very short case study on stress management

Stress: A Case Study

Read the story of a women who thought she was having a heart attack, but was instead diagnosed with panic disorder, panic attacks.

Although on the surface everything seemed fine, she felt that, "the wheels on my tricycle are about to fall off. I'm a mess." Over the past several months she had attacks of shortness of breath, heart palpitations, chest pains, dizziness, and tingling sensations in her fingers and toes. Filled with a sense of impending doom, she would become anxious to the point of panic. Every day she awoke with a dreaded feeling that an attack might strike without reason or warning.

On two occasions, she rushed to a nearby hospital emergency room fearing she was having a heart attack. The first episode followed an argument with her boyfriend about the future of their relationship. After studying her electrocardiogram, the emergency room doctor told her she was "just hyperventilating" and showed her how to breathe into a paper bag to handle the situation in the future. She felt foolish and went home embarrassed, angry and confused. She remained convinced that she had almost had a heart attack.

Her next severe attack occurred after a fight at work with her boss over a new marketing campaign. This time she insisted that she be hospitalized overnight for extensive diagnostic tests and that her internist be consulted. The results were the same--no heart attack. Her internist prescribed a tranquilizer to calm her down.

Convinced now that her own doctor was wrong, she sought the advice of a cardiologist, who conducted another battery of tests, again with no physical findings. The doctor concluded that stress was the primary cause of the panic attacks and "heart attack" symptoms. The doctor referred her to psychologist specializing in stress.

During her first visit, professionals administered stress tests and explained how stress could cause her physical symptoms. At her next visit, utilizing the tests results, they described to her the sources and nature of her health problems. The tests revealed that she was highly susceptible to stress, that she was enduring enormous stress from her family, her personal life, and her job, and that she was experiencing a number of stress-related symptoms in her emotional, sympathetic nervous, muscular and endocrine systems. She wasn't sleeping or eating well, didn't exercise, abused caffeine and alcohol, and lived on the edge financially.

The stress testing crystallized how susceptible she was to stress, what was causing her stress, and how stress was expressing itself in her "heart attack" and other symptoms. This newly found knowledge eliminated a lot of her confusion and separated her concerns into simpler, more manageable problems.

She realized that she was feeling tremendous pressure from her boyfriend, as well as her mother to settle down and get married; yet, she didn't feel ready. At the same time, work was overwhelming her as a new marketing campaign began. Any serious emotional incident--a quarrel with her boyfriend or her boss--sent her over the edge. Her body's response was hyperventilation, palpitations, chest pain, dizziness, anxiety, and a dreadful sense of doom. Stress, in short, was destroying her life.

Adapted from The Stress Solution by Lyle H. Miller, Ph.D., and Alma Dell Smith, Ph.D.

next: Terrorism Fear: What You Can Do To Alleviate It ~ anxiety-panic library articles ~ all anxiety disorders articles

APA Reference Staff, H. (2007, February 18). Stress: A Case Study, HealthyPlace. Retrieved on 2024, August 12 from https://www.healthyplace.com/anxiety-panic/articles/stress-a-case-study

Medically reviewed by Harry Croft, MD

Related Articles

Researchers Link Adolescent Cigarette Smoking with Anxiety Disorders During Early Adulthood

About dr. reid wilson, treatment of phobias: agoraphobia, social phobia, specific phobias, causes of anxiety disorders, controlling your fear, conquering your panic, anxiety, and phobias, relaxation techniques for relief of anxiety and stress.

2024 HealthyPlace Inc. All Rights Reserved. Site last updated August 12, 2024

Click Here for Free Mind/Body Tools

Revealing the Hidden Consequences: Real-life Case Studies in Stress and Anxiety

In today's fast-paced world, stress and anxiety are part and parcel of everyday life. While they are natural reactions to challenging circumstances, persistent, poorly managed stress can result in serious health outcomes. The stress behind the development of these illnesses is often not seen or well-treated since it is invisible and doesn't show up on x-rays or lab tests.

Case Study 1: The Physical Toll of Chronic Stress and Anxiety

John, a middle-aged executive, experienced chronic stress due to work and family pressure, leading to a range of health issues. Having never learned good stress management skills, John overate, drank too much coffee in the daytime and alcohol in the evening, and made no time for exercise or relaxation in his overbusy days. 

He didn’t complain or even recognize how stressed he was since all his colleagues and friends seemed to be dealing with the same issues.  He didn't recognize the signs of stress but over a few years accumulated a number of medical diagnoses and medications to go with them.

• Eating on the run and too much coffee and alcohol gave him chronic heartburn, diagnosed as “GERD” (GastroEsophageal Reflux Disease) and treated with omeprazole and antacids
• John developed high blood pressure and high cholesterol, putting him at high risk for heart disease and stroke, so was given blood pressure medications and statin medication
• His increasingly poor sleep was treated with Trazodone, a medication that knocked him out but left him feeling groggy and starting his day with 2 or 3 large cups of coffee
• As he became increasingly exhausted and using more alcohol, he got crankier and more irritable, early signs of depression in men. His doctor started him on an antidepressant which helped his mood, but didn't help him change his lifestyle which was at the root of all these “diagnoses.”

Case Study 2: Mental and Emotional Consequences

Susan, a school teacher, faced constant anxiety due to high workload and financial problems. This prolonged exposure to unmanaged stress and anxiety led to:

• Emotional Burnout: Over time, Susan experienced emotional exhaustion leading to feelings of detachment, a condition often referred to as burnout.
• Cognitive Difficulties: Chronic stress and burnout affected her ability to concentrate, plan, and make good decisions.
• Depression: Eventually, persistent stress and anxiety triggered the onset of depression in Susan

Case Study 3: The Social Impact

Emma, a college student suffering from chronic stress, worry, and anxiety, exhibited changes in her social behavior:

• Isolation: She started withdrawing from her friends and social activities, leading to feelings of loneliness and even more stress.
• Conflict: Her stress made her irritable, leading to increased conflict in her personal relationships, worsening her isolation and loneliness.

Identifying these signs of too much stress is the first step towards recovery. None of these people had an illness or disease – they were overstressed and didn't have the tools or support to help them manage it.  There are many techniques and tools that can help to keep stress and anxiety at manageable levels:

• Mindfulness and Meditation: Techniques like these helped John stay focused on the present moment, reducing his stress levels.
• Physical Activity: Regular exercise assisted Susan in reducing her stress. It served as a natural mood enhancer and distracted her from constant worry.
• Balanced Diet: Emma found that a healthy diet helped combat her stress. Certain foods even assisted in reducing stress, such as those rich in omega-3 fatty acids and vitamin C.
• Guided Imagery: Upon recognizing the detrimental effects of stress and anxiety on their daily lives, John, Susan, and Emma decided to learn how to reduce stress and manage it better when it couldn’t be avoided.  Either on their own or with the urging of a therapist, they discovered relaxation and guided imagery. The skills and practices they learned became a keystone of their healthy lifestyle, playing a significant role in alleviating their stress and anxiety and guiding them towards recovery.

Recognizing the signs of excessive stress and anxiety is the first step towards effectively managing them. Learning good elf-care stress and anxiety reduction skills is the second step. If you’re too overwhelmed or mired down in the stress, professional help you dig out of it. Remember, seeking help and making strides towards a healthier life is absolutely okay. Living a life free from the burden of constant worry is your right. The journey to that life begins now.

Videos To Help You

Products To Help You

The Worry Solution

The 3 Keys to Calmness

• Tools and Resources
• Customer Services
• Affective Science
• Biological Foundations of Psychology
• Clinical Psychology: Disorders and Therapies
• Cognitive Psychology/Neuroscience
• Developmental Psychology
• Educational/School Psychology
• Forensic Psychology
• Health Psychology
• History and Systems of Psychology
• Individual Differences
• Methods and Approaches in Psychology
• Neuropsychology
• Organizational and Institutional Psychology
• Personality
• Psychology and Other Disciplines
• Social Psychology
• Sports Psychology
• Share This Facebook LinkedIn Twitter

Article contents

Work, stress, coping, and stress management.

• Sharon Glazer Sharon Glazer University of Baltimore
•  and  Cong Liu Cong Liu Hofstra University
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.30
• Published online: 26 April 2017

Work stress refers to the process of job stressors, or stimuli in the workplace, leading to strains, or negative responses or reactions. Organizational development refers to a process in which problems or opportunities in the work environment are identified, plans are made to remediate or capitalize on the stimuli, action is taken, and subsequently the results of the plans and actions are evaluated. When organizational development strategies are used to assess work stress in the workplace, the actions employed are various stress management interventions. Two key factors tying work stress and organizational development are the role of the person and the role of the environment. In order to cope with work-related stressors and manage strains, organizations must be able to identify and differentiate between factors in the environment that are potential sources of stressors and how individuals perceive those factors. Primary stress management interventions focus on preventing stressors from even presenting, such as by clearly articulating workers’ roles and providing necessary resources for employees to perform their job. Secondary stress management interventions focus on a person’s appraisal of job stressors as a threat or challenge, and the person’s ability to cope with the stressors (presuming sufficient internal resources, such as a sense of meaningfulness in life, or external resources, such as social support from a supervisor). When coping is not successful, strains may develop. Tertiary stress management interventions attempt to remediate strains, by addressing the consequence itself (e.g., diabetes management) and/or the source of the strain (e.g., reducing workload). The person and/or the organization may be the targets of the intervention. The ultimate goal of stress management interventions is to minimize problems in the work environment, intensify aspects of the work environment that create a sense of a quality work context, enable people to cope with stressors that might arise, and provide tools for employees and organizations to manage strains that might develop despite all best efforts to create a healthy workplace.

• stress management
• organization development
• organizational interventions
• stress theories and frameworks

Introduction

Work stress is a generic term that refers to work-related stimuli (aka job stressors) that may lead to physical, behavioral, or psychological consequences (i.e., strains) that affect both the health and well-being of the employee and the organization. Not all stressors lead to strains, but all strains are a result of stressors, actual or perceived. Common terms often used interchangeably with work stress are occupational stress, job stress, and work-related stress. Terms used interchangeably with job stressors include work stressors, and as the specificity of the type of stressor might include psychosocial stressor (referring to the psychological experience of work demands that have a social component, e.g., conflict between two people; Hauke, Flintrop, Brun, & Rugulies, 2011 ), hindrance stressor (i.e., a stressor that prevents goal attainment; Cavanaugh, Boswell, Roehling, & Boudreau, 2000 ), and challenge stressor (i.e., a stressor that is difficult, but attainable and possibly rewarding to attain; Cavanaugh et al., 2000 ).

Stress in the workplace continues to be a highly pervasive problem, having both direct negative effects on individuals experiencing it and companies paying for it, and indirect costs vis à vis lost productivity (Dopkeen & DuBois, 2014 ). For example, U.K. public civil servants’ work-related stress rose from 10.8% in 2006 to 22.4% in 2013 and about one-third of the workforce has taken more than 20 days of leave due to stress-related ill-health, while well over 50% are present at work when ill (French, 2015 ). These findings are consistent with a report by the International Labor Organization (ILO, 2012 ), whereby 50% to 60% of all workdays are lost due to absence attributed to factors associated with work stress.

The prevalence of work-related stress is not diminishing despite improvements in technology and employment rates. The sources of stress, such as workload, seem to exacerbate with improvements in technology (Coovert & Thompson, 2003 ). Moreover, accessibility through mobile technology and virtual computer terminals is linking people to their work more than ever before (ILO, 2012 ; Tarafdar, Tu, Ragu-Nathan, & Ragu-Nathan, 2007 ). Evidence of this kind of mobility and flexibility is further reinforced in a June 2007 survey of 4,025 email users (over 13 years of age); AOL reported that four in ten survey respondents reported planning their vacations around email accessibility and 83% checked their emails at least once a day while away (McMahon, 2007 ). Ironically, despite these mounting work-related stressors and clear financial and performance outcomes, some individuals are reporting they are less “stressed,” but only because “stress has become the new normal” (Jayson, 2012 , para. 4).

This new normal is likely the source of psychological and physiological illness. Siegrist ( 2010 ) contends that conditions in the workplace, particularly psychosocial stressors that are perceived as unfavorable relationships with others and self, and an increasingly sedentary lifestyle (reinforced with desk jobs) are increasingly contributing to cardiovascular disease. These factors together justify a need to continue on the path of helping individuals recognize and cope with deleterious stressors in the work environment and, equally important, to find ways to help organizations prevent harmful stressors over which they have control, as well as implement policies or mechanisms to help employees deal with these stressors and subsequent strains. Along with a greater focus on mitigating environmental constraints are interventions that can be used to prevent anxiety, poor attitudes toward the workplace conditions and arrangements, and subsequent cardiovascular illness, absenteeism, and poor job performance (Siegrist, 2010 ).

Even the ILO has presented guidance on how the workplace can help prevent harmful job stressors (aka hindrance stressors) or at least help workers cope with them. Consistent with the view that well-being is not the absence of stressors or strains and with the view that positive psychology offers a lens for proactively preventing stressors, the ILO promotes increasing preventative risk assessments, interventions to prevent and control stressors, transparent organizational communication, worker involvement in decision-making, networks and mechanisms for workplace social support, awareness of how working and living conditions interact, safety, health, and well-being in the organization (ILO, n.d. ). The field of industrial and organizational (IO) psychology supports the ILO’s recommendations.

IO psychology views work stress as the process of a person’s interaction with multiple aspects of the work environment, job design, and work conditions in the organization. Interventions to manage work stress, therefore, focus on the psychosocial factors of the person and his or her relationships with others and the socio-technical factors related to the work environment and work processes. Viewing work stress from the lens of the person and the environment stems from Kurt Lewin’s ( 1936 ) work that stipulates a person’s state of mental health and behaviors are a function of the person within a specific environment or situation. Aspects of the work environment that affect individuals’ mental states and behaviors include organizational hierarchy, organizational climate (including processes, policies, practices, and reward structures), resources to support a person’s ability to fulfill job duties, and management structure (including leadership). Job design refers to each contributor’s tasks and responsibilities for fulfilling goals associated with the work role. Finally, working conditions refers not only to the physical environment, but also the interpersonal relationships with other contributors.

Each of the conditions that are identified in the work environment may be perceived as potentially harmful or a threat to the person or as an opportunity. When a stressor is perceived as a threat to attaining desired goals or outcomes, the stressor may be labeled as a hindrance stressor (e.g., LePine, Podsakoff, & Lepine, 2005 ). When the stressor is perceived as an opportunity to attain a desired goal or end state, it may be labeled as a challenge stressor. According to LePine and colleagues’ ( 2005 ), both challenge (e.g., time urgency, workload) and hindrance (e.g., hassles, role ambiguity, role conflict) stressors could lead to strains (as measured by “anxiety, depersonalization, depression, emotional exhaustion, frustration, health complaints, hostility, illness, physical symptoms, and tension” [p. 767]). However, challenge stressors positively relate with motivation and performance, whereas hindrance stressors negatively relate with motivation and performance. Moreover, motivation and strains partially mediate the relationship between hindrance and challenge stressors with performance.

Figure 1. Organizational development frameworks to guide identification of work stress and interventions.

In order to (1) minimize any potential negative effects from stressors, (2) increase coping skills to deal with stressors, or (3) manage strains, organizational practitioners or consultants will devise organizational interventions geared toward prevention, coping, and/or stress management. Ultimately, toxic factors in the work environment can have deleterious effects on a person’s physical and psychological well-being, as well as on an organization’s total health. It behooves management to take stock of the organization’s health, which includes the health and well-being of its employees, if the organization wishes to thrive and be profitable. According to Page and Vella-Brodrick’s ( 2009 ) model of employee well-being, employee well-being results from subjective well-being (i.e., life satisfaction and general positive or negative affect), workplace well-being (composed of job satisfaction and work-specific positive or negative affect), and psychological well-being (e.g., self-acceptance, positive social relations, mastery, purpose in life). Job stressors that become unbearable are likely to negatively affect workplace well-being and thus overall employee well-being. Because work stress is a major organizational pain point and organizations often employ organizational consultants to help identify and remediate pain points, the focus here is on organizational development (OD) frameworks; several work stress frameworks are presented that together signal areas where organizations might focus efforts for change in employee behaviors, attitudes, and performance, as well as the organization’s performance and climate. Work stress, interventions, and several OD and stress frameworks are depicted in Figure 1 .

The goals are: (1) to conceptually define and clarify terms associated with stress and stress management, particularly focusing on organizational factors that contribute to stress and stress management, and (2) to present research that informs current knowledge and practices on workplace stress management strategies. Stressors and strains will be defined, leading OD and work stress frameworks that are used to organize and help organizations make sense of the work environment and the organization’s responsibility in stress management will be explored, and stress management will be explained as an overarching thematic label; an area of study and practice that focuses on prevention (primary) interventions, coping (secondary) interventions, and managing strains (tertiary) interventions; as well as the label typically used to denote tertiary interventions. Suggestions for future research and implications toward becoming a healthy organization are presented.

Defining Stressors and Strains

Work-related stressors or job stressors can lead to different kinds of strains individuals and organizations might experience. Various types of stress management interventions, guided by OD and work stress frameworks, may be employed to prevent or cope with job stressors and manage strains that develop(ed).

A job stressor is a stimulus external to an employee and a result of an employee’s work conditions. Example job stressors include organizational constraints, workplace mistreatments (such as abusive supervision, workplace ostracism, incivility, bullying), role stressors, workload, work-family conflicts, errors or mistakes, examinations and evaluations, and lack of structure (Jex & Beehr, 1991 ; Liu, Spector, & Shi, 2007 ; Narayanan, Menon, & Spector, 1999 ). Although stressors may be categorized as hindrances and challenges, there is not yet sufficient information to be able to propose which stress management interventions would better serve to reduce those hindrance stressors or to reduce strain-producing challenge stressors while reinforcing engagement-producing challenge stressors.

