social studies and critical thinking

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Preparing Social Studies Students to Think Critically in the Modern World

Vetting primary resources isn’t easy—but doing it well is crucial for fostering engagement and deeper learning in a rapidly changing world.

In an era when students must sort through increasingly complex social and political issues, absorbing news and information from an evolving digital landscape, social studies should be meaningful and engaging—a means for preparing students for the modern world, writes Paul Franz for EdSurge . Yet much of our social studies curricula emphasizes content knowledge over the development of foundational, critical thinking skills such as understanding the context in which primary sources were created, and determining the credibility of resources.

“The consequence of this approach, coupled with a preference by many schools for multiple-choice assessments, turns out students who are disillusioned with social studies—and creates an environment where “accumulating knowledge and memorizing information is emphasized because that’s what counts on standardized tests,” writes Franz.

In his book Why Learn History (When It’s Already on Your Phone) , author Sam Wineburg, a professor at Stanford’s Graduate School of Education, examines how historians approach resources and argues that this is how teachers should be rigorously vetting—and teaching students to vet—social studies materials for the classroom.

Wineburg first describes how an AP US History student analyzes a New York Times article from 1892 about the creation of Discovery Day, later renamed Columbus Day. The student criticizes the article for celebrating Columbus as a noble hero when, in fact, he “captured and tortured Indians.” However, when real-life historians examine the same article, Wineburg notes that their  approach is “wildly different.”

“When historians encounter this resource, their first move is to source it and put it in context, not to engage with the content,” writes Franz. “This article, to them, isn’t really about Columbus at all. It’s about President Harrison, who was responsible for the proclamation, and the immigration politics of the 1890s.”

The skills demonstrated by the historians are the same skills that should form the core of effective social studies education, according to Franz:

• Assessing the point of view of an author and source
• Placing arguments in context
• Validating the veracity of a claim

It is critical that teachers model this process for students: “Vetting social studies resources is important not just because we want to ensure students are learning from accurate, verifiable materials. It’s important also because the ability to ask questions about sources, bias, and context are at the heart of social studies education and are essential skills for thriving in the modern world.”

Much like historians, professional fact-checkers verify digital resources by using lateral reading. As opposed to vertical reading, where a reader might stay within a single website to evaluate a factual claim, fact-checkers scan a resource briefly, then open up new browser tabs to read more widely about the original site and verify its credibility via outside sources. This process mirrors how historians vet primary sources.

Teachers may also, of course, choose to rely on vetted social studies resources and lessons published by reputable sources—Franz recommends Newsela, Newseum, The National Archives, and the Stanford History Education Group.

Encouraging students to seek out knowledge and ideas, and then to deeply explore the reliability of their sources by considering their context, perspective, and accuracy should be the core skill of any rigorous social studies curriculum.

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Critical Thinking in Your Social Studies Lessons

If your state is like mine, you’re expected to teach critical thinking skills in every subject. And it makes sense why! We want our students to be evaluating content and creating solutions – not just memorizing facts. Today, I want to share some easy ways to get your students using critical thinking skills in social studies.

What Critical Thinking Skills Can I Teach?

Practically all of them!

Here are just a few skills you can integrate into your history lessons:

• ask questions
• determine credibility and evaluate bias
• interpret sources
• recognize a variety of perspectives
• analyze choices
• compare and contrast
• determine relationships
• sequence events
• draw conclusions based on evidence
• differentiate facts from opinions
• explore impact

A lot of the social studies activities you’re using probably include some critical thinking skills! Let’s take a look at some simple strategies you can try to include more critical thinking opportunities in your lessons.

Ask Questions

A simple way to encourage students to dig a little deeper when they learn about history is to use higher-order thinking questions. Once they know the what, where, who, and when, you can guide students to explore the HOW and WHY. What were the causes of these events? What effects did they have? How did they impact different groups of people then and now?

Inquiry-based lessons are a great way to get students using these skills. Plus, they give them ownership of what they’re learning and help to increase engagement.

If you want to start a little more low-key, you can use some HOTS question prompts. A simple “parking lot” or bulletin board where students can record questions is also a good place to begin.

Analyze Primary Sources

I LOVE using primary sources to teach social studies. Primary source analysis requires students to use their background knowledge and observational skills to draw conclusions about history.

I almost always have students collaborate when they work with primary sources so they can bounce ideas off each other. I also usually use DBQs or question prompts so they have some direction. Afterward, I like to follow up with a whole-class discussion to debrief.

Compare & Contrast

A simple Venn diagram or t-chart is a great way for students to compare people, places, civilizations, artifacts, inventions, events, and time periods from history.

Plus, comparing helps students identify connections between people/places and over time.

Use Sorting Activities

Sorting activities are one of my favorite ways to get students thinking critically. They’re hands-on, interactive, and perfect for kids to do with a partner or in a small group.

You can assign an open sort, where students sort cards with words and/or pictures according to their own categories by looking for connections or patterns. I love this activity because it helps me see how students think.

Another option is to do a closed sort where you can ask students to sort according to specific rules. For example, they might sequence events into a timeline or sort them into cause-and-effect relationships. To make it more challenging, you can involve some inferencing scenarios. For instance, you can have them match quotes to the person or group that would’ve been likely to say them.

Explore Perspectives

We want students to consider a variety of perspectives and points of view when they learn about different historical events or periods. Primary sources are very helpful here, especially if you can find letters or diary entries. Picture books are another good option if you can find ones that provide different perspectives on a topic.

An easy activity is to use two different quotes about an event (that represent two points of view) and have students analyze their differences. Again, guiding questions or prompts will help them to understand the perspectives of different groups of people. One activity I’ve used is to explore the English colonization of Jamestown from Captain John Smith’s perspective compared to Chief Powhatan’s.

Even creating a fake social media profile for a historical figure can help students think critically about someone’s needs, wants, and point-of-view.

Look at Cause and Effect

I think that exploring cause and effect relationships in history helps students understand the impact of events that have taken place. I like using a simple graphic organizer that has room for multiple causes and effects. (Cause and effect is also a good place to tie in perspectives and connections.)

Analyze Decision Making

Another critical thinking activity you can use is to analyze specific choices that people made.

