left in the hands of the commercial East India Company.…

As viceroy of India (1921–26) during a turbulent period of Indian nationalism, Reading increasingly resorted to summary measures, although he preferred conciliation. He imprisoned two Muslim leaders in 1921 and Mahatma Gandhi in 1922. He also used force against the Moplahs (Muslim separatists in the Madras Presidency) and…

…Lord Lytton as viceroy of India in April 1880 on Gladstone’s return to power. Reversing some policies of his predecessor, he ended the Second Afghan War by recognizing ʿAbdor Raḥmān Khan as emir of Afghanistan and by evacuating the Indo-British expeditionary forces from that country in 1881. He liberalized India’s…

… and a commissioner of the India Board of Control.

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History of India and Indian National Movement

Last updated on August 29, 2023 by ClearIAS Team

India’s history is a captivating saga that unfurls over the millennia, each era leaving its indelible mark on the nation’s identity.

India’s history is like a treasure chest full of stories and lessons, starting with ancient wonders that built the base, moving to today’s progress, and featuring a colourful mix of art and culture all the way.

Let’s embark on an elaborate chronological voyage through these distinct eras.

Table of Contents

Ancient India:

Ancient India , spanning from approximately 12000 BC to AD 750, is a tapestry woven with remarkable developments and civilizations. During its earliest phases, nomadic hunter-gatherer communities transitioned to settled agricultural life, giving rise to the fertile Indus Valley Civilization around 3300 BC. This advanced urban society flourished with organized cities like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, showcasing sophisticated drainage systems and intricate art.

In the Vedic period, roughly from 1500 BC to 600 BC, sacred texts known as the Vedas were composed, reflecting the spiritual and philosophical contemplations of the time. The emergence of early Hinduism and the establishment of the caste system also occurred during this period.

The Mauryan Empire, from 322 BC to 185 BC, marked a significant political consolidation under Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka. Ashoka’s advocacy for non-violence and spread of Buddhism impacted not only India but also neighbouring regions.

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As we progress to the Gupta Dynasty, spanning around 320 to 550 AD, we witness the “Golden Age” of India. This period saw remarkable achievements in literature, art, and science. The decimal numeral system, the concept of zero, and advancements in astronomy and mathematics emerged during this time.

Indus Valley Civilization (3300 BCE – 1300 BCE):

The Indus Valley Civilization was an ancient urban society known for its advanced city planning, intricate drainage systems, and remarkable trade networks across the Indian subcontinent.

Iconic cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa offer a glimpse into the organized lives of ancient Indians.

Vedic Period (1500 BCE – 600 BCE):

A time of intellectual ferment where the sacred texts known as Vedas were composed. These texts, comprising hymns, rituals, and philosophies, laid the foundation for Hinduism and offered insights into the society’s beliefs, rituals, and practices.

Mauryan Empire (322 BCE – 185 BCE):

The rise of the Mauryan Empire under the leadership of Chandragupta Maurya marked a pivotal moment in Indian history. The reign of Emperor Ashoka, known for his conversion to Buddhism and advocacy of non-violence, left an enduring legacy.

Gupta Dynasty (320 CE – 550 CE):

Often referred to as the “Golden Age” of India, the Gupta Dynasty witnessed remarkable achievements in various fields such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and art. The decimal numeral system and the concept of zero originated during this period.

Medieval India:

Medieval India, spanning from approximately AD 750 to AD 1600, is a period characterized by dynamic shifts in politics, culture, and societal structures. It witnessed the rise and fall of empires, the fusion of diverse cultures, and the establishment of significant trade networks.

The early medieval period saw the emergence of the Rajput kingdoms, with regional rulers asserting their authority across northern India. This era was marked by chivalry, valor, and the patronage of art and literature.

The Delhi Sultanate, established in the 13th century, brought Islamic rulers to India. This marked a period of cultural amalgamation, where Persian influences blended with indigenous traditions. Magnificent architectural wonders such as the Qutub Minar and the Alai Darwaza were built during this time.

The Mughal Empire, from the 16th to the 18th century, was a defining feature of medieval India. Founded by Babur, the Mughals brought a unique blend of Persian, Central Asian, and Indian cultures. The reigns of Akbar, known for religious tolerance and administrative reforms, and Shah Jahan, who built the iconic Taj Mahal, are particularly noteworthy.