Organizational Constraints

Organizational constraints may be hindrance stressors as they prevent employees from translating their motivation and ability into high-level job performance (Peters & O’Connor, 1980 ). Peters and O’Connor ( 1988 ) defined 11 categories of organizational constraints: (1) job-related information, (2) budgetary support, (3) required support, (4) materials and supplies, (5) required services and help from others, (6) task preparation, (7) time availability, (8) the work environment, (9) scheduling of activities, (10) transportation, and (11) job-relevant authority. The inhibiting effect of organizational constraints may be due to the lack of, inadequacy of, or poor quality of these categories.

Workplace Mistreatment

Workplace mistreatment presents a cluster of interpersonal variables, such as interpersonal conflict, bullying, incivility, and workplace ostracism (Hershcovis, 2011 ; Tepper & Henle, 2011 ). Typical workplace mistreatment behaviors include gossiping, rude comments, showing favoritism, yelling, lying, and ignoring other people at work (Tepper & Henle, 2011 ). These variables relate to employees’ psychological well-being, physical well-being, work attitudes (e.g., job satisfaction and organizational commitment), and turnover intention (e.g., Hershcovis, 2011 ; Spector & Jex, 1998 ). Some researchers differentiated the source of mistreatment, such as mistreatment from one’s supervisor versus mistreatment from one’s coworker (e.g., Bruk-Lee & Spector, 2006 ; Frone, 2000 ; Liu, Liu, Spector, & Shi, 2011 ).

Role Stressors

Role stressors are demands, constraints, or opportunities a person perceives to be associated, and thus expected, with his or her work role(s) across various situations. Three commonly studied role stressors are role ambiguity, role conflict, and role overload (Glazer & Beehr, 2005 ; Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal, 1964 ). Role ambiguity in the workplace occurs when an employee lacks clarity regarding what performance-related behaviors are expected of him or her. Role conflict refers to situations wherein an employee receives incompatible role requests from the same or different supervisors or the employee is asked to engage in work that impedes his or her performance in other work or nonwork roles or clashes with his or her values. Role overload refers to excessive demands and insufficient time (quantitative) or knowledge (qualitative) to complete the work. The construct is often used interchangeably with workload, though role overload focuses more on perceived expectations from others about one’s workload. These role stressors significantly relate to low job satisfaction, low organizational commitment, low job performance, high tension or anxiety, and high turnover intention (Abramis, 1994 ; Glazer & Beehr, 2005 ; Jackson & Schuler, 1985 ).

Excessive workload is one of the most salient stressors at work (e.g., Liu et al., 2007 ). There are two types of workload: quantitative and qualitative workload (LaRocco, Tetrick, & Meder, 1989 ; Parasuraman & Purohit, 2000 ). Quantitative workload refers to the excessive amount of work one has. In a summary of a Chartered Institute of Personnel & Development Report from 2006 , Dewe and Kompier ( 2008 ) noted that quantitative workload was one of the top three stressors workers experienced at work. Qualitative workload refers to the difficulty of work. Workload also differs by the type of the load. There are mental workload and physical workload (Dwyer & Ganster, 1991 ). Excessive physical workload may result in physical discomfort or illness. Excessive mental workload will cause psychological distress such as anxiety or frustration (Bowling & Kirkendall, 2012 ). Another factor affecting quantitative workload is interruptions (during the workday). Lin, Kain, and Fritz ( 2013 ) found that interruptions delay completion of job tasks, thus adding to the perception of workload.

Work-Family Conflict

Work-family conflict is a form of inter-role conflict in which demands from one’s work domain and one’s family domain are incompatible to some extent (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985 ). Work can interfere with family (WIF) and/or family can interfere with work (FIW) due to time-related commitments to participating in one domain or another, incompatible behavioral expectations, or when strains in one domain carry over to the other (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985 ). Work-family conflict significantly relates to work-related outcomes (e.g., job satisfaction, organizational commitment, turnover intention, burnout, absenteeism, job performance, job strains, career satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors), family-related outcomes (e.g., marital satisfaction, family satisfaction, family-related performance, family-related strains), and domain-unspecific outcomes (e.g., life satisfaction, psychological strain, somatic or physical symptoms, depression, substance use or abuse, and anxiety; Amstad, Meier, Fasel, Elfering, & Semmer, 2011 ).

Individuals and organizations can experience work-related strains. Sometimes organizations will experience strains through the employee’s negative attitudes or strains, such as that a worker’s absence might yield lower production rates, which would roll up into an organizational metric of organizational performance. In the industrial and organizational (IO) psychology literature, organizational strains are mostly observed as macro-level indicators, such as health insurance costs, accident-free days, and pervasive problems with company morale. In contrast, individual strains, usually referred to as job strains, are internal to an employee. They are responses to work conditions and relate to health and well-being of employees. In other words, “job strains are adverse reactions employees have to job stressors” (Spector, Chen, & O’Connell, 2000 , p. 211). Job strains tend to fall into three categories: behavioral, physical, and psychological (Jex & Beehr, 1991 ).

Behavioral strains consist of actions that employees take in response to job stressors. Examples of behavioral strains include employees drinking alcohol in the workplace or intentionally calling in sick when they are not ill (Spector et al., 2000 ). Physical strains consist of health symptoms that are physiological in nature that employees contract in response to job stressors. Headaches and ulcers are examples of physical strains. Lastly, psychological strains are emotional reactions and attitudes that employees have in response to job stressors. Examples of psychological strains are job dissatisfaction, anxiety, and frustration (Spector et al., 2000 ). Interestingly, research studies that utilize self-report measures find that most job strains experienced by employees tend to be psychological strains (Spector et al., 2000 ).

Leading Frameworks

Organizations that are keen on identifying organizational pain points and remedying them through organizational campaigns or initiatives often discover the pain points are rooted in work-related stressors and strains and the initiatives have to focus on reducing workers’ stress and increasing a company’s profitability. Through organizational climate surveys, for example, companies discover that aspects of the organization’s environment, including its policies, practices, reward structures, procedures, and processes, as well as employees at all levels of the company, are contributing to the individual and organizational stress. Recent studies have even begun to examine team climates for eustress and distress assessed in terms of team members’ homogenous psychological experience of vigor, efficacy, dedication, and cynicism (e.g., Kożusznik, Rodriguez, & Peiro, 2015 ).

Each of the frameworks presented advances different aspects that need to be identified in order to understand the source and potential remedy for stressors and strains. In some models, the focus is on resources, in others on the interaction of the person and environment, and in still others on the role of the person in the workplace. Few frameworks directly examine the role of the organization, but the organization could use these frameworks to plan interventions that would minimize stressors, cope with existing stressors, and prevent and/or manage strains. One of the leading frameworks in work stress research that is used to guide organizational interventions is the person and environment (P-E) fit (French & Caplan, 1972 ). Its precursor is the University of Michigan Institute for Social Research’s (ISR) role stress model (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal, 1964 ) and Lewin’s Field Theory. Several other theories have since evolved from the P-E fit framework, including Karasek and Theorell’s ( 1990 ), Karasek ( 1979 ) Job Demands-Control Model (JD-C), the transactional framework (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984 ), Conservation of Resources (COR) theory (Hobfoll, 1989 ), and Siegrist’s ( 1996 ) Effort-Reward Imbalance (ERI) Model.

Field Theory

The premise of Kahn et al.’s ( 1964 ) role stress theory is Lewin’s ( 1997 ) Field Theory. Lewin purported that behavior and mental events are a dynamic function of the whole person, including a person’s beliefs, values, abilities, needs, thoughts, and feelings, within a given situation (field or environment), as well as the way a person represents his or her understanding of the field and behaves in that space. Lewin explains that work-related strains are a result of individuals’ subjective perceptions of objective factors, such as work roles, relationships with others in the workplace, as well as personality indicators, and can be used to predict people’s reactions, including illness. Thus, to make changes to an organizational system, it is necessary to understand a field and try to move that field from the current state to the desired state. Making this move necessitates identifying mechanisms influencing individuals.

Role Stress Theory

Role stress theory mostly isolates the perspective a person has about his or her work-related responsibilities and expectations to determine how those perceptions relate with a person’s work-related strains. However, those relationships have been met with somewhat varied results, which Glazer and Beehr ( 2005 ) concluded might be a function of differences in culture, an environmental factor often neglected in research. Kahn et al.’s ( 1964 ) role stress theory, coupled with Lewin’s ( 1936 ) Field Theory, serves as the foundation for the P-E fit theory. Lewin ( 1936 ) wrote, “Every psychological event depends upon the state of the person and at the same time on the environment” (p. 12). Researchers of IO psychology have narrowed the environment to the organization or work team. This narrowed view of the organizational environment is evident in French and Caplan’s ( 1972 ) P-E fit framework.

Person-Environment Fit Theory

The P-E fit framework focuses on the extent to which there is congruence between the person and a given environment, such as the organization (Caplan, 1987 ; Edwards, 2008 ). For example, does the person have the necessary skills and abilities to fulfill an organization’s demands, or does the environment support a person’s desire for autonomy (i.e., do the values align?) or fulfill a person’s needs (i.e., a person’s needs are rewarded). Theoretically and empirically, the greater the person-organization fit, the greater a person’s job satisfaction and organizational commitment, the less a person’s turnover intention and work-related stress (see meta-analyses by Assouline & Meir, 1987 ; Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005 ; Verquer, Beehr, & Wagner, 2003 ).

Job Demands-Control/Support (JD-C/S) and Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) Model

Focusing more closely on concrete aspects of work demands and the extent to which a person perceives he or she has control or decision latitude over those demands, Karasek ( 1979 ) developed the JD-C model. Karasek and Theorell ( 1990 ) posited that high job demands under conditions of little decision latitude or control yield high strains, which have varied implications on the health of an organization (e.g., in terms of high turnover, employee ill-health, poor organizational performance). This theory was modified slightly to address not only control, but also other resources that could protect a person from unruly job demands, including support (aka JD-C/S, Johnson & Hall, 1988 ; and JD-R, Bakker, van Veldhoven, & Xanthopoulou, 2010 ). Whether focusing on control or resources, both they and job demands are said to reflect workplace characteristics, while control and resources also represent coping strategies or tools (Siegrist, 2010 ).

Despite the glut of research testing the JD-C and JD-R, results are somewhat mixed. Testing the interaction between job demands and control, Beehr, Glaser, Canali, and Wallwey ( 2001 ) did not find empirical support for the JD-C theory. However, Dawson, O’Brien, and Beehr ( 2016 ) found that high control and high support buffered against the independent deleterious effects of interpersonal conflict, role conflict, and organizational politics (demands that were categorized as hindrance stressors) on anxiety, as well as the effects of interpersonal conflict and organizational politics on physiological symptoms, but control and support did not moderate the effects between challenge stressors and strains. Coupled with Bakker, Demerouti, and Sanz-Vergel’s ( 2014 ) note that excessive job demands are a source of strain, but increased job resources are a source of engagement, Dawson et al.’s results suggest that when an organization identifies that demands are hindrances, it can create strategies for primary (preventative) stress management interventions and attempt to remove or reduce such work demands. If the demands are challenging, though manageable, but latitude to control the challenging stressors and support are insufficient, the organization could modify practices and train employees on adopting better strategies for meeting or coping (secondary stress management intervention) with the demands. Finally, if the organization can neither afford to modify the demands or the level of control and support, it will be necessary for the organization to develop stress management (tertiary) interventions to deal with the inevitable strains.

Conservation of Resources Theory

The idea that job resources reinforce engagement in work has been propagated in Hobfoll’s ( 1989 ) Conservation of Resources (COR) theory. COR theory also draws on the foundational premise that people’s mental health is a function of the person and the environment, forwarding that how people interpret their environment (including the societal context) affects their stress levels. Hobfoll focuses on resources such as objects, personal characteristics, conditions, or energies as particularly instrumental to minimizing strains. He asserts that people do whatever they can to protect their valued resources. Thus, strains develop when resources are threatened to be taken away, actually taken away, or when additional resources are not attainable after investing in the possibility of gaining more resources (Hobfoll, 2001 ). By extension, organizations can invest in activities that would minimize resource loss and create opportunities for resource gains and thus have direct implications for devising primary and secondary stress management interventions.

Transactional Framework

Lazarus and Folkman ( 1984 ) developed the widely studied transactional framework of stress. This framework holds as a key component the cognitive appraisal process. When individuals perceive factors in the work environment as a threat (i.e., primary appraisal), they will scan the available resources (external or internal to himself or herself) to cope with the stressors (i.e., secondary appraisal). If the coping resources provide minimal relief, strains develop. Until recently, little attention has been given to the cognitive appraisal associated with different work stressors (Dewe & Kompier, 2008 ; Liu & Li, 2017 ). In a study of Polish and Spanish social care service providers, stressors appraised as a threat related positively to burnout and less engagement, but stressors perceived as challenges yielded greater engagement and less burnout (Kożusznik, Rodriguez, & Peiro, 2012 ). Similarly, Dawson et al. ( 2016 ) found that even with support and control resources, hindrance demands were more strain-producing than challenge demands, suggesting that appraisal of the stressor is important. In fact, “many people respond well to challenging work” (Beehr et al., 2001 , p. 126). Kożusznik et al. ( 2012 ) recommend training employees to change the way they view work demands in order to increase engagement, considering that part of the problem may be about how the person appraises his or her environment and, thus, copes with the stressors.

Effort-Reward Imbalance

Siegrist’s ( 1996 ) Model of Effort-Reward Imbalance (ERI) focuses on the notion of social reciprocity, such that a person fulfills required work tasks in exchange for desired rewards (Siegrist, 2010 ). ERI sheds light on how an imbalance in a person’s expectations of an organization’s rewards (e.g., pay, bonus, sense of advancement and development, job security) in exchange for a person’s efforts, that is a break in one’s work contract, leads to negative responses, including long-term ill-health (Siegrist, 2010 ; Siegrist et al., 2014 ). In fact, prolonged perception of a work contract imbalance leads to adverse health, including immunological problems and inflammation, which contribute to cardiovascular disease (Siegrist, 2010 ). The model resembles the relational and interactional psychological contract theory in that it describes an employee’s perception of the terms of the relationship between the person and the workplace, including expectations of performance, job security, training and development opportunities, career progression, salary, and bonuses (Thomas, Au, & Ravlin, 2003 ). The psychological contract, like the ERI model, focuses on social exchange. Furthermore, the psychological contract, like stress theories, are influenced by cultural factors that shape how people interpret their environments (Glazer, 2008 ; Thomas et al., 2003 ). Violations of the psychological contract will negatively affect a person’s attitudes toward the workplace and subsequent health and well-being (Siegrist, 2010 ). To remediate strain, Siegrist ( 2010 ) focuses on both the person and the environment, recognizing that the organization is particularly responsible for changing unfavorable work conditions and the person is responsible for modifying his or her reactions to such conditions.

Stress Management Interventions: Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary

Remediation of work stress and organizational development interventions are about realigning the employee’s experiences in the workplace with factors in the environment, as well as closing the gap between the current environment and the desired environment. Work stress develops when an employee perceives the work demands to exceed the person’s resources to cope and thus threatens employee well-being (Dewe & Kompier, 2008 ). Likewise, an organization’s need to change arises when forces in the environment are creating a need to change in order to survive (see Figure 1 ). Lewin’s ( 1951 ) Force Field Analysis, the foundations of which are in Field Theory, is one of the first organizational development intervention tools presented in the social science literature. The concept behind Force Field Analysis is that in order to survive, organizations must adapt to environmental forces driving a need for organizational change and remove restraining forces that create obstacles to organizational change. In order to do this, management needs to delineate the current field in which the organization is functioning, understand the driving forces for change, identify and dampen or eliminate the restraining forces against change. Several models for analyses may be applied, but most approaches are variations of organizational climate surveys.

Through organizational surveys, workers provide management with a snapshot view of how they perceive aspects of their work environment. Thus, the view of the health of an organization is a function of several factors, chief among them employees’ views (i.e., the climate) about the workplace (Lewin, 1951 ). Indeed, French and Kahn ( 1962 ) posited that well-being depends on the extent to which properties of the person and properties of the environment align in terms of what a person requires and the resources available in a given environment. Therefore, only when properties of the person and properties of the environment are sufficiently understood can plans for change be developed and implemented targeting the environment (e.g., change reporting structures to relieve, and thus prevent future, communication stressors) and/or the person (e.g., providing more autonomy, vacation days, training on new technology). In short, climate survey findings can guide consultants about the emphasis for organizational interventions: before a problem arises aka stress prevention, e.g., carefully crafting job roles), when a problem is present, but steps are taken to mitigate their consequences (aka coping, e.g., providing social support groups), and/or once strains develop (aka. stress management, e.g., healthcare management policies).

For each of the primary (prevention), secondary (coping), and tertiary (stress management) techniques the target for intervention can be the entire workforce, a subset of the workforce, or a specific person. Interventions that target the entire workforce may be considered organizational interventions, as they have direct implications on the health of all individuals and consequently the health of the organization. Several interventions categorized as primary and secondary interventions may also be implemented after strains have developed and after it has been discerned that a person or the organization did not do enough to mitigate stressors or strains (see Figure 1 ). The designation of many of the interventions as belonging to one category or another may be viewed as merely a suggestion.

Primary Interventions (Preventative Stress Management)

Before individuals begin to perceive work-related stressors, organizations engage in stress prevention strategies, such as providing people with resources (e.g., computers, printers, desk space, information about the job role, organizational reporting structures) to do their jobs. However, sometimes the institutional structures and resources are insufficient or ambiguous. Scholars and practitioners have identified several preventative stress management strategies that may be implemented.