A decision-making model graphic organizer helps students determine the costs and benefits of a choice or event. For example, they can weigh the costs and benefits of the 13 Colonies declaring independence from Great Britain.

A good extension activity is to have students discuss alternate decisions that could have been made. They can hypothesize how different choices would have changed history.

Investigate the Impact of Geography

Geography has played such a huge role in human history, but it’s not something our students always think about. It helps to use activities that encourage students to consider the specific ways geography has affected people. Comparing early maps to current maps is one option. And I love having students explore locations with Google Earth.

You can also practice this skill with the 5 themes of geography .

Research and Create Products

Finally, social studies research projects are a great way to use critical thinking skills. Students can take their research and create an artifact or product to apply their knowledge. They can also design solutions for the future based on what they’ve learned.

I’m all about finding ways to make social studies engaging . Incorporating critical thinking skills into your social studies lessons is a great way to challenge students, and it doesn’t have to be complicated. I hope you give some of these activities a try!

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Teaching Social Studies with Picture Books

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Critical Thinking in the Social Studies Classroom

JUNE 17, 2024

Today’s students are growing up in a highly interconnected, complex and global world—which means social studies, history and civic education have never been so important. To understand contemporary issues and participate fully in civic life, students need a solid grounding not only in basic facts, but also in essential critical thinking skills. Thinking Maps can help students develop the thinking skills they need to ask relevant questions, detect bias and misinformation, connect past and current events, and understand the changing world around them.

The Importance of Critical Thinking in Social Studies

Social studies education is about much more than naming the three branches of government or reciting a list of Revolutionary War battles. In a recent survey of K-12 social studies teachers by the American Historical Association (AHA), 97% of teachers identified critical thinking as one of the top goals of social studies education , followed closely by informed citizenship. Higher-order thinking skills such as making connections and inferences, evaluating sources, drawing conclusions, and forming opinions are key not only in the classroom but also in the voting booth and other aspects of civic life. 

Social studies education aims to cultivate these essential skills, enabling students to navigate the complexities of our modern world effectively. Some of the key goals of social studies education include the following. 

• Building Informed Citizens : One of the primary objectives of social studies education is to prepare students to be informed and engaged citizens. This involves understanding the principles and functioning of democracy, the rights and responsibilities of citizens, and the significance of civic participation. Critical thinking is fundamental in this process, as it allows students to evaluate political rhetoric, understand policy implications, and engage in meaningful discussions about governance and public policy.
• Navigating Information and Media Literacy : In today’s digital age, the ability to critically evaluate information is more important than ever. With the proliferation of information (and disinformation!) from diverse sources, including social media, news outlets, and online platforms, students must develop strong media literacy skills. Social studies education plays a crucial role in teaching students how to identify credible sources, recognize bias, and avoid disinformation. Critical thinking in social studies involves scrutinizing primary and secondary sources, understanding the context and perspective of the information presented, and questioning the authenticity and reliability of data. 
• Addressing Complex Global Issues : The world today faces numerous complex and interconnected challenges, such as climate change, global health crises, and social inequality. Social studies education equips students with the knowledge and skills to understand these issues, analyze their root causes, and explore potential solutions. Critical thinking is essential for unpacking the complexities of these global challenges and considering the perspectives of various stakeholders. 
• Enhancing Problem-Solving and Decision-Making Skills : Critical thinking in social studies also enhances students’ problem-solving and decision-making abilities. By engaging with historical case studies, current events, and hypothetical scenarios, students learn to apply analytical skills to real-world situations. This involves identifying problems, evaluating possible solutions, considering the consequences of different actions, and making reasoned decisions.

Fostering Empathy and Cultural Understanding : Another important aspect of social studies education is fostering empathy and cultural understanding. By studying diverse cultures, histories, and perspectives, students develop a deeper appreciation for the experiences of others. Critical thinking plays a key role in this process, as it encourages students to consider multiple viewpoints, understand the context of different cultures, and reflect on their own biases and assumptions.

Developing Critical Thinking Skills for Social Studies

Thinking Maps can help students master social studies content and hone the critical thinking skills they need to be informed citizens and active participants in our democracy. They are vital tools in the social studies classroom that can be used across all social studies disciplines: history (ancient, modern, American and world), geography, civics and government, economics, political science and sociology. The visual Thinking Maps are simple enough to be applied even at the PreK level, but powerful enough to be used for analysis of complex information in high school, college, grad school and beyond. 

Here are a few ways that Thinking Maps can be used to develop critical thinking in social studies.

Enhancing Comprehension of Social Studies Content and Concepts

Thinking Maps enable students to visually organize complex information, making it easier to understand relationships between concepts and events. For instance, students can use Thinking Maps to understand the sequence of historical events or categorize information about historical periods, geographic regions, or economic systems. This visual organization helps students see patterns and connections that might not be immediately apparent. By breaking down information and making it visual, Thinking Maps reduce the cognitive load of learning and improve comprehension and retention of complex information.

Building Metacognitive Skills

Thinking Maps support reflection and metacognitive processes by making students’ thinking visible. After completing a unit, for example, students can create Thinking Maps to reflect on what they have learned, how their understanding has evolved, and what questions remain. This reflective process enables deeper comprehension and helps students develop an awareness of their own learning processes.

Understanding Historical Events

Thinking Maps help students analyze historical events, put them in context, and make connections across time and geography. For example, students can use a Flow Map to understand the sequence of events, a Multi-Flow Map to analyze the causes and effects of an event, a Double-Bubble Map to compare and contrast two different events or time periods, or a Tree Map to classify events, civilizations or time periods.

Evaluating Sources, Points of View and Influences

Students also learn to use the “Frame of Reference” to evaluate sources, identify influences and points of view, and draw conclusions from information. This type of reflective thinking helps students learn to “Think Like a Historian” when analyzing historical events and information.

Analyzing Current Events and Issues

Thinking Maps facilitate the critical analysis of current events and issues by encouraging students to examine various aspects of a topic systematically. For instance, when analyzing a political decision, students can map out the different stakeholders, their motivations, and the potential impacts of the decision. They can also use Thinking Maps to make connections between current events and their historical roots. This systematic analysis helps students develop a more nuanced understanding of complex issues.

