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Six Tough Questions About Climate Change

Whenever the focus is on climate change, as it is right now at the  Paris climate conference , tough questions are asked concerning the costs of cutting carbon emissions, the feasibility of transitioning to renewable energy, and whether it’s already too late to do anything about climate change. We posed these questions to Laura Segafredo , manager for the Deep Decarbonization Pathways Project . The decarbonization project comprises energy research teams from 16 of the world’s biggest greenhouse gas emitting countries that are developing concrete strategies to reduce emissions in their countries. The Deep Decarbonization Pathways Project is an initiative of the Sustainable Development Solutions Network .

• Will the actions we take today be enough to forestall the direct impacts of climate change? Or is it too little too late?

There is still time and room for limiting climate change within the 2˚C limit that scientists consider relatively safe, and that countries endorsed in Copenhagen and Cancun. But clearly the window is closing quickly. I think that the most important message is that we need to start really, really soon, putting the world on a trajectory of stabilizing and reducing emissions. The temperature change has a direct relationship with the cumulative amount of emissions that are in the atmosphere, so the more we keep emitting at the pace that we are emitting today, the more steeply we will have to go on a downward trajectory and the more expensive it will be.

Today we are already experiencing an average change in global temperature of .8˚. With the cumulative amount of emissions that we are going to emit into the atmosphere over the next years, we will easily reach 1.5˚ without even trying to change that trajectory.

Two degrees might still be doable, but it requires significant political will and fast action. And even 2˚ is a significant amount of warming for the planet, and will have consequences in terms of sea level rise, ecosystem changes, possible extinctions of species, displacements of people, diseases, agriculture productivity changes, health related effects and more. But if we can contain global warming within those 2˚, we can manage those effects. I think that’s really the message of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports—that’s why the 2˚ limit was chosen, in a sense. It’s a level of warming where we can manage the risks and the consequences. Anything beyond that would be much, much worse.

• Will taking action make our lives better or safer, or will it only make a difference to future generations?

It will make our lives better and safer for sure. For example, let’s think about what it means to replace a coal power plant with a cleaner form of energy like wind or solar. People that live around the coal power plant are going to have a lot less air pollution, which means less asthma for children, and less time wasted because of chronic or acute diseases. In developing countries, you’re talking about potentially millions of lives saved by replacing dirty fossil fuel based power generation with clean energy.

It will also have important consequences for agricultural productivity. There’s a big risk that with the concentration of carbon and other gases in the atmosphere,   agricultural yields will be reduced, so preventing that means more food for everyone.

And then think about cities. If you didn’t have all that pollution from cars, we could live in cities that are less noisy, where the air’s much better, and have potentially better transportation. We could live in better buildings where appliances are more efficient. And investing in energy efficiency would basically leave more money in our pockets. So there are a lot of benefits that we can reap almost immediately, and that’s without even considering the biggest benefit—leaving a planet in decent condition for future generations.

• How will measures to cut carbon emissions affect my life in terms of cost?

To build a climate resilient economy, we need to incorporate the three pillars of energy system transformation that we focus on in all the deep decarbonization pathways. Number one is improving energy efficiency in every part of the economy—buildings, what we use inside buildings, appliances, industrial processes, cars…everything you can think of can perform the same service, but using less energy. What that means is that you will have a slight increase in the price in the form of a small investment up front, like insulating your windows or buying a more efficient car, but you will end up saving a lot more money over the life of the equipment in terms of decreased energy costs.

The second pillar is making electricity, the power sector, carbon-free by replacing dirty power generation with clean power sources. That’s clearly going to cost a little money, but those costs are coming down so quickly. In fact there are already a lot of clean technologies that are at cost parity with fossil fuels— for example, onshore wind is already as competitive as gas—and those costs are only coming down in the future. We can also expect that there are going to be newer technologies. But in any event, the fact that we’re going to use less power because of the first pillar should actually make it a wash in terms of cost.

The Australian deep decarbonization teams have estimated that even with the increased costs of cleaner cars, and more efficient equipment for the home, etc., when the power system transitions to where it’s zero carbon, you still have savings on your energy bills compared to the previous situation.

The third pillar that we think about are clean fuels, essentially zero-carbon fuels. So we either need to electrify everything— like cars and heating, once the power sector is free of carbon—or have low-carbon fuels to power things that cannot be electrified, such as airplanes or big trucks. But once you have efficiency, these types of equipment are also more efficient, and you should be spending less money on energy.

Saving money depends on the three pillars together, thinking about all this as a whole system.

• Given that renewable sources provide only a small percentage of our energy and that nuclear power is so expensive, what can we realistically do to get off fossil fuels as soon as possible?

There are a lot of studies that have been done for the U.S. and for Europe that show that it’s very realistic to think of a power sector that is almost entirely powered by renewables by 2050 or so. It’s actually feasible—and this considers all the issues with intermittency, dealing with the networks, and whatever else represents a technological barrier—that’s all included in these studies. There’s also the assumption that energy storage, like batteries, will be cheaper in the future.

That is the future, but 2050 is not that far away. 35 years for an energy transition is not a long time. It’s important that this transition start now with the right policy incentives in place. We need to make sure that cars are more efficient, that buildings are more efficient, that cities are built with more public transit so less fossil fuels are needed to transport people from one place to another.

I don’t want people to think that because we’re looking at 2050, that means that we can wait—in order to be almost carbon free by 2050, or close to that target, we need to act fast and start now.

• Will the remedies to climate change be worse than the disease? Will it drive more people into poverty with higher costs?

I actually think the opposite is true. If we just let climate go the way we are doing today by continuing business as usual, that will drive many people into poverty. There’s a clear relationship between climate change and changing weather patterns, so more significant and frequent extreme weather events, including droughts, will affect the livelihoods of a large portion of the world population. Once you have droughts or significant weather events like extreme precipitation, you tend to see displacements of people, which create conflict, and conflict creates disease.

I think Syria is a good example of the world that we might be going towards if we don’t do anything about climate change. Syria is experiencing a once-in-a-century drought, and there’s a significant amount of desertification going on in those areas, so you’re looking at more and more arid areas. That affects agriculture, so people have moved from the countryside to the cities and that has created a lot of pressure on the cities. The conflict in Syria is very much related to the drought, and the drought can be ascribed to climate change.

And consider the ramifications of the Syrian crisis: the refugee crisis in Europe, terrorism, security concerns and 7 million-plus people displaced. I think that that’s the world that we’re going towards. And in a world like that, when you have to worry about people being safe and alive, you certainly cannot guarantee wealth and better well-being, or education and health.

• So finally, doing what needs to be done to combat climate change all comes down to political will?

The majority of the American public now believe that climate change is real, that it’s human induced and that we should do something about it.

But there’s seems to be a disconnect between what these numbers seem to indicate and what the political discourse is like… I can’t understand it, yet it seems to be the situation.

I’m a little concerned because other more immediate concerns like terrorism and safety always come first. Because the effects of climate change are going to be felt a little further away, people think that we can always put it off. The Department of Defense, its top-level people, have made the connection between climate change and conflict over the next few decades. That’s why I would argue that Syria is actually a really good example to remind us that if we are experiencing security issues today, it’s also because of environmental problems. We cannot ignore them.

The reality is that we need to do something about climate change fast—we don’t have time to fight this over the next 20 years. We have to agree on this soon and move forward and not waste another 10 years debating.

Read the Deep Decarbonization Pathways Project 2015 report . The full report will be released Dec. 2.

Laura Segafredo was a senior economist at the ClimateWorks Foundation, where she focused on best practice energy policies and their impact on emission trajectories. She was a lead author of the 2012 UNEP Emissions Gap Report and of the Green Growth in Practice Assessment Report. Before joining ClimateWorks, Segafredo was a research economist at Electricité de France in Paris.

She obtained her Ph.D. in energy studies and her BA in economics from the University of Padova (Italy), and her MSc in economics from the University of Toulouse (France).

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Many find low wages prohibits saving. Changing personal vehicles and heating systems costs. Will there be financial support for people on low wages?

The energy innovation and dividend bill has already been introduced in the house. It’s a carbon fee and dividend plan. The carbon fee rises every year and 100% of it goes back directly into the hands of the people by a check each month. This helps offset rising costs, especially for lower income folks.

81 cosponsors now Tell your rep in Congress to support this HR 763!

Results show that yields for all four crops grown at levels of carbon dioxide remaining at 2000 levels would experience severe declines in yield due to higher temperatures and drier conditions. But when grown at doubled carbon dioxide levels, all four crops fare better due to increased photosynthesis and crop water productivity, partially offsetting the impacts from those adverse climate changes. For wheat and soybean crops, in terms of yield the median negative impacts are fully compensated, and rice crops recoup up to 90 percent and maize up to 60 percent of their losses.

When is Russia, China, and Mexico going to work toward a better environment instead of the United States trying to do it all? They continue to pollute like they have for years. Who is going to stop the deforestation of the rain forest?

I’m curious if climate change has any effect on seismic activity. It seems with ice melting on the poles and increasing water dispersement and temp of that water, it might cause the plates to shift to compensate. Is there any evidence of this?

this isn’t because of doldrums or jet streams. the pattern keeps having the same action. we must save trees :3

How long do we have, before it’s too late?

Climate Change isn’t nearly as big of a deal as everyone makes it out to be. Meaning no disrespect to the author, but I really don’t see how this is something that we should be worrying about given that one human recycling their soda cans or getting their old phone refurbished rather than dumping it isn’t going to restore the polar ice caps or lower the temperature of the planet. And supposedly agriculture is the problem, but I point-blank refuse to give up my beef night, or bacon and eggs for breakfast on Saturdays. Also, nuclear power is supposed to be a solution, but the building of the power plants is going to add more greenhouse gases than the plant will take out. The whole planet needs a reality check. Earth isn’t going to explode because it’s slightly hotter than it used to be!

Thank you and I need in your help

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January 4, 2020

These Are the Biggest Climate Questions for the New Decade

The 2010s brought major climate science advances, but researchers still want to pin down estimates of Arctic melt and sea-level rise

By Chelsea Harvey & E&E News

In this aerial view ice lies in a lake formed by meltwater from the Rhone glacier on August 19, 2019 near Obergoms, Switzerland.

Sean Gallup Getty Images

The 2010s were almost certainly the hottest decade on record — and it showed. The world burned, melted and flooded. Heat waves smashed temperature records around the globe. Glaciers lost ice at accelerating rates. Sea levels continued to swell.

At the same time, scientists have diligently worked to untangle the chaos of a rapidly warming planet.

In the past decade, scientists substantially improved their ability to draw connections between climate change and extreme weather events. They made breakthroughs in their understanding of ice sheets. They raised critical questions about the implications of Arctic warming. They honed their predictions about future climate change.

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As another decade begins, scientists say there are more questions to be answered. We asked climate researchers across a variety of disciplines about the biggest priorities and hottest topics for the 2020s. Here's what they said.

Arctic mysteries

The Arctic is warming faster than anywhere else on Earth, with temperatures rising at least twice as fast as the global average. Many scientists believe that understanding the consequences of Arctic warming is essential for making accurate predictions about climate change around the world.

Some of these links are straightforward. Melting Arctic ice pouring into the ocean can raise global sea levels. Thawing permafrost can release large amounts of carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere, potentially accelerating the rate of global warming.

Others are more contentious.

In the last decade, a growing scientific debate has arisen about the influence of Arctic warming on global climate and weather patterns, particularly in the midlatitudes.

Some observational studies have pointed to a statistical connection between Arctic warming and weather events in places like the United States, Europe and parts of Asia — for instance, a link between shrinking sea ice and cold winters in Siberia, or Arctic heat waves and extreme winter weather in the United States.

The trouble is models have a hard time capturing the causes driving these connections.

"No one argues that the Arctic meltdown will affect weather patterns, the question is exactly how," said Arctic climate expert Jennifer Francis, a researcher at Woods Hole Research Center. "So figuring out what's not right in the models will be a major focus. Without realistic models, it's hard to use them to separate Arctic influences from other possible factors."

Resolving the debate will require "a combination of data and modeling," according to NASA climatologist Claire Parkinson. Many scientists are already hard at work on this issue.

One ongoing project known as the Polar Amplification Model Intercomparison Project is conducting a series of coordinated model experiments, all using the same standard methods, to investigate the Arctic climate and its connections to the rest of the globe. Experts say these kinds of projects may help explain why modeling studies conducted by different groups with different methods don't always get the same results.

At the same time, improving the way that physical processes are represented in Arctic climate models is also essential, according to Xiangdong Zhang, an Arctic and atmospheric scientist at the University of Alaska, Fairbanks.

Outside that debate, there are still big questions about the Arctic climate to resolve. Scientists know the Arctic is heating up at breakneck speed — but they're still investigating all the reasons why.

Researchers believe a combination of feedback processes are probably at play. Sea ice and snow help reflect sunlight away from the Earth. As they melt away, they allow more heat to reach the surface, warming the local climate and causing even more melting to occur.

One key question for the coming decade, Zhang said in an email, is "what relative role each of the physical processes plays and how these processes work together" to drive the accelerating warming.

Unraveling these feedbacks will help scientists better predict how fast the Arctic will warm in the future, according to Francis — and how quickly they should expect its consequences to occur. They include vanishing sea ice, thawing permafrost and melting on the Greenland ice sheet.

Oceans and ice

Sea-level rise is one of the most serious consequences of climate change, with the potential to displace millions of people in coastal areas around the world.

At the moment, the world's oceans are rising at an average rate of about 3 millimeters each year. It appears to be speeding up over time. That may not sound like much, but scientists are already documenting an increase in coastal flooding in many places around the world.

Accurately predicting the pace of future sea-level rise is one of the biggest priorities in climate science. And one of the biggest uncertainties about future sea-level rise is the behavior of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, both of which are pouring billions of tons of ice into the ocean each year.

Recent satellite studies have found that ice loss in both places is speeding up. Antarctica is losing about three times as much ice as it was in the 1990s, while losses in Greenland may be as much as seven times higher than they were in previous decades.

Investigating the processes driving the accelerations — and then using that knowledge to fine-tune predictions of future sea-level rise — is a key priority for 2020 and beyond, according to Marco Tedesco, an ice sheet expert at Columbia University.

"How do we connect the physical processes that we do understand are creating this acceleration from Greenland and Antarctica, very likely over the next decade, to sea-level rise impacts?" he asked E&E News. "And how do we account for the potential shocks of the things that we cannot anticipate still?"

Some scientists worry that as ice loss continues to speed up in both Greenland and Antarctica, parts of the ice sheets could eventually destabilize and collapse entirely — leading to catastrophic sea-level rise.