Planning and Time Management

When employees feel quantitatively overloaded, sometimes the remedy is improving the employees’ abilities to plan and manage their time (Quick, Quick, Nelson, & Hurrell, 2003 ). Planning is a future-oriented activity that focuses on conceptual and comprehensive work goals. Time management is a behavior that focuses on organizing, prioritizing, and scheduling work activities to achieve short-term goals. Given the purpose of time management, it is considered a primary intervention, as engaging in time management helps to prevent work tasks from mounting and becoming unmanageable, which would subsequently lead to adverse outcomes. Time management comprises three fundamental components: (1) establishing goals, (2) identifying and prioritizing tasks to fulfill the goals, and (3) scheduling and monitoring progress toward goal achievement (Peeters & Rutte, 2005 ). Workers who employ time management have less role ambiguity (Macan, Shahani, Dipboye, & Philips, 1990 ), psychological stress or strain (Adams & Jex, 1999 ; Jex & Elaqua, 1999 ; Macan et al., 1990 ), and greater job satisfaction (Macan, 1994 ). However, Macan ( 1994 ) did not find a relationship between time management and performance. Still, Claessens, van Eerde, Rutte, and Roe ( 2004 ) found that perceived control of time partially mediated the relationships between planning behavior (an indicator of time management), job autonomy, and workload on one hand, and job strains, job satisfaction, and job performance on the other hand. Moreover, Peeters and Rutte ( 2005 ) observed that teachers with high work demands and low autonomy experienced more burnout when they had poor time management skills.

Person-Organization Fit

Just as it is important for organizations to find the right person for the job and organization, so is it the responsibility of a person to choose to work at the right organization—an organization that fulfills the person’s needs and upholds the values important to the individual, as much as the person fulfills the organization’s needs and adapts to its values. When people fit their employing organizations they are setting themselves up for experiencing less strain-producing stressors (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005 ). In a meta-analysis of 62 person-job fit studies and 110 person-organization fit studies, Kristof-Brown et al. ( 2005 ) found that person-job fit had a negative correlation with indicators of job strain. In fact, a primary intervention of career counseling can help to reduce stress levels (Firth-Cozens, 2003 ).

Job Redesign

The Job Demands-Control/Support (JD-C/S), Job Demands-Resources (JD-R), and transactional models all suggest that factors in the work context require modifications in order to reduce potential ill-health and poor organizational performance. Drawing on Hackman and Oldham’s ( 1980 ) Job Characteristics Model, it is possible to assess with the Job Diagnostics Survey (JDS) the current state of work characteristics related to skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. Modifying those aspects would help create a sense of meaningfulness, sense of responsibility, and feeling of knowing how one is performing, which subsequently affects a person’s well-being as identified in assessments of motivation, satisfaction, improved performance, and reduced withdrawal intentions and behaviors. Extending this argument to the stress models, it can be deduced that reducing uncertainty or perceived unfairness that may be associated with a person’s perception of these work characteristics, as well as making changes to physical characteristics of the environment (e.g., lighting, seating, desk, air quality), nature of work (e.g., job responsibilities, roles, decision-making latitude), and organizational arrangements (e.g., reporting structure and feedback mechanisms), can help mitigate against numerous ill-health consequences and reduced organizational performance. In fact, Fried et al. ( 2013 ) showed that healthy patients of a medical clinic whose jobs were excessively low (i.e., monotonous) or excessively high (i.e., overstimulating) on job enrichment (as measured by the JDS) had greater abdominal obesity than those whose jobs were optimally enriched. By taking stock of employees’ perceptions of the current work situation, managers might think about ways to enhance employees’ coping toolkit, such as training on how to deal with difficult clients or creating stimulating opportunities when jobs have low levels of enrichment.

Participatory Action Research Interventions

Participatory action research (PAR) is an intervention wherein, through group discussions, employees help to identify and define problems in organizational structure, processes, policies, practices, and reward structures, as well as help to design, implement, and evaluate success of solutions. PAR is in itself an intervention, but its goal is to design interventions to eliminate or reduce work-related factors that are impeding performance and causing people to be unwell. An example of a successful primary intervention, utilizing principles of PAR and driven by the JD-C and JD-C/S stress frameworks is Health Circles (HCs; Aust & Ducki, 2004 ).

HCs, developed in Germany in the 1980s, were popular practices in industries, such as metal, steel, and chemical, and service. Similar to other problem-solving practices, such as quality circles, HCs were based on the assumptions that employees are the experts of their jobs. For this reason, to promote employee well-being, management and administrators solicited suggestions and ideas from the employees to improve occupational health, thereby increasing employees’ job control. HCs also promoted communication between managers and employees, which had a potential to increase social support. With more control and support, employees would experience less strains and better occupational well-being.

Employing the three-steps of (1) problem analysis (i.e., diagnosis or discovery through data generated from organizational records of absenteeism length, frequency, rate, and reason and employee survey), (2) HC meetings (6 to 10 meetings held over several months to brainstorm ideas to improve occupational safety and health concerns identified in the discovery phase), and (3) HC evaluation (to determine if desired changes were accomplished and if employees’ reports of stressors and strains changed after the course of 15 months), improvements were to be expected (Aust & Ducki, 2004 ). Aust and Ducki ( 2004 ) reviewed 11 studies presenting 81 health circles in 30 different organizations. Overall study participants had high satisfaction with the HCs practices. Most companies acted upon employees’ suggestions (e.g., improving driver’s seat and cab, reducing ticket sale during drive, team restructuring and job rotation to facilitate communication, hiring more employees during summer time, and supervisor training program to improve leadership and communication skills) to improve work conditions. Thus, HCs represent a successful theory-grounded intervention to routinely improve employees’ occupational health.

Physical Setting

The physical environment or physical workspace has an enormous impact on individuals’ well-being, attitudes, and interactions with others, as well as on the implications on innovation and well-being (Oksanen & Ståhle, 2013 ; Vischer, 2007 ). In a study of 74 new product development teams (total of 437 study respondents) in Western Europe, Chong, van Eerde, Rutte, and Chai ( 2012 ) found that when teams were faced with challenge time pressures, meaning the teams had a strong interest and desire in tackling complex, but engaging tasks, when they were working proximally close with one another, team communication improved. Chong et al. assert that their finding aligns with prior studies that have shown that physical proximity promotes increased awareness of other team members, greater tendency to initiate conversations, and greater team identification. However, they also found that when faced with hindrance time pressures, physical proximity related to low levels of team communication, but when hindrance time pressure was low, team proximity had an increasingly greater positive relationship with team communication.

In addition to considering the type of work demand teams must address, other physical workspace considerations include whether people need to work collaboratively and synchronously or independently and remotely (or a combination thereof). Consideration needs to be given to how company contributors would satisfy client needs through various modes of communication, such as email vs. telephone, and whether individuals who work by a window might need shading to block bright sunlight from glaring on their computer screens. Finally, people who have to use the telephone for extensive periods of time would benefit from earphones to prevent neck strains. Most physical stressors are rather simple to rectify. However, companies are often not aware of a problem until after a problem arises, such as when a person’s back is strained from trying to move heavy equipment. Companies then implement strategies to remediate the environmental stressor. With the help of human factors, and organizational and office design consultants, many of the physical barriers to optimal performance can be prevented (Rousseau & Aubé, 2010 ). In a study of 215 French-speaking Canadian healthcare employees, Rousseau and Aubé ( 2010 ) found that although supervisor instrumental support positively related with affective commitment to the organization, the relationship was even stronger for those who reported satisfaction with the ambient environment (i.e., temperature, lighting, sound, ventilation, and cleanliness).

Secondary Interventions (Coping)

Secondary interventions, also referred to as coping, focus on resources people can use to mitigate the risk of work-related illness or workplace injury. Resources may include properties related to social resources, behaviors, and cognitive structures. Each of these resource domains may be employed to cope with stressors. Monat and Lazarus ( 1991 ) summarize the definition of coping as “an individual’s efforts to master demands (or conditions of harm, threat, or challenge) that are appraised (or perceived) as exceeding or taxing his or her resources” (p. 5). To master demands requires use of the aforementioned resources. Secondary interventions help employees become aware of the psychological, physical, and behavioral responses that may occur from the stressors presented in their working environment. Secondary interventions help a person detect and attend to stressors and identify resources for and ways of mitigating job strains. Often, coping strategies are learned skills that have a cognitive foundation and serve important functions in improving people’s management of stressors (Lazarus & Folkman, 1991 ). Coping is effortful, but with practice it becomes easier to employ. This idea is the foundation for understanding the role of resilience in coping with stressors. However, “not all adaptive processes are coping. Coping is a subset of adaptational activities that involves effort and does not include everything that we do in relating to the environment” (Lazarus & Folkman, 1991 , p. 198). Furthermore, sometimes to cope with a stressor, a person may call upon social support sources to help with tangible materials or emotional comfort. People call upon support resources because they help to restructure how a person approaches or thinks about the stressor.

Most secondary interventions are aimed at helping the individual, though companies, as a policy, might require all employees to partake in training aimed at increasing employees’ awareness of and skills aimed at handling difficult situations vis à vis company channels (e.g., reporting on sexual harassment or discrimination). Furthermore, organizations might institute mentoring programs or work groups to address various work-related matters. These programs employ awareness-raising activities, stress-education, or skills training (cf., Bhagat, Segovis, & Nelson, 2012 ), which include development of skills in problem-solving, understanding emotion-focused coping, identifying and using social support, and enhancing capacity for resilience. The aim of these programs, therefore, is to help employees proactively review their perceptions of psychological, physical, and behavioral job-related strains, thereby extending their resilience, enabling them to form a personal plan to control stressors and practice coping skills (Cooper, Dewe, & O’Driscoll, 2011 ).

Often these stress management programs are instituted after an organization has observed excessive absenteeism and work-related performance problems and, therefore, are sometimes categorized as a tertiary stress management intervention or even a primary (prevention) intervention. However, the skills developed for coping with stressors also place the programs in secondary stress management interventions. Example programs that are categorized as tertiary or primary stress management interventions may also be secondary stress management interventions (see Figure 1 ), and these include lifestyle advice and planning, stress inoculation training, simple relaxation techniques, meditation, basic trainings in time management, anger management, problem-solving skills, and cognitive-behavioral therapy. Corporate wellness programs also fall under this category. In other words, some programs could be categorized as primary, secondary, or tertiary interventions depending upon when the employee (or organization) identifies the need to implement the program. For example, time management practices could be implemented as a means of preventing some stressors, as a way to cope with mounting stressors, or as a strategy to mitigate symptoms of excessive of stressors. Furthermore, these programs can be administered at the individual level or group level. As related to secondary interventions, these programs provide participants with opportunities to develop and practice skills to cognitively reappraise the stressor(s); to modify their perspectives about stressors; to take time out to breathe, stretch, meditate, relax, and/or exercise in an attempt to support better decision-making; to articulate concerns and call upon support resources; and to know how to say “no” to onslaughts of requests to complete tasks. Participants also learn how to proactively identify coping resources and solve problems.

According to Cooper, Dewe, and O’Driscoll ( 2001 ), secondary interventions are successful in helping employees modify or strengthen their ability to cope with the experience of stressors with the goal of mitigating the potential harm the job stressors may create. Secondary interventions focus on individuals’ transactions with the work environment and emphasize the fit between a person and his or her environment. However, researchers have pointed out that the underlying assumption of secondary interventions is that the responsibility for coping with the stressors of the environment lies within individuals (Quillian-Wolever & Wolever, 2003 ). If companies cannot prevent the stressors in the first place, then they are, in part, responsible for helping individuals develop coping strategies and informing employees about programs that would help them better cope with job stressors so that they are able to fulfill work assignments.

Stress management interventions that help people learn to cope with stressors focus mainly on the goals of enabling problem-resolution or expressing one’s emotions in a healthy manner. These goals are referred to as problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980 ; Pearlin & Schooler, 1978 ), and the person experiencing the stressors as potential threat is the agent for change and the recipient of the benefits of successful coping (Hobfoll, 1998 ). In addition to problem-focused and emotion-focused coping approaches, social support and resilience may be coping resources. There are many other sources for coping than there is room to present here (see e.g., Cartwright & Cooper, 2005 ); however, the current literature has primarily focused on these resources.

Problem-Focused Coping

Problem-focused or direct coping helps employees remove or reduce stressors in order to reduce their strain experiences (Bhagat et al., 2012 ). In problem-focused coping employees are responsible for working out a strategic plan in order to remove job stressors, such as setting up a set of goals and engaging in behaviors to meet these goals. Problem-focused coping is viewed as an adaptive response, though it can also be maladaptive if it creates more problems down the road, such as procrastinating getting work done or feigning illness to take time off from work. Adaptive problem-focused coping negatively relates to long-term job strains (Higgins & Endler, 1995 ). Discussion on problem-solving coping is framed from an adaptive perspective.

Problem-focused coping is featured as an extension of control, because engaging in problem-focused coping strategies requires a series of acts to keep job stressors under control (Bhagat et al., 2012 ). In the stress literature, there are generally two ways to categorize control: internal versus external locus of control, and primary versus secondary control. Locus of control refers to the extent to which people believe they have control over their own life (Rotter, 1966 ). People high in internal locus of control believe that they can control their own fate whereas people high in external locus of control believe that outside factors determine their life experience (Rotter, 1966 ). Generally, those with an external locus of control are less inclined to engage in problem-focused coping (Strentz & Auerbach, 1988 ). Primary control is the belief that people can directly influence their environment (Alloy & Abramson, 1979 ), and thus they are more likely to engage in problem-focused coping. However, when it is not feasible to exercise primary control, people search for secondary control, with which people try to adapt themselves into the objective environment (Rothbaum, Weisz, & Snyder, 1982 ).

Emotion-Focused Coping

Emotion-focused coping, sometimes referred to as palliative coping, helps employees reduce strains without the removal of job stressors. It involves cognitive or emotional efforts, such as talking about the stressor or distracting oneself from the stressor, in order to lessen emotional distress resulting from job stressors (Bhagat et al., 2012 ). Emotion-focused coping aims to reappraise and modify the perceptions of a situation or seek emotional support from friends or family. These methods do not include efforts to change the work situation or to remove the job stressors (Lazarus & Folkman, 1991 ). People tend to adopt emotion-focused coping strategies when they believe that little or nothing can be done to remove the threatening, harmful, and challenging stressors (Bhagat et al., 2012 ), such as when they are the only individuals to have the skills to get a project done or they are given increased responsibilities because of the unexpected departure of a colleague. Emotion-focused coping strategies include (1) reappraisal of the stressful situation, (2) talking to friends and receiving reassurance from them, (3) focusing on one’s strength rather than weakness, (4) optimistic comparison—comparing one’s situation to others’ or one’s past situation, (5) selective ignoring—paying less attention to the unpleasant aspects of one’s job and being more focused on the positive aspects of the job, (6) restrictive expectations—restricting one’s expectations on job satisfaction but paying more attention to monetary rewards, (7) avoidance coping—not thinking about the problem, leaving the situation, distracting oneself, or using alcohol or drugs (e.g., Billings & Moos, 1981 ).

Some emotion-focused coping strategies are maladaptive. For example, avoidance coping may lead to increased level of job strains in the long run (e.g., Parasuraman & Cleek, 1984 ). Furthermore, a person’s ability to cope with the imbalance of performing work to meet organizational expectations can take a toll on the person’s health, leading to physiological consequences such as cardiovascular disease, sleep disorders, gastrointestinal disorders, and diabetes (Fried et al., 2013 ; Siegrist, 2010 ; Toker, Shirom, Melamed, & Armon, 2012 ; Willert, Thulstrup, Hertz, & Bonde, 2010 ).

Comparing Coping Strategies across Cultures

Most coping research is conducted in individualistic, Western cultures wherein emotional control is emphasized and both problem-solving focused coping and primary control are preferred (Bhagat et al., 2010 ). However, in collectivistic cultures, emotion-focused coping and use of secondary control may be preferred and may not necessarily carry a negative evaluation (Bhagat et al., 2010 ). For example, African Americans are more likely to use emotion-focused coping than non–African Americans (Knight, Silverstein, McCallum, & Fox, 2000 ), and among women who experienced sexual harassment, Anglo American women were less likely to employ emotion focused coping (i.e., avoidance coping) than Turkish women and Hispanic American women, while Hispanic women used more denial than the other two groups (Wasti & Cortina, 2002 ).

Thus, whereas problem-focused coping is venerated in Western societies, emotion-focused coping may be more effective in reducing strains in collectivistic cultures, such as China, Japan, and India (Bhagat et al., 2010 ; Narayanan, Menon, & Spector, 1999 ; Selmer, 2002 ). Indeed, Swedish participants reported more problem-focused coping than did Chinese participants (Xiao, Ottosson, & Carlsson, 2013 ), American college students engaged in more problem-focused coping behaviors than did their Japanese counterparts (Ogawa, 2009 ), and Indian (vs. Canadian) students reported more emotion-focused coping, such as seeking social support and positive reappraisal (Sinha, Willson, & Watson, 2000 ). Moreover, Glazer, Stetz, and Izso ( 2004 ) found that internal locus of control was more predominant in individualistic cultures (United Kingdom and United States), whereas external locus of control was more predominant in communal cultures (Italy and Hungary). Also, internal locus of control was associated with less job stress, but more so for nurses in the United Kingdom and United States than Italy and Hungary. Taken together, adoption of coping strategies and their effectiveness differ significantly across cultures. The extent to which a coping strategy is perceived favorably and thus selected or not selected is not only a function of culture, but also a person’s sociocultural beliefs toward the coping strategy (Morimoto, Shimada, & Ozaki, 2013 ).