Problem Solving and Decision-Making

Thinking Maps support structured problem-solving and decision-making processes by outlining steps and considerations visually. When addressing a contemporary social issue, for instance, students can map out potential solutions, weigh pros and cons, and plan actions based on their analysis. This structured approach helps students develop effective problem-solving skills.

Questioning and Inquiry-Based Learning

Students learn to use Thinking Maps and the Frame of Reference to ask better questions and provide a framework for developing their own answers. Rigorous questioning is an important element of thinking historically and analyzing current events. Thinking Maps are also ideal for project-based learning and inquiry-based learning, where students generate questions, seek out information, and synthesize their findings. This inquiry-based approach promotes critical thinking and deeper learning in the social studies classroom.

Want to know more about how Thinking Maps can be used in social studies? Contact your Thinking Maps Representative .

Continue Reading

August 16, 2024

Artificial intelligence (AI) models like ChatGPT and Gemini are profoundly changing the way people interact with technology, information, and each other. Are they also changing the way we think? We must help our students avoid the temptation of outsourcing their critical thinking to AI.

May 16, 2024

Mastering Science Concepts and Content in K12 | Thinking Maps Support student mastery of the Core Ideas and Crosscutting Concepts in the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) with Thinking Maps. Learn more on the blog:

April 15, 2024

Scientific thinking empowers students to ask good questions about the world around them, become flexible and adaptable problem solvers, and engage in effective decision making in a variety of domains. Thinking Maps can help teachers nurture a scientific mindset in students and support mastery of important STEM skills and content.

February 15, 2024

A majority of teachers believe that students are finally catching up from pandemic learning losses. But those gains are far from evenly distributed—and too many students were already behind before the pandemic. To close these achievement gaps, schools and districts need to focus on the underlying issue: the critical thinking gap.

Improving Social Studies Students’ Critical Thinking

• First Online: 01 January 2014

Cite this chapter

• Khe Foon Hew 3 &
• Wing Sum Cheung 4  

Part of the book series: SpringerBriefs in Education ((BRIEFSEDUCAT))

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2 Citations

The ability to think critically along with an awareness of local and global issues have been identified as important competencies that could benefit students as they journey through life in the 21st century (Voogt and Roblin 2012 ). Social studies, as a subject discipline, could serve as a conducive environment for the development of such competencies because it not only aims to equip students with information about important social-cultural issues within and without a country but also to inculcate critical thinking ability whereby students review, analyze, and make appropriate judgments based on particular evidences or ideas presented. This chapter reports a study that examines the effect of using blended learning approaches on social studies students’ critical thinking. This study relied on objective measurements of students’ critical thinking such as their actual performance scores, rather than students’ self-report data of their critical thinking levels. It employed a one-group pre- and post-test research design to examine the impact of a Socratic question-blogcast model on grade 10 students’ ability to critically evaluate controversial social studies issues. A paired-samples t -test was conducted to determine the potential critical thinking gain using a validated rubric. There was a significant difference in critical thinking between pre-intervention ( M  = 2.33 SD  = 1.240) and post-intervention ( M  = 3.19 SD  = 1.388), t (26) = −3.690, p  < 0.001, with an effect size of 0.67. We also reported students’ perceptions of the Socratic question-blogcast blended learning approach to provide additional qualitative insights into how the approach was particularly helpful to the students.

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Faculty of Education, Division of Information and Technology Studies, The University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong SAR

Khe Foon Hew

Learning Sciences and Technologies, NIE, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore

Wing Sum Cheung

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4.1.1 Activity 1

1. Instructions

Getting started:

Podcast your answer:

Study the background information, sources and question. Then answer the question orally and record it to audacity. Just say out whatever comes to mind. Do not worry if your ideas do not flow. This is only your first draft. You will be given a chance to improve on your answers later. Upload your podcast onto your blogcast account, which have been created for you. Do not spend more than 15 min on this activity!

2. The Question

Study this question carefully.

Study Source A

How reliable is the source as evidence to suggest that the Tamils formed a militant group due to the unfair university admission criteria? Explain your answer.

3. The Background Information

Read this carefully. It may help you to answer the questions.

After 1970, the government introduced new university admission criteria. Tamil students had to score higher marks than the Sinhalese students to enter the same courses in the universities. A fixed number of places were also reserved for the Sinhalese. Admission was no longer based solely on academic results. This became the main point of the conflict between the government and Tamil leaders. Tamil youths, resentful by what they considered discrimination against them, formed a militant group, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), more popularly known as Tamil Tigers, and resorted to violence to achieve its aim.

4. The Sources

A cartoon about university admission in Sri Lanka by a Tamil artist.

http://www.slideshare.net/khooky/srilanka-conflict-v09

A view expressed by a Sinhalese about the Tamils in Sri Lanka, 1995.

The LTTE terrorists complain that the Tamils have been treated unfairly. This is unfair. This is no longer true. They say they have been the victims of discrimination in university education, employment and in other matters controlled by the government. But most of their demands were met long ago. Discrimination exists in every society but in Sri Lanka it is less serious than in some countries. It certainly does not give them the right to kill people. The Tamils do not need to be freed by a group of terrorists. Discrimination is not the real reason for terrorism, it is just an excuse.

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Hew, K.F., Cheung, W.S. (2014). Improving Social Studies Students’ Critical Thinking. In: Using Blended Learning. SpringerBriefs in Education. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-089-6_4

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Building Literacy in Social Studies: Strategies for Improving Comprehension and Critical Thinking Illustrated Edition

Preparing students to be active, informed, literate citizens is one of the primary functions of public schools. But how can students become engaged citizens if they can't read, let alone understand, their social studies texts? What can educators—and social studies teachers in particular—do to help students develop the knowledge, skills, and motivation to become engaged in civic life?

Building Literacy in Social Studies addresses this question by presenting both the underlying concepts and the research-based techniques that teachers can use to engage students and build the skills they need to become successful readers, critical thinkers, and active citizens. The authors provide targeted strategies—including teaching models, graphic organizers, and step-by-step instructions—for activities such as

* Building vocabulary, * Developing textbook literacy skills, * Interpreting primary and secondary sources, * Applying critical thinking skills to newspapers and magazines, and * Evaluating Internet sources.