In recent years, scientists have discovered that warm ocean currents are helping to melt some glaciers from the bottom up, both in Greenland and particularly in parts of West Antarctica. Better understanding the relationship between oceans and ice is a key priority for glacier experts, Tedesco said.

At the same time, monitoring the way water melts and moves along the top of the ice is also a major priority. In Greenland, climate-driven changes in the behavior of large air currents like the jet stream may be helping to drive more surface melting.

"The important thing is to understand how Greenland mass loss can be connected to the recent changes in the atmospheric circulation that we are witnessing," Tedesco said.

Extreme weather events

The past decade saw leaps and bounds in a field of climate research known as "attribution science" — the connection between climate change and extreme weather events.

It was once thought to be impossible, but scientists are now able to estimate the influence of global warming on individual events, like heat waves or hurricanes. In the past few years alone, scientists have found that some events are now occurring that would have been impossible in a world with no human-caused climate change.

As attribution science has advanced, researchers have been able to tackle increasingly complex events, like hurricanes and wildfires, which were previously too complicated to evaluate with any confidence. They've gotten faster, too — researchers are now able to assess some extreme events nearly in real time.

Some organizations are working to develop sophisticated attribution services, similar to weather services, which would release analyses of extreme events as soon as they occur. The German national weather service; the United Kingdom's Met Office; and the Copernicus program, part of the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts, have all begun exploring these kinds of projects.

At the same time, scientists are working to improve their predictions of future extreme events in a warming world.

So far, climate models predict that many extreme weather events will happen more frequently, or will become more severe, as the climate continues to change. Heat waves will be hotter, hurricanes will intensify, heavy rainfall events may happen more frequently in some places, and droughts may be longer in others.

Continuing to improve these kinds of predictions — and then communicating them in useful ways to communities that will be affected by them — is a major priority, according to Piers Forster, director of the Priestley International Centre for Climate at the University of Leeds.

There's often great uncertainty when it comes to predicting extreme weather events, he noted — different climate models sometimes deliver vastly different results. But it can often be both expensive and time-consuming to run the models enough times, and at high enough resolutions, to investigate and narrow these uncertainties.

Tackling this issue is one of the key challenges for climate modeling in the coming years, Forster said, noting that "we need to get clever about how we use models to make projections and how we test them."

Projecting the future

Predicting how much the Earth will warm, given a certain level of greenhouse gas emissions, may seem like the simplest goal of climate modeling. But it's harder than it sounds.

Climate models don't always agree on the Earth's exact sensitivity to greenhouse gas emissions — although they do tend to fall within a certain range. If global carbon dioxide concentrations were to double, for instance, models from the past decade have tended to predict that the Earth would warm from between 1.5 and 4.5 degrees Celsius.

Scientists around the world are working on a new suite of updated climate models, which will be used to inform future reports produced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. But there's one issue that's already raising eyebrows, according to Zeke Hausfather, a climate scientist at the University of California, Berkeley — so far, the newer models seem to be predicting a much higher climate sensitivity than the older models.

"The high end is much higher," he told E&E News. "There's a number of models above 4.8 degrees sensitivity and even up to 5.6."

Only about 20 new models have submitted results; far more will come pouring in before the project is complete. And as Hausfather pointed out, other recent studies have suggested that the Earth's climate sensitivity might actually be narrower than the old models suggested.

But it's something to keep in mind at a time when accurate predictions about future warming are more pressing than ever.

"The fact that some of these models are high is interesting but doesn't necessarily mean we should believe them over other lines of evidence," Hausfather said. "It just reflects the fact that climate sensitivity is this huge remaining source of uncertainty in our climate projections."

At the same time, climate modelers are also working to hone their projections in other ways. Models are able to capture increasingly complex processes the more they advance. But there are still a few key areas scientists are focused on improving.

Clouds, for instance, are believed to have a significant influence on the climate system. But they're notoriously difficult to reproduce in climate models. Certain aspects of the carbon cycle are also underrepresented in models, Hausfather noted — for instance, the way that forests and oceans absorb or release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

And scientists are also working to develop more realistic climate scenarios for their modeling projects. In the past, many studies have focused on a "business as usual" climate scenario, which suggests high rates of future greenhouse gas emissions, the continued expansion of coal, and other assumptions about industry and socioeconomics that may no longer be realistic, according to Hausfather.

While global climate action is still significantly lagging when it comes to meeting the goals of the Paris climate agreement, the future may not be as dire as previous business-as-usual climate studies would suggest. Focusing new studies on more realistic scenarios may be more useful to policymakers and communities trying to plan for the future.

"In many ways the range of possible futures is narrowing," Hausfather said. "As we get closer to 2100 and as the world takes more climate action, the worst-case 4 degrees-plus warming scenarios are a lot less likely."

Reprinted from Climatewire with permission from E&E News. E&E provides daily coverage of essential energy and environmental news at  www.eenews.net .

5 ways NOAA scientists are answering big questions about climate change

• April 20, 2021
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From warmer ocean temperatures to longer and more intense droughts and heat waves, climate change is affecting our entire planet. Scientists at NOAA have long worked to track, understand and predict how climate change is progressing and impacting ecosystems, communities and economies. This Earth Day, take a look at five ways scientists are studying this far-reaching global trend.

1. Tracking greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere

To understand climate change, scientists need an accurate, up-to-date record of how greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere have changed over time. Enter: NOAA Global Monitoring Laboratories’ Global Greenhouse Gas Reference Network , which measures the three main long-term drivers of climate change: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, and nitrous oxide. Four remote atmospheric baseline observatories form the backbone of the monitoring system – the most well-known of which, located in Mauna Loa, Hawaii, is home to the longest record of direct measurements of CO2 in the atmosphere. This year, scientists used data from these observatories to confirm that average global CO2 levels had surged in 2020 to 412.5 parts per million – levels that are higher than at any time in the past 3.6 million years.

2. Understanding ocean warming 

The ocean can absorb and store a lot of heat. In fact, more than 90 percent of the planet’s warming over the past 50 years has occurred in the ocean, making the buoys, floats and other ocean monitoring tools NOAA uses to keep tabs on ocean warming critical. Argo, for instance, is a network of about 4,000 autonomous floats that drift throughout the ocean, gathering critical data on salt content and temperature. Last year, data collected by Argo floats helped scientists determine that the area of ocean regions with long-term warming trends dwarfs that of regions with cooling trends. Deep Argo floats have also found that the coldest waters off of Antarctica are warming three times faster than they were in the 1990s. Tracking ocean warming helps scientists better predict sea level rise, gauge threats to coral reef ecosystems and important fisheries, and build knowledge on how a warmer ocean impacts our weather – including severe weather like hurricanes.  

3. Exploring the link between climate change and hurricanes

Hurricanes draw their strength from warm ocean waters. So as the ocean continues to absorb heat, should we expect to see more intense hurricanes, tropical storms and typhoons? 

Probably, according to recent research led by NOAA scientists . The research, which analyzed findings from over 90 peer-reviewed studies, found that warming of the surface ocean from human-caused climate change is likely fueling more powerful tropical cyclones. And as sea levels rise, the destructive power of tropical cyclones is amplified, as higher sea levels can result in more intense flooding. ⁣NOAA scientists  have also concluded  that climate change has been influencing the pattern of where tropical cyclones have been increasing or decreasing in occurrence. Researchers are still working to understand the link between climate and hurricanes – check out this page for the most up-to-date science.

4. Tracking warming in the Great Lakes

Like the ocean, freshwater is also impacted by Earth’s warming temperatures. In the Great Lakes, scientists who monitor winter ice cover say that, though ice cover tends to be variable from year to year, the data show a long-term trend of ice decline over the last several decades. Research has also shown that the Great Lakes’ deep waters aren’t immune to warming: As climate change has gradually delayed the onset of autumn in the Great Lakes region, the deep waters of Lake Michigan have started showing shorter winter seasons.  Increases in the lakes’ water temperatures can have serious impacts, including disruptions in the food web that could affect fisheries and recreation, which are important parts of the regional economy. 

5. Working towards climate resilience

From sunny day flooding creating hazards for coastal regions in Florida, to summer heat waves posing risks to communities without air conditioning in the Northeast, climate change creates a range of challenges and dangers for communities. NOAA is helping communities become more resilient to these changes. In Utqiaġvik, Alaska, for instance, NOAA Sea Grant and partners are working with the local community  to better understand risks of flooding and shoreline erosion, helping them better prepare for storms. The NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments (RISA) program also funds research and engagement to help Americans prepare for climate change. For instance, the Northeast RISA team worked with New York City officials to map out where in the city extreme heat was having the most impact, so that the city could take action to protect at-risk residents. The U.S. Climate Resilience Toolkit also makes it easy for people to learn more about climate-related risks and opportunities in their area, giving them the knowledge they need to make their communities more climate resilient. 

To learn more NOAA’s work on climate change, visit climate.gov , and consider subscribing  to the This Week on Climate.gov newsletter.

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Researching Climate Change

Climate change research involves numerous disciplines of Earth system science as well as technology, engineering, and programming. Some major areas of climate change research include water, energy, ecosystems, air quality, solar physics, glaciology, human health, wildfires, and land use.

To have a complete picture of how the climate changes and how these changes affect the Earth, scientists make direct measurements of climate using weather instruments. They also look at proxy data that gives us clues about climate conditions from prehistoric times. And they use models of the Earth system to predict how the climate will change in the future.

Measurements of modern climate change

Because climate describes the weather conditions averaged over a long period of time (typically 30 years), much of the same information gathered about weather is used to research climate. Temperature is measured every day at thousands of locations around the world. This data is used to calculate average global temperatures . Changes in temperature patterns are a strong indicator of how much the climate is changing. Because we have thousands of temperature measurements, we know that record high temperatures are increasing across the globe, which is a sign that the climate is warming. Climatologists also look at changes in precipitation, the length and frequency of drought, as well as the number of days that rivers are at flood stage to understand how the climate is changing. Winds and other direct measures of climate contribute to climate change research as well.

This map shows the location of weather stations across the Earth. Continuous data from thousands of stations is important for climate change research.

Using proxy data to understand climate change in the past

Throughout Earth's 4.6 billion years, the climate has changed drastically, including periods that were much colder and much warmer than the climate today. But how do we know about the climate from prehistoric times ? Researchers decipher clues within the Earth to help reconstruct past environments based on our understanding of environments today. Proxy data can take the form of fossils, sediment layers, tree rings , coral, and ice cores. These proxies contain evidence of past environments. For example, marine fossils and ocean seafloor sediment preserved in rock layers from around 80 million years ago (the Cretaceous Period) indicate that North America was mostly covered in water. The high sea levels were due to a much warmer climate when all of the polar ice sheets had melted. We also find fossil vegetation and pollen records indicating that forests covered the polar regions during this same time period. The existence of multiple types of proxy data from different locations, often from overlapping time periods, strengthens our understanding of past climates.

Ice core drilling in the Arctic provides proxy evidence of paleoclimate conditions.

National Snow and Ice Data Center

Using models to project future climate change

Scientists use models of the Earth to figure out how climate will likely change in the future. These models, which are simulations of Earth, include equations that describe everything from how the winds blow to how sea ice reflects sunlight and how forests take up carbon dioxide. In-depth knowledge of how each part of the Earth functions is needed to write the equations that represent each part within the model. Understanding climate change in both the present and the past helps to create computational models that can predict how the climate system might change in the future.

While scientists work hard to ensure that climate models are as accurate as possible, the models are unable to predict exactly how the climate will change in the future because some things are unknown, namely how much humans will change (or not change) behaviors that contribute to climate warming. Scientists run the models with different scenarios to account for a range of possibilities. For example, running the models to show how the climate will respond if we reduce fossil fuel emissions by different amounts can help us prepare for the many impacts that a changing climate has on the Earth.

Climate models keep track of how parameters change from place to place using a grid pattern on the Earth’s surface. The environmental conditions within each hexagon-shaped area are programmed into the model. More detailed models have smaller hexagons.

Studying the impacts of climate change

From monitoring changes in tropical coral reefs to changes in glacial ice, keeping track of how climate change is affecting the planet is important for adapting to the future. Scientists who monitor the environment report stronger and more frequent storms, changing weather patterns, a longer growing season in some locations, and changes in the distribution of plants and migratory animals. Monitoring how climate change is affecting our world can help identify new threats to human health as the ranges of insect-borne diseases change and as drought-prone regions expand.

Many different areas of research, from meteorology to oceanography, epidemiology to agriculture, and even fields such as sociology and economics, have a role to play in terms of researching both how the climate is changing and the impacts of climate change.

The average length of the growing season in the lower 48 states has increased by almost two weeks since the late 1800s, a result of the changing climate. Researchers study how this change in the growing season impacts humans and the Earth. Credit: EPA

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• IPCC: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
• From Dog Walking To Weather And Climate
• Satellite Signals from Space: Smart Science for Understanding Weather and Climate

Have Climate Questions? Get Answers Here.

By The New York Times Climate Desk Updated Sept. 6, 2023

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Climate change is tremendously complex — and we’re here to help. The climate desk at The Times has been collecting reader questions and has started answering them here.

Type your question in the search box to see if we’ve covered it yet. If you don’t find an answer, don’t worry: We’re following your great questions and will add more in time.

Ask your question here:

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Or browse the questions below: the science, how do we know climate change is really happening.

There’s overwhelming evidence that the world has been warming since the late 19th century, when the burning of fossil fuels became widespread and resulted in large-scale emissions of heat-trapping carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This evidence is largely in the form of data from weather stations, buoys, ships, satellites and other sources. The most basic measurements of temperature show that the world has been steadily getting warmer. On average, surface temperatures are 1.2 degrees Celsius (2.2 degrees Fahrenheit) warmer than a century and a half ago. And the rate of warming has accelerated in recent decades. Temperatures in the top layer of the world’s oceans have increased as well. The oceans have absorbed much of the heat trapped in the atmosphere. There is also plenty of evidence showing the consequences of this warming. Tide gauges and other instruments show that sea levels have risen by about half an inch per decade since 1900 (mostly because water expands as it warms). Satellites that measure gravitational changes show that trillions of tons of ice have melted from the world’s ice sheets and glaciers. Rainfall data shows that heavy downpours have increased in the United States and elsewhere, because warmer air holds more moisture. And not all of the evidence comes from instruments. Scientists doing field research around the world have documented other effects of climate change. Ornithologists, for instance, have shown that warming is affecting many bird species — changing when they nest, breed and migrate, and even where they are able to live and thrive. Botanists see similar signs of the effects of climate change on crops, forests and other vegetation. — Henry Fountain

Read more: The Science of Climate Change Explained: Facts, Evidence and Proof

How do we know humans are to blame for climate change?