Social Support

Social support refers to the aid an entity gives to a person. The source of the support can be a single person, such as a supervisor, coworker, subordinate, family member, friend, or stranger, or an organization as represented by upper-level management representing organizational practices. The type of support can be instrumental or emotional. Instrumental support, including informational support, refers to that which is tangible, such as data to help someone make a decision or colleagues’ sick days so one does not lose vital pay while recovering from illness. Emotional support, including esteem support, refers to the psychological boost given to a person who needs to express emotions and feel empathy from others or to have his or her perspective validated. Beehr and Glazer ( 2001 ) present an overview of the role of social support on the stressor-strain relationship and arguments regarding the role of culture in shaping the utility of different sources and types of support.

Meaningfulness and Resilience

Meaningfulness reflects the extent to which people believe their lives are significant, purposeful, goal-directed, and fulfilling (Glazer, Kożusznik, Meyers, & Ganai, 2014 ). When faced with stressors, people who have a strong sense of meaning in life will also try to make sense of the stressors. Maintaining a positive outlook on life stressors helps to manage emotions, which is helpful in reducing strains, particularly when some stressors cannot be problem-solved (Lazarus & Folkman, 1991 ). Lazarus and Folkman ( 1991 ) emphasize that being able to reframe threatening situations can be just as important in an adaptation as efforts to control the stressors. Having a sense of meaningfulness motivates people to behave in ways that help them overcome stressors. Thus, meaningfulness is often used in the same breath as resilience, because people who are resilient are often protecting that which is meaningful.

Resilience is a personality state that can be fortified and enhanced through varied experiences. People who perceive their lives are meaningful are more likely to find ways to face adversity and are therefore more prone to intensifying their resiliency. When people demonstrate resilience to cope with noxious stressors, their ability to be resilient against other stressors strengthens because through the experience, they develop more competencies (Glazer et al., 2014 ). Thus, fitting with Hobfoll’s ( 1989 , 2001 ) COR theory, meaningfulness and resilience are psychological resources people attempt to conserve and protect, and employ when necessary for making sense of or coping with stressors.

Tertiary Interventions (Stress Management)

Stress management refers to interventions employed to treat and repair harmful repercussions of stressors that were not coped with sufficiently. As Lazarus and Folkman ( 1991 ) noted, not all stressors “are amenable to mastery” (p. 205). Stressors that are unmanageable and lead to strains require interventions to reverse or slow down those effects. Workplace interventions might focus on the person, the organization, or both. Unfortunately, instead of looking at the whole system to include the person and the workplace, most companies focus on the person. Such a focus should not be a surprise given the results of van der Klink, Blonk, Schene, and van Dijk’s ( 2001 ) meta-analysis of 48 experimental studies conducted between 1977 and 1996 . They found that of four types of tertiary interventions, the effect size for cognitive-behavioral interventions and multimodal programs (e.g., the combination of assertive training and time management) was moderate and the effect size for relaxation techniques was small in reducing psychological complaints, but not turnover intention related to work stress. However, the effects of (the five studies that used) organization-focused interventions were not significant. Similarly, Richardson and Rothstein’s ( 2008 ) meta-analytic study, including 36 experimental studies with 55 interventions, showed a larger effect size for cognitive-behavioral interventions than relaxation, organizational, multimodal, or alternative. However, like with van der Klink et al. ( 2001 ), Richardson and Rothstein ( 2008 ) cautioned that there were few organizational intervention studies included and the impact of interventions were determined on the basis of psychological outcomes and not physiological or organizational outcomes. Van der Klink et al. ( 2001 ) further expressed concern that organizational interventions target the workplace and that changes in the individual may take longer to observe than individual interventions aimed directly at the individual.

The long-term benefits of individual focused interventions are not yet clear either. Per Giga, Cooper, and Faragher ( 2003 ), the benefits of person-directed stress management programs will be short-lived if organizational factors to reduce stressors are not addressed too. Indeed, LaMontagne, Keegel, Louie, Ostry, and Landsbergis ( 2007 ), in their meta-analysis of 90 studies on stress management interventions published between 1990 and 2005 , revealed that in relation to interventions targeting organizations only, and interventions targeting individuals only, interventions targeting both organizations and individuals (i.e. the systems approach) had the most favorable positive effects on both the organizations and the individuals. Furthermore, the organization-level interventions were effective at both the individual and organization levels, but the individual-level interventions were effective only at the individual level.

Individual-Focused Stress Management

Individual-focused interventions concentrate on improving conditions for the individual, though counseling programs emphasize that the worker is in charge of reducing “stress,” whereas role-focused interventions emphasize activities that organizations can guide to actually reduce unnecessary noxious environmental factors.

Individual-Focused Stress Management: Employee Assistance Programs

When stress become sufficiently problematic (which is individually gauged or attended to by supportive others) in a worker’s life, employees may utilize the short-term counseling services or referral services Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) provide. People who utilize the counseling services may engage in cognitive behavioral therapy aimed at changing the way people think about the stressors (e.g., as challenge opportunity over threat) and manage strains. Example topics that may be covered in these therapy sessions include time management and goal setting (prioritization), career planning and development, cognitive restructuring and mindfulness, relaxation, and anger management. In a study of healthcare workers and teachers who participated in a 2-day to 2.5-day comprehensive stress management training program (including 26 topics on identifying, coping with, and managing stressors and strains), Siu, Cooper, and Phillips ( 2013 ) found psychological and physical improvements were self-reported among the healthcare workers (for which there was no control group). However, comparing an intervention group of teachers to a control group of teachers, the extent of change was not as visible, though teachers in the intervention group engaged in more mastery recovery experiences (i.e., they purposefully chose to engage in challenging activities after work).

Individual-Focused Stress Management: Mindfulness

A popular therapy today is to train people to be more mindful, which involves helping people live in the present, reduce negative judgement of current and past experiences, and practicing patience (Birnie, Speca, & Carlson, 2010 ). Mindfulness programs usually include training on relaxation exercises, gentle yoga, and awareness of the body’s senses. In one study offered through the continuing education program at a Canadian university, 104 study participants took part in an 8-week, 90 minute per group (15–20 participants per) session mindfulness program (Birnie et al., 2010 ). In addition to body scanning, they also listened to lectures on incorporating mindfulness into one’s daily life and received a take-home booklet and compact discs that guided participants through the exercises studied in person. Two weeks after completing the program, participants’ mindfulness attendance and general positive moods increased, while physical, psychological, and behavioral strains decreased. In another study on a sample of U.K. government employees, study participants receiving three sessions of 2.5 to 3 hours each training on mindfulness, with the first two sessions occurring in consecutive weeks and the third occurring about three months later, Flaxman and Bond ( 2010 ) found that compared to the control group, the intervention group showed a decrease in distress levels from Time 1 (baseline) to Time 2 (three months after first two training sessions) and Time 1 to Time 3 (after final training session). Moreover, of the mindfulness intervention study participants who were clinically distressed, 69% experienced clinical improvement in their psychological health.

Individual-Focused Stress Management: Biofeedback/Imagery/Meditation/Deep Breathing

Biofeedback uses electronic equipment to inform users about how their body is responding to tension. With guidance from a therapist, individuals then learn to change their physiological responses so that their pulse normalizes and muscles relax (Norris, Fahrion, & Oikawa, 2007 ). The therapist’s guidance might include reminders for imagery, meditation, body scan relaxation, and deep breathing. Saunders, Driskell, Johnston, and Salas’s ( 1996 ) meta-analysis of 37 studies found that imagery helped reduce state and performance anxiety. Once people have been trained to relax, reminder triggers may be sent through smartphone push notifications (Villani et al., 2013 ).

Smartphone technology can also be used to support weight loss programs, smoking cessation programs, and medication or disease (e.g., diabetes) management compliance (Heron & Smyth, 2010 ; Kannampallil, Waicekauskas, Morrow, Kopren, & Fu, 2013 ). For example, smartphones could remind a person to take medications or test blood sugar levels or send messages about healthy behaviors and positive affirmations.

Individual-Focused Stress Management: Sleep/Rest/Respite

Workers today sleep less per night than adults did nearly 30 years ago (Luckhaupt, Tak, & Calvert, 2010 ; National Sleep Foundation, 2005 , 2013 ). In order to combat problems, such as increased anxiety and cardiovascular artery disease, associated with sleep deprivation and insufficient rest, it is imperative that people disconnect from their work at least one day per week or preferably for several weeks so that they are able to restore psychological health (Etzion, Eden, & Lapidot, 1998 ; Ragsdale, Beehr, Grebner, & Han, 2011 ). When college students engaged in relaxation-type activities, such as reading or watching television, over the weekend, they experienced less emotional exhaustion and greater general well-being than students who engaged in resources-consuming activities, such as house cleaning (Ragsdale et al., 2011 ). Additional research and future directions for research are reviewed and identified in the work of Sonnentag ( 2012 ). For example, she asks whether lack of ability to detach from work is problematic for people who find their work meaningful. In other words, are negative health consequences only among those who do not take pleasure in their work? Sonnetag also asks how teleworkers detach from their work when engaging in work from the home. Ironically, one of the ways that companies are trying to help with the challenges of high workload or increased need to be available to colleagues, clients, or vendors around the globe is by offering flexible work arrangements, whereby employees who can work from home are given the opportunity to do so. Companies that require global interactions 24-hours per day often employ this strategy, but is the solution also a source of strain (Glazer, Kożusznik, & Shargo, 2012 )?

Individual-Focused Stress Management: Role Analysis

Role analysis or role clarification aims to redefine, expressly identify, and align employees’ roles and responsibilities with their work goals. Through role negotiation, involved parties begin to develop a new formal or informal contract about expectations and define resources needed to fulfill those expectations. Glazer has used this approach in organizational consulting and, with one memorable client engagement, found that not only were the individuals whose roles required deeper re-evaluation happier at work (six months later), but so were their subordinates. Subordinates who once characterized the two partners as hostile and akin to a couple going through a bad divorce, later referred to them as a blissful pair. Schaubroeck, Ganster, Sime, and Ditman ( 1993 ) also found in a three-wave study over a two-year period that university employees’ reports of role clarity and greater satisfaction with their supervisor increased after a role clarification exercise of top managers’ roles and subordinates’ roles. However, the intervention did not have any impact on reported physical symptoms, absenteeism, or psychological well-being. Role analysis is categorized under individual-focused stress management intervention because it is usually implemented after individuals or teams begin to demonstrate poor performance and because the intervention typically focuses on a few individuals rather than an entire organization or group. In other words, the intervention treats the person’s symptoms by redefining the role so as to eliminate the stimulant causing the problem.

Organization-Focused Stress Management

At the organizational level, companies that face major declines in productivity and profitability or increased costs related to healthcare and disability might be motivated to reassess organizational factors that might be impinging on employees’ health and well-being. After all, without healthy workers, it is not possible to have a healthy organization. Companies may choose to implement practices and policies that are expected to help not only the employees, but also the organization with reduced costs associated with employee ill-health, such as medical insurance, disability payments, and unused office space. Example practices and policies that may be implemented include flexible work arrangements to ensure that employees are not on the streets in the middle of the night for work that can be done from anywhere (such as the home), diversity programs to reduce stress-induced animosity and prejudice toward others, providing only healthy food choices in cafeterias, mandating that all employees have physicals in order to receive reduced prices for insurance, company-wide closures or mandatory paid time off, and changes in organizational visioning.

Organization-Focused Stress Management: Organizational-Level Occupational Health Interventions

As with job design interventions that are implemented to remediate work characteristics that were a source of unnecessary or excessive stressors, so are organizational-level occupational health (OLOH) interventions. As with many of the interventions, its placement as a primary or tertiary stress management intervention may seem arbitrary, but when considering the goal and target of change, it is clear that the intervention is implemented in response to some ailing organizational issues that need to be reversed or stopped, and because it brings in the entire organization’s workforce to address the problems, it has been placed in this category. There are several more case studies than empirical studies on the topic of whole system organizational change efforts (see example case studies presented by the United Kingdom’s Health and Safety Executive). It is possible that lack of published empirical work is not so much due to lack of attempting to gather and evaluate the data for publication, but rather because the OLOH interventions themselves never made it to the intervention stage, the interventions failed (Biron, Gatrell, & Cooper, 2010 ), or the level of evaluation was not rigorous enough to get into empirical peer-review journals. Fortunately, case studies provide some indication of the opportunities and problems associated with OLOH interventions.

One case study regarding Cardiff and Value University Health Board revealed that through focus group meetings with members of a steering group (including high-level managers and supported by top management) and facilitated by a neutral, non-judgemental organizational health consultant, ideas for change were posted on newsprint, discussed, and areas in the organization needing change were identified. The intervention for giving voice to people who initially had little already had a positive effect on the organization, as absence decreased by 2.09% and 6.9% merely 12 and 18 months, respectively, after the intervention. Translated in financial terms, the 6.9% change was equivalent to a quarterly savings of £80,000 (Health & Safety Executive, n.d. ). Thus, focusing on the context of change and how people will be involved in the change process probably helped the organization realize improvements (Biron et al., 2010 ). In a recent and rare empirical study, employing both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods, Sørensen and Holman ( 2014 ) utilized PAR in order to plan and implement an OLOH intervention over the course of 14 months. Their study aimed to examine the effectiveness of the PAR process in reducing workers’ work-related and social or interpersonal-related stressors that derive from the workplace and improving psychological, behavioral, and physiological well-being across six Danish organizations. Based on group dialogue, 30 proposals for change were proposed, all of which could be categorized as either interventions to focus on relational factors (e.g., management feedback improvement, engagement) or work processes (e.g., reduced interruptions, workload, reinforcing creativity). Of the interventions that were implemented, results showed improvements on manager relationship quality and reduced burnout, but no changes with respect to work processes (i.e., workload and work pace) perhaps because the employees already had sufficient task control and variety. These findings support Dewe and Kompier’s ( 2008 ) position that occupational health can be reinforced through organizational policies that reinforce quality jobs and work experiences.

Organization-Focused Stress Management: Flexible Work Arrangements

Dewe and Kompier ( 2008 ), citing the work of Isles ( 2005 ), noted that concern over losing one’s job is a reason for why 40% of survey respondents indicated they work more hours than formally required. In an attempt to create balance and perceived fairness in one’s compensation for putting in extra work hours, employees will sometimes be legitimately or illegitimately absent. As companies become increasingly global, many people with desk jobs are finding themselves communicating with colleagues who are halfway around the globe and at all hours of the day or night (Glazer et al., 2012 ). To help minimize the strains associated with these stressors, companies might devise flexible work arrangements (FWA), though the type of FWA needs to be tailored to the cultural environment (Masuda et al., 2012 ). FWAs give employees some leverage to decide what would be the optimal work arrangement for them (e.g., part-time, flexible work hours, compressed work week, telecommuting). In other words, FWA provides employees with the choice of when to work, where to work (on-site or off-site), and how many hours to work in a day, week, or pay period (Kossek, Thompson, & Lautsch, 2015 ). However, not all employees of an organization have equal access to or equitable use of FWAs; workers in low-wage, hourly jobs are often beholden to being physically present during specific hours (Swanberg McKechnie, Ojha, & James, 2011 ). In a study of over 1,300 full-time hourly retail employees in the United States, Swanberg et al. ( 2011 ) showed that employees who have control over their work schedules and over their work hours were satisfied with their work schedules, perceived support from the supervisor, and work engagement.

Unfortunately, not all FWAs yield successful results for the individual or the organization. Being able to work from home or part-time can have problems too, as a person finds himself or herself working more hours from home than required. Sometimes telecommuting creates work-family conflict too as a person struggles to balance work and family obligations while working from home. Other drawbacks include reduced face-to-face contact between work colleagues and stakeholders, challenges shaping one’s career growth due to limited contact, perceived inequity if some have more flexibility than others, and ambiguity about work role processes for interacting with employees utilizing the FWA (Kossek et al., 2015 ). Organizations that institute FWAs must carefully weigh the benefits and drawbacks the flexibility may have on the employees using it or the employees affected by others using it, as well as the implications on the organization, including the vendors who are serving and clients served by the organization.

Organization-Focused Stress Management: Diversity Programs

Employees in the workplace might experience strain due to feelings of discrimination or prejudice. Organizational climates that do not promote diversity (in terms of age, religion, physical abilities, ethnicity, nationality, sex, and other characteristics) are breeding grounds for undesirable attitudes toward the workplace, lower performance, and greater turnover intention (Bergman, Palmieri, Drasgow, & Ormerod, 2012 ; Velez, Moradi, & Brewster, 2013 ). Management is thus advised to implement programs that reinforce the value and importance of diversity, as well as manage diversity to reduce conflict and feelings of prejudice. In fact, managers who attended a leadership training program reported higher multicultural competence in dealing with stressful situations (Chrobot-Mason & Leslie, 2012 ), and managers who persevered through challenges were more dedicated to coping with difficult diversity issues (Cilliers, 2011 ). Thus, diversity programs can help to reduce strains by directly reducing stressors associated with conflict linked to diversity in the workplace and by building managers’ resilience.

Organization-Focused Stress Management: Healthcare Management Policies

Over the past few years, organizations have adopted insurance plans that implement wellness programs for the sake of managing the increasing cost of healthcare that is believed to be a result of individuals’ not managing their own health, with regular check-ups and treatment. The wellness programs require all insured employees to visit a primary care provider, complete a health risk assessment, and engage in disease management activities as specified by a physician (e.g., see frequently asked questions regarding the State of Maryland’s Wellness Program). Companies believe that requiring compliance will reduce health problems, although there is no proof that such programs save money or that people would comply. One study that does, however, boast success, was a 12-week workplace health promotion program aimed at reducing Houston airport workers’ weight (Ebunlomo, Hare-Everline, Weber, & Rich, 2015 ). The program, which included 235 volunteer participants, was deemed a success, as there was a total weight loss of 345 pounds (or 1.5 lbs per person). Given such results in Houston, it is clear why some people are also skeptical over the likely success of wellness programs, particularly as there is no clear method for evaluating their efficacy (Sinnott & Vatz, 2015 ).