Readers will also learn how to organize classrooms into models of democracy by creating learning communities that support literacy instruction, distribute authority, encourage cooperation, and increase accountability among students. Realistic scenarios depict a typical social studies teacher's experience before and after implementing the strategies in the classroom, showing their potential to make a significant difference in how students respond to instruction. By making literacy strategies a vital part of content-area instruction, teachers not only help students better understand their schoolwork but also open students' eyes to the power that informed and engaged people have to change the world.

• ISBN-10 1416605584
• ISBN-13 978-1416605584
• Edition Illustrated
• Publisher ASCD
• Publication date April 15, 2007
• Language English
• Dimensions 8.5 x 0.5 x 10.9 inches
• Print length 218 pages
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• Publisher ‏ : ‎ ASCD; Illustrated edition (April 15, 2007)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
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• Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 1.2 pounds
• Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 8.5 x 0.5 x 10.9 inches
• #209 in Social Studies Teaching Materials
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Social Studies and Critical Thinking

2004, Critical Thinking and Learning

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Critical thinking as a necessity for social science students capacity development: how it can be strengthened through project based learning at university.

• 1 Department of Economics Education, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Universitas Tanjungpura, Pontianak, Indonesia
• 2 Universitas Khairun, Ternate, Indonesia

Critical thinking is necessary for students because it empowers them to solve problems, especially during the learning stage and in real-life situations within society. Based on this fact, the present study proposes a citizenship project model that aims to enhance the Elementary School Teacher Education Study Program by emphasizing critical thinking among students during the teaching of Civic Education at universities in Indonesia. The research is of the experimental quasi-research type, which comprises two classes: an experimental class and a control class. Both the classes were conducted to compare the effectiveness of the proposed citizenship project learning model. The statistical package for the social sciences was used for data analysis. To attain the required results on the implementation of the citizenship project learning model, there were several stages, including problem identification, problem formulation, information gathering, documenting the process, showcasing the results, and reflective analysis of the model implementation process. The results have revealed a significant improvement in the critical thinking abilities of the students in the experimental class category compared to the control-class category. Thus, it is concluded that the adoption of a citizenship project learning model is appropriate for critical thinking skills' improvement of students taking up citizenship education study programs at universities.

Introduction

The development of critical thinking skills is very essential for every student of higher education today ( Kwangmuang et al., 2021 ). Globally, it has been found that 85% of teachers entail a belief that today's students have limited critical thinking abilities, mostly at the time of entry to university ( Jimenez et al., 2021 ). This development is coupled with the fact that, the world of present is facing rapid transformation in technology and scientific knowledge ( Kraus et al., 2021 ), something that is affecting people from all walks of life, including eroding their love for nationalism and affecting their attachment to nationalistic values ( Smith, 1983 ). This situation is also worsened by the existing learning models on citizenship ( Maitles, 2022 ), which are said to have not fully assisted students in developing critical thinking skills, thereby leading to difficulties in reasoning with the mindset of mature citizenry. This in turn affects their communication skills and leads to difficulties in responding to social phenomena that take place in society ( Castellano et al., 2017 ).

Because of the importance of critical thinking in solving problems related to students' learning, critical thinking cannot be separated from educational institutions ( Kim and Choi, 2018 ), especially from institutions of higher education ( Collier and Morgan, 2008 ), which are empowered to address challenges related to human resource development through the implementation of teaching and learning content. This development in turn influences students' change in mindset toward a positive direction by bringing about a change in their attitudes ( Sapriya, 2008 ). For this reason, when citizenship education is included in the realm of higher education it needs to contribute to the development of critical thinking skills as one of the compulsory subjects being taught to each student at any university in Indonesia, with the aim of achieving a 2045 Golden Indonesia ( Malihah, 2015 ). The main concern of such an educational course would be to create students who are able to instill a sense of nationalism and patriotism, as well as inculcate a sense of responsibility as future citizens who are competitive, intelligent, independent, and are able to defend their homeland, nation, and state ( Dirwan, 2018 ). Based on the above reasons, this paper focuses on the development of the critical thinking ability of student teachers by the lecturers of citizenship education by using a project-based citizenship learning model.

The concept of developing such critical thinking skills has paved the way for designing a Project Citizen model, which has been named a project-based citizenship learning model. This model has a twofold objective. Because it not only emphasizes the development of abilities in the form of mastery of skills alone, but more importantly, it emphasizes being critical in views and at decision-making, intellectually, and in character thinking ( CCE, 1998 ; Budimansyah, 2009 ; Nusarastriya et al., 2013 ; Falade et al., 2015 ; Adha et al., 2018 ) presented in practice through daily activities. To prepare students to realize the mastery of skills, such as critical thinking skills, positive mentality, and independent personality, a project-based citizenship learning model ( Adha et al., 2018 ) serves as an appropriate problem-based instructional treatment that can lead students to hone their critical thinking skills ( Brookfield, 2018 ).

The project citizen learning model is a strategy and art in the learning process to meet the learning objectives, especially students' critical thinking skills ( Susilawati, 2017 ). The Project Citizen model can develop students' abilities in terms of knowledge, skills, and civic character, as well as shape their democratic attitudes, and hence moral values ( Ching Te Lin et al., 2022 ). In addition, it can encourage student participation as citizens who are trained and prepared to learn to solve problems, both in the educational realms and government circles, as well as in society and family ( CCE, 1998 ; Budimansyah, 2009 ; Lukitoaji, 2017 ). The Project Citizen model can also encourage students acquire skillset such as intentional development through change. In fact, people can actively become involved in these changes, which may effectively take place on an ongoing basis ( Dharma and Siregar, 2015 ).

Therefore, the project citizenship model in Civic Education learning must be implemented because it is a major contributor to advancing students' critical thinking skills. This model works in such a way that it attracts or calls students to participate in dealing with social problems within a democratic and constitutional way of thinking in society through a Project Citizen-based learning process ( Budimansyah, 2009 ; Fry and Bentahar, 2013 ).

This research was conducted at Khairun Ternate University, a state university founded within the Province of North Maluku, Indonesia. Being one of the most favored universities in the region, its leadership ensures that the institution become a center of critical thinking and knowledge development, one of the soft skills required for national growth and development by shaping students and citizenship education students as future leaders. This study sought 1. To determine whether project-based citizenship education lectures can lead to improvement in critical thinking skills among students; 2. To examine students' critical thinking ability before taking up the study of Citizenship Education, we used a project-based citizenship learning model; and 3. To understand the difference in critical thinking ability between students who were taught using the project-based citizenship learning model and those who were taught using conventional models.