Over many decades, thousands of scientists have studied the warming planet. They’ve reached an overwhelming consensus: The burning of fossil fuels by humans is the primary cause of global warming today. Even scientists employed by oil companies have come to this conclusion . One scientific study put it this way: The odds of current global warming occurring without human-caused greenhouse gas emissions are less than 1 in 100,000. Here’s how the science arrived at this place. First, it’s important to understand the main forces affecting climate. The big ones are the sun (whose energy can fluctuate over time), ocean circulation patterns (which can change how heat is distributed around the planet), volcanic activity (which pumps material into the sky that can have either warming or cooling effects) and the overall amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Each of these forces has played a role at different times in history. For example, 56 million years ago, a giant burst of greenhouse gases from volcanoes or vast deposits of methane (or both) abruptly warmed the planet by at least 9 degrees Fahrenheit, triggering mass extinctions. About 12,000 years ago, major changes in Atlantic Ocean circulation plunged the Northern Hemisphere into a frigid state. And 300 years ago, a combination of reduced solar output and increased volcanic activity cooled parts of the planet enough that Londoners regularly ice-skated on the Thames River. Volcanoes can have a cooling effect when they shoot out stuff that blocks solar radiation. In studying the cause of today’s climate changes, scientists have looked at all of these factors. The first three (solar energy, ocean patterns and volcanic activity) haven’t varied enough in the last 150 years to account for today’s rapidly rising temperatures. That’s especially true in the second half of the 20th century, when solar output actually declined and volcanoes had a cooling effect. Rather, scientists have found that the warming is best explained by rising concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, put there by humans burning vast amounts of fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas since the start of the Industrial Revolution. From having studied bubbles of ancient air trapped in ice, scientists know that before 1750, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere was roughly 280 parts per million. That number is now above 420 parts per million. Carbon dioxide acts like a blanket in the atmosphere, trapping the sun’s heat and warming the planet. — Julia Rosen

How will climate change affect biodiversity?

Climate change is already harming plant and animal life in ways that scientists are racing to understand. Warmer oceans are killing corals. Rising sea levels are threatening the beaches that sea turtles need for nesting. Summers are becoming longer, and winters shorter — seasonal shifts that endanger countless animal and plant species by disrupting food supplies, mating seasons and other variables. And then there are the polar bears, long symbols of what could be lost in a warming world. One study predicted sudden die-offs , with large segments of ecosystems collapsing in waves as the world warms. The phenomenon has already started in coral reefs, scientists say, and could begin in tropical forests by the 2040s. However, despite these grim predictions, climate change isn’t currently the biggest driver of biodiversity loss. On land, the largest factor is the reshaping of the terrain itself, as people have created farms and ranches, towns and cities, roads and mines on what was once habitat for myriad species. At sea, the main cause of biodiversity loss is overfishing. These issues — habitat loss, overfishing and climate change — are interlinked. For example, ecosystems like peatlands and forests not only support a wide variety of life but also pull carbon dioxide out of the air and store it in plants and in the ground. Destroying them both harms biodiversity and complicates the fight against climate change. — Catrin Einhorn

Read more: Animals Are Running Out of Places to Live

What are tipping points, and why should we care?

A climate “tipping point” refers to a threshold beyond which small changes to global temperatures can have big, irreversible effects. For example, you’ve probably heard that scientists are concerned about the melting of the huge ice sheet that covers Greenland. If the world isn’t able to rein in global warming, the melting will eventually become self-sustaining and irreversible, researchers have determined. That’s a tipping point. If this threshold is crossed, the melting could raise sea levels by as much as 23 feet over the course of several centuries, swamping coastal cities around the world. The idea of climate tipping points has been around for decades, although there is debate about how many there are and at what temperatures they will be reached. The big ones, however, are generally accepted to include the melting of the ice sheets in Antarctica and Greenland; the thawing of Arctic permafrost; the collapse of a major ocean circulation system; and the shrinking of the Amazon rainforest. Recent research suggests that some of these changes may start to occur once global warming reaches between 1.5 and 2 degrees Celsius (2.7 and 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit) above preindustrial average temperatures. And the world is already 1.2 degrees Celsius warmer than it was in the 19th century. — Henry Fountain

Read more: Failure to Slow Warming Will Set Off Climate ‘Tipping Points,’ Scientists Say

Do volcanoes affect climate change?

The effect of volcanic eruptions on warming is minimal. Volcanic activity generates between 130 million tons to 440 million tons of carbon dioxide per year, according to the United States Geological Survey. Human activity generates far more, about 35 billion tons of carbon dioxide per year — 80 times as much as the high end of the estimate for volcanic activity, and 270 times as much as the low end estimate. And that’s just carbon dioxide. Human activity also releases other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, like methane, in far greater quantities than volcanoes do. Here’s one way to think about it. The largest volcanic eruption in the past century was the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines. If an explosion of that size happened every day, NASA has calculated, it would still release only half as much carbon dioxide as daily human activity does. Volcanoes can also have a short-term cooling effect, when they blast material into the atmosphere that blocks the sun’s energy. But regardless, there is no evidence that volcanic activity has increased over the past 200 years. There have been more reports of eruptions. But researchers at the Global Volcanism Program of the Smithsonian Institution have attributed that increase not to a rise in actual eruptions, but to increased reports from the growing number of people who live near a volcano. In 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change found that the climatic effects of volcanic activity were “inconsequential” over the scale of a century. You can read the findings on Page 56 of the IPCC’s report . — Maggie Astor

What’s happening to the oceans?

Talk of global warming usually focuses on rising temperatures in the atmosphere. But most warming is actually occurring in the oceans. That’s because the oceans are an enormous heat sink. They cover two-thirds of the Earth’s surface, and water can absorb much more heat than air, so about 90 percent of the excess heat trapped in the atmosphere by greenhouse gases is taken up by the oceans. Without the oceans, the atmosphere would have warmed far more than the 1.2 degrees Celsius (2.2 degrees Fahrenheit) it has since the late 19th century. And currents distribute the ocean’s heat around the globe, playing a critical role in regulating the climate. But warming of the oceans has caused its own problems. Water expands when it warms, which contributes to rising sea levels. Warming oceans cause coral reefs to die, add energy to hurricanes, making them more destructive, and melt the leading edges of ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica from underneath. And just as with land-based life, warming in the oceans has affected the range and distribution of many species of fish and shellfish. Oceans don’t just absorb heat; they also take up carbon dioxide. This, again, is not all bad — the huge current that encircles Antarctica removes much carbon dioxide that would otherwise stay in the atmosphere and trap more heat. But as the carbon dioxide concentration of the oceans increases, the water becomes more acidic. This change in water chemistry harms many small ocean organisms that are a fundamental part of the marine food chain. — Henry Fountain

Read more: Warning on Mass Extinction of Sea Life: ‘An Oh My God Moment’

How does ranching and animal agriculture affect climate change?

Raising animals to feed people has a significant effect on climate change (and the environment in general), and it’s not just about belching cows. Cattle get a lot of the attention because of their burps: The specialized digestive system of cattle (and other ruminants, including sheep) produces methane that is released into the atmosphere, mostly through belching. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that digestion accounts for about 40 percent of the emissions from animal agriculture. However, a wide range of other emissions are related to the production of feed, animal transportation and other activities. Overall, the U.N. agency estimates that, globally, the raising of livestock of all kinds is responsible for nearly 15 percent of all emissions related to human activity. Cattle raised for meat and milk account for about two-thirds of total emissions, and pig production accounts for about 10 percent. Buffalo, chicken (for meat and eggs) and other animals like sheep account for smaller amounts. When measured by unit of protein produced, beef has by far the largest carbon footprint. The production and processing of animal feed — forage crops like hay, as well as corn and other grains — accounts for even more emissions than digestion. Some of these come from the burning of fossil fuels (to run agricultural equipment and heat or cool barns and other facilities), some from activities like fertilizer production and some from the land-use changes that often accompany the expansion of the beef industry and other enterprises. An analysis by Our World in Data, a scientific publication affiliated with the University of Oxford, found that agricultural land use could be reduced by 75 percent , to one billion hectares from four billion, if the world adopted a plant-based diet. When a rancher or beef producer clears a forest to create grazing land, large amounts of carbon in the felled trees is released, either quickly, through burning, or more slowly, through decay. With worldwide demand for beef and other meats rising, this kind of deforestation is increasing in some parts of the world, notably in the Amazon rainforest in South America. Brazil is the perennial leader in acres of tropical forest lost to deforestation, according to the World Resources Institute. Two other significant, if smaller, sources of emissions are manure and the processing and transportation of the finished animal products. — Henry Fountain

What are El Niño and La Niña?

These are the names of two different but related climate phenomena that originate in the equatorial Pacific Ocean and come and go every few years, influencing weather around the world. An El Niño period tends to bring rainier, cooler conditions to much of the Southern United States, and warmer conditions to other parts of North America. Elsewhere around the world, El Niño can create warm, dry conditions in Asia, Australia and the Indian subcontinent. Parts of Africa and South America can be affected as well. In 2023, scientists announced the start of the latest El Niño. With it comes increased chances for hotter-than-normal temperatures in 2024. Then there’s La Niña, its opposite. La Niña often brings warmer and drier conditions in the Southern United States, and cooler, wetter weather in parts of the North, especially the Pacific Northwest. Parts of Australia and Asia can be wetter than normal. La Niña can also lead to more hurricanes in the North Atlantic. Both El Niño and La Niña occur on average about every two to seven years. They can last the better part of the year, though sometimes longer. Some research suggests that exceptionally strong episodes will occur more frequently than they do now as the world continues to warm from emissions of greenhouse gases. Both are defined by changes in sea-surface temperatures in the equatorial Pacific, as well as changes in atmospheric high-pressure and low-pressure zones. When sea-surface temperatures there are about 1 degree Fahrenheit or more above average, El Niño can develop. When temperatures are below average, La Niña can form. (When temperatures are at or near average, neither develops.) The temperature changes are also accompanied by differences in atmospheric air pressure that can influence powerful trade winds, affecting rainfall and temperatures far and wide.

Read more: El Niño and La Niña, Explained

What are climate “models” and are they any good?

Simply put, climate models are computer programs that simulate part or all of the world’s climate. They help scientists better understand what might happen in the future — in this case, how the global climate may change over time. But climate models are far from simple. The software has to replicate, as closely as possible, the physics of climate elements like the atmosphere, the ocean, land surfaces and ice sheets. Even more critically, it must accurately simulate how all of these elements interact over time. The simulations combine actual data (temperature, precipitation, humidity and other real-world observations) with tweakable elements like carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere or variations in the sun’s intensity. This allows scientists to explore various what-ifs — for example, what might happen to sea levels if greenhouse gas emissions increase or decrease. No computer model, of the climate or anything else, is perfect. No computer can do enough calculations fast enough to show how the climate will change every minute in every cubic inch of the world for the next 50 years. But computer models can be extremely useful, and they’re steadily improving. And even older and less complex models have proven over time to be accurate at forecasting climate change. — Henry Fountain

Is there a connection between climate change and earthquakes?

Short answer: Maybe. But it’s hard to know for sure, and the effects would likely be small. Here’s a longer answer. Earthquakes occur because of changes in the stresses along a fault line — a fracture between blocks of rock underground. Anything that causes changes in stress levels could push a stable fault to the point where the blocks suddenly move past each other. That’s an earthquake. Stresses in a fault build up naturally, a result of the slow movement of Earth’s large crustal plates. But stresses can be affected in other ways as well. For example, injection of wastewater from oil drilling into wells in Oklahoma was found to have caused many earthquakes, most of them small. And anything that alters the mass above a fault — impounding of water behind a dam, for example — can potentially alter stresses. Extraction of gas from a large natural gas field in Soviet Uzbekistan is thought to have triggered large earthquakes in 1976 and 1984. Faults are far enough underground that the warming of the atmosphere and the oceans from emissions of greenhouse gases wouldn’t affect them. But global warming may affect earthquakes indirectly. More intense and frequent droughts could result in more evaporation of water from the ground, potentially changing fault stresses. The melting of ice sheets and glaciers, which are extremely heavy, might alter stresses below them as well. But since the effects likely would be small, and since scientists don’t precisely know pre-quake stress conditions within faults, no one is able yet to confidently say whether such indirect warming-related effects pushed a given fault past the breaking point and caused an earthquake. — Henry Fountain

What can I do?

What can the average person do about climate change.

This is one of the most common and vexing questions: Can one person’s actions really make a difference? The problem is so big that the fix has to come from powerful nations and policymakers, right? First of all, it’s impossible to separate the two things: Personal actions and international cooperation are inextricably linked. The answer also depends on whose actions we’re talking about. The actions of a middle-class American matter a lot more than the actions of, say, a farmer in Bangladesh. Why? Because people in wealthy countries consume much more than people in poor countries, and so their choices matter more to global emissions. What can individuals do? Here’s a detailed guide . A few examples: ∙ Transit: What car a person buys — or whether a person even owns a car — matters tremendously, because transportation is the single biggest source of emissions in most American cities. ∙ Air travel: Long-haul and first-class trips in particular increase a person’s carbon footprint. ∙ Food: If people were to simply waste less food, it would make a significant difference in emissions. ∙ Stuff: Avoid the disposable. Purchase things that last. In our homes, one of the most effective (but sometimes complicated) things that can help is to replace gas heaters with electric heat pumps . Gas stoves, too, contribute to warming , although to a lesser degree, but also have other negative health effects . Changing what you do can also influence others. Research shows, for instance, that people tend to conserve more electricity when their utility bills show how their power use compares with their neighbors’. And it’s worth noting that individual action is a prerequisite for collective action. Without individual activists getting together, there would be no Sunrise Movement camping out in the halls of Congress. And, of course, voting is an individual action that can be an important force for change. On the whole, though, humans tend to be bad at altering their behavior today to address risks tomorrow. This “present bias,” as cognitive scientists call it, makes it hard for us, as individuals, to carry out lifestyle changes now to prevent a catastrophe down the road. Because the world has deferred climate action for so long, it must now cut greenhouse gas emissions drastically and swiftly. It can be hard to imagine how those cuts can be made without ambitious government policies. Still, it’s not too late to make a difference. While it’s true that we have already dangerously warmed the planet by burning fossil fuels for generations, the future isn’t set in stone. Many futures remain possible. It’s up to us to decide which one plays out. — Somini Sengupta

Are we doomed?