Moreover, for some, such a program is too paternalistic and intrusive, as well as punishes anyone who chooses not to actively participate in disease management programs (Sinnott & Vatz, 2015 ). The programs put the onus of change on the person, though it is a response to the high costs of ill-health. The programs neglect to consider the role of the organization in reducing the barriers to healthy lifestyle, such as cloaking exempt employment as simply needing to get the work done, when it usually means working significantly more hours than a standard workweek. In fact, workplace health promotion programs did not reduce presenteeism (i.e., people going to work while unwell thereby reducing their job performance) among those who suffered from physical pain (Cancelliere, Cassidy, Ammendolia, & Côte, 2011 ). However, supervisor education, worksite exercise, lifestyle intervention through email, midday respite from repetitive work, a global stress management program, changes in lighting, and telephone interventions helped to reduce presenteeism. Thus, emphasis needs to be placed on psychosocial aspects of the organization’s structure, including managers and overall organizational climate for on-site presence, that reinforces such behavior (Cancelliere et al., 2011 ). Moreover, wellness programs are only as good as the interventions to reduce work-related stressors and improve organizational resources to enable workers to improve their overall psychological and physical health.

Concluding Remarks

Future research.

One of the areas requiring more theoretical and practical attention is that of the utility of stress frameworks to guide organizational development change interventions. Although it has been proposed that the foundation for work stress management interventions is in organizational development, and even though scholars and practitioners of organization development were also founders of research programs that focused on employee health and well-being or work stress, there are few studies or other theoretical works that link the two bodies of literature.

A second area that requires additional attention is the efficacy of stress management interventions across cultures. In examining secondary stress management interventions (i.e., coping), some cross-cultural differences in findings were described; however, there is still a dearth of literature from different countries on the utility of different prevention, coping, and stress management strategies.

A third area that has been blossoming since the start of the 21st century is the topic of hindrance and challenge stressors and the implications of both on workers’ well-being and performance. More research is needed on this topic in several areas. First, there is little consistency by which researchers label a stressor as a hindrance or a challenge. Researchers sometimes take liberties with labels, but it is not the researchers who should label a stressor but the study participants themselves who should indicate if a stressor is a source of strain. Rodríguez, Kozusznik, and Peiró ( 2013 ) developed a measure in which respondents indicate whether a stressor is a challenge or a hindrance. Just as some people may perceive demands to be challenges that they savor and that result in a psychological state of eustress (Nelson & Simmons, 2003 ), others find them to be constraints that impede goal fulfillment and thus might experience distress. Likewise, some people might perceive ambiguity as a challenge that can be overcome and others as a constraint over which he or she has little control and few or no resources with which to cope. More research on validating the measurement of challenge vs. hindrance stressors, as well as eustress vs. distress, and savoring vs. coping, is warranted. Second, at what point are challenge stressors harmful? Just because people experiencing challenge stressors continue to perform well, it does not necessarily mean that they are healthy people. A great deal of stressors are intellectually stimulating, but excessive stimulation can also take a toll on one’s physiological well-being, as evident by the droves of professionals experiencing different kinds of diseases not experienced as much a few decades ago, such as obesity (Fried et al., 2013 ). Third, which stress management interventions would better serve to reduce hindrance stressors or to reduce strain that may result from challenge stressors while reinforcing engagement-producing challenge stressors?

A fourth area that requires additional attention is that of the flexible work arrangements (FWAs). One of the reasons companies have been willing to permit employees to work from home is not so much out of concern for the employee, but out of the company’s need for the focal person to be able to communicate with a colleague working from a geographic region when it is night or early morning for the focal person. Glazer, Kożusznik, and Shargo ( 2012 ) presented several areas for future research on this topic, noting that by participating on global virtual teams, workers face additional stressors, even while given flexibility of workplace and work time. As noted earlier, more research needs to be done on the extent to which people who take advantage of FWAs are advantaged in terms of detachment from work. Can people working from home detach? Are those who find their work invigorating also likely to experience ill-health by not detaching from work?

A fifth area worthy of further research attention is workplace wellness programing. According to Page and Vella-Brodrick ( 2009 ), “subjective and psychological well-being [are] key criteria for employee mental health” (p. 442), whereby mental health focuses on wellness, rather than the absence of illness. They assert that by fostering employee mental health, organizations are supporting performance and retention. Employee well-being can be supported by ensuring that jobs are interesting and meaningful, goals are achievable, employees have control over their work, and skills are used to support organizational and individual goals (Dewe & Kompier, 2008 ). However, just as mental health is not the absence of illness, work stress is not indicative of an absence of psychological well-being. Given the perspective that employee well-being is a state of mind (Page & Vella-Brodrick, 2009 ), we suggest that employee well-being can be negatively affected by noxious job stressors that cannot be remediated, but when job stressors are preventable, employee well-being can serve to protect an employee who faces job stressors. Thus, wellness programs ought to focus on providing positive experiences by enhancing and promoting health, as well as building individual resources. These programs are termed “green cape” interventions (Pawelski, 2016 ). For example, with the growing interests in positive psychology, researchers and practitioners have suggested employing several positive psychology interventions, such as expressing gratitude, savoring experiences, and identifying one’s strengths (Tetrick & Winslow, 2015 ). Another stream of positive psychology is psychological capital, which includes four malleable functions of self-efficacy, optimism, hope, and resilience (Luthans, Youssef, & Avolio, 2007 ). Workplace interventions should include both “red cape” interventions (i.e., interventions to reduce negative experiences) and “green cape” interventions (i.e., workplace wellness programs; Polly, 2014 ).

A Healthy Organization’s Pledge

A healthy workplace requires healthy workers. Period. Among all organizations’ missions should be the focus on a healthy workforce. To maintain a healthy workforce, the company must routinely examine its own contributions in terms of how it structures itself; reinforces communications among employees, vendors, and clients; how it rewards and cares for its people (e.g., ensuring they get sufficient rest and can detach from work); and the extent to which people at the upper levels are truly connected with the people at the lower levels. As a matter of practice, management must recognize when employees are overworked, unwell, and poorly engaged. Management must also take stock of when it is doing well and right by its contributors’ and maintain and reinforce the good practices, norms, and procedures. People in the workplace make the rules; people in the workplace can change the rules. How management sees its employees and values their contribution will have a huge role in how a company takes stock of its own pain points. Providing employees with tools to manage their own reactions to work-related stressors and consequent strains is fine, but wouldn’t it be grand if organizations took better notice about what they could do to mitigate the strain-producing stressors in the first place and take ownership over how employees are treated?