Basing on the above-mentioned aspects, this study sought to address and fill the gaps in students' thinking abilities, by sharpening their ways of looking at the varying citizenship challenges faced in the country. The author(s) implemented a project-based learning conceptual model, as it entailed the required aspects in improving students' thinking competences.

Literature review

Citizenship education as a compulsory subject at university.

The inclusion of subjects pertaining to Citizenship Education at all levels of education is required to sharpen and transform students into responsible stakeholders in nation building ( Gaynor, 2010 ; Kawalilak and Groen, 2019 ) of any given country. In Indonesia, Citizenship Education has of recent times attracted the attention of everyone by leading to varying discussions and policies ( Marsudi and Sunarso, 2019 ) on the program and steps for its implementation as a course or subject that promotes democratic values and shapes citizens into responsible persons who think positively and decide wisely.

Citizenship Education is also basically a vehicle for educating citizens to become democratic citizens ( Hahn, 1999 ). The implementation of this type of education program is carried out by carefully designing the material to be delivered from the curriculum so that it can be applied, assessed, and updated for the purposes of the community ( Callahan and Obenchain, 2013 ). This educational effort is believed to be an integral part of the process of transforming society in all aspects of life, whether social, political, economic, cultural, or spiritual.

By law, Citizenship Education is compulsory because it is enshrined in the Indonesian Constitution. According to Law No. 20 of 2003 on the National Education System ( Nurdin, 2015 ), Citizenship Education explicitly refers to the task of education, whereby it should be able to determine the potential of students and be able to change their morals and character for the better ( Raihani, 2014 ). The law explicitly states that the task of education is to improve the behavior of educated people. Changes in behavior and character have the potential to advance the nation and the state at large. Therefore, education must aim to develop the potential for students to become faithful and obedient servants of God, be healthy, knowledgeable, and competent. These abilities must meet three domains: knowledge, affective, and psychomotor abilities.

Philosophical basis for citizenship education

Every science has a philosophical foundation as a scientific root that can be used as the basis of knowledge ( Ginzburg, 1934 ). Likewise, Citizenship Education too has its own foundation, ontologically, epistemologically, and axiologically ( Uljens and Ylimaki, 2017 ). As it is known that Citizenship Education (Civics) developed from the civic concept with a lexical basis based on the word used in ancient Rome, namely, Civicus ( Cresshore, 1986 ; Winataputra, 2001 ). At that time, Civicus had the meaning of citizens. This term has been adapted especially in Indonesia as a concept called “Citizenship Education.”

Citizenship Education has developed both scientifically and in curricular form, hence, it touches on the broader aspects of sociocultural activities with the nature and various kinds of studies and dimensions ( Cresshore, 1986 ). Furthermore, the epistemological study of Citizenship Education focuses on the topic of “citizenship transmission,” the essence of the first social science study to obtain knowledge believed to be a tradition of self-evident truth. When drawn into learning, Citizenship Education lies at the core of social studies learning ( Anderson et al., 1997 ), which includes studies of scientific disciplines both in practice and concepts called “social studies” ( Barr et al., 1978 ; Soemantri, 2011 ). As a cross-disciplinary study, Citizenship Education is substantially driven by various types of scholarships, including political, social, and humanities. Although integrated into various studies, Citizenship Education can be held in the school sector, universities, and communities ( Winataputra, 2001 ).

From the description given above, it can be interpreted that the inclusion of Citizenship Education as a scientific area of specialization determines the study of what, how, and for what knowledge is constructed. We have long recognized terms in the study of Educational Philosophy, which include perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, and reconstructionism ( Brameld, 1955 ). The four terms of Educational Philosophy are related to Citizenship Education, among which philosophically Civic Education (Civics) is based on the concept of “reconstructed philosophy of education” which has a suitability to fulfill scholarship in terms of “perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, reconstructionism” ( Winataputra, 2001 ). The philosophy of essentialism looks at educational needs, which is the result of a proof that has been tested and experienced. The foundation is taken through an eclectic state that is philosophically centered on sophisticated knowledge (ideas) and reality (real).

The linkage between these educational philosophies makes this philosophical view sociopolitical in line with the Indonesian human conception, which is still an ideal–conceptual profile that must be realized and fought for continuously ( Winataputra and Budimansyah, 2007 ). Citizenship Education is expected to have an effect on three roles, namely; first, in the role of a curriculum that has a planned concept for educational institutions, both legally at the level of the education unit and outside of official activities; second, having an engagement plan to play an active role in the community in the context of social and cultural interaction; and third, having a role in the treasures of scientific knowledge, both in the sector of concept studies, academic ideas, and studies that have certain objects, systems, and methods for science. Such a role when examined has aspects, namely, the first aspect, the most important aspect is the academic subject as content that brings changes from their learning experience, for example, the standard content of Citizenship Education subjects, which determine scientific studies and determine the development of the study; the second aspect, in terms of scientific studies carried out including classroom action research, so that teachers will always reflect in every lesson they do ( Winataputra, 2001 ).

Critical thinking skills' development through citizenship education

As it is known, critical thinking in solving problems and finding solutions is indispensable to the learning of Civic Education for students as prospective teachers ( Ige, 2019 ). Moreover, at this time, digital students are challenged with a lot of information that can trap them in the flow of incorrect information (hoax); therefore, students must be critical and selective to the information available. To break down the problem of students' critical thinking ability, certainly not apart from educational institutions, especially college institutions, which are the right institutions to address this challenge, namely applying learning through content and touching the realm of thinking skills ( Sapriya, 2008 ; Aboutorabi, 2015 ; Borden and Holthaus, 2018 ; Japar, 2018 ).