If you’re asking whether the climate has already changed and is already causing grievous harm to millions of people, the answer is yes. If you’re asking whether humanity is destined to some vague and awful fate, the answer is no. Unequivocally no. Much is being done to slow the pace of warming. More can be done. That’s what scientists implore policymakers to do. “It’s never too late to stop punching ourselves in the face,” as Adam Levy, an atmospheric physicist, says in this video (while punching himself). Let’s first look at where we are. The average global temperature is about 1.2 degrees Celsius higher today than it was at the start of the industrial age, mainly because of the burning of fossil fuels. Thanks to all the greenhouse gases that have already accumulated in the atmosphere, the planet will heat up more in the coming decades. How much more? That depends on the actions of the countries that emit the most (essentially, the 20 largest economies, led by the United States and China). There are ways to keep planetary warming on a safe trajectory. The shorthand for this, established by global scientific consensus, is to limit global average temperature increases to well below 2 degrees Celsius, compared with preindustrial times. Until recently, we were on a very bad trajectory: The global average temperature was on track to warm by more than 4 degrees Celsius by 2100. That’s no longer the case, thanks to ambitious policies spurred by public pressure, technological advances and the rapidly falling cost of renewable energy. The pace can still be slowed a lot more. It requires slashing the burning of fossil fuels. It requires plugging leaks of methane (an extremely potent greenhouse gas) from oil and gas facilities. It requires growing food without mowing down more forests. There are many pathways, spelled out by rigorous research. Each has tradeoffs. For some of us, it might be easier to subscribe to doomism. It lets us off the hook to change how we do things. Or to imagine how the world might function differently. Nihilism is cheap. Don’t buy it. — Somini Sengupta

How should I think about my diet?

By some estimates, the world’s food system is responsible for one-quarter of humanity’s greenhouse gas emissions . It happens because forests get cleared to make room for farms and livestock. Cows and rice paddies emit methane, a potent greenhouse gas. Fossil fuels are burned to power farm machinery, make fertilizer and ship food. Anyone focused on the climate effects of diet should keep a few broad things in mind. First, beef, lamb and cheese tend to have the biggest effects on emissions by far — creating the most greenhouse gases per gram of protein — in part because cows and other ruminants are more resource-intensive to raise. Pork, chicken, eggs and many types of fish typically have smaller effects on emissions (though they can create other environmental concerns ). Plant-based foods usually produce the fewest emissions of all. So the most straightforward way of reducing diet-related emissions is to consume less meat and dairy and more plants. It’s especially the case if you live in the United States, where red meat consumption is much higher than in many parts of the world. According to a World Resources Institute analysis , if the average American simply replaced a third of the beef they eat with lower-emissions pork or poultry or legumes, their food-related emissions would fall 13 percent. Moreover, a number of studies have found that people who currently eat a meat-heavy diet could shrink their food-related footprint by one-third or more by going vegetarian. It sounds like a no-brainer, but the other big way to shrink the climate effect of your diet is simply to waste less food. According to some estimates , Americans throw out roughly 20 percent of the food they buy. Other popular strategies are less clear-cut, at least when it comes to greenhouse gas emissions. Studies differ on whether grass-fed beef, for instance, is any more climate friendly than conventional feedlot beef, although some argue it’s better for animal welfare. Organic crops tend to require more land than traditional crops, which could lead to more emissions if such farming results in more deforestation. As for debates over locally grown produce, or paper vs. plastic bags, those are relatively small in the grand scheme of things, since transportation and packaging are a sliver of food’s climate effects. And, of course, there are other concerns besides climate change. For example, when compared with meat, wild fish can be a lower-emissions option. But that comes with a caveat: The world is already catching about as much wild fish as it possibly can. Most fisheries are being fished at their maximum sustainable level, while others are being overexploited . So more people switching to fish could require, among other actions, increasing the number of sustainable fish farms worldwide. — Brad Plumer

Read more: Your Questions About Food and Climate Change, Answered

What about non-dairy milks like almond milk?

The Times has written extensively about food, diet and climate change — including what you might want to know about almond milks and soy milks — in this guide . Here’s an excerpt with the gist of it: “Almond, oat and soy milk all have a smaller greenhouse gas footprint than cow’s milk does. But, as always, there are caveats and trade-offs to consider. Almonds require a lot of water to grow, and this has been a problem in places like California. Soy milk tends to be fairly low-impact, as long as the soy is sustainably farmed.” In addition, we’ve written a separate entry in this F.A.Q. about how to think about your diet generally.

Where’s the safest place for me to live?

This is one of the most common lines of questioning we see: Should I move? Is one place safer than another? The simple fact is that no place is invulnerable to climate change. And although some parts of the world might be better than others, better isn’t perfect, because global warming has effects everywhere. Experts point to two major factors when you’re considering whether another place would be better suited for dealing with climate change than wherever you live now. The first is geography. Consider this example from the United States. The Midwest is inland, away from rising sea levels and warming ocean waters that will cause more flooding and intensified hurricanes. Midwestern states are also farther north than many others, which means naturally lower temperatures than places to the south. The Great Lakes region, and surrounding rivers, have the potential to provide reliable sources of water, offsetting some of the worst effects of drought. These factors also apply to much of the Northeast United States and the northern Great Plains and, outside the U.S., parts of Canada, Russia and Scandinavia. The second factor is the ability of a place to accommodate new arrivals. Does an area have enough housing or can it support more? Are residents welcoming to newcomers? Are local and regional governments preparing for population increases? If the answer to at least some of these questions is yes, you may have identified a potential destination. Some cities in the U.S. meet these standards. Detroit, Cincinnati and Buffalo, N.Y., are common examples. They are in regions with more climate-friendly geography. And they have another thing in common: Their populations have shrunk by the hundreds of thousands since the 1950s. Overall, relocating in the face of climate change is a profoundly complicated problem that the world is only beginning to fully understand. For one thing, many people, particularly in poorer countries or regions, can’t afford to move even if they wanted to. Despite that, some communities may be uprooted by disaster, forcing climate migration and the social, political and economic upheaval that can entail. The bottom line is that the planet will continue warming in the coming decades, according to the most recent projections. And even wealthier places aren’t always prepared for climate extremes. That makes it all the more important to consider points like geography, and a community’s preparedness for the future, when thinking about relocating. — German Lopez

Read more: Finding Climate Havens

Should I have kids?

Now we’re getting personal. First of all, if you’re trying to work through the climate consequences of bringing new life into the world, you’re in good company . It is our modern take on a question that’s probably been around since the dawn of humanity: Will my children have a safe and fulfilling life? If you’re worried about the future your child will grow up into, that’s a legitimate concern. Climate change affects people unfairly and unequally , starting at pregnancy . But whether we are rich or poor, the social and economic tumult the world faces as the planet warms is all but certain to touch us. If your concern is with the actual climate toll of child-rearing, researchers have tried to tackle that question. One study found that having a family does indeed take a significant environmental toll, though, as you can imagine, it’s a complex thing to try to put a number to. But here’s an important point to consider. More people in the world doesn’t necessarily mean more greenhouse gas emissions, if the world can find a way to stop burning fossil fuels. That cuts to the very heart of the world’s climate crisis: Can, and will, the world do what needs to be done in time for future generations? Ultimately, the choice to have a child or not comes down to the act of balancing a host of profound moral and individual considerations, starting perhaps with: Does parenthood deeply interest you? Because the right decision can’t be just about numbers, or carbon-dioxide-equivalent emissions, or the uncertainties of an unknowable future. As we all know, it’s easy to find friends, relatives — perhaps even (we hope!) our own parents — who will declare raising their children to be one of the most important and satisfying choices they’ve made. And it’s also easy to find folks who are living the richest of lives while choosing not to have a family.

Read more: The Population Question

How bad is the plastic problem and what can be done about it?

Plastic is a technological marvel that has transformed the human experience. We have plastic to thank for our cellphones, sippy cups, automobiles, surgical gloves, elastic underwear bands and countless other things. It’s also responsible for some 4 percent of global emissions . That’s more than what’s produced by all of the world’s airplanes combined . Plastic is, after all, usually made from fossil fuels. And it’s more than a climate problem: Plastic litter is killing marine life. And pollution (not only in the form of plastic) is one of the main drivers of biodiversity loss. Plastic-related chemicals can disrupt human metabolism and inhibit hormones. And they’re related to diseases . Research shows that more than 40 percent of the plastic we use comes in the form of packaging, generally single-use, and a lot of it isn’t recyclable. In fact, only about 9 percent of all plastic ever made has been recycled , according to the United Nations Environment Program. Recycling is notoriously difficult, starting with the little “recycling” symbol we’re all familiar with — the three arrows forming a triangle. Many people assume it means something is recyclable. But guess what: It doesn’t mean that. More on this big problem here . What plastic isn’t recycled ends up going to landfills, or it becomes litter, or it gets burned, polluting the atmosphere. The fossil fuel industry, worried about declining demand for oil, is trying to pivot to making even more of the stuff. Plastic waste going into waterways is set to more than double , perhaps even triple, by 2040. Some governments are creating laws to put the burden on companies to handle plastic waste, and are banning some single-use plastics. There is also movement toward a global treaty with a goal of getting nations to agree on a legally binding plan to improve recycling, clean up waste and curb production. How to do that, though, is up for debate . — Manuela Andreoni

Read more: Trash Or Recycling? How Plastic Keeps Us Guessing

Should I bother recycling?

It’s worth the effort. But the key word here, unfortunately, is “effort.” Figuring out whether something is recyclable — or simply whether anyone near you actually accepts recyclables — is far too confusing. You can’t even trust the familiar recycling symbol (those three little arrows forming a triangle) because it doesn’t actually mean a thing is recyclable. But there’s hope! America’s big recycling companies do want your recycling, or at least some of it. For starters, we built a game to explain how you can figure out if various pieces of plastic are actually recyclable. In order to know what you should throw in the bin, it can help to think like the recyclers. Recycling, after all, is not a public service in many places — it’s a business. So whether a material gets recycled depends on whether money can be made from it. Materials like glass and metals have a long history of recycling and can be endlessly reprocessed. The United States also has good infrastructure for recycling paper products like cardboard, which has a recycling rate above 90 percent. Plastic is different. One of the biggest barriers is that it’s often cheaper to simply make new plastic. That said, there is a good market for rigid plastics, the kinds marked “1” and “2” in the triangular symbol. These represent items like milk jugs and detergent tubs, and nearly 30 percent of these are recycled. One set of items must almost always go into the trash: flexible, or soft, plastics like shopping bags, bubble mailers or foil-lined chip bags. For one thing because they can jam up machines at sorting plants. So, yes, try to recycle clean paper products, metals, rigid plastics and glass, if it’s accepted in your local recycling program. To improve recycling, environmentalists say it can help to support legislation such as bottle bills , laws that incentivize companies to make products more recyclable or measures aimed at reducing single-use products. — Winston Choi-Schagrin

Does composting help?

Reducing food waste can definitely make a difference. The United Nations Environment Program says food waste accounts for 8 to 10 percent of greenhouse gas emissions globally. And that’s not to mention the emissions associated with food production, which add up to about 30 percent of the global total. But when tossing food or scraps simply can’t be avoided, composting can play a role. Composting can reduce greenhouse gases “by improving carbon sequestration in the soil and by preventing methane emissions through aerobic decomposition,” according to the Environmental Protection Agency . That’s because methane-producing microbes aren’t active in the presence of oxygen, the E.P.A. explains. Organic material decomposing in a landfill, on the other hand, produces lots of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas. Some cities and states are trying to make composting easier. Municipal brown bins can be found in parts of New York City, and California has a law requiring every jurisdiction to provide “organic waste collection.” Around the world, lawmakers have started to tackle the problem and the related issue of hunger. If your local government hasn’t set up a program, you can sometimes find community gardens or farmers’ markets that will accept compost. And we’ve written a guide on how you can compost inside your home , even without a yard. To answer the big question right up front: It doesn’t smell. While we have you on the topic of food waste, another thing to consider is what you buy, and where. We’ve written about apps that help connect you with unsold food for cheap. Think of those perfectly edible peaches and tomatoes that get passed up because they’re not pretty enough. If you find yourself thinking, “I’m just one person, what’s the point?” you might be inspired by this story of Domingo Morales . A New Yorker from the Bronx, Mr. Morales created a program to bring composting to public housing, home to as many as 600,000 New Yorkers. And if you still have more questions, check out the entries in this F.A.Q. about diet and animal agriculture .

Should I give up my gas stove?

People sure do love their gas stoves. But they have their downsides, particularly compared to induction cooktops , which are far more efficient and also don’t release pollutants into the home from the burning gas. Here’s how to think about making a change. First of all, if you’re looking to reduce household emissions of greenhouse gases, there may be more effective things that you could do before ditching the stove. The best thing to start with is an energy assessment, which is when you bring in a licensed professional to look over the home and identify the biggest ways to reduce energy use. ( This government site has information about finding one.) Often they will suggest things like fixing leaky windows or doors, which can save a surprising amount of money over time. If your home has a gas- or oil-burning furnace, replacing it with a heat pump would have a far bigger impact on household emissions than replacing your stove. That can be a costly project depending on many things, such as the size and age of the house. However, to soften the blow, in the U.S. you may be eligible for financial incentives . But back to your gas stove. Is it time to say goodbye? Evidence of the health risks of gas stoves has grown, including a link to childhood asthma. The reason is that the flames emit various poisonous gases including nitrogen oxide, which is thought to trigger asthma. Stoves can also sometimes leak small amounts of natural gas even when they’re off. There are ways to minimize the risk, such as making sure the range hood is turned on while cooking, or by buying a room air filter. This article has more details. Gas ranges also, obviously, burn gas, which is a fossil fuel and contributes to global warming. If you’re going to switch, induction stoves are the most efficient choice. They can cost a lot more than a traditional electric range, and for technical reasons, only certain kinds of pots and pans will work on the burners. But since induction ranges are powered by electricity they eliminate the issue of indoor pollution from gas. And depending how your local utility generates electricity, they can be much greener. If you decide to do it, you may also be eligible for incentives via the Inflation Reduction Act .

How do I explain climate change to my kid?

Climate change is likely to make your child’s life experience much different than what you’ve known. So even though it might feel like a daunting subject to bring up with your kids, it may also be one of the most important. The first — and most critical — step is to stay positive. Remind your child that they have a role to play as a nature lover and a climate leader, whether it’s in their backyard, their school, their community or beyond. Second, don’t feel daunted by the science. To help, we created this virtual children’s book which explains the basics of climate science, as well as actions we can all take. Third, remember that your approach will largely depend on your child’s age and interests. For young children, one way to start is by inspiring a love of the natural world. Over time, you can try to connect what they are noticing, whether it’s migrating birds or the leaves changing color, with concepts like seasons and weather. By elementary school, kids may have already heard the phrase “climate change,” so it can be important that they don’t start associating it with fear. Explain the basic facts of climate change and the world’s finite resources. (Again, our children’s book might come in handy.) Empower your kids with actions they can take on their own, whether it’s turning off the lights when they leave a room, or home composting , or taking care of a tree in the backyard. Science museums, zoos, and aquariums are great places to explore together, since many now connect their exhibitions with the wider effects of climate change and biodiversity loss in a child-friendly way. For kids who do receive formal instruction on climate change, it will most likely happen in middle school . At home, you might watch for opportunities to connect it with phenomena they are noticing in the community, whether it’s heat waves or changes in local flora or fauna. For teenagers, it might help to familiarize them with videos or stories of young people who are working on solutions. Reassure them that there are still paths forward , and take the opportunity to help them understand about misinformation and the value of reliable sources of information about climate change, but also about the world in general. Finally, let experts do your homework for you. Here are some kid- and teenager-friendly resources that have been vetted by climate scientists and science educators. · CLEAN is a database of resources supported by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. · Subject to Climate offers news articles and lesson plans written for fifth graders and up. · And of course The New York Times’s Learning Network curates kid-friendly material that’s designed for teachers but may also be helpful for parents. — Winston Choi-Schagrin

Read more: A Climate Change Guide for Kids

What can I do about climate anxiety?