The medieval period also witnessed artistic achievements in music, literature, and painting. Classical Indian music evolved during this time, with the development of the Hindustani and Carnatic traditions. Literature like the poetry of Amir Khusrau and the epic tales of Tulsidas added to the cultural richness.

However, this era was not without challenges. The invasions of Central Asian powers, regional conflicts, and power struggles created a landscape of political complexities.

In essence, medieval India stands as a testament to the interplay of diverse cultures, the architectural marvels of different dynasties, and the artistic and intellectual achievements that continue to shape the nation’s identity.

Delhi Sultanate (1206 CE – 1526 CE):

The arrival of Muslim rulers in Delhi ushered in a new era of architecture, culture, and governance. Notable dynasties like the Ghurids and the Mughals left their mark on India’s history through grand monuments and intricate art.

Mughal Empire (1526 CE – 1857 CE):

The Mughal dynasty , founded by Babur, brought with it a fusion of Persian and Indian cultures. The empire reached its zenith under Akbar, whose policies emphasized religious tolerance and cultural integration. The architectural marvels of this era, including the Taj Mahal, continue to captivate the world.

Modern India:

From the 1600s to 1947, Modern India experienced profound changes that shaped its course.

The arrival of the British East India Company marked a significant shift, as trade evolved into colonization, resulting in the East India Company’s dominance over Indian territories. The struggle for independence gained momentum in the late 19th century, with leaders like Mahatma Gandhi employing nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience to challenge British rule.

The 20th century saw India’s unwavering pursuit of self-rule, culminating in its hard-won independence in 1947. However, this period was also marked by the challenging phenomenon of partition, which led to the division of the subcontinent into India and Pakistan, causing widespread displacement and communal tensions.

Despite these trials, the era set the stage for India’s emergence as a sovereign nation and its subsequent endeavours in nation-building, democracy, and development.

British East India Company (1600 CE – 1858 CE):

The East India Company’s increasing control over trade led to its dominance over Indian territories. This period marked the colonization of India and the gradual erosion of indigenous governance structures.

Indian National Movement (1857 – 1947):

The Indian National Movement was a pivotal period in India’s history marked by a determined struggle for independence from British colonial rule. Spanning the late 19th century to 1947, the movement encompassed a spectrum of approaches, from moderate constitutional reforms to more radical demands for complete self-governance.

Visionary leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Subhas Chandra Bose spearheaded the movement, advocating nonviolent protests, civil disobedience, and mass mobilization.

Iconic events like the Salt March and Quit India Movement symbolized the unity and resilience of the Indian people.

The movement’s culmination in 1947 led to the end of British colonialism, granting India its hard-fought freedom and shaping its trajectory as a sovereign nation committed to democracy and social justice.

Independence and Partition (1947):

The watershed moment of India’s history saw the nation gain independence from colonial rule. However, the partition of India and Pakistan led to a tragic displacement of people and communal violence.

India Since Independence:

Since gaining independence in 1947, India has embarked on a dynamic journey of nation-building and progress. The adoption of a democratic constitution laid the groundwork for a diverse and inclusive society, emphasizing fundamental rights and principles of governance.

The post-independence era saw India engaging in several conflicts with Pakistan, influencing regional dynamics and geopolitics.

In 1991, the nation undertook economic liberalization , opening its doors to global markets and initiating transformative reforms that spurred economic growth and innovation. Despite these advancements, challenges such as poverty, inequality, and environmental concerns persist.

India’s modern story is one of resilience and adaptation, as it navigates a complex landscape while cherishing its rich cultural heritage, diverse traditions, and aspirations for a brighter future.

Constitution and Democracy (1947 – present):

India adopted a democratic constitution that guaranteed fundamental rights and promoted social justice. This marked the beginning of a new chapter in the nation’s history.

Indo-Pak Wars (1947, 1965, 1971, 1999):

The post-independence era witnessed conflicts with Pakistan over territorial disputes and conflicting ideologies, shaping regional dynamics and geopolitical relationships.