One of the supports in critical thinking is hunting assumptions, which is one of the indicators of critical thinking ability in the Brookfield assumption. Critical thinking explores alternatives to decisions, actions, and practices from views mastered in a variety of contexts, as well as engaging in experience and information ( Brookfield, 2012 ). In this case, students are required to master critical thinking, namely, hunting assumptions, checking assumptions, seeing things from different viewpoints, and taking informed actions ( Brookfield et al., 2019 ). These four aspects help them by serving as the bases for critical thinking in a learning process that focuses on uncovering and examining assumptions, exploring alternative perspectives, and taking information-based actions as a result ( Brookfield, 2019 ). Critical thinking is best experienced as a social learning process, which is important to the learning of Civic Education, which is oriented toward society. This critical thinking ability is also necessary for students to participate in political and community life ( Banks, 1985 ; Sapriya, 2008 ; Budimansyah and Karim, 2009 ; Setiawan, 2009 ; Wahab, 2011 ; Brookfield, 2012 ). At this critical thinking stage, students can think more systematically and critically, and have high sensitivity to cultural differences, as well as local, national, and global perspectives, with a future orientation ( Kalidjernih, 2009 ; Shaw, 2014 ; Lilley et al., 2017 ). One approach can be implemented through education, by honing critical thinking skills during the learning process, to gain a high learning experience to face social problems from various aspects ( Raiyn and Tilchin, 2017 ; Alkhateeb and Milhem, 2020 ).

From the various opinions given above, the ability to think critically of hunting assumptions is needed in the course of the Civic Education field covering many topics and problems ( Cohen, 2010 ). The implementation of a Project Citizen-based learning model as one of the powerful ways to build an understanding in Civic Education aims to provide learning that focuses on the ability of students to solve problems, so that this provision can benefit them while facing and solving various problems of life.

These abilities are manifested not only in the form of mastery of skills, but more importantly, also by the ability to think critically, mentally, and characteristically ( CCE, 1998 ; Budimansyah, 2009 ; Nusarastriya et al., 2013 ; Falade et al., 2015 ; Adha et al., 2018 ). To prepare students to realize the mastery of skills, critical thinking skills, and mental and independent character, the Project Citizen learning model is a problem-based instructional treatment that can lead students to cultivate their critical thinking skills.

The Project Citizen learning model is a strategy and art in the learning process so as to meet the learning objectives that need to be achieved, particularly as regards the critical thinking skills of students ( Susilawati, 2017 ). This is because the Project Citizen model is able to develop the knowledge, proficiency, and character of democratic civic that allows and encourages the participation of students as democratic citizens. The said model can also help in dealing with problems that can be learned and trained according to the situation of self-condition of the environment faced by anyone, as many things are learned in terms of education, government, society, and family ( CCE, 1998 ; Budimansyah, 2009 ; Warren et al., 2013 ; Lukitoaji, 2017 ; Bentahar and O'Brien, 2019 ). The Project Citizen model is also able to encourage the development of change in an intentional manner, so that actively and effectively, the change occurs continuously ( Dharma and Siregar, 2015 ; Marzuki and Basariah, 2017 ). Therefore, it is important to apply the Project Citizen model to the learning of Civic Education as a major contribution to advancing students' critical thinking skills. This is because the learning model of Project Citizen invites students to participate in dealing with social problems in democracies and constitutional ways of thinking in the community through a learning process based on the project citizenship ( Budimansyah, 2009 ; Anker et al., 2010 ; Fry and Bentahar, 2013 ; Romlah and Syobar, 2021 ).

Thus, the learning model of citizen project lecturers and students can reflect on the studies they found during the course of their studies. The study was conducted by each group that was formed at the beginning of the meeting. Finally, lecturers and students hold joint discussions in the classroom by presenting data and information to create alternative solutions to the urgent problems they had to solve.

Methodology

In this study, a quasi-experimental research method was used. A quasi-experimental research approach is mostly referred to as nonrandomized, pre-post-test intervening research design (Harris et al., 200), which is used across fields of study. In the case of this study, the researchers used control groups and experimental groups but did not randomly segregate (non-random assignment) the participants into the two groups ( Creswell, 2017 ).

In this study, researchers want to see and learn more about the new learning model; therefore, they use two different classes, namely control and experimentation, to compare the classes that use project citizens (experimental) with classes that use the old method ( Sukmadinata, 2005 ). From both classes, researchers can compare the effectiveness of the experimental class learning model with that of the control class model. In addition, researchers will also observe how the results of both experiment and control classes reached high values. The researchers' approach is quantitative. This approach was determined by the researchers because it aimed to statistically test and compare both control and experimental classes. Furthermore, this approach emphasized testing to see an average comparison of the two groups that were statistically the same at the beginning of treatment.

Object and area of the study

This study was conducted at Khairun University in North Maluku Province, Indonesia. The research subjects were undergraduate students of the Elementary School Teacher Education Program and were basically those attending Civic Education courses as their major field of study. The research population comprised of all elementary school teacher Education Study Program students in Semester III totaling 100 of them, consisting of two classes, experimental classes and control classes. Each class consisted of 50 student teachers. The experimental classes of 42 females and 8 male students were experimented with a project-based citizenship learning model. In the control class, there were 44 female students and 6 male students using a conventional learning approach.

Data collection techniques

Data collection comes in various forms ( Gray and Bounegru, 2019 ), which can be either qualitative or quantitative data, comprised of either structured or unstructured data collection instruments or tools ( Pitcher et al., 2022 ). Data in its raw form may have no meaning, but due to the setting up of research targets, most research data are given meaning through interpretation by the authors, just like how the authors used with this study.

This means that data collection can be carried out with the help of written tests ( Silvia and Cotter, 2021 ). So in regard to this research too, the data were obtained through written tests, because this is a way the research chose so as to determine the critical thinking abilities of students, for both the experimental and control classes, before or after the treatment, with the method that had been chosen. This test was administered to students in the form of a detailed questionnaire. The question instrument used in the implementation of this research was a written test sheet that was formulated previously through the validation process by the validator. The hypothesis in this study is H 0 : there is no difference in hunting assumption ability between the experimental and control classes. H 1 : There are significant differences in hunting assumption ability between control-class experiments.