Eco-anxiety, climate grief, despair, dread, anger. This is a serious phenomenon, and we’ve written about how climate change has entered the therapy room . Therapy can indeed be a helpful way to work through feelings like these related to the climate crisis, although sometimes it can be costly for a person without insurance to cover it. This article about support networks describes some useful, affordable resources. As one Times guide explains , action can also be an antidote to anxiety. And you might be inspired by this article about a growing chorus of young people trying to focus more on solutions to counterbalance the seeming drumbeat of gloomy news on climate change. Or this profile of teen climate activists and what they’re doing and why. This F.A.Q. also covers the topic elsewhere, from a slightly different angle, in our answer to the question, “ Are we doomed? ” We also have an entry on how to talk to kids about climate change.

Read more: How to Calm Your Climate Anxiety

How can I identify or rebut bad information when I see it?

There’s a whole lot of climate misinformation out there, thanks to deniers, special-interest groups and also the numerous people who buy into it not realizing that it’s bad information. “The climate has always changed.” “It’s snowing outside, gotcha!” “Sunspots are to blame and volcanoes too.’” These are all flawed arguments or attempts to misrepresent the science, cherry-pick facts or spread conspiracy theories about what’s known or how climate systems work. Once you recognize them, they are pretty simple to dismiss or ignore, and usually the flaws in the arguments are pretty easy to understand. Here are some resources that list examples of these kinds of bad information, and explain what’s wrong with them. ∙ Skeptical Science is a nonprofit website focused on science education that keeps a long list of false claims and rebuttals about climate. ∙ Here’s a short guide written for broadcast meteorologists to help them debunk climate misinformation. ∙ Carbon Brief, a climate news site based in Britain, occasionally writes “fact checks” about spurious claims in the news.

Solutions and geopolitics

Who is most responsible for climate change.

The world’s wealthiest countries have historically contributed the most to global warming. Just two dozen nations , including the United States, Canada, Japan, Australia and much of western Europe, are responsible for 50 percent of all the planet-warming greenhouse gases released from fossil fuels and industry since 1850, despite accounting for just 12 percent of the global population today. That’s because these countries industrialized earlier than much of the rest of the world and therefore have been burning oil, gas and coal for energy for longer than everyone else. When gauging responsibility for current warming, experts look at historical emissions, because once carbon dioxide is in the air it can affect the atmosphere for centuries. Today, China is by far the world’s largest single emitter, accounting for one-third of humanity’s carbon dioxide from energy and industry in 2022. However, it’s responsible for just 14 percent of all planet-warming greenhouse gas emissions since 1850. There are other ways to look at responsibility. Even within an individual country, a person’s “carbon footprint” (or the amount of greenhouse gas emissions produced by one’s lifestyle) typically depends on income and wealth. In the United States, according to one analysis , the top 10 percent of earners emits roughly 75 tons of carbon dioxide per person per year, while the bottom 50 percent emit about 10 tons per person. For comparison: In China, the top 10 percent emits about 36 tons per person, while the bottom half averages 3 tons per person. Some environmentalists prefer to focus on the fossil-fuel producers themselves. One oft-cited analysis found that more than 70 percent of global emissions since 1998 could be traced back to oil, gas and coal sold by just 100 companies, including China Coal, Saudi Aramco and oil giants like Exxon and Shell. But others point out that these companies hardly acted alone — the world bought and burned their products. — Brad Plumer

Read more: Who Has The Most Historical Responsibility for Climate Change?

What are the most critical steps to take soon?

To limit warming to just 1.5 degrees Celsius above preindustrial times — the more ambitious of the two climate goals endorsed by world leaders in the Paris agreement — emissions need to fall roughly in half by 2030 and countries need to stop adding carbon dioxide to the atmosphere by around 2050. That is a daunting task. In 2021, the International Energy Agency compiled a long list of steps to get there. There’s no silver bullet, but here are a few of the main recommendations: · Countries should immediately stop approving new coal plants unless they can trap the plants’ emissions and bury them underground (a technology barely in use). · By 2025, governments should start banning the sale of new oil and gas furnaces to heat buildings, shifting instead to electric heat pumps . · By 2030, electric vehicles should make up 60 percent of new car sales globally. · Worldwide, the annual pace of installing solar and wind power needs to quadruple between now and the early 2030s. Other short-term measures could make a big difference, such as curtailing emissions of methane , a potent greenhouse gas, from oil and gas operations, farms and landfills. Finding ways to conserve energy, such as improving insulation in homes, could also be a fast way to cut emissions. — Brad Plumer

Read more: To Cut Emissions to Zero, U.S. Needs to Make Big Changes in Next 10 Years

Can you give me some good news, please?

There has been some good news on climate change. Not enough. But good news nonetheless. First of all, over the past decade or so, several major economies including the United States have shifted away from burning coal to generate electricity. Coal is the dirtiest of fossil fuels, and historically speaking a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. There are still coal power plants being built in the world, but the overall trend away from coal toward cleaner options, like solar, is progress. The cost to build solar power plants has fallen enough that, in some cases, it is now one of the most price-competitive options for generating electricity. This is a significant financial milestone. Cars that burn gas are a major contributor to planet-warming greenhouse emissions, but in the past few years some of the world’s largest automakers have launched aggressive efforts to pivot to making more electric vehicles while phasing out gasoline models. The importance of a significant polluting industry embracing this change, and competing with one another to be better at it, can’t be underestimated. Car buyers have been responding. As recently as a half-decade or so ago, electric-car sales were negligible in many parts of the world, but have risen rapidly since. Electric vehicles aren’t perfect of course, but as a general rule they’re cleaner than gasoline cars. (If you’re interested in reading more about that, see the entry in this F.A.Q. for “ How green are electric cars? ”) The spread of electric vehicles also means that some of the difficulties of owning one (for example, finding charging stations nearby) will likely resolve themselves more quickly as demand grows from drivers. That, in turn, could encourage sales. In 2022 the United States passed new legislation, the Inflation Reduction Act, that is widely considered the most important legislative effort to fight climate change in the nation’s history by encouraging a transition to cleaner energy and offering a range of incentives to businesses and individuals to clean up their act. ( This Times guide explains how you might be able to claim some of that money by, for instance, buying an electric car or installing a heat pump.) Lastly, here’s a big one: For reasons like the above, in the past decade or so the world has made significant progress toward slowing global warming and avoiding particularly extreme consequences from climate change. Not nearly enough progress, mind you, but significant nonetheless. Specifically, before the 2015 Paris Agreement, some estimates put the world on track to warm in the range of 3.6 degrees Celsius above preindustrial times. Scientists widely agree that if average global temperatures were to increase that much, it would be devastating socially and economically. Now, however, according to a United Nations report in 2022, the world is on track to heat between 2.1 degrees and 2.9 degrees by 2100. That’s still very dangerous. However, if the nations of the world act as aggressively as they promise, there remains a chance to hold that increase to below 2 degrees Celsius, according to scientists. That’s a big “if,” of course. It would require a tremendous amount of work by the nations of the world, on an extremely swift timetable over the next decade or two, to hit the lower targets for limiting global warming. However, since you asked about good news, let’s keep it positive. Even if there’s a lot of hard work to do, progress has been made on important fronts. There’s now even a movement, “ OK Doomer ,” that basically says, stop it with the gloomy takes and focus on things that will fix the problem.

How did climate change become so political if the science is clear?

In the 1970s, caring for the environment wasn’t such a partisan issue in the United States. Consider that back then Democrats and Republicans worked together to create the Clean Water Act, the Clean Air Act and the Environmental Protection Agency. But when it comes to tackling climate change today, that kind of cooperation seems hard to imagine. Research by the Pew Research Center in 2022, for example, showed that 9 percent of registered Republican voters considered climate change to be “very important” to their vote in the congressional elections, compared with 68 percent of registered Democrat voters. That divide didn’t come from nowhere. Fossil fuel companies and political interest groups have long funded efforts to try to cast doubt on overwhelming scientific evidence that climate change is happening and as a result of human activity, namely the burning of fossil fuels. That message has been successful with many conservative politicians and voters. The science is clear: Even scientists for Exxon, the oil giant, made remarkably accurate projections of how burning fossil fuels would warm the planet. Yet, for years, Exxon and others publicly cast doubt on climate science. Supporters of the fossil fuel industry have included the Koch family, billionaires based in Kansas who donated heavily to groups that helped politicize the science of climate change over the years. President Donald J. Trump mocked climate science, withdrew the United States from the Paris agreement and weakened many government policies that were designed to curb emissions. In the aftermath of the Trump presidency, something of a regrouping occurred among Republicans. Party leaders increasingly acknowledged the science, and some started policy platforms they said would address climate change. However, many of the proposals remained largely opposed to the solution that scientists say is needed: moving away from fossil fuel energy. — Lisa Friedman

What can be done about the biodiversity crisis?

The diversity of the world’s plant and animal life is under threat worldwide for many reasons — development, overfishing, climate change. Scientists know how to solve the biodiversity crisis, at least theoretically. The problem is, the solutions would involve transformative changes in how people live. A 2022 global agreement on biodiversity laid out a path forward, starting with conservation of places that are home to high biodiversity, restoring some degraded areas and putting more of the planet under protection. The targets also include: · Manage wild species so people can hunt and fish without depleting them. · Make agriculture, fisheries and forestry sustainable by using practices that are friendly to biodiversity. · Have companies and financial institutions monitor and disclose how their activities affect biodiversity. · Cut global food waste in half. Eliminating subsidies for agricultural and industrial practices that harm biodiversity would be another significant tool. Doing so would not only reduce damage to species but also free up money for governments to spend on biodiversity protection. Many of these changes would require regulators or elected officials to act. But individuals can also do their part. Limiting meat and dairy intake, and consuming only sustainably managed fish are important steps because overfishing and agriculture related to livestock are major drivers of biodiversity loss. An analysis by Our World in Data, a scientific publication affiliated with the University of Oxford, found that agricultural land use could be reduced by 75 percent , to one billion hectares from four billion hectares, if the world adopted a plant-based diet. (That would help with climate change, too.) — Catrin Einhorn

Read more: ">A ‘Crossroads’ for Humanity: Earth’s Biodiversity Is Still Collapsing

Are offsets legitimate?

Great question. We’ve written about airline offsets here . What’s a “carbon offset,” exactly? Offsets seek to compensate for emissions — for example, from passenger airplanes — by funding emission reductions or carbon removal somewhere else, like by planting forests or supporting renewable energy projects. But a joint investigation by the Guardian and other outlets found that 90 percent of offsets approved by a leading certifier are “ largely worthless and could make global heating worse .” We’ve written about how tree-planting is booming, and how that could either help or harm the planet , depending on how it’s done. The New York Times Magazine explored how the task of planting the number of trees required to make a difference is easier said than done . Don’t get us wrong, there are lots of great reasons to plant trees. For example, trees can help reduce urban-heat-island effects and heat-related deaths . You may also be interested in reading about how tree species will or won’t hold up against climate change , and how people can help forests adapt. A parting thought on offsets: Be wary of greenwashing. Here are some tips on how to spot it .

How will the Inflation Reduction Act address climate change, and how quickly?

President Biden’s 2022 Inflation Reduction Act was one of the most consequential pieces of climate legislation in U.S. history. It invests nearly $370 billion over 10 years into clean energy, with the goal of pivoting the nation’s power plants, automobiles and heavy industry away from fossil fuels while jump-starting new markets for things like American-made batteries and hydrogen power. Along the way the Biden administration also vowed to take a chunk out of greenhouse gas emissions and reshape energy policy to make it more beneficial to low-income communities. A lot of that will take time. But some big measures took effect straightaway. Early on, the Department of Energy agreed to a “conditional commitment” of $700 million to develop a lithium mine in Nevada with the aim of building up the domestic supply of lithium for electric car batteries. The Environmental Protection Agency also announced the availability of $100 million in grants to assist communities disproportionately affected by industrial pollution and other hazards. The law provides a number of benefits for homeowners looking to buy an electric vehicle or make their home more sustainable, including rebates for heat pumps, electric stoves, insulation and electric wiring. Through 2032, households can claim a tax credit of 30 percent of the cost of certain energy-efficiency projects, like weatherization and home energy audits, up to $1,200 per year. New rebates for buying electric vehicles also went into effect early on, allowing for a $7,500 credit for a new electric car and up to $4,000 for a used one. To qualify, the automobiles must be assembled in North America. This government site helps navigate the program. — Lisa Friedman

Read more: This Guide Can Help You Save Money and Fight Climate Change

What is the Paris Agreement?

In December 2015, nearly every country in the world agreed to a global treaty aimed at reducing emissions of planet-warming greenhouse gases. It was a landmark achievement in global diplomacy. Some 195 nations signed on to its terms. The idea of the treaty, which is known as the Paris Agreement because it was negotiated in Paris, is that every country, rich or poor, will set goals to curb its emissions in an effort to avert the worst effects of climate change. Individual countries agreed to set timetables for cutting their emissions, and those schedules were to become more ambitious over time. Countries also pledged to work together to help finance global adaptation to the threats of climate change. The agreement set a target of limiting the average increase in global temperatures to well below 2 degrees Celsius (3.6 degrees Fahrenheit) by the end of the century, compared with preindustrial temperatures, and to preferably hold the increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius. Currently, global temperatures have risen about 1.2 degrees Celsius since the late 19th century. And growing scientific evidence suggests that the stricter aim under the Paris accord — limiting warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius — is necessary to avoid a far greater likelihood of devastating consequences like widespread crop failures and the collapse of polar ice sheets. The Paris Agreement has a major shortcoming: It lacks an enforcement mechanism if a country falls short of its commitments. And an analysis by Climate Action Tracker found that, as of 2021, none of the nations with large-scale emissions had instituted climate pledges in keeping with the 1.5-degree target.