Economic Liberalization (1991):

In response to economic challenges, India embarked on a path of liberalization, privatization, and globalization . This shift paved the way for rapid economic growth and a transformed global image.

Art and Culture:

Indian art and culture are a captivating tapestry woven from centuries of diverse influences, traditions, and creativity. Rooted in ancient civilizations, these artistic expressions have evolved over time, showcasing the rich heritage of the subcontinent.

Architecture:

Indian architecture is a blend of diverse styles, from the intricate carvings of temples to the grandeur of Mughal forts and palaces. The symmetrical beauty of the Taj Mahal and the awe-inspiring temples of South India illustrates the mastery of design and construction.

Sculptures:

Indian art boasts a wide range of styles and forms. From the intricate sculptures of ancient temples, such as the exquisite carvings at Khajuraho, to the serene Buddha statues of the Gandhara period, visual arts have reflected religious beliefs, cultural values, and artistic finesse.

Indian paintings , a vibrant facet of the country’s cultural heritage, encompass a range of styles. Mughal paintings, reflecting royal life and Persian influences, coexist with Rajput art’s romantic themes and Pahari paintings’ devotional narratives. Tanjore paintings from the South exude opulence, while the Bengal School revived traditional forms with Western techniques. Contemporary artists like Souza and Mehta bridge tradition and modernity. These paintings chronicle India’s history, beliefs, and artistic evolution, presenting a colourful tapestry of narratives that reflect the nation’s diverse cultural expressions.

Classical Dance:

Classical dance forms like Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Odissi, and Kathakali blend rhythmic footwork, graceful movements, and emotive storytelling. These dances communicate tales from Hindu mythology and cultural narratives, preserving traditions that date back centuries.

Indian music encompasses both classical and folk traditions. Hindustani and Carnatic classical music are known for their melodic intricacy and improvisational flair. Traditional instruments like the sitar, tabla, and veena play a pivotal role in creating soul-stirring melodies.

Literature:

Indian literature spans from ancient texts like the Vedas to epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Classic works like Kalidasa’s poetry and Sanskrit dramas showcase India’s literary brilliance, while modern writers like Rabindranath Tagore and Salman Rushdie continue to contribute to global literature.

Indian cinema , commonly referred to as Bollywood, is a cultural phenomenon known for its colourful storytelling, music, and dance sequences. Regional cinema, such as Tamil, Telugu, and Bengali films, adds to the vibrancy of the cinematic landscape.

Indian cuisine is a reflection of the country’s regional diversity. Each region offers a unique palette of flavours, spices, and cooking techniques. From the fiery curries of the North to the coconut-infused dishes of the South, Indian cuisine is a delight for the senses.

Festivals like Diwali, Holi, Eid, and Christmas celebrate the cultural diversity of India. These occasions are marked by vibrant celebrations, rituals, and feasting, uniting people from various backgrounds.

In essence, Indian art and culture are an embodiment of the nation’s history, philosophy, and creativity. They weave a colourful narrative that connects the past with the present while fostering a sense of identity and unity among its people.

How to study Indian History and the Indian Freedom Movement?

Readers may note that this article on the History of India and the Indian National Movement is just an overview of the topic. There is a lot more to learn about the history of India.

We recommend the below sources to learn the History of India and the Indian National Movement.

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Conclusion: History of India and the Indian National Movement

In wrapping up the narrative of Indian history and the pivotal Indian National Movement, it becomes evident how these interwoven threads have shaped the nation’s present and future trajectory.

From the ancient marvels of the Indus Valley Civilization to the resolute struggles of the Indian National Movement, India’s journey is a testament to its enduring spirit.

The Indian National Movement’s heroes, like Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, carved a path to freedom through nonviolent resistance and unwavering determination.

As we reflect on India’s history, it becomes clear that its rich heritage is not just a chronicle of the past, but a guide for building a progressive and inclusive future.

The echoes of independence reverberate in India’s democratic principles and its commitment to social and economic advancement.

In the digital age, understanding India’s history and the sacrifices of the Indian National Movement is not just an academic exercise; it’s a reminder of the nation’s journey and an inspiration for the global community.

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For a New Periodization of Indian History: The History of India as Part of the History of the World

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