Normality test

Parametric statistical analyses were used to compare the average experimental and control classes. In the early stages of the test, a prerequisite test was conducted using a normality test, with the following results:

Based on Table 1 , the Sig. = 0.200 in the experiment, where G is the group. = 0.200 in the control group. The score is Sig. = 0.200 > 0.05 in both groups. Thus, it can be concluded that normally distributed data displayed a level of significance of = 0.05. A homogeneity test was also performed. = 0.344. This score is >0.05, indicating that the data are homogeneous. After conducting a prerequisite test, a t -test was performed on the Sig results. (2-tailed) = 0.259, with a significance level of a = 0.05.

Table 1 . Normality test results.

The score indicates that there are no significant differences between the experimental and control groups, so both groups are eligible to be subject to research. The average similarity between two groups is a measure of the effectiveness of a citizen's project-learning model. There was a significant difference at the final measurement after the intervention.

The findings and discussion are the answers to the formulation of the problem, which is the main focus of this study. This section presents the results of this study. Before implementing the lecture process of learning using the project-based citizenship model, the students were first given an initial trial test to establish the extent of their ability to think critically. Based on the initial proficiency tests conducted, the students' ability to think critically revealed no limitations in ability. The results of the students' initial ability tests are illustrated in Table 2 .

Table 2 . Abilities of students thinking critically.

From the exposure in Table 2 , the basic ability score of critical thinking for both the control class and experimentation descriptively obtained an average similarity that is not much different from the ability of early critical thinking of the students.

Furthermore, the initial ability to hunt assumptions students also conducted different tests in experimental and control classes using the static test. This was done to determine the difference in students' initial critical thinking ability based on the classification of low, medium, and high categories. The test results are listed in Table 3 .

Table 3 . Classification of basic abilities of the students' critical thinking.

The results of the category wise classification test in Table 3 indicate that the initial ability to display critical thinking skills in the experimental and control classes did not show significant differences. This is illustrated in the classification of the ability based on low, medium, and high categories, which also show no significant differences.

Therefore, it is necessary to implement a learning model that can maximize the ability to think critically by the students, that is: through the Citizen Project model. The Citizen Project model was implemented during the 10 meetings. Step-by-step, learning is underway to implement the learning model. The implementation of this Citizen Project learning model achieved the criteria and gained success in the ability to hunt assumptions for students. This can be seen in the tables that describe in general the classification of the low, medium, and high categories. This exposure resulted from the implementation of the learning model project. An explanation citing the success of the citizenship project-based learning is presented in the following table.

Based on the normality test in Table 4 , it can be seen that the total score of overall hunting assumptions of students in both class control and class normal distributed experiments can be calculated and then a t -test conducted. The t -test results showed a sig. (2-tailed) = 0.00 at =0.05, which means that Ha1 is received. Thus, it can be concluded that there are significant differences in critical thinking abilities between the control classes and the experiments.

Table 4 . General differences in student critical thinking ability.

Then, based on the normality tests in low-category students, the total hunting assumptions were scored in a normally distributed experimental class. However, if the control class is not normally distributed, then a t -test cannot be done for the Mann–Whitney U test. The Mann–Whitney U test results obtained were sig. =0.00 at = 0.05, which means that the Ha1 is received. Thus, it can be concluded that there is a significant difference in the hunting assumption ability of low-category students between experimental and control classes.

Then, for students in the moderate category based on the normality test given in the table, the total score of the hunting assumption's ability of moderate-category students either in the control group or in the normally distributed experimental group is calculated, and then a t- test conducted. The t -test results had a large score. (2-tailed) = 0.00 at =0.05, which means the Ha1 is received. Thus, it can be concluded that there are significant differences in hunting assumption capability in general for students in the moderate categories between the control classes and experiments.

For students in the high category based on the normality test for high-category students, the total hunting assumption's ability score in the normal distribution experiment class was reached but in the normal distribution control class, the t -test could not be performed for the Mann–Whitney U test. The Mann–Whitney U test results obtained were sig. =0.00 at = 0.05, which means that the Ha1 is received. Thus, it can be concluded that there is a significant difference in the hunting assumption ability of high-category students between experimental and control classes.

There are also differences in the ability of students to hunt assumptions after the implementation of the Citizen Project model learning in the low, medium, and high categories. The results are outlined in Table 5 .

Table 5 . Student critical thinking ability based on classification.

Based on the normality test in Table 5 , we can see the total score of the critical thinking ability of all students in the normally distributed control group. However, if the experimental group is not normally distributed, then a t -test cannot be performed to test the Mann–Whitney U test results which were obtained as sig. =0.00 at = 0.05, which means that H 1 is received. Thus, it can be concluded that there was a significant difference in the ability of students' critical thinking between the experimental and control classes.

Then, based on the normality test on the ability of thinking critically among the students in the low category if the total critical thinking skills' ability score in the experimental class and control is not normally distributed, then t -test cannot be conducted to test the results of the Mann–Whitney U test in both the control and experimental classes. The Mann–Whitney U test results obtained were sig. = 0.00 at = 0.05, which means that H 1 is received.

Thus, it can be concluded that there was a significant difference in the ability of thinking critically among students in the low category between the experimental and control classes. Then, for the ability of critical thinking, students in the moderate category based on the normality test mentioned in the table can be seen to reach the total score of student critical thinking ability in both class control and class normally distributed experiments. The t -test results had a large score. (2-tailed) = 0.00 at = 0.05 which means that H 1 is received.

Thus, it can be concluded that there are significant differences in the ability of critical thinking of the students in the moderate category between the control classes and experiments.

For high-category students, based on normality tests on the ability of critical thinking of the students in the high-category score, the total critical thinking ability is normally distributed, in control classes. However, if the experimental class is not normally distributed, then a t- t est cannot be performed to test the Mann–Whitney U test results obtained. = 0.00 at = 0.05, which means that H 1 is received.

Thus, it can be concluded that there was a significant difference in students' critical thinking abilities in the high category between the experimental and control classes. To perceive the difference in the development of hunting assumption's ability to conduct an analysis of pre-test and post-test scores, the analysis included the examination of the magnitude of N-Gain in each class, both control and experimentation. The analysis was conducted on both categories based on initial ability.

Based on the table, we can see the difference in improved hunting assumptions between the control classes and experiments that are reviewed from the initial ability. If we analyze the groups based on indicators of critical thinking ability, we can see that in the control group, the improvement of critical thinking skills' ability is almost entirely in the low category, both in the subclass based on the initial ability and on the ability to critical thinking that students are in a low category.