Read more: The World Is Falling Short of Its Climate Goals. Four Big Emitters Show Why.

What is the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change?

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change is a United Nations body that produces a comprehensive overview of climate science every six to eight years. The I.P.C.C.’s work is widely considered some of the most authoritative climate research available. Each report is thousands of pages long and written by hundreds of experts from around the globe. A summary of each report’s key findings is approved, line-by-line, by nearly 200 world governments before it is released to the public. The most recent I.P.C.C. overview consisted of three reports that were published in 2021 and 2022. The first described scientists’ latest physical understanding of the climate . The second looked at how climate change was affecting human societies and the natural world. The third laid out strategies that countries could pursue to halt global warming . — Raymond Zhong

Read more: A Hotter Future Is Certain, Climate Panel Warns. But How Hot Is Up to Us.

What is COP?

Since 1995, representatives from nearly every nation have gathered once a year to grapple with the threat that affects them all — climate change. The event is known as — take a deep breath — the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Mercifully, that gets shortened to “COP.” Tens of thousands of people typically attend the event, including protesters, environmental groups, corporate executives, representatives of fossil fuel companies and, increasingly, celebrities like Leonardo DiCaprio. The two-week event takes on a festival vibe, with delegates wearing native dress rubbing shoulders with government officials in business attire and activists dressed as polar bears. The goals vary from year to year, but, generally, nations try to reach consensus on ways to cut their greenhouse gas emissions. It can be a messy diplomatic scramble because every party must sign off on any final agreement, and nations often have widely different ideas about what those agreements should, or should not, say. In the closing days of the event, negotiations are all but guaranteed to stretch into the night and toward dawn. At 2015’s COP, the Paris Agreement was born — the pact among nations to try to limit the average increase in global temperatures to 2 degrees Celsius (3.6 degrees Fahrenheit) compared with preindustrial levels, and to ideally hold it to 1.5 degrees Celsius. Since then, every COP has given the world a chance to measure its progress against that goal. Like the Olympics, COP changes its location for each event. In 2023, it will be the United Arab Emirates’ turn to host.

About Earth Day: Isn’t every day an earth day?

Short answer: yes. More helpful answer: Technically, according to our calendar apps, Earth Day comes around once a year, on April 22, when people worldwide hold marches and parades, and issue calls to protect the environment. The notion of a special day to celebrate the environment was born more than a half-century ago in the era of acid rain, smog-blanketed cities, dying bald eagles and rivers bubbling with sludge. The basic idea: Humans have only one planet, so we’d better clean up our act. A lot has changed since the first one in 1970 . Back then a main target was pollution. Climate change “was not part of the discussion” at that time, said Denis Hayes, an original Earth Day organizer, in this New York Times profile . That’s no longer the case, of course. Today global warming is a big focus of Earth Day events. The movement sparked historic changes in environmental policy in the United States. The Clean Air Act was one direct result. Here’s a look at 10 of the biggest environmental victories in the decades since the first Earth Day — and also the failures. The bald eagle has bounced back, for one thing. Still there are many new challenges. One last thing: Why was April 22 chosen? Turns out it was picked as a convenient date between spring break and university final exams, making it easier for students to participate. Since then, though, the date has taken on extra meaning. In 2016 the signing of the Paris Accord — the agreement among nations to fight global warming — was symbolically set for April 22.

Extreme weather

Are heat waves getting worse.

In general, scientists have no doubt that heat waves around the world are becoming hotter, more frequent and longer. In June 2023, temperatures around the world were at their highest levels in decades. The spike reflects two factors that are shaping what forecasters say could be a multiyear period of exceptional warmth for the planet: humans’ continued emissions of heat-trapping gases and the return, after three years, of the natural climate pattern known as El Niño. The 2018 National Climate Assessment, a major scientific report by 13 federal agencies, said that the number of hot days was increasing and that the frequency of heat waves in the United States had jumped from an average of two per year in the 1960s to six per year in the 2010s. The report also said that the season for heat waves had lengthened by 45 days since the 1960s. An important caveat: It takes careful scientific analysis to decide whether any single heat wave is attributable to climate change. But, broadly speaking, heat waves are worsening. Global warming also increases the likelihood of drought. Higher temperatures dry out soils and vegetation, making areas more prone to fires. Warming can also cause more precipitation to fall as rain than as snow, which can affect water availability for agriculture if a region relies, say, on snowmelt from mountains upstream for a steady supply of water in the spring or summer.

Is climate change causing more droughts?

Global warming increases the likelihood of drought. Higher temperatures dry out soils and vegetation more quickly. Warming can also cause more precipitation to fall as rain than snow — which matters from a drought perspective because some places rely on snowmelt to provide water during the growing season. In addition, climate change can affect precipitation patterns around the world, making dry areas drier. In recent years, most of the western half of the United States has been in a drought, with conditions ranging from moderate to severe. In the Southwest, the drought has gone on for so long — since 2000 — that it is considered a megadrought. It constitutes the region’s driest two decades in 1,200 years.

Are wildfires getting worse?

There is no doubt: Wildfires in the Western United States are worsening. As we’ve reported , they’re growing larger, becoming more intense, killing a greater number of trees, spreading faster and reaching higher — even generating their own weather . Climate change has its fingerprints all over it. The dryness, higher temperatures and longer fire season are all factors that make fires more extreme, according to experts . It’s a global phenomenon. Continent-spanning wildfires in Canada have sent plumes of smoke to blanket cities and turn the skies pink-gray. The early 2023 Canadian fires triggered health concerns in Quebec and Philadelphia, Toronto and New York. Worldwide, in fact, worsening heat and dryness could lead to a 50 percent rise in devastating fires, according to a 2022 United Nations report , or a “global wildfire crisis.” It’s a health issue, too. Smoke from wildfires has worsened over the past decade, potentially reversing decades of improvements in Western air quality that occurred thanks to the implementation of the Clean Air Act, research shows. If you want to see where fires are currently in the U.S., we have a map that stays updated . If you want to see where homes are at risk, we have a map for that , too. We’ve also written about how, despite fire risks, homes are being built in harm’s way . Here’s some information on how to prepare your home for a fire and how to protect your health . How dangerous is wildfire smoke? We’ve covered that here . Lastly, if you’re interested in solutions, you might like to read about how setting intentional fires — a technique long-used by Indigenous people — can reduce the risk of catastrophic ones. More on other policy solutions toward the end of this article .

How do you measure air quality?

Burning things — whether it’s coal in a power plant, or trees in a wildfire — can create a cocktail of pollution in the air we breathe. A standard way to measure it is the Air Quality Index. Here’s what the index does, and how to interpret it. The A.Q.I. measures the density of five pollutants: ground-level ozone , particulates , carbon monoxide , nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide . It was established by the Environmental Protection Agency in the United States to help communicate the cleanliness of the air people are breathing. The scale runs from zero (very good) to 500 (very bad.) The simplest thing to remember is: If it’s under 100, then pollution is below the level known to cause adverse health effects. A reading of 100 or higher usually serves as a warning to people who have respiratory conditions. Children and some older adults might particularly want to take precautions, as well as people with heart and lung disease. A number above 200 is considered “very unhealthy.” Wildfires are a common cause of extended periods of unhealthy air. Fine particles in the soot, ash and dust can fill the air. When inhaled, these tiny specks can increase the risk of heart attacks, cancer and acute respiratory infections, particularly in children and older adults. The Air Quality Index tracks these fine particles with a measurement called PM 2.5, a reference to particles smaller than 2.5 micrometers. Some research suggests that wildfire smoke may be more toxic to the lungs than standard urban air pollution as it contains a distinct mix of particulates that activate inflammatory cells deep in the lungs while hindering other cells that can dampen the inflammatory response later. Standard N95 masks can help by filtering some of the particulate matter, but they won’t block all wildfire pollutants. — Adeel Hassan

Read more: The Air Quality Index Explained: What It Means and How to Stay Safe

What about hurricanes?

Greenhouse gas emissions aren’t just warming the atmosphere. Oceans are heating up, too, and that’s making hurricanes stronger and wetter. The slightly good news: There’s little evidence that climate change is making hurricanes and typhoons more frequent. In fact, there might even be slightly fewer storms over time, due to shifting wind patterns. But of the hurricanes that do form, research suggests that more of them will be major storms rated Category 3 or higher on the hurricane-force scale. That’s because higher ocean temperatures provide more of the heat energy that fuels these storms as they move across the water. Warmer ocean water can also cause “rapid intensification,” which occurs when a storm becomes much more powerful over a very short period of a single day or even a few hours. A 2019 study in the journal Nature Communications showed that rapid intensification had been increasing. Hurricanes are becoming wetter because warmer air holds more moisture that can then fall as rain. Hurricane Harvey, which stalled over Houston in 2017, produced at least 15 percent more rain than it would have in a world without the human effects on climate.

Read more: What We Know About Climate Change and Hurricanes

Are winters getting weirder?

Climate change isn’t just making the winter season warmer. It is also making it weirder. Winter temperatures have risen over the past several decades. According to a Climate Central analysis , the average winter temperatures have warmed in 97 percent of 238 locations in the United States since 1970. But don’t put your snow gear away. Overall, the average snowfall is decreasing and instead, in many cases, falling as rain. However, at the same time the frequency of extreme snowstorms has risen across the eastern two-thirds of the contiguous United States over the past century, according to the National Centers for Environmental Information . Here’s why. Air that is warmer can hold more water vapor. So as winter temperatures get warmer, the storms have more available water vapor and then can produce more snow. So, while snow across the course of the winter may seem more sparse, the single snowstorms will be more intense, creating more disruption to daily life. And while the average minimum temperatures continue to rise, intense cold spells will undoubtedly exist. According to some scientists , the warming of the Arctic, enhanced by climate change, weakens the polar vortex — a strong band of winds in the stratosphere surrounding the North Pole — knocking it out of kilter and allowing colder Arctic air to spill south into the U.S., Europe and Asia. This data is specific to the United States, but researchers say similar effects are being seen in other parts of the world. While various factors (like local temperature increases, local geography and weather patterns) can change the effects at any given location, seasonal weather patterns work on the same general principles in other parts of the world. And with a large portion of the world’s population living across the mid-latitudes, similar to the United States, people living elsewhere will likely see similar instances of weird winter weather. — Judson Jones

Is flooding getting worse?

Global warming has the potential to worsen flooding because warmer air can hold more water, which can then fall as rain. However, flooding is a complex phenomenon with many contributing causes. Floods can be affected by a range of factors, including land development (are there too many paved roads or parking lots worsening runoff?) and ground conditions. If the ground is already saturated with water from one storm, it can’t absorb more from another. And in a prolonged drought, soils dry out, harden and become less permeable, so less of the water from a heavy rain soaks in. For reasons like these, linking any single flood to global warming requires extensive scientific analysis. That said, the potential for heavier rainfall driven by climate change is an increasingly important part of the mix. For example, scientists have determined that the record rainfall that led to devastating floods in Germany and Belgium in the summer of 2021 was made much more likely by global warming.

Read more: How Is Climate Change Affecting Floods?

Has climate change affected rainfall?

The United States and other parts of the world have seen increases in the frequency of intense rain events. That is likely to continue as warming progresses. The most important reason for this is that warmer air holds more moisture for clouds to release as rain. In California and the Pacific Coast, for instance, storms known as atmospheric rivers have for centuries provided the region with much of its water supplies. But scientists say global warming is now increasing the risk of powerful, weekslong storm sequences that cause flooding and landslides. Scientific analysis can estimate how much climate change worsened any particular downpour. These attribution studies, as they are called, compare two sets of computer simulations of the same storm. One set is staged in a hypothetical world in which there have been no greenhouse gas emissions and thus no global warming. The second simulates the world we live in, complete with global warming. — Raymond Zhong

Read more: The Coming California Megastorm

Does climate change affect tornadoes?

Scientists have not been able to determine whether there is a link between warming and the frequency or strength of tornadoes. That’s because tornadoes are relatively small, short-lived weather events, making them hard to incorporate into scientists’ computer models of the global climate. Researchers do say that tornadoes have become more likely to occur in clusters over the past few decades – there might be fewer days each year with tornadoes, but on each of those days, there are more tornadoes. Other research has found that the region of the United States known as Tornado Alley, where most tornadoes occur, seems to be shifting eastward. The timing of tornado seasons is also becoming more unpredictable, researchers have found, with more early and late starts compared with decades ago. However, the reason for this is unclear. — Raymond Zhong

Read more: What We Know About Tornadoes and Climate Change

What is the climate impact of cryptocurrency and blockchain technology?

Cryptocurrencies and NFTs can be astonishingly energy-intensive. This is because of their underlying technology, known as blockchain, which we’ve explained here . Researchers at Cambridge University have said that the process of creating and maintaining Bitcoin, for example, can consume as much electricity as many countries do. That process is known as “mining,” and it usually takes place in warehouses stacked with computers. Mining has also pushed up electricity prices for homeowners and small businesses. Recognizing the problem, some miners of Bitcoin have tried to reframe their activity as more eco-friendly. Some digital currencies are considered to be less energy-intensive than others. Etherium, for example, switched to a more energy-efficient infrastructure in 2022. But no matter. The climate impact of running all these computers has proven significant. In several places, including New York State, crypto companies have reopened once mothballed coal-burning electrical plants to power their activities, keeping older and dirtier plants pumping out greenhouse gases.

Read more: Bitcoin Uses More Electricity Than Many Countries. How Is That Possible?

How green are electric cars?

Transportation is the single biggest source of emissions in the United States, and the transition to electric vehicles is widely viewed as a key part of the solution. Broadly speaking, modern electric cars generate significantly fewer planet-warming emissions than most cars powered by combustion engines. But the way we produce the electricity that charges up those cars still needs to get cleaner before electric vehicles are truly emissions-free: Coal-burning power plants obviously still generate greenhouse gases. One way to compare the climate effects of various electric and gasoline vehicles is through this interactive tool developed by researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. It incorporates the major variables, including the emissions involved in manufacturing the car itself and in producing the fuel, whether gas or electricity, that powers it. If you assume electric vehicles are drawing their power from the average grid in the United States, which most often includes a mix of fossil fuel and renewable power plants, then those cars typically produce less than half the emissions of a similarly-sized, gas-powered car. Electric cars are usually more emissions-intensive to manufacture because of their batteries. But over time they more than make up for that because electric motors are more efficient than traditional internal combustion engines. And electric vehicles should get cleaner as utilities continue to close coal-fired power plants. Electric vehicles can have other costs, too. The lithium-ion cells that power most electric vehicles require significant mining — including for lithium, cobalt and other rare earth metals — that can come with serious environmental or human rights concerns. But, of course, drilling for oil has serious environmental effects of its own. Key to the sustainability of electric cars will also be the recyclability of the materials . One last thought before you go: It might sound obvious, but one way to reduce the negative effects of both gas and electric cars would be to reduce dependence on driving, perhaps by focusing on better public transit systems. — Brad Plumer

Read more: How Green Are Electric Vehicles?