• Abramis, D. J. (1994). Work role ambiguity, job satisfaction, and job performance: Meta-analyses and review. Psychological Report, 75 , 1411–1433.
• Adams, G. A. , & Jex, S. M. (1999). Relationships between time management, control, work–family conflict, and strain. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1 , 72–77.
• Alloy, L. B. , & Abramson, L. Y. (1979). Judgment of contingency in depressed and nondepressed students: Sadder but wiser? Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 108 , 441–483.
• Amstad, F. T. , Meier, L. L. , Fasel, U. , Elfering, A. , & Semmer, N. K. (2011). A meta-analysis of work-family conflict and various outcomes with a special emphasis on cross-domain versus matching-domain relations. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 16 , 151–169.
• Assouline, M. , & Meir, E. I. (1987). Meta-analysis of the relationship between congruence and well-being measures. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 31 , 319–332.
• Aust, B. , & Ducki, A. (2004). Comprehensive health promotion interventions at the workplace: Experiences with health circles in Germany. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 9 , 258–270.
• Bakker, A. B. Demerouti, E. , Sanz-Vergel, A. I. (2014). Burnout and work engagement: The JD-R approach. Annual Review of Organizational Behavior, 1 , 389–411.
• Bakker, A. B. , van Veldhoven, M. J. P. M. , & Xanthopoulou, D. (2010). Beyond the demand-control model: Thriving on high job demands and resources. Journal of Personnel Psychology, 9 , 3–16.
• Beehr, T. A. , Glaser, K. M. , Canali, K. G. , & Wallwey, D. A. (2001). Back to basics: Re-examination of demand control theory of occupational stress. Work & Stress, 15 , 115–130.
• Beehr, T. A. , & Glazer, S. (2001). A cultural perspective of social support in relation to occupational stress. In P. Perrewé , D. C. Ganster , & J. Moran (Eds.), Research in occupational stress and well-being (pp. 97–142). Amsterdam: JAI Press.
• Bergman, M. E. , Palmieri, P. A. , Drasgow, F. , & Ormerod, A. J. (2012). Racial/ethnic harassment and discrimination, its antecedents, and its effect on job-related outcomes. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 17 , 65–78.
• Bhagat, R. S. , Krishnan, B. , Nelson, T. A. , Leonard, K. M. , Ford, D. J. , & Billing, T. K. (2010). Organizational stress, psychological strain, and work outcomes in six national contexts: A closer look at the moderating influences of coping styles and decision latitude . Cross Cultural Management, 17 , 10–29.
• Bhagat, R. S. , O’Driscoll, M. P. , Babakus, E. , Frey, L. , Chokkar, J. , Ninokumar, B. H , et al. (1994). Organizational stress and coping in seven national contexts: A cross-cultural investigation . In G. P. Keita & J. J. Hurrell (Eds.), Job stress in a changing workforce: Investigating gender, diversity, and family issues (pp. 93–105). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
• Bhagat, R. S. , Segovis, J. C. , & Nelson, T. A. (2012). Work stress and coping in the era of globalization . New York: Routledge.
• Billings, A. G. , & Moos, R. H. (1981). The role of coping responses and social resources in attenuating the stress of life events. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4 , 139–157.
• Birnie, K. , Speca, M. , & Carlson, L. E. (2010). Exploring self-compassion and empathy in the context of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR). Stress & Health, 26 , 359–371.
• Biron, C. , Gatrell, C. , & Cooper, C. L. (2010). Autopsy of a failure: Evaluating process and contextual issues in an organizational-level work stress intervention. International Journal of Stress Management, 17 , 135–158.
• Bowling, N. A. , & Kirkendall, C. (2012). Workload: A review of causes, consequences, and potential interventions. In J. Houdmont , S. Leka , & R. Sinclair (Eds.), Contemporary occupational health psychology (Vol. 2) (pp. 221–238). Chichester, U.K.: Wiley.
• Breaugh, J. A. , & Colihan, J. P. (1994). Measuring facets of job ambiguity: Construct validity evidence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79 , 191–202.
• Bruk-Lee, V. , & Spector, P. E. (2006). The social stressors-counterproductive work behaviors link: Are conflicts with supervisors and coworkers the same? . Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 11 , 145–156.
• Cancelliere, C. , Cassidy, J. D. , Ammendolia, C. , & Côte, P. (2011). Are workplace health promotion programs effective at improving presenteeism in workers? A systematic review and best evidence synthesis of the literature. BMC Public Health, 11 , 395–406.
• Caplan, R. D. (1987). Person–environment fit in organizations: Theories, facts, and values. In A. W. Riley & S. J. Zaccaro (Eds.), Occupational stress and organizational effectiveness (pp. 103–140). New York: Praeger.
• Cartwright, S. , & Cooper, C. L. (2005). Individually targeted interventions. In J. Barling , E. K. Kelloway , & M. R. Frone (Eds.), Handbook of work stress (pp. 607–622). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Cavanaugh, M. A. , Boswell, W. R. , Roehling, M. V. , & Boudreau, J. W. (2000). An empirical examination of self-reported work stress among U.S. managers . Journal of Applied Psychology, 85 , 65–74.
• Chong, D. S. F. , van Eerde, W. , Rutte, C. G. , & Chai, K. H. (2012). Bringing employees closer: The effect of proximity on communication when teams function under time pressure. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 29 , 205–215.
• Chrobot-Mason, D. , & Leslie, J. B. (2012). The role of multicultural competence and emotional intelligence in managing diversity. Psychologist-Manager Journal, 15 , 219–236.
• Cilliers, F. (2011). Individual diversity management and salutogenic functioning. International Review of Psychiatry, 23 , 501–507.
• Claessens, B. C. , Van Eerde, W. , Rutte, C. G. , & Roe, R. A. (2004). Planning behavior and perceived control of time at work . Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25 , 937–950.
• Cooper, C. L. , Dewe, P. D. , & O’Driscoll, M. P. (2011). Employee assistance programs: Strengths, challenges, and future roles. In J. C. Quick , L. E. Tetrick , J. C. Quick , L. E. Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of occupational health psychology (2d ed.) (pp. 337–356). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
• Cooper, C. L. , Dewe, P. J. , & O’Driscoll, M. P. (2001). Organizational stress: A review and critique of theory, research, and applications . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Coovert, M. D. & Thompson, L. F. (2003). Technology and workplace health. In J. C. Quick & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of occupational health psychology (pp. 221–241). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
• Dawson, K. M. , O’Brien, K. E. , & Beehr, T. A. (2016). The role of hindrance stressors in the job demand-control-support model of occupational stress: A proposed theory revision . Journal of Organizational Behavior, 37 (3), 397–415.
• Dewe, P. , & Kompier, M. (2008). Foresight mental capital and wellbeing project: Wellbeing and work: Future challenges . London: The Government Office for Science.
• Dopkeen, J. C. , & DuBois, R. (2014). Stress in the workplace: A policy synthesis on its dimensions and prevalence . White paper. University of Illinois Chicago, Center for Employee Health Studies, School of Public Health.
• Dwyer, D. J. , & Ganster, D. C. (1991). The effects of job demands and control on employee attendance and satisfaction. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 12 , 595–608.
• Ebunlomo, E. O. , Hare-Everline, N. , Weber, A. , & Rich, J. (2015). Development of a comprehensive 12-week health promotion program for Houston Airport System. Texas Public Health Journal, 67 (1), 11–13.
• Edwards, J. R. (2008). Person-environment fit in organizations: An assessment of theoretical progress. The Academy of Management Annals, 2 , 167–230.
• Etzion, D. , Eden, D. , & Lapidot, Y. (1998). Relief from job stressors and burnout: Reserve service as a respite. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83 , 577–585.
• Firth-Cozens, J. (2003). Doctors, their wellbeing, and their stress: It’s time to be proactive about stress—and prevent it. British Medical Journal, 326 , 670–671.
• Flaxman, P. E. , & Bond, F. W. (2010). Worksite stress management training: Moderated effects and clinical significance. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 15 , 347–358.
• Folkman, S. , & Lazarus, R. S. (1980). An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample . Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21 , 219–239.
• French, J. R. P., Jr. , & Caplan, R. D. (1972). Organizational stress and individual strain. In A. Marrow (Ed.), The failure of success . New York: AMACOM.
• French, J. R. P., Jr. , & Kahn, R. L. (1962). A programmatic approach to studying the industrial environment and mental health. Journal of Social Issues, 18 , 1–48.
• French, S. (2015, May 27). PCS workload and work-life balance survey 2013 . London: Public and Commercial Services Union.
• Fried, Y. , Laurence, G. A. , Shirom, A. , Melamed, S. , Toker, S. , Berliner, S. , & Shapira, I. (2013). The relationship between job enrichment and abdominal obesity: A longitudinal field study of apparently healthy individuals. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 18 , 458–468.
• Frone, M. R. (2000). Interpersonal conflict at work and psychological outcomes: Testing a model among young workers. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5 , 246–255.
• Giga, S. I. , Cooper, C. L. , & Faragher, B. (2003). The development of a framework for a comprehensive approach to stress management interventions at work. International Journal of Stress Management, 10 , 280–296.
• Glazer, S. (2008). Cross-cultural issues in stress and burnout. In J. R. B. Halbesleben (Ed.), Handbook of Stress and Burnout in Health Care (pp. 79–93). Huntington, NY: Nova Science Publishers.
• Glazer, S. , & Beehr, T. A. (2005). Consistency of the implications of three role stressors across four countries. Journal of Organizational Behavior , 26 , 467–487.
• Glazer, S. , Kożusznik, M. W. , Meyers, J. H. , & Ganai, O. (2014). Cultural implications of meaningfulness as a resource to mitigate work stress. In S. Leka & R. Sinclair (Eds.), Contemporary occupational health psychology: Global perspectives on research and practice (Vol. 3) (pp. 114–130). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
• Glazer, S. , Kożusznik, M. W. , & Shargo, I. A. (2012). Global virtual teams: A cure for- or a cause of- stress. In P. L. Perrewé , J. Halbesleben , & C. Rosen (Eds.), Research in occupational stress and well being: The role of the economic context on occupational stress and well being (Vol. 10, pp. 213–266). Bingley, U.K.: Emerald.
• Glazer, S. , Stetz, T. A. , & Izso, L. (2004). Effects of personality on subjective job stress: A cultural analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 37 , 645–658.
• Greenhaus, J. H. , & Beutell, N. J. (1985). Sources of conflict between work and family roles. Academy of Management Review, 10 , 76–88.
• Hackman, J. R. , & Oldham, G. R. (1980). Work Redesign . Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
• Hauke, A. , Flintrop, J. , Brun, E. , & Rugulies, R. (2011). The impact of work-related psychosocial stressors on the onset of musculoskeletal disorders in specific body regions: A review and meta-analysis of 54 longitudinal studies . Work & Stress, 25 , 243–256.
• Health & Safety Executive (n.d.). Cardiff and Value University Health Board—A stress case study .
• Heron, K. E. , & Smyth, J. M. (2010). Ecological momentary interventions: Incorporating mobile technology into psychosocial and health behaviour treatments. British Journal of Health Psychology, 15 , 1–39.
• Hershcovis, M. (2011). “Incivility, social undermining, bullying … oh my!”: A call to reconcile constructs within workplace aggression research . Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32 , 499–519.
• Higgins, J. E. , & Endler, N. S. (1995). Coping, life stress, and psychological and somatic distress . European Journal of Personality, 9 , 253–270.
• Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44 , 513–524.
• Hobfoll, S. E. (1998). Stress, culture, and community: The psychology and philosophy of stress . New York: Plenum Press.
• Hobfoll, S. E. (2001). The influence of culture, community, and the nested-self in the stress process: Advancing Conservation of Resources Theory. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 50 , 337–421.
• International Labor Organization (2012, July 5). Why stress at work matters . International Labor Organization.
• International Labor Organization (n.d.). Psychosocial risks and work-related stress . International Labor Organization.
• Jackson, S. E. , & Schuler, R. S. (1985). A meta-analysis and conceptual critique of research on role ambiguity and role conflict in work settings. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 36 , 16–78.
• Jayson, S. (2012, January 11). Yeah, we’re stressed but dealing with it; Americans report a decrease in stress for the first time in five years, maybe because it’s just the new normal . USA Today .
• Jex, S. M. , & Beehr, T. A. (1991). Emerging theoretical and methodological issues in the study of work-related stress. Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 9 , 311–365.
• Jex, S. M. , & Elaqua, T. C. (1999). Time management as a moderator of relations between stressors and employee strain. Work & Stress, 13 , 182–191.
• Johnson, J. V. , & Hall, E. M. (1988). Job strain, workplace social support, and cardiovascular disease: A cross-sectional study of a random sample of the Swedish working population. American Journal of Public Health, 78 , 1336–1342.
• Kahn, R. L. , Wolfe, D. M. , Quinn, R. P. , Snoek, J. D. , & Rosenthal, R. A. (1964). Organizational stress: Studies in role conflict and ambiguity . New York: Wiley.
• Kannampallil, T. G. , Waicekauskas, K. , Morrow, D. G. , Kopren, K. M. , & Fu, W. (2013). External tools for collaborative medication scheduling. Cognition, Technology & Work, 15 , 121–131.
• Karasek, R. A. (1979). Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly , 24 , 285–308.
• Karasek, R. A. , & Theorell, T. (1990). Healthy work: Stress, productivity, and the reconstruction of working life . New York: Basic Books.
• van der Klink, J. J. L. , Blonk, R. W. B. , Schene, A. H. , & van Dijk, F. J. H. (2001). The benefits of interventions for work-related stress. American Journal of Public Health, 91 , 270–276.
• Knight, B. G. , Silverstein, M. , McCallum, T. J. , & Fox, L. S. (2000). A sociocultural stress and coping model for mental health outcomes among African American caregivers in southern California . The Journals of Gerontology: Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 55B , 142–150.
• Kossek, E. E. , Thompson, R. J. , Lautsch, B. A. (2015). Balanced workplace flexibility: Avoiding the traps. California Management Review, 57 , 5–25.
• Kożusznik, M. , Rodriguez, I. , & Peiró, J. M. (2012). Cross-national outcomes of stress appraisal. Cross Cultural Management, 19 , 507–525.
• Kożusznik, M. , Rodriguez, I. , & Peiró, J. M. (2015). Eustress and distress climates in teams: Patterns and outcomes. International Journal of Stress Management, 22 , 1–23.
• Kristof-Brown, A. L. , Zimmerman, R. D. , & Johnson, E. C. (2005). Consequences of individuals’ fit at work: A meta-analysis of person-job, person-organization, person-group, and person-supervisor fit. Personnel Psychology, 58 , 281–342.
• LaMontagne, A. D. , Keegel, T. , Louie, A. M. , Ostry, A. , & Landsbergis, P. A. (2007). A systematic review of the job-stress intervention evaluation literature, 1990–2005. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health, 13 , 268–280.
• LaRocco, J. M. , Tetrick, L. E. , & Meder, D. (1989). Differences in perceptions of work environment conditions, job attitudes, and health beliefs among military physicians, dentists, and nurses. Military Psychology, 1 , 135–151.
• Lazarus, R. S. , & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping . New York: Springer.
• Lazarus, R. S. , & Folkman, S. (1991). The concept of coping. In A. Monat & R. S. Lazarus (Eds.), Stress and coping: An anthology (3d ed.) (pp. 189–206). New York: Columbia University Press.
• LePine, J. A. , Podsakoff, N. P. , & LePine, M. A. (2005). A meta-analytic test of the challenge stressor-hindrance stressor framework: An explanation for inconsistent relationships among stressors and performance. Academy of Management Journal, 48 , 764–775.
• Lewin, K. (1936). Principles of topological psychology . New York: McGraw-Hill.
• Lewin K. (1951). Field theory in social science . New York: Harper and Row.
• Lewin, K. (1997). Resolving social conflicts & Field theory in social science . Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Previously published in 1948 and 1951.
• Lin, B. C. , Kain, J. M. , & Fritz, C. (2013). Don’t interrupt me! An examination of the relationship between intrusions at work and employee strain. International Journal of Stress Management, 20 , 77–94.
• Liu, C. , & Li, H. (2017) Stressor and stressor appraisals: The moderating effect of task efficacy . Journal of Business and Psychology , 1–14.
• Liu, C. , Liu, Y. , Spector, P. E. , Shi, L. (2011). The interaction of job autonomy and conflict with supervisor in China and the United States: A qualitative and quantitative comparison. International Journal of Stress Management, 18 , 222–245.
• Liu, C. , Spector, P. E. , & Shi, L. (2007). Cross-national job stress: A quantitative and qualitative study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 28 , 209–239.
• Luckhaupt, S. E. , Tak, S. , Calvert, G. M. (2010). The prevalence of short sleep duration by industry and occupational in the National Health Interview Survey. Sleep, 33 , 149–159.
• Luthans, F. , Youssef, C. M. , & Avolio, B. J. (2007). Psychological capital: Developing the human competitive edge . New York: Oxford University Press.
• Macan, T. H. (1994). Time management: Test of a process model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79 , 381–391.
• Macan, T. H. , Shahani, C. , Dipboye, R. L. , & Philips, A. P. (1990). College students’ time management: Correlations with academic performance and stress. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82 , 760–768.
• Masuda, A. D. , Poelmans, S. A. Y. , Allen, T. D. , Spector, P. E. , Lapierre, L. M. , Cooper, C. L. , et al. (2012). Flexible work arrangements availability and their relationship with work-to-family conflict, job satisfaction, and turnover intentions: A comparison of three country clusters. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 61 , 1–29.
• McMahon, M. (2007). Think you might be addicted to email? You’re not alone . AOL.
• Monat, A. , & Lazarus, R. S. (Eds.). (1991). Stress and coping: An anthology (3d ed.). New York: Columbia University Press.
• Morimoto, H. , Shimada, H. , & Ozaki, K. (2013). Does stressor evaluation mediate sociocultural influence on coping selection? An investigation using Japanese employees. International Journal of Stress Management, 20 , 1–19.
• Narayanan, L. , Menon, S. , & Spector, P. E. (1999). A cross-cultural comparison of job stressors and reactions among employees holding comparable jobs in two countries. International Journal of Stress Management, 6 , 197–212.
• National Sleep Foundation (2005). Segment profiles . National Sleep Foundation.
• National Sleep Foundation (2013). How much sleep do adults need? . National Sleep Foundation.
• Nelson, D. L. , & Simmons, B. L. (2003). Health psychology and work stress: A more positive approach. In J. C. Quick & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of Occupational Health Psychology (pp. 97–119). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
• Norris, P. A. , Fahrion, S. L. , & Oikawa, L. O. (2007). Autogenic biofeedback training in psychophysiological therapy and stress management. In P. M. Lehrer , R. L. Woolfolk , & W. E. Sime (Eds.), Principles and practices of stress management (3d ed., pp. 175–205). New York: Guilford.
• Ogawa, N. (2009). Stress, coping behavior, and social support in Japan and the United States. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A , 69 , 3802.
• Oksanen, K. , & Ståhle, P. (2013). Physical environment as a source for innovation: Investigating the attributes of innovative space. Journal of Knowledge Management, 17 , 815–827.
• Page, K. M. , & Vella-Brodrick, D. A. (2009). The “what,” “why” and “how” of employee well-being: A new model. Social Indicators Research, 90 , 441–458.
• Parasuraman, S. , & Cleek, M. A. (1984). Coping behaviors and managers’ affective reactions to role stressors . Journal of Vocational Behavior, 24 , 179–193.
• Parasuraman, S. , & Purohit, Y. S. (2000). Distress and boredom among orchestra musicians: The two faces of stress. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5 , 74–83.
• Pawelski, J. O. (2016). Defining the “positive” in positive psychology: Part II. A normative analysis . Journal of Positive Psychology, 11 , 357–365.
• Pearlin, L. I. , & Schooler, C. (1978). The structure of coping . Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 19 , 2–21.
• Peeters, M. A. G. , & Rutte, C. G. (2005). Time management behavior as a moderator for the job demand-control interaction. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology , 1 , 64–75.
• Peters, L. H. , & O’Connor, E. J. (1980). Situational constraints and work outcomes: The influence of a frequently overlooked construct. Academy of Management Review , 5, 391–397.
• Peters, L. H. , & O’Connor, E. J. (1988). Measuring work obstacles: Procedures, issues, and implications. In F. D. Schoorman & B. Schneider (Eds.), Facilitating work effectiveness (pp. 105–123). Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
• Polly, S. (2014, July 2). Workplace well-being is not an oxymoron . Positive Psychology News Daily .
• Quick, C. J. , Quick, J. D. , Nelson, D. L. , & Hurrell, J. J. (2003). Preventive stress management in organizations . Washington, DC: APA.
• Quillian-Wolever, R. E. , & Wolever, M. E. (2003). Stress management at work . In J. C. Quick & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of occupational health psychology (pp. 355–375). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
• Ragsdale, J. M. , Beehr, T. A. , Grebner, S. , & Han, K. (2011). An integrated model of weekday stress and weekend recovery of students. International Journal of Stress Management, 18 , 153–180.
• Richardson, K. M. , & Rothstein, H. R. (2008). Effects of occupational stress management intervention programs: A meta-analysis. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 13 , 69–93.
• Rodríguez, I. , Kozusznik, M. W. , & Peiró, J. M. (2013). Development and validation of the Valencia Eustress-Distress Appraisal Scale. International Journal of Stress Management, 20 , 279–308.
• Rothbaum, F. , Weisz, J. R. , & Snyder, S. S. (1982). Changing the world and changing the self: A two-process model of perceived control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42 , 5–37.
• Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 80 , 609.
• Rousseau, V. , & Aubé, C. (2010). Social support at work and affective commitment to the organization: The moderating effect of job resource adequacy and ambient conditions. Journal of Social Psychology, 150 , 321–340.
• Saunders, T. , Driskell, J. E. , Johnston, J. , & Salas, E. (1996). The effect of stress inoculation training on anxiety and performance. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1 , 170–186.
• Schaubroeck, J. , Ganster, D. C. , Sime, W. E. , & Ditman, D. (1993). A field experiment testing supervisory role clarification. Personnel Psychology, 46 , 1–25.
• Selmer, J. (2002). Coping strategies applied by Western vs overseas Chinese business expatriates in China. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 13 , 19–34.
• Siegrist, J. (1996). Adverse health effects of high effort/low reward conditions. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1 , 27–41.
• Siegrist, J. (2010). Effort-reward imbalance at work and cardiovascular diseases. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health, 23 , 279–285.
• Siegrist, J. , Dragano, N. , Nyberg, S. T. , Lunau, T. , Alfredsson, L. , Erbel, R. , et al. (2014). Validating abbreviated measures of effort-reward imbalance at work in European cohort studies: The IPD-Work consortium. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health, 87 , 249–256.
• Sinha, B. K. , Willson, L. R. , & Watson, D. C. (2000). Stress and coping among students in India and Canada . Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement , 32 (4), 218–225.
• Sinnott, J. , & Vatz, R. E. (2015, March 13). Maryland doesn’t trust state employees to manage their health . Baltimore Sun .
• Siu, O. L. , Cooper, C. L. , & Phillips, D. R. (2013, July 1). Intervention studies on enhancing work well-being, reducing burnout, and improving recovery experiences among Hong Kong health care workers and teachers . International Journal of Stress Management, 21 , 69–84.
• Sonnentag, S. (2012). Psychological detachment from work during leisure time: The benefits of mentally disengaging from work. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21 , 114–118.
• Sørensen, O. H. , & Holman, D. (2014). A participative intervention to improve employee well-being in knowledge work jobs: A mixed-methods evaluation study. Work & Stress, 28 , 67–86.
• Spector, P. E. , Chen, P. Y. , & O’Connell, B. J. (2000). A longitudinal study of relations between job stressors and job strains while controlling for prior negative affectivity and strains. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85 , 211–218.
• Spector, P. E. , & Jex, S. M. (1998). Development of four self-report measures of job stressors and strains: Interpersonal Conflict at Work Scale, Organizational Constraints Scale, Quantitative Workload Inventory, and Physical Symptoms Inventory. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 3 , 356–367.
• State of Maryland . (n.d.). Wellness program frequently asked questions . Maryland.gov.
• Strentz, T. , & Auerbach, S. M. (1988). Adjustment to the stress of simulated captivity: Effects of emotion-focused versus problem-focused preparation on hostages differing in locus of control . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55 , 652–660.
• Swanberg, J. E. , McKechnie, S. P. , Ojha, M. U. , & James, J. B. (2011). Schedule control, supervisor support and work engagement: A winning combination for workers in hourly jobs? Journal of Vocational Behavior, 79 , 613–624.
• Tarafdar, M. , Tu, Q. , Ragu-Nathan, B. S. , & Ragu-Nathan, T. , (2007). The impact of technostress on role stress and productivity. Journal of Management Information Systems, 24 , 301–328.
• Tepper, B. J. , & Henle, C. A. (2011). A case for recognizing distinctions among constructs that capture interpersonal mistreatment in work organizations . Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32 , 487–498.
• Tetrick, L. E. , & Winslow, C. J. (2015). Workplace stress management interventions and health promotion. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 2 , 583–603.
• Thomas, D. C. , Au, K. , & Ravlin, E. C. (2003). Cultural variation and the psychological contract. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24 , 451–471.
• Toker, S. , Shirom, A. , Melamed, S. , & Armon, G. (2012). Work characteristics as predictors of diabetes incidence among apparently healthy employees. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 17 , 259–267.
• Velez, B. L. , Moradi, B. , & Brewster, M. E. (2013). Testing the tenets of minority stres theory in workplace contexts. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60 , 532–542.
• Verquer, M. L. , Beehr, T. A. , & Wagner, S. H. (2003). A meta-analysis of relations between person–organization fit and work attitudes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 63 , 473–489.
• Villani, D. , Grassi, A. , Cognetta, C. , Toniolo, D. , Cipresso, P. , & Riva, G. (2013). Self-help stress management training through mobile phones: An experience with oncology nurses. Psychological Services , 10 , 315–322.
• Vischer, J. C. (2007). The effects of the physical environment on job performance: Towards a theoretical model of workspace stress. Stress & Health, 23 , 175–184.
• Wasti, S. A. , & Cortina, L. M. (2002). Coping in context: Sociocultural determinants of responses to sexual harassment . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 83, 394–405.
• Willert, M. V. , Thulstrup, A. M. , Hertz, J. , & Bonde, J. P. (2010). Sleep and cognitive failures improved by a three-month stress management intervention . International Journal of Stress Management, 17 , 193–213.
• Xiao Q. , Ottosson I. , & Carlsson I. (2013). Stressors and coping strategies in Chinese and Swedish students at a Swedish university. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 21 , 309–312.

Related Articles

• Work and Family
• Organizational Climate and Culture
• Physical Activity and Stress Reactivity
• The Roles of Psychological Stress, Physical Activity, and Dietary Modifications on Cardiovascular Health Implications
• Inflammation as a Biomarker Method in Lifespan Developmental Methodology
• Stress and Coping Theory Across the Adult Lifespan
• Occupational Health Psychology

Printed from Oxford Research Encyclopedias, Psychology. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a single article for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice).

date: 13 August 2024

• Cookie Policy
• Privacy Policy
• Legal Notice
• Accessibility
• [185.80.150.64]
• 185.80.150.64

Character limit 500 /500

Stress and Stress Management in Coaching

• First Online: 31 March 2022

Cite this chapter

• Siegfried Greif 6 &
• Stephen Palmer 7  

3992 Accesses

1 Citations

Case studies are used to describe how scientific models and findings on intervention methods can be used in stress management coaching. Stress is defined as a permanent state of negative tension that in the long run leads to impairment of mental well-being and health. According to more recent stress models, improvements are recommended with regard to the stressors (changes of structural stress conditions) and resources such as decision latitude and social support, as well as individual coping skills (changes of behavior). Popular, scientifically proven intervention methods are time management, relaxation, and mindfulness exercises. An individual coaching case study using breathing exercises with biofeedback (heart rate variability) is reported. It shows strong significant improvements of physiological measurements during months of coaching.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime
• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info
• Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

A Cognitive-Behavioral Stress Management Coaching

Pre-service teachers and stress during microteaching: an experimental investigation of the effectiveness of relaxation training with biofeedback on psychological and physiological indices of stress.

Stress und Stressmanagement im Coaching

Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2014). Job demands-resources theory. In P. Y. Chen & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Work and wellbeing (vol. III) (pp. 37–64). Wiley-Blackwell.

Google Scholar  

Bamberg, E., Ducki, A., & Metz, A.-M. (Eds.). (2011). Gesundheitsförderung und Gesundheitsmanagement in der Arbeitswelt – Ein Handbuch . Hogrefe.

Bataille, C. D. (2016). Beyond conflict and enrichment: A review, reconceptualization and research agenda for studying work-family balance. In S. G. Baugh, S. E. Sullivan, S. G. Baugh, & S. E. Sullivan (Eds.), Striving for balance (pp. 113–133). IAP Information Age Publishing.