In the experimental class, hunting assumptions increased in the moderate category. There was no increase in the low category, and it was placed in the ability to critical thinking of students. An increase in high-category critical thinking was also not seen. Furthermore, if we analyze the ability to critical thinking based on the initial ability, it can be seen that the control class shows an increase in the ability to critical thinking in the low category. In the experimental class, although the increase was not classified as high, in all classes, critical thinking showed an increase in the moderate category in the experimental class, which was significantly higher compared to the control class on improved critical thinking ability.

The ability to think critically by the students has an important element in assuming, identifying thinking critical skills, comparing critical thinking abilities based on students' opinions, and performing actions and movements to change old habits by promoting the application of new habits properly ( Brookfield, 2012 ). A study on the ability to think critically is intended to give students an understanding of building hypotheses or assumptions, seeing from data and facts to be identified, tracing figures and experts to compare, and making movements as a form of application of student work as their ability to critical thinking present day required life skill ( Brookfield, 2018 ; Gonzalez et al., 2022 ). Thus, the citizen project learning model is suitable for improving students' critical thinking skills through six learning steps. The six steps were identifying problems, formulating or selecting problems, collecting information or data, creating portfolio file documents, displaying studies, and reflecting on the findings discussed together ( Budimansyah, 2009 ; Dewey, 2021 ). The project citizen learning model is based on strategy “inquiry learning, discovery learning, problem-solving learning, research-oriented learning” (learning through research, learning to find/disclose, learning problem-solving, and learning-based research).

This model is packaged by Dewey, who is called a project citizen. This model is appropriate when applied to Citizenship Education to increase students' awareness and thinking ability, as well as to build smart and good citizen characters ( Budimansyah, 2008 ; Rafzan et al., 2020 ). Thus, through the process of learning the citizen project model, lectures have combined theoretical and practical studies that allow the readiness of students with their groups to undergo a mature process. In particular, Civic Education courses have a wide scope of studies, with a project citizen learning model able to train students to improve critical thinking skills, especially critical thinking hunting assumptions.

Project citizen-based learning in Civic Education courses to improve critical thinking skills and sharpens the argumentative way of reasoning among students, hence making them obtain good results. The results of the analysis of the influence of learning on the ability to critical thinking based on the learning model of project citizenship learning conclude that: the ability of students to think critically in the experimental class, in general, differs significantly compared to the control class; the ability to think critically of students in the low category in experimental class among students differed significantly compared to the control class; the critical thinking ability of students with moderate categories in experimental class differed significantly compared to the control class; and lastly, the critical thinking ability of students in the high category in experimental class was significantly higher compared to the control class.

Based on the statistical analysis of critical thinking assumptions' ability, it can be concluded that the understanding of the student's capacity to think critically through experimental classes, using project citizen-based learning models to ensure students learn from low to medium, and attain high critical thinking skills has been enhanced by learning steps that lead them to be more active and productive in understanding information and critical opinions. This means that there is uniformity in the acquisition of value in understanding students' opinion through critical arguments, which indicate that the citizen's project model can improve the critical thinking ability of students, gauged through exchange of opinions.

From the description given above, it appears that the learning model of a project-based citizenship education model has a significant impact on students' development of the critical thinking skills' ability. This is because the implementation of citizenship-based project learning provides learning steps based on experience. Such an experience can help students develop their knowledge, skills, and skills (civic knowledge, civic skills, and civic disposition) ( Fry and Bentahar, 2013 ; Fajri et al., 2018 ).

Conclusively, a project-based citizenship learning model, as a social learning model, has been found to be effective in developing critical thinking skills that impact on all students' competencies. Competency is the ability of students to conduct a given task independently based on the citizenship-based project learning model applied in the course of Civic Education to enhance students' abilities in problem-solving from concept to real-life realization stage ( Medina-Jerez et al., 2010 ; Mitchell et al., 2017 ; Yusof et al., 2019 ). In other words, the project-based model used in this research is expected to contribute to improved students' reasoning capacity while at school and in a real-life situation.

The result is in accordance with Brookfield's (2012 , 2018) opinion about the aims and objectives of the student's critical thinking ability, who states that social problems could be solved by making decisions based on hypotheses and critical thinking. Based on a deeper analysis and investigation of the research findings and discussion, the application of the project-based citizenship learning model in the Civics Education course was able to create an effective learning atmosphere in sharpening students' critical thinking skills and motivating them to be good and responsible human beings. This statement is in line with the objectives of the Civic Education course, which emphasizes the process of creating students who are intelligent, have good character and required morals in society ( Banks, 1985 ; Branson, 1994 ; Budimansyah and Suryadi, 2008 ; Budimansyah, 2009 ; Setiawan, 2009 ). Thus, the results of the study confirmed that the project-based citizenship learning model is not only a proof of the evidence of the improvement in students' critical thinking skills, but the study also notes that the learning model can as well be effective in helping students develop reasoning abilities and good critical thinking abilities which may also help them in solving various issues within society.

Facilitating the growth of critical thinking abilities of a student leads to critical reasoning, hence encouraging productive discussions, which in turn leads to acceptable criticisms and an open exchange of ideas among students to be easily understood, including those ideas based on assumptions and hypotheses. Based on the exposure of the results and discussion of research on the ability to hunt assumptions, students who were engaged in a project-based citizenship learning model obtained better scores for their critical thinking abilities. This implies that such students experience an improvement in their hunting assumption ability compared to students studying through conventional learning. Assembling a project citizen learning model in Civic Education courses can improve students' ability to hunt assumptions. Thus, it can be concluded that Civic Education courses with the application of the learning model project-based citizenship learning model can improve students' critical thinking skills.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Ethics statement

Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent for participation was not required for this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.

Author contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication.

This study was funded by University Administration.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: citizenship education, citizenship learning project model, critical thinking skills, elementary education, teacher preparation, university curriculum, university education

Citation: Witarsa and Muhammad S (2023) Critical thinking as a necessity for social science students capacity development: How it can be strengthened through project based learning at university. Front. Educ. 7:983292. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2022.983292

Received: 01 July 2022; Accepted: 26 September 2022; Published: 09 January 2023.

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Copyright © 2023 Witarsa and Muhammad. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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