Which electric car is best?

“Buying an electric car can be exciting and bewildering.” That’s a line from The Times’s guide to buying an electric vehicle, and it couldn’t be truer. The guide walks through the main considerations when trying to decide what’s the right choice. Will it be primary transportation, or a second car? How and where will it be charged? For readers in the United States, we’ve also got this guide on how to access government money — tax breaks, other things — from the federal climate policies for a variety of purchases including electric cars, which can help defray the cost a bit. Because electric cars are expensive, and that can be a big barrier to many buyers.

What about electric-car batteries?

The Times has reported in detail about how battery recycling will be critical to the sustainability of electric vehicles. Our writers have also covered the environmental cost of battery production — for example, the effects of mining for lithium , which is critical for modern batteries. At the same time, auto makers and battery producers are taking steps to improve the way these huge batteries are built because they are aware of the business advantages that improved technologies would give them. In addition, elsewhere in this F.A.Q. we’ve written a separate entry, “ How green are electric cars? ”

What are the key technologies to tackle climate change? Are they ready?

If the goal is to slash greenhouse gas emissions by burning far less fossil fuel — and it is — then many of the technologies are already well developed. Wind turbines, solar panels, hydro plants and nuclear reactors all generate electricity while producing essentially no carbon dioxide. Solar and wind costs have fallen drastically in recent years, and the technologies are time-tested. For those plants that still burn fossil fuel, there are so-called carbon capture technologies to keep planet-warming carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere, although these have yet to be widely deployed. The basic process involves removing the carbon dioxide that is produced when the fuel is burned and storing it permanently underground. Battery-powered cars and buses are becoming more common, and large trucks are starting to be electrified as well. Many rail networks and transit systems already run on electricity. As power generation moves away from burning coal, and produces fewer emissions, these modes of transportation will become correspondingly cleaner. But sharply cutting emissions from aviation and maritime shipping is more difficult. Planes and ships are becoming more energy-efficient, but, as it stands, even the best batteries don’t provide enough electricity for their weight to power large planes or cargo ships. — Henry Fountain

What should I know about geoengineering?

Geoengineering refers to deliberately intervening in the climate to reduce global warming — by, say, releasing chemicals into the sky to reflect some sunlight. The idea is that those kinds of techniques might buy the world time to eliminate the carbon dioxide emissions that are warming the planet. The proposals generally fall into two categories. One is carbon dioxide removal, which would involve pulling some of the gas from the atmosphere and storing it so that it doesn’t return. While a few companies have made machines for this purpose, and are now removing relatively small amounts of carbon dioxide, many scientists and policymakers think the process is too slow, requiring too many expensive, energy-gobbling machines, to be practical. The other category is solar radiation management, which would aim to reduce the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface. Few people consider solar radiation management to be benign, and it comes with a lot of opposition. The most widely discussed method would use airplanes or other means to inject a chemical such as sulfur dioxide into the upper atmosphere, where it would form aerosol particles and reflect some sunlight. This would mimic what happens in a huge volcanic eruption. Mount Pinatubo sent so much sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere when it erupted in 1991 that it cooled the planet by more than half a degree Fahrenheit for more than a year. The method would result in a quick fix for warming, and it wouldn’t necessarily be that expensive. But it would do nothing about issues like the increasing acidification of the oceans as carbon dioxide is absorbed into the water, a process that has dire consequences for sea life. Opponents have other concerns as well, including about the possibility of unintended consequences: drier parts of the world turning wetter, for instance, and vice versa. Still, a number of institutions, including the National Academy of Sciences, support cautious research into the idea, given how much the risks of climate change are increasing. — Henry Fountain

Will nuclear fusion save us?

There is no doubt that nuclear fusion is on the horizon. The problem is it’s been on the horizon for a long time. Scientists first realized nearly a century ago that it might be possible to mimic the force that powers the sun — fuse two small atoms at enormous temperatures and pressures to release a huge amount of energy. (Fusion is different from fission, the basis for current nuclear power plants, in which a much larger atom is split to release energy.) Uncontrolled fusion was achieved in 1952 with the detonation of the first hydrogen bomb. To be useful as an energy source, though, fusion must be controlled, and that has proven tremendously difficult. If the released energy could be harnessed, fusion would have many potential advantages over fission. The fuel is more abundant, the process holds far less risk of a radioactive accident and the technology produces less hazardous radioactive waste. The obstacles are great. Until late 2022, no fusion experiment had ever achieved a very basic measure of success: generating more energy than it consumed. That was finally accomplished by a long-running experiment at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California, which uses several hundred laser beams to implode a tiny capsule containing two isotopes of hydrogen. That success was rightly hailed. But creating fusion for an instant or two is a far cry from the continuous fusion needed to generate electricity. It will most likely take decades to commercialize either laser-initiated fusion or the other major fusion technology, which involves confining a high-temperature cloud of ionized atoms through powerful electromagnets in a doughnut-shaped device called a tokamak. Some companies are working on smaller fusion reactors that they claim might lead to the development of a commercial power plant within about a decade. But, for now, fusion power remains on the distant horizon. — Henry Fountain

Deciphering the jargon

Are global warming and climate change the same thing.

The terms “global warming” and “climate change” are often used interchangeably. But they can mean different, though related, things. Global warming refers to how much hotter the world has become since the late 19th century as a result of emissions of carbon dioxide, methane and other greenhouse gases. Most of the emissions have come from the burning of fossil fuels, which became widespread as much of the world industrialized. These gases trap some of the heat that radiates after sunlight strikes the Earth’s surface, making the atmosphere warmer. Already, the atmosphere is about 1.2 degrees Celsius (2.2 degrees Fahrenheit) warmer than it was in the late 1800s. Climate change is a broader term. Higher temperatures are one element of the world’s changing climate, but there are others that have resulted indirectly from the warming. Among these are changes in atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns and in how much moisture the atmosphere can hold. — Henry Fountain

What are greenhouse gases?

Certain gases in the atmosphere — like carbon dioxide and methane — that trap some of the heat radiated from the Earth’s surface are known as greenhouse gases. The name comes from what happens in a greenhouse: Sunlight passes through the transparent roof and walls, is absorbed by what’s inside the greenhouse, and is then re-emitted as heat. But that heat energy has longer wavelengths than sunlight, so it can’t escape back through the roof and walls. That’s why the inside of a greenhouse warms up when sunlight hits it. In Earth’s atmosphere, greenhouse gases act a little differently, but the effect is the same. They absorb energy at certain wavelengths that correspond to those of the heat energy radiating from Earth. The gas molecules then re-radiate this heat energy, and while some heads off into space, much of it remains in the atmosphere, contributing to global warming. The main greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide. It’s the primary waste gas produced by the burning of fossil fuels like coal and oil. Carbon dioxide makes up about four-fifths of the greenhouse gases emitted by human activities. Methane, from oil and gas production and other sources, is the second most prevalent. It has a greater heat-trapping capacity than carbon dioxide, but persists in the atmosphere for a shorter time. Nitrous oxide is the next most common greenhouse gas. Then there are a slew of others, in very small concentrations, with high heat-trapping capacity, including hydrofluorocarbons, or HFCs. Water vapor is a greenhouse gas as well. And unlike the others mentioned here, it changes from gas to liquid, or vice versa, depending on the temperature of the atmosphere. So as the atmosphere heats up, the concentration of water vapor increases, which amplifies the warming. (Oxygen and nitrogen, which together make up 99 percent of the atmosphere, absorb only shorter-wavelength energy, so they are not greenhouse gases.) Emissions of greenhouse gases from the burning of fossil fuels and other activities have warmed the world by about 1.2 degrees Celsius, or 2.2 degrees Fahrenheit, since the late 19th century. If you want to understand that better, go to the “science” section on this page. We explain how we know climate change is happening, and how we know humans are to blame. — Henry Fountain

What exactly does sustainable mean?

“Sustainable” sure sounds good, and claims of sustainability are ubiquitous. The problem is that the term can be interpreted in many ways, and it’s often not clear what a company or product is claiming. Consider the “Sustainability On-the-Go” gift box, a real product that contains wooden eating utensils and a tumbler wrapped in bamboo, or the toilet paper stand that encourages users to use less by dispensing one sheet at a time (another real product). Without independent verification and an agreed-upon definition, the term is all but meaningless. Worse, it can backfire, as in the case of cotton tote bags , which have proliferated because they have an image as being more sustainable than, say, plastic disposable ones. But organic cotton bags must be reused 20,000 times for them to have a similar environmental impact as their thin plastic counterparts, research has suggested . It’s not just about consumer goods. Pick your industry — airlines, restaurants, banks, fossil fuel companies, you name it — and you’ll find sustainability being marketed, often with little to back up the claims. Is there a right way to do it? The United Nations defines sustainability as “meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” That’s the opposite of a marketing buzzword. In fact, it’s a call for bringing humans into balance with the planet and its resources. By that definition, true sustainability requires transformative changes in economies and societies. — Catrin Einhorn

Read more: Where’s the Waste? A ‘Circular’ Food Economy Could Combat Climate Change

What does net zero mean?

This is one of those important climate concepts that has been given a jargon-y name. Scientists have warned that global warming will keep getting worse until humanity reaches “net zero” emissions — that is, the point at which we are no longer increasing the total amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Getting to “zero” emissions would require stopping every single activity that releases greenhouse gases, but that would be very tough to do. So “net zero” refers to a situation in which some greenhouse gases are still being released, but they’re offset by other activities like planting more trees to pull carbon dioxide out of the air. So the net effect is zero emissions. Net zero. The term is everywhere. In recent years, a growing number of countries and businesses have been making pledges to be net zero by various dates. The United States and China both have net-zero promises. So do Amazon and Apple. In practice, the concept can be abused since it’s not always clear that the offsetting action — the trees being planted or the technologies being promised to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere — are as effective as claimed or even technically feasible within the time frames being discussed. And those offsets can be contentious. Trees can absorb carbon dioxide, of course, but they can also burn in wildfires, releasing carbon dioxide. Carbon-removal technology is still in its infancy. Critics worry that leaders and businesses may be using the uncertain promise of such offsets in the future to avoid making deeper cuts in their emissions today. And many corporate net-zero pledges have asterisks. Some companies, for instance, have pledged to clean up their offices but not their broader supply chains. At the same time, many countries’ net-zero pledges are vague and not yet backed by concrete policies to curb emissions as drastically as would be needed. That’s true of both the United States and China. — Brad Plumer

Read more: Searching for Hidden Meaning in Climate Jargon

What is a carbon footprint?

Say you have a nice steak dinner. You might know that cows belch copious amounts of methane, a fact that helps make ranching a sizable source of greenhouse gas emissions worldwide. But that isn’t all: Those glasses of wine, the bottled water for the table and the cheesecake for dessert all generated emissions when they were produced and when they were transported to the restaurant by train, truck or airplane. Those emissions can be described as your dinner’s “carbon footprint,” a measure of its contribution to global warming. Similarly, a tally of emissions related to everything in your life — heating your home, driving to and from work, flying somewhere for the holidays — defines your household’s carbon footprint. Here, “carbon” refers not only to carbon dioxide, the main greenhouse gas, but also to all of the greenhouse gases that the relevant activities might generate. Researchers developed the idea of a carbon footprint in the 1990s as a research tool. It wasn’t invented by an oil company, as some have suggested. However, critics say the fossil fuel industry has embraced the idea as a way to place some of the responsibility for the climate crisis on consumers, shifting attention away from the role of the energy industry or the need for wider structural changes, including a much faster transition to cleaner energy sources. A carbon footprint is a useful concept for comparing the climate consequences of various human activities. It allows us to see, for instance, that the carbon footprint of a typical American is many times that of a person who lives in a poorer country. It also enables examination of companies, industries and even entire nations. And, yes, individual actions matter. Frequent air travel, for example, comes with a huge carbon footprint. So it can help to tread more lightly. — Hiroko Tabuchi

Read more: The Climate Impact of Your Neighborhood, Mapped

What is mitigation?

Mitigation is a term used by both climate scientists and disaster experts — but for completely different scenarios. Which can be confusing. First, climate change. Here, mitigation refers to anything that reduces emissions of planet-warming greenhouse gasses. Think the shift from coal-burning power plants to wind and solar power generation, or the shift to electric cars or to more efficient home appliances like heat pumps and induction stoves. Among disaster experts and people who deal with emergencies — floods, storms, wildfires — mitigation means something else entirely. They use it to talk about protecting people against the effects of storms. (Confusingly, this is what climate experts sometimes refer to as “adaptation.”) One way to know what sort of mitigation is being discussed is to listen for more precise phrases like “disaster mitigation” or “hazard mitigation.” — Christopher Flavelle

What is adaptation?

Adaptation is the counterpart to mitigation. And let’s just say it: None of this language is user-friendly. But experts throw these words around, so we deal with it. Adaptation refers to steps aimed at blunting the current consequences of climate change — intensifying storms, wildfires, heat waves — and preparing for what happens as they worsen over time. Some good examples are adjusting how and where we build houses and roads; helping people move away from places vulnerable to flooding or wildfires; or planting different kinds of crops as weather patterns change. “Adaptation” is sometimes used interchangeably with “resilience,” but the terms have important differences. Resilience means maintaining a way of life, but with better protection. Adaptation means changing a way of life that is becoming too hard to sustain. Think of using a seawall to protect a beach town from hurricanes (resilience) versus helping people move somewhere else (adaptation). Adaptation used to be a dirty word among environmentalists, who viewed the notion as defeatist — an admission of the failure to cut emissions or an invitation not to try. But, as the effects of climate change have worsened, that criticism has faded. The need to adapt, while still trying to cut emissions, has become indisputable. But the term still carries an element of privilege, especially because poorer communities and nations have far less ability to adapt than wealthier people do. — Christopher Flavelle

How does carbon capture work?

The most straightforward way to keep carbon out of the atmosphere is to not burn fossil fuels. But since oil, gas and coal are such entrenched features of modern economies, engineers are exploring strategies to capture or remove the carbon dioxide those fuels produce. Carbon capture generally refers to any technology that can trap the carbon dioxide coming out of a factory or power plant before it escapes into the atmosphere and helps warm the planet. There are about two dozen facilities worldwide that do this. Some use chemical solvents that bind to and absorb carbon dioxide from a plant’s exhaust, allowing the gas to be compressed and shipped off in a pipeline. Once captured, the carbon dioxide can be permanently buried underground, where it will no longer act as a greenhouse gas warming the world. More contentiously, some energy companies have used captured carbon dioxide in what is called “ enhanced oil recovery ”: injecting the gas into depleted oil wells to dislodge deposits of crude oil that are otherwise hard to reach. Critics say this runs counter to the whole point of carbon capture, since the technology is being used to extract more oil, which will be burned, producing more carbon dioxide. Some energy companies, however, say the process can be helpful for helping to fund early carbon capture projects. — Brad Plumer

What is carbon removal and is it effective?