Claessens, B. J. C., van Eerde, W., Rutte, C. G., & Roe, R. A. (2007). A review of the time management literature. Personnel Review, 36 (2), 255–276.

Article   Google Scholar  

Ellis, A. (2007). Overcoming resistance: A rational emotive behavior therapy integrated approach (2nd ed.). Springer.

Book   Google Scholar  

Ellis, A., Gordon, J., Neenan, M., & Palmer, S. (1997). Stress counselling: A rational emotive behaviour approach . Cassell.

Frankenhaeuser, M., & Johansson, G. (1986). Stress at work: Psychobiological and psychosocial aspects. International Review of Applied Psychology, 35 (3), 287–299.

Nationale Arbeitsschutzkonferenz (2015). Arbeitsschutz gemeinsam anpacken – Leitlinie Beratung und Überwachung bei psychischer Belastung am Arbeitsplatz . Retrieved from http://www.gda-portal.de/de/pdf/Leitlinie-Gefaehrdungsbeurteilung (accessed May 5th 2017).

Greif, S. (1991). Einführung und Grundbegriffe. In S. Greif & E. Bamberg (Eds.), Psychischer Streß am Arbeitsplatz (pp. 1–28). Hogrefe.

Greif, S. (2011). Stress management with bio- and neurofeedback (invited keyxnote) . Paper presented at the 3rd European coaching psychology conference (13.-14.-12-2011), City University London. Keynote presentation.

Hamm, A. (2009). Entspannungsverfahren. In M. Hautzinger & P. Pauli (Eds.), Psychologische Methoden, Psychologische Interventionsmethoden, Enzyklopädie der Psychologie (Vol. 2, pp. 223–270). Hogrefe.

Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44 , 513–524.

Irmer, J. P., Kern, M., Schermelleh-Engel, K., Semmer, N., & Zapf, D. (2019). The instrument for stress-oriented task analysis (ISTA) – A meta-analysis. German Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 63 (4), 217–237.

Heinrichs, M., & Stächele, T. (2015). Stress und Stressbewältigung . Hogrefe.

Hottenrott, K., Gronwald, T., & Schmidt, H. (Eds.). (2014). Herzfrequenzvariabilität: Grundlagen - Methoden - Anwendungen: 6. Internationales HRV-Symposium am 2. November 2013 in Halle (Saale) . Feldhaus.

Jacobson, E. (1925). Progressive relaxation. The American Journal of Psychology, 36 , 73–87.

Jenkins, D., & Palmer, S. (2003). A multimodal assessment and rational emotive behavioural approach to stress counselling: A case study. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 16 (3), 265–287.

Karasek, R., & Theorell, T. (1990). Healthy work: Stress, productivity, and the reconstruction of working life . Basic Books.

Kowalski, A. (2016). Nichtmedizinische Anwendung von Biofeedback und Neurofeedback. In K.-M. Haus, C. Held, et al. (Eds.), Praxisbuch biofeedback und neurofeedback (2nd ed., pp. 213–219). Springer.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Lazarus, R. S. (1966). Psychological stress and the coping process . McGraw Hill.

Lohmann-Haislah, A. (2012). Stressreport Deutschland - Psychische Anforderungen, Ressourcen und Befinden . Accessed Sep 24, 2020, from Dortmund http://www.baua.de/dok/3430796

Mackey, J. D., & Perrewé, P. L. (2014). The AAA (appraisals, attributions, adaptation) model of job stress: The critical role of self-regulation. Organizational Psychology Review, 4 (3), 258–278.

Mackenzie, R. A. (1972). The time trap . AMACOM.

Miller, K. G., Wright, A. G. C., et al. (2016). Trait positive and negative emotionality differentially associate with diurnal cortisol activity. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 68 , 177–185.

Palmer, S. (2017). Multimodal relaxation method applied to counselling, psychotherapy and coaching. European journal of counselling theory . Research and Practice, 1 (5), 1–5. http://www.europeancounselling.eu/volume-1-article-5/.

Palmer, S., & Cooper, C. (2013). How to deal with stress (3rd ed.). Kogan Page.

Palmer, S., & Dryden, W. (1995). Counselling for stress problems . Sage.

Palmer, S., Panchal, S., & O’Riordan, S. (2020). Could the experience of the COVID-19 pandemic have any positive impact on wellbeing? European Journal of Applied Positive Psychology, 4 (10) https://www.nationalwellbeingservice.org/volumes/volume-4-2020/volume-4-article-10/.

Panchal, S., Palmer, S., & O’Riordan, S. (2020). Enhancing transition resilience: Using the INSIGHT coaching and counselling model to assist in coping with COVID-19. International Journal of Stress Prevention and Wellbeing, 4 (3) https://www.stressprevention.net/volume/volume-4-2020/volume-4-article-3/.

Schultz, J. H. (1928/1979). Das autogene Training (17th ed.). Thieme.

Seiwert, L. (2014). Das 1x1 des Zeitmanagement: Zeiteinteilung, Selbstbestimmung, Lebensbalance (4th ed.). Gräfe und Unzer.

Selye, H. (1950). Stress . Acta.

Semmer, N., & Meier, L. L. (2009). Individual differences, work stress and health. In C. L. Cooper, J. Quick, & M. Schabracq (Eds.), International handbook of work and Health Psychology (3rd ed., pp. 99–121). Wiley.

Semmer, N., McGrath, J. E., & Beehr, T. A. (2005). Conceptual issues in research on stress and health. In C. L. Cooper (Ed.), Handbook of stress medicine and health (2nd ed., pp. 1–44). CRC Press.

Semmer, N., Zapf, D., & Greif, S. (1996). ’Shared job strain’: A new approach for assessing the validity of job stress measurements. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 69 (3), 293–310.

Shirom, A., Armon, G., et al. (2009). The effects of job strain on risk factors for cardiovascular disease. In C. L. Cooper, J. C. Quick, & M. Schabracq (Eds.), International handbook of work and health psychology (3rd ed., pp. 49–75). Wiley-Blackwell.

Sonnentag, S., Binnewies, C., & Mojza, E. J. (2008). ’Did you have a nice evening?’ a day-level study on recovery experiences, sleep, and affect. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93 (3), 674–684.

Stalder, T., Steudte, S., et al. (2012). Intraindividual stability of hair cortisol concentrations. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37 , 602–610.

Weinberg, A. (2016). The preventative impact of management coaching on psychological strain. International Coaching Psychology Review, 11 (1), 93–105.

White, M., Wagner, S., et al. (2013). Modifiable workplace risk factors contributing to workplace absence across health conditions: A stakeholder-centered best-evidence synthesis of systematic reviews. Work: Journal of Prevention, Assessment & Rehabilitation, 45 (4), 475–492.

Zwan, J., Vente, W., Huizink, A., Bögels, S., & Bruin, E. (2015). Physical activity, mindfulness meditation, or heart rate variability biofeedback for stress reduction: A randomized controlled trial. Applied Psychophysiology & Biofeedback, 40 (4), 257–268.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Osnabrück University, Osnabrück, Germany

Siegfried Greif

Centre for Coaching, International Academy for Professional Development Ltd, London, UK

Stephen Palmer

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Stephen Palmer .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Institute of Psychology, Universität Osnabrück, Osnabrück, Lower Saxony, Germany

Institut für Psychologie, University of Kassel, Kassel, Hessen, Germany

Heidi Möller

Lebenswissenschaftliche Fakultät, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Berlin, Germany

Wolfgang Scholl

Henley Business School, Henley Centre for Coaching, University of Reading, Reading, UK

Jonathan Passmore

Executive Coach, Erding/Munich, Germany

Felix Müller

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Greif, S., Palmer, S. (2022). Stress and Stress Management in Coaching. In: Greif, S., Möller, H., Scholl, W., Passmore, J., Müller, F. (eds) International Handbook of Evidence-Based Coaching. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81938-5_71

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81938-5_71

Published : 31 March 2022

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-030-81937-8

Online ISBN : 978-3-030-81938-5

eBook Packages : Behavioral Science and Psychology Behavioral Science and Psychology (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

Understanding stress management intervention success: A case study-based analysis of what works and why

--> Boulos, Marina Wasfy Aziz (2019) Understanding stress management intervention success: A case study-based analysis of what works and why. PhD thesis, University of Leeds.

This thesis investigates the process behind stress management interventions (SMIs). This includes the design, implementation and evaluation of interventions (both formative and summative), along with exploring the roles of involved stakeholders. Although there exists a plethora of studies around work-related stress across several disciplines, they are predominantly focused on the effects of stress on individuals, organisations and society, highlighting the various costs which are associated with it. However, studies on SMIs are less common, particularly ones with detailed accounts of the SMI process. As a result, this hinders our understanding of which SMIs work for whom in what context (Biron, 2012), making it difficult for forthcoming studies to benefit from the results. A multiple case study research, of a higher education institute (Russell University) and an Arm’s Length (ALMO) housing association (Bravo City Homes), was conducted to address what the literature has neglected. Specifically, it examined the various steps of the SMI process, highlighting the key roles of the involved stakeholders, while contrasting the effects that context had across two different sectors. This was done through forty semi-structured interviews with relevant stakeholders from both organisations to gain retrospective insight into the SMI processes, understand their role and what they perceived it to be, and to evaluate what helped and hindered the success of SMIs. It was found that giving each step of the research process sufficient attention from each of the relevant stakeholders was key. The lack of communication around who the relevant stakeholders were significantly hindered the interventions. Managers, in particular, were found to be crucial to SMI success by supporting the interventions and enhancing communication. Other stakeholders whose roles were found to be vital were Human Resources and trade unions, which have also been neglected in the literature.

--> Final eThesis - complete (pdf) -->

Filename: Boulos_M_LUBS_PhD_2019.pdf

Embargo Date:

You do not need to contact us to get a copy of this thesis. Please use the 'Download' link(s) above to get a copy. You can contact us about this thesis . If you need to make a general enquiry, please see the Contact us page.

• Testimonials

Overcoming stress

Derek's challenge.

Derek is an Engineer and is expected to work abroad for several weeks at a time. As a father of four children and with a baby on the way, Derek came to coaching because he was stressed due to the burden of demands from both family and work. He had some major decisions to make as he and his partner prepared for the new baby, but stress was making it too difficult for him to make a decision.

Coaching process

We looked at how Derek prioritised his life and identified family and financial stability as the most important areas of his life. This was an important step, because these priorities dictate how Derek makes decisions in life, consciously or unconsciously. 

Derek wanted to get control over his time and to manage overwhelm as he was trying to please different people in his family. We identified how he managed his time and discussed the importance of spending time on activities that  mattered to Derek (high importance), but are not urgent (low urgency). We linked these activities to Derek's priorities of family and financial stability. To reduce stress and overwhelm, Derek could choose to focus on these high importance/low urgency activities.

In addition, we discussed how Derek was talking to himself. Through a homework exercise, Derek noted times where he was speaking negatively to himself and took responsibility for how that made him feel. 

Finally, as Derek faced a major decision, we discussed the problem he faced and talked through the various options open to him. We looked at the most important factors that would influence his decision in this situation.

Results for Derek

Derek found that the time management exercise helped him prioritise his time much better. He was able to reduce activities that left him feeling drained and stressed and consequently, he felt more better and relaxed.

Derek realised he was creating a lot of pressure on himself in the expectations he set for himself and in how he talked to himself. He took responsibility for how that made him feel and identified ways to reduce the pressure on himself. Derek started to see things more positively. 

Derek had a major decision to make which directly affected his family. When he realised the most important factors in making this decision and explored the options, he saw the problem clearly. This paved the way for productive discussions with his partner and they were then able to make the decision which positively affected family life.

Home | Life Coaching | Executive Coaching | Testimonials | Case Studies | Founder Bio | Blog  | Working Well Podcast |  Contact  |  Client Area  | Privacy

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Best Family Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Sweepstakes
• Guided Meditations
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2024 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support

An Overview of Stress Management

Stress management.

Stress management is the range of techniques, strategies, and therapies designed to help people control their stress. This can include lowering acute stress, but it is often aimed at lowering chronic stress to improve health, happiness, and overall well-being. Stress management strategies may include:

• Deep breathing
• Eating a healthy diet
• Getting enough sleep
• Guided visualization
• Hobbies and leisure activities
• Mindfulness
• Positive thinking
• Progressive muscle relaxation
• Psychotherapy
• Social support

We all experience stress in our lives. Because many health problems are caused or influenced by stress, it's essential to understand how stress affects your body and learn effective stress management techniques to make stress work for you rather than against you.

What Is Stress?

Stress is your body’s response to changes in your life. Because life involves constant change—ranging from everyday, routine changes like commuting from home to work to adapting to major life changes like marriage, divorce, or death of a loved one—there is no avoiding stress.  

Your goal shouldn't be to eliminate all stress but to eliminate unnecessary stress and effectively manage the rest. There are some common causes of stress that many people experience, but each person is different.

Stress can come from many sources, which are known as " stressors ." Because our experience of what is considered "stressful" is created by our unique perceptions of what we encounter in life (based on our own mix of personality traits, available resources, and habitual thought patterns), a situation may be perceived as "stressful" by one person and merely "challenging" by someone else.

Simply put, one person's stress trigger may not register as stressful to someone else. That said, certain situations tend to cause more stress in most people and can increase the risk of burnout .

For example, when we find ourselves in situations where there are high demands on us but we little control and few choices, we are likely to experience stress. We might also feel stress when we don't feel equipped; where we may be harshly judged by others; and where consequences for failure are steep or unpredictable.

Many people are stressed by their jobs , relationships , financial issues , and health problems, as well as more mundane things like clutter or busy schedules . Learning skills to cope with these stressors can help reduce your experience of stress.  

Press Play for Advice On Dealing With Money Issues

Hosted by therapist Amy Morin, LCSW, this episode of The Verywell Mind Podcast shares what to do when financial stress is impacting your mental health. Click below to listen now.

Follow Now : Apple Podcasts / Spotify / Google Podcasts

Just as stress is perceived differently by each of us, stress affects us all in ways that are unique to us. One person may experience headaches, while another may find stomach upset is a common reaction, and a third may experience any of a number of other symptoms.

While we all react to stress in our own ways, there is a long list of commonly experienced effects of stress that range from mild to life-threatening. Stress can affect immunity, which can impact virtually all areas of health. Stress can affect mood in many ways as well. Creating a stress management plan is often one part of a plan for overall wellness.

If you find yourself experiencing physical symptoms you think may be related to stress, talk to your doctor to be sure you are doing what you can to safeguard your health. Symptoms that may be exacerbated by stress are not "all in your head" and need to be taken seriously.

Stress can be effectively managed in many different ways. The best stress management plans usually include a mix of stress relievers that address stress physically and psychologically and help to develop resilience and coping skills.

7 Highly Effective Stress Relievers

Use quick stress relievers.

Some stress relief techniques can work in just a few minutes to calm the body's stress response. These techniques offer a "quick fix" that helps you feel calmer at the moment, and this can help in several ways.

When your stress response is not triggered, you may approach problems more thoughtfully and proactively. You may be less likely to lash out at others out of frustration, which can keep your relationships healthier. Nipping your stress response in the bud can also keep you from experiencing chronic stress.

Quick stress relievers like breathing exercises, for example, may not build your resilience to future stress or minimize the stressors that you face. But they can help calm the body's physiology once the stress response is triggered.  

Develop Stress-Relieving Habits

Some techniques are less convenient to use when you are in the middle of a stressful situation. But if you practice them regularly, they can help you manage stress in general by being less reactive to it and more able to reverse your stress response quickly and easily.

Long-term healthy habits, like exercise or regular meditation , can help to promote resilience toward stressors if you make them a regular part of your life.   Communication skills and other lifestyle skills can be helpful in managing stressors and changing how we feel from "overwhelmed" to "challenged" or even "stimulated."

Eliminate Stressors When You Can

You may not be able to completely eliminate stress from your life or even the biggest stressors, but there are areas where you can minimize it and get it to a manageable level.

Any stress that you can cut out can minimize your overall stress load. For example, ending even one toxic relationship can help you more effectively deal with other stress you experience because you may feel less overwhelmed.  

Discovering a wide variety of stress management techniques, and then choosing a mix that fits your needs, can be a key strategy for effective stress relief.

Stress FAQs

There are a number of common questions that you might ask about stress and stress management.

Is All Stress Harmful to Health?

There are several different types of stress , and not all are harmful. Eustress , for example, is a positive form of stress. But chronic stress has been linked to many serious health issues and is the type of negative stress most often mentioned in the news.   While we want to manage or eliminate negative stress, we also want to keep positive forms of stress in our lives to help us remain vital and alive.

However, if we experience too much stress in our lives, even "good" stress can contribute to excessive stress levels, which can lead to feeling overwhelmed or having your stress response triggered for too long. This is why it is still important to learn to relax your body and mind periodically and cut down on unnecessary stress whenever possible.

How Can I Tell When I’m Too Stressed?

Stress affects us all in different ways, not all of which are negative. In fact, the stress of an exciting life can actually serve as a good motivator and keep things interesting. When stress levels get too intense, however, there are some stress symptoms that many people experience.

For example, headaches, irritability, and "fuzzy thinking" can all be symptoms that you’re under too much stress.   While not everybody who’s under stress will experience these specific symptoms, many will.

If you find that you don't realize how stressed you are until you are overwhelmed, it's important to learn to notice your body's subtle cues and your own behavior, almost like an outside observer might. To notice how your body is reacting to stress, you can try this body scan meditation (it helps relax at the same time).

What Can I Do When I Feel Overwhelmed?

We all feel overwhelmed from time to time; that’s normal. While it’s virtually impossible to eliminate times when events conspire and the body’s stress response is triggered, there are ways that you can quickly reverse your body’s reaction to stress, buffering the damage to your health and keeping your thinking clear, so you can more effectively deal with what’s going on in the moment.

Is There a Way to Be Less Affected by Stress?