Carbon removal is slightly different from carbon capture — it generally refers to pulling carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere after it has been emitted. Trees can do this naturally. And expanding forest cover can be a form of carbon removal, although there’s only so much land to go around and there’s always the risk that trees will burn in wildfires, releasing the carbon dioxide they’d stored. Recently, many companies have been experimenting with high-tech approaches to carbon removal, such as direct-air capture. A company called Climeworks is doing this at a plant in Iceland , using giant fans and filters to pull carbon dioxide from the sky, allowing it to be pumped underground and locked away permanently. This kind of carbon removal is still in its early stages and faces many obstacles, including extremely high costs to make it work. Some scientists, though, say it may be necessary in order for the world to achieve the equivalent of zero emissions, or for there to be a large-scale effort to reverse at least some of the global warming that humans have caused. — Brad Plumer

What is carbon pricing and how does it work?

Some economists have long argued that “carbon pricing” is an elegant way to tackle climate change: Just give companies and consumers a financial incentive to clean up their acts by charging them for the greenhouse gas emissions they produce. In practice, that gets complicated. There are two main ways to impose carbon pricing. The simplest is a carbon tax, which is typically a flat tax levied on oil, gas or coal. Countries like Canada and Sweden have carbon taxes. However, these taxes sometimes come with exemptions and loopholes. And politicians are often reluctant to set a carbon tax high enough to have a significant effect on behavior, because they fear a backlash from voters. There’s also a cap-and-trade system, which typically works something like this: A government sets a cap on overall emissions and steadily tightens that cap over time. Companies receive permits that allow them to release limited emissions. But polluters have an added incentive to cut emissions because unused permits can be traded at a profit. And, as emissions caps tighten, those prices can rise. Both California and the European Union have versions of cap-and-trade systems, although it can be tricky to design these programs so that they work well. — Brad Plumer

Project Credits

Editing and production by Sarah Graham, Rebecca Lieberman, Claire O’Neill, Mike Peed, Jesse Pesta and Amelia Pisapia.

Research and development contributions by Jack Cook.

Illustration by Maria Chimishkyan.

Reporting contributed by Manuela Andreoni, Maggie Astor, Winston Choi-Schagrin, Catrin Einhorn, Christopher Flavelle, Henry Fountain, Lisa Friedman, Adeel Hassan, Judson Jones, Brad Plumer, Julia Rosen, Somini Sengupta, Hiroko Tabuchi and Raymond Zhong.

Methodology

In 2022 we asked readers what they wanted to know about climate change. Their responses helped guide this resource, which was written and edited by the climate desk at The New York Times.

The search function at the top of the page uses a combination of machine learning and human editing to understand questions and suggest relevant answers. The underlying technology was developed by The New York Times Research and Development team.

If we don’t have an answer to a question you ask, the system takes note so that we can consider adding it. You can also tell us what you want to know using this good old-fashioned form .

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Climate Change FAQs

You asked. Our scientists answered. Use this guide to have the best info about climate change and how we can solve it together.

December 09, 2018 | Last updated November 13, 2023

Top Question: What Can I Do About Climate Change?

• Start a conversation. Talking about climate change is the best way to kickstart action , says Chief Scientist Kath arine Hayhoe.
• Vote at the ballot box (and the store). At every level, elected leaders have influence on policies that affect us all. And support companies taking climate action.
• Take personal action. Calculate your carbon footprint and share what you’ve learned to make action contagious.

Climate Change Basics

Click items to expand answers.

Each of these terms describes parts of the same problem—the fact that the average temperature of Earth is rising. As the planet heats up (global warming), we see broad impacts on Earth’s climate, such as shifting seasons, rising sea level, and melting ice.

As the impacts of climate change become more frequent and more severe, they will create—and in many cases they already are creating—crises for people and nature around the world. Many types of extreme weather, including heatwaves, heavy downpours, hurricanes and wildfires are becoming stronger and more dangerous.

Left unchecked, these impacts will spread and worsen, affecting our homes and cities, economies, food and water supplies as well as the species, ecosystems, and biodiversity of this planet we all call home.

All of these terms are accurate, and there’s no perfect one that will make everyone realize the urgency of action. Whatever you choose to call it, the most important thing is that we act to stop it.

Yes, scientists agree that the warming we are seeing today is entirely human-caused.

Climate has changed in the past due to natural factors such as volcanoes, changes in the sun’s energy and the way the Earth orbits the sun.  In fact, these natural factors should be cooling the planet. However, our planet is warming.

Scientists have known for centuries that the Earth has a natural blanket of greenhouse or heat-trapping gases. This blanket keeps the Earth more than 30 degrees Celsius (over 60 degrees Fahrenheit) warmer than it would be otherwise. Without this blanket, our Earth would be a frozen ball of ice.

Greenhouse gases, which include carbon dioxide and methane, trap some of the Earth’s heat that would otherwise escape to space. The more heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere, the thicker the blanket and the warmer it gets.

Over Earth’s history, heat-trapping gas levels have gone up and down due to natural factors. Today, however, by burning fossil fuels, causing deforestation ( forests are key parts of the planet’s natural carbon management systems), and operating large-scale industrial agriculture, humans are rapidly increasing levels of heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere.

The human-caused increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is much greater than any observed in the paleoclimate history (i.e. ancient climate data measured through ice sheets, tree rings, sediments and more) of the earth. As a result, temperature in the air and ocean is now increasing faster than at any time in human history.

Scientists have looked at every other possible reason why climate might be changing today, and their conclusions are clear. There’s no question: it’s us.

One of the main reasons scientists are so worried about climate change is the speed at which it is occurring. In many cases, these changes are happening faster than animals, plants, and ecosystems can safely adapt to – and the same is true for human civilization.

We’ve never seen climate change this quickly, and it is putting our food and water systems, our infrastructure, and even our economies at risk. In some places, these changes are already crossing safe levels for ecosystems and humans.

That’s why, the more we do to mitigate these risks, the better off we will all be.

Effects of Climate Change

Climate change is affecting our planet in many ways. Average temperatures are increasing; rainfall patterns are shifting; snow lines are retreating; glaciers and ice sheets are melting; permafrost is thawing; sea levels are rising ; and severe weather is becoming more frequent.

In particular, heatwaves are becoming more frequent and more intense. Tropical cyclones like hurricanes, typhoons, and cyclones are intensifying faster and dumping more rain. Wildfires are burning greater area, and in many areas around the world, heavy rainfall is becoming more frequent and droughts are getting stronger.

All of these impacts are concerning because they can harm and even potentially lead to the collapse of ecosystems and human systems. And it’s clear that they become more severe  the more heat-trapping gases we produce.

Rapid changes in climate can directly and indirectly impact animals across the world. Many species are approaching—or have already reached—the limit of where they can go to find hospitable climates. In the polar regions, animals like polar bears that live on sea ice are now struggling to survive as that ice melts.

It’s not just how climate change affects an animal directly; it’s about how the warming climate affects the ecosystem and food chain to which an animal has adapted. For example, in the U.S. and Canada, moose are being affected by an increase in ticks and parasites that are surviving the  shorter, milder winters .

In western North America, salmon rely on steady-flowing cold rivers to spawn. As climate change alters the temperature and flow of these waterways, some salmon populations are dwindling. This change in salmon population affects many species that rely on salmon like orcas or grizzly bears.

Changes in temperature and moisture are causing some species to migrate in search of new places to live. For instance, in North America, species are shifting their ranges an average of 11 miles north and 36 feet higher in elevation each decade to find more favorable conditions. The Central Appalachians are one resilient climate escape route  that may help species adapt to changing conditions.

There are some natural places with enough topographical diversity such that, even as the planet warms, they can be  resilient strongholds for plant and animal species . These strongholds serve as breeding grounds and seed banks for many plants and animals that otherwise may be unable to find habitat due to climate change. However, strongholds are not an option for all species, and some plants and animals are blocked from reaching these areas by human development like cities, highways and farmland.

Here at The Nature Conservancy, we use science to identify such locations and work with local partners and communities to do everything we can to protect them.

From reducing agricultural productivity to threatening livelihoods and homes, climate change is affecting people everywhere. You may have noticed how  weather patterns near you are shifting  or how more frequent and severe storms are developing in the spring. Maybe your community is experiencing more severe flooding or  wildfires .

Many areas are even experiencing “sunny day flooding” as rising sea levels cause streets to flood during high tides. In Alaska, some entire coastal communities are being moved because the sea level has risen and what used to be permanently frozen ground has thawed to the point where their original location is no longer habitable.

Climate change also  exacerbates the threat of human-caused conflict  resulting from a scarcity of resources like food and water that become less reliable as growing seasons change and rainfall patterns become less predictable.

Many of these impacts are disproportionately affecting low-income, Indigenous, or marginalized communities. For example, in large cities in North America, low-income communities are often hotter during heatwaves, more likely to flood during heavy downpours, and the last to have their power restored after storms.

Around the globe, many of the poorest nations are being impacted first and most severely by climate change, even though they have contributed far less to the carbon pollution that has caused the warming in the first place. Climate change affects us all, but it doesn’t affect us all equally: and that’s not fair.

Whether you live close to a coast or far from one, what happens in oceans matters to our lives .

Earlier, we described how greenhouse gases trap heat around the planet. Only a small fraction of the extra heat being trapped by the carbon pollution blanket is going into heating up the atmosphere. Almost 90% of the heat is going into the ocean, causing the ocean to warm.

Warmer water takes up more space, causing sea level to rise. As land-based ice melts, this addition of water from land to the ocean causes the ocean to rise even faster.

Warmer oceans can drive fish migrations and lead to coral bleaching and die off.

As the ocean surface warms, it’s less able to mix with deep, nutrient-rich water, which limits the growth of phytoplankton (little plants that serve as the base of the marine food web and that also produce a lot of the oxygen we breathe). This in turn affects the whole food chain.

In addition to taking up heat, the oceans are also absorbing about a quarter of the carbon pollution that humans produce. In addition to warming the air and water of our planet, some of this extra carbon dioxide is being absorbed by the ocean, making our oceans more acidic. In fact, the rate of ocean acidification is the highest it has been in 300 million years!

This acidification negatively impacts many marine habitats and animals, but is a particular threat to shellfish, which struggle to grow shells as water becomes more acidic.

There’s also evidence that warming surface waters may contribute to slowing ocean currents. These currents act like a giant global conveyor belt that transports heat from the tropics toward the poles. This conveyor belt is critical for bringing nutrient-rich waters towards the surface near the poles where giant blooms of food web-supporting phytoplankton occur (this is why the Arctic and Antarctic are known for having such high abundance of fish and marine mammals). With continued warming, these processes may be at risk.

Climate change is disrupting weather patterns, leading to more extreme and frequent heatwaves, droughts, and flooding events that directly threaten harvests. Warmer seasons are also contributing to rising populations of insect pests that eat a higher share of crop yields, and higher carbon dioxide levels are causing plants to grow faster, while decreasing their nutritional content.

Flooding, drought, and heatwaves have decimated crops in China. In Bangladesh, rising sea levels are threatening rice crops. In the midwestern United States, more frequent and intense rains have caused devastating spring flooding, which delays—and sometimes prevents—planting activities.

These impacts make it more difficult for farmers to grow crops and sustain their livelihoods. Globally, one recent study finds that staple crop yield failures will be 4.5 times higher by 2030 and 25 times higher by mid-century. That means a major rice or wheat failure every other year, and higher probabilities of soybean and maize failures.

However, farmers are poised to play a significant role in addressing climate change. Agricultural lands are among the Earth’s largest natural reservoirs of carbon , and when farmers use soil health practices like cover crops, reduced tillage, and crop rotations, they can draw carbon out of the atmosphere .

These practices also help to improve the soil’s water-holding capacity, which is beneficial as water can be absorbed from the soil by crops during times of drought, and during heavy rainfalls, soil can help reduce flooding and run-off by slowing the release of water into streams.

Healthier soils can also improve crop yields, boost farmers’ profitability, and reduce erosion and fertilizer runoff from farm fields, which in turn means cleaner waterways for people and nature. That’s why climate-smart agriculture is a win-win!

Solutions to Climate Change

Yes, deforestation, land use change, and agricultural emissions are responsible for about a quarter of heat-trapping gas emissions from human activities. Agricultural emissions include methane from livestock digestion and manure, nitrous oxide from fertilizer use, and carbon dioxide from land use change.

Forests are one of our most important types of natural carbon storage , so when people cut down forests, they lose their ability to store carbon. Burning trees—either through wildfires or controlled burns-- releases even more carbon into the atmosphere.

Forests are some of the best natural climate solutions we have on this planet. If we can slow or stop deforestation , manage natural land so that it is healthy, and use other natural climate solutions such as climate-smart agricultural practices, we could achieve up to one third of the emission reductions needed by 2030 to keep global temperatures from rising more than 2°C (3.6°F). That’s the equivalent of the world putting a complete stop to burning oil.

When it comes to climate change, there’s no one solution that will fix it all. Rather, there are many solutions that, together, can address this challenge at scale while building a safer, more equitable, and greener world.

First, we need to reduce our heat-trapping gas emissions as much as possible, as soon as possible. Through efficiency and behavioral change, we can reduce the amount of energy we need.

At the same time, we have to  transition all sectors of our economy away from fossil fuels  that emit carbon, through increasing our use of clean energy sources like wind and solar. This transition will happen much faster and more cost-effectively if governments enact an economy-wide price on carbon.

Second, we need to harness the power of nature to capture carbon and deploy agricultural practices and technologies that capture and store carbon. Our research shows that proper land management of forests and farmlands, also called natural climate solutions, can provide up to one-third of the emissions reductions necessary to reach the Paris Climate Agreement’s goal.

The truth, however, is that even if we do successfully reach net zero carbon emissions by 2050, we will still have to address harmful climate impacts. That’s why there is a third category of climate solutions that is equally important: adaptation to the impacts of global warming.

Adaptation consists of helping our human and natural systems prepare for the impacts of a warming planet. Greening urban areas helps protect them from heat and floods; restoring coastal wetlands helps protect from storm surge; increasing the diversity of ecosystems helps them to weather heat and drought; growing super-reefs helps corals withstand marine heatwaves. There are many ways we can use technology, behavioral change, and nature to work together to make us more resilient to climate impacts.

Climate change affects us all, but it doesn’t affect us all