By practicing regular stress management techniques, you can eliminate some of the stress you feel and make yourself more resilient in the face of stress in the future. There are several things you can try, ranging from a morning walk to an evening journaling practice to just making more time for friends. The trick is to find something that fits with your lifestyle and personality, so it’s easier to stick with.

National Institute of Mental Health. 5 Things You Should Know About Stress .

Ma X, Yue ZQ, Gong ZQ, et al. The effect of diaphragmatic breathing on attention, negative affect and stress in healthy adults .  Front Psychol . 2017;8:874. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00874

National Center for Complementary and Integrative Medicine. Mind and Body Approaches for Stress: What the Science Says . 2020.

Bota PG, Miropolskiy E, Nguyen V. Stop caretaking the borderline or narcissist: How to end the drama and get on with life .  Ment Illn . 2017;9(1):6985. doi:10.4081/mi.2017.6985

Lehrer PM, Woolfolk RL, Sime WE. Principles and Practice of Stress Management . 3rd edition. New York: The Guilford Press; 2007.

By Elizabeth Scott, PhD Elizabeth Scott, PhD is an author, workshop leader, educator, and award-winning blogger on stress management, positive psychology, relationships, and emotional wellbeing.

• Mission Statement
• Learning Process
• Case Studies
• Assertiveness Communication
• Complaint Handling
• Conflict Management
• Effective Communication
• Presentation Skills
• Public Speaking Skills
• Telephone Communication
• Chairing Skills
• Conducting Staff Appraisals
• Facilitation Skills
• Minute Taking
• Note Taking
• Report Writing
• Sales Skills
• Train the Trainer
• Microsoft Access
• Microsoft Excel
• Microsoft PowerPoint
• Microsoft Project
• Microsoft Word
• Microsoft Power BI
• Microsoft Automate
• Microsoft Power Apps
• Agile Project Management
• Coaching Skills
• Challenging Conversations
• Effective Meetings
• Supervisor Skills
• Group Dynamics
• HR Management
• Leadership Skills
• Project Management
• Negotiation Skills
• Creative Problem Solving
• Critical Thinking
• Emotional Intelligence
• Interview Skills
• Time Management
• 2D Computer Aided Design
• 3D Computer Aided Design
• Architectural Floor Plans
• Engineering Drawing
• Finite Element Analysis
• Product Development
• Rapid Prototyping
• Renewable Energy
• Assertiveness Skills
• Confidence Building
• Emotional Resilience
• Fulfilling Your Potential
• Mindfulness Meditation
• Stress Management
• Work/Life Balance
• Training Consultancy
• Bespoke Courses
• Conference Speakers
• React+ Funded Training
• Learning Resources
• Inhouse Training

Stress Management for Managers - Jane's Story

Case Study - Before

Jane manages a department of 20 staff members, part of her managerial responsibilities is the team's mental health and wellbeing. Recently she has noticed that the number of sick days has increased due to stress related illnesses and there has been some conflict with various staff members. Jane realises that there is a stress problem and that by attending a 'Stress Management for Managers' course would provide her with the skills to effectively manage the health and wellbeing of her department.

By attending our Stress Management for Managers course, she learned the physical and behavioural signs of stressed workers, various types of stress related illnesses and their impact, HSE Management Standards which includes the various possible causes of individual and team stress. Jane also learned how to conduct a stress risk assessment using an easy to follow procedure which would help her to identify hazards exposed to the team. She was also taught how to approach staff who had demonstrated signs of stress and how she could use effective communication to fully understand the problem that the employee faced and how to deal with it.

Case Study - After

After Jane had attended the course she was able to take a new perspective on how to deal with stress in the department. Using the HSE Management Standards and a team risk assessment she was able to formulate statistics that enabled her to determine that it was the way change was communicated to staff that was a major cause of stress. With help from Human Resources and higher levels of management changes of practices were communicated to staff quicker and more openly.

Jane using the behavioural signs of stressed workers was able to determine a team member who was suffering from stress, she was able to approach the person and set-up a confidential meeting to discuss the situation in an open and empathetic way. This enabled her to work out some basic changes to the individuals work schedule allowing them more control on how they work.

In the short-term Jane was able to improve team members wellbeing by implementing a team risk assessment, this enabled workers to highlight some of stress that they are experiencing. This gave management the insight on reasonable solutions. Long-term her department should see a reduction in absenteeism based on stress, productivity should also improve with a more cohesive working environment.

Karen - Assertiveness Skills

Sadia - Conflict Management

David - Emotional Resilience

Phil - Time Management

Carl - Train the Trainer

Jane - Stress for Managers

Steve - Effective Communication

Mel - Assertive Communication

Arnold - Effective Meetings

Francine - Minute Taking

Zach - Complaint Handling

Jack - Creative Problem Solving

Trisha - Facilitation Skills

Peter - Interview Skills

Have a Question?

If you have any questions regarding our training courses then please feel free to call us on 01656 737349 from Monday to Friday from 8.30am to 4:30pm. Or access the contact from below.

Sign up for your FREE e-newsletter

You’ll regularly recieve powerful strategies for personal development, tips to improve the growth of your counselling practice, the latest industry news and much more.

We’ll keep your information private and never sell, rent, trade or share it with any other organisation. And you can cancel anytime.

Counselling Case Study: Managing Anxiety

Leah is a 24 year old woman who was recently discharged from the Army on medical grounds. During her four years in the Army, Leah experienced high levels of stress and anxiety which she coped with by drinking heavily. When she presented for counselling, Leah had been sober for 55 days and was seeking strategies to cope with her anxiety that didn’t involve drinking.

While working with Leah, the Professional Counsellor adopts a case management model in order to assist her to build a network of supports within the community, enabling her to maintain her sobriety and prevent recurrence of the factors which contributed to her high levels of stress. For ease of writing, the Professional Counsellor is abbreviated to “C”.

Leah was an only child whose parents separated during her teen years. She felt isolated and was often bored at school. Her love of art was the only thing that gave her any enjoyment and she expressed this by covering the school buildings with graffiti after dark. Already in conflict with her mother due to her poor school performance, the involvement of the police after she was reported for vandalising public property further worsened their relationship. Her father had moved away and was no longer involved in Leah’s life.

Leah left school intending to train as an ambulance medic. On being told she lacked the life experience required for this work, Leah joined the Army on a four year contract hoping to address this requirement. However the Army turned out to be a repeat of the constrictive structure within which she had struggled both at school and at home.

Being obligated to complete the full four years, she began to feel increasingly trapped and was often anxious and depressed. She was introduced to alcohol by her fellow recruits and began using this as a means of deadening her overwhelmingly negative feelings about the course her life was taking. After three years in the Army, Leah was discharged on medical grounds, having become dependent on alcohol and unable to control her intake.

Issues identified

A case manager’s initial function is to develop an understanding of the client and help build a resource network that the client can later access on her own. In this role, C performed an examination of Leah’s environment, behaviour and immediate needs which identified the following issues:

• Career indecision – although still wanting to be an ambulance medic, Leah had lost confidence in her ability to achieve this or any other career goal.
• Unsuitable accommodation – Leah was sharing a flat with a young man who yelled at her if she smoked and often made unwelcome passes at her.
• High levels of stress and anxiety – Leah continually craved alcohol during her period of sobriety and began using valium to replace the role alcohol had played in deadening her feelings
• Large amounts of unstructured time – Leah had no other strategies in place to cope with her negative thoughts and feelings and, now she was no longer working, found herself with large amounts of time during which she had nothing else to do but think.
• Lack of a personal support network – Leah was estranged from both her parents, had no siblings, and felt unable to contact any of her former Army colleagues because she felt inadequate due to the manner in which she had been discharged.

Following an identification of issues needing attention, the case manager then coordinates a plan to enable the client to access needed assistance within her community. In this role, C worked with Leah to outline a plan which involved the following strategies:

• Schedule pleasurable activities
• Obtain suitable accommodation
• Increase support networks
• Contact a supported job training network
• Access Centrelink benefits
• Undertake a drug and alcohol rehabilitation program
• Cognitive restructuring
• Medication monitoring
• Ongoing support

This plan was designed to utilise Leah’s strengths and was later outlined in clear measurable terms that allowed for periodic evaluation of her progress. This is particularly important when the client is becoming disillusioned as it illustrates to her that while she may not yet have reached her goals, she has made significant progress towards them. Leah’s goals were developed with her input to encourage her to feel ownership of them, increasing her motivation.

The following barriers to the above plan were identified:

• Craving for alcohol – Leah had used alcohol as a way of coping with overwhelming feelings, consequently she had strong cravings whenever she was feeling particularly stressed and anxious
• “Doctor shopping” – Leah had discovered that Valium served a similar purpose to alcohol and when her GP refused to give her any further prescriptions, she simply went to another doctor.
• Misinterpreting anxiety and stress symptoms – Leah had become hypervigilant towards her physical symptoms of anxiety (breathlessness, increased heart rate, hot flushes, dizziness), interpreting them as medical problems resulting from her drinking, which further increased her stress and anxiety levels
• Pessimism – Leah exhibited this internal barrier through her belief that she was solely responsible for the things that had gone wrong in her life and that because of this, there was no way for things to change and nobody would be able to help her. This left Leah feeling helpless, overwhelmed and at times suicidal.

Leah’s goals were written in specific behavioural terms as follows:

• Schedule enjoyable activities – C asked Leah to make a list of five activities that had either given her pleasure in the past or were things she would like to try in the future. She listed jogging, calligraphy, painting, reading and walking on the beach. C asked Leah to carry out at least one of these activities every day.
• Obtain suitable accommodation – C asked Leah to contact a former Army colleague who had always been very caring towards Leah and who had previously invited her to share her home. Leah did this and, upon moving in, she and her new flatmate bought a new puppy, providing Leah with further enjoyable activity on a daily basis.
• Supported employment / job training – C accompanied Leah to an appointment with a supported employment service run by the state government. This service aimed to support Leah in regaining her confidence in returning to the workforce, providing her with vocational counselling to guide her career choices and ongoing support when searching for and commencing employment. They were also able to provide funding for retraining.
• Centrelink benefits – C helped Leah obtain and lodge necessary forms to help her transition to Newstart Allowance once her Army benefits had run out.
• Rehabilitation – C connected Leah with appropriate contacts to commence drug and alcohol counselling and to undergo residential rehabilitation if needed.
• Cognitive restructuring – C provided short-term intervention aimed at identifying Leah’s irrational thought processes and replacing these with a more functional belief system. Here C took on the counselling function of the case management role and centred the work around Leah’s belief that she was a failure and would never get her life together. This process utilised Rational Emotive techniques such as Examine the Evidence and Thinking in Shades of Grey (Ellis as cited in Dryden & Golden, 1986).
• The Gestalt technique ’empty chair’ (Perls as cited in Patterson, 1986) and aspects of Dialetical Behaviour Therapy (Linehan, 1993) were also used to address Leah’s unresolved feelings towards her parents and to teach her to tolerate distress without having to escape through the use of drugs or alcohol.
• Medication monitoring – C arranged for Leah to be seen regularly by a psychiatrist in addition to her local GP to ensure she was receiving the correct medication and to facilitate hospital admission should the need arise. She was also educated about the fight or flight response that was leading to her physical symptoms.
• Ongoing support – C provided Leah with contact names and numbers for local chapters of Alcoholics Anonymous and, following successful completion of her immediate goals, C referred Leah to her local community health clinic for ongoing monitoring and medical follow-up.

Session Summary

C has provided a combination of case management and counselling functions while working with Leah. As counsellor, C has used Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, Dialectical Behaviour Therapy and Gestalt Therapy techniques to facilitate achievement of the client’s goals.

In reducing her high levels of anxiety and stress, Leah was able to address her more practical needs, for example challenging her beliefs about what her former colleagues thought of her enabled her to contact one of them to follow up on the offer of accommodation. While C provided education and support in this regard, Leah carried out most of the practical tasks herself, thereby building on her strengths and further increasing her confidence levels and reducing her pessimism.

This process occurred over a three month period, during which two progress reviews took place between C, Leah and her psychiatrist. At this time, Leah was able to see the progress she was making and was also able to draw attention to any areas with which she was experiencing difficulty or concern.

Upon completion of the above plan for meeting Leah’s immediate needs, C has referred her to services able to provide her with ongoing but less intensive support. With Leah’s written permission, C provided the community health centre with a referral form outlining Leah’s history, medication regime, and a summary of the work undertaken with C, which C had documented following each session with Leah.

C maintained contact with Leah on a weekly basis during the transition to the new service and while she became comfortable in her local AA support group. In taking this step, C has ensured Leah has acquired the necessary skills for maintaining progress on her own, with assistance available to her as needed.

Author: Leanne Chapman

• Dryden, W. and Golden, W.L. (Eds). (1986). Cognitive-behavioural approaches to psychotherapy. London: Harper and Row Publishers.
• Linehan, M.M. (1993). Cognitive-behavioural treatment of borderline personality disorder. USA: The Guilford Press.
• Patterson, C.H. (1986). Theories of counselling and psychotherapy. New York: Harper and Row Publishers.

Related Case Studies: A Case of Stress , A Case of Social Anxiety , A Case of Low Self Esteem

• June 5, 2009
• Case Management , Case Study , Dialectical Behaviour Therapy , Gestalt Therapy
• Addictions , Case Studies , Stress Management

Comments: 1

As I was reading this I knew her issues and how to address them. I I could see the plan that I had made for her. I really love this thanks so much for this.

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

In order to continue enjoying our site, we ask that you confirm your identity as a human. Thank you very much for your cooperation.

• Psychological Treatment
• Clinical Psychology
• Stress Management

Stress Management : A Case study of Employees in ONGC, Karaikal

• January 2017
• 3(5):483-490

• Bishop Heber College

Discover the world's research

• 25+ million members
• 160+ million publication pages
• 2.3+ billion citations

• Dr. Mitu Mandal

• Thambirajah Paranthaman
• Dr. Uma Tamizharasi
• Recruit researchers
• Join for free
• Login Email Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google Welcome back! Please log in. Email · Hint Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google No account? Sign up

• Order Status
• Testimonials
• What Makes Us Different

Stress Management Harvard Case Solution & Analysis

Home >> Harvard Case Study Analysis Solutions >> Stress Management

Stress Management Case Solution

Stress management.

A good stress management program will not only improve the mental health, but it will also improve the relationships with others. It will also help them to feel happier and more productive. It will also help to cope with the stresses of the life.

Stress Management Techniques

The first step is to identify the stressful situations in the life. They should be able to recognize the triggers of those situations and develop coping mechanisms. By doing this, they will be able to manage the stress and stay healthy. There is one way to reduce the symptoms of stress is to practice self-care, also known as managing stress because stress affects sleep. Getting quality sleep is a vital part of stress management. A proper sleep can improve the physical health and reduce the stress that experienced throughout the day.

Practicing meditation could also reduce the stress that the experience throughout the day. But long sessions are not as effective as short sessions. A five-minute session can calm the mind and body. The key is to be consistent.Exercising can reduce stress levels and improve overall health. Getting moving regularly will not only keep them in better shape, but it will also decrease the level of anxiety and improve the mood.

It is concluded that when all experience some stress, learning about these factors and how to manage them can help to reduce overall level of stress. Managing stress is an ongoing process that will help to maintain a healthy life. Learning how to manage the stress is important for the health and well-being. Effective stress management can help to enjoy a happier, healthier, and more productive life . In addition to this, it helps to become resilient and cope with pressure. Stress can be very harmful to the body and mind. It can cause a number of physical and mental symptoms. It is important to understand how to cope with stress. During stressful times, a healthy lifestyle can make a huge difference. They will feel better if they can deal with stress in a productive and balanced way. Fortunately, there are ways to manage the stress and get more rest. By following some basic tips, they can reduce the level of stress and improve health. They may find it useful to keep a stress diary. They can find a healthy way to handle the stress by focusing on the things that are in control.

Recommendations

It is recommended to use multiple methods because it is not necessary that one single method will work for everyone. Here, the key is to find the right combination of techniques that work for them. There is no set formula for how to do this; it may take several tries to find the right balance. Keeping a daily routine can help them to cope with stress. They may find it useful to keep a stress diary to track the types of stress they experience and make any necessary changes. This will help them to better understand their own unique needs and patterns.The first step in treating this disorder is to determine what kind of stress is causing the symptoms. A medical doctor can determine the severity of the condition by examining the patient's mental health and conducting a mental exam (Wang, 2020). They should try to avoid those people that are making them to feel stressed. If these people are the boss, they should talk to them to discuss the situation and how to deal with them. They might be able to find the solution for themselves, but they can still manage the stress in the long run by making changes. In addition to this, they can try to avoid stressful situations by letting themselves relax when they are feeling tense.............................

This is just a sample partial case solution. Please place the order on the website to order your own originally done case solution .

Related Case Solutions & Analyses:

Hire us for Originally Written Case Solution/ Analysis

Like us and get updates:.

Harvard Case Solutions

Search Case Solutions

• Accounting Case Solutions
• Auditing Case Studies
• Business Case Studies
• Economics Case Solutions
• Finance Case Studies Analysis
• Harvard Case Study Analysis Solutions
• Human Resource Cases
• Ivey Case Solutions
• Management Case Studies
• Marketing HBS Case Solutions
• Operations Management Case Studies
• Supply Chain Management Cases
• Taxation Case Studies

More From Harvard Case Study Analysis Solutions

• Diagnosis Of Cardiovascular Disease
• Warren E. Buffett 2005
• Procurement at Betapharm Corp. (B)
• Clocky The Runaway Clock
• Cherkizovsky Group (C)
• Supplement to InfoVision (A): Technology Transfer at Georgia Tech
• Driving Sustainability at Bloomberg L.P.

Contact us:

Check Order Status

How Does it Work?

Why TheCaseSolutions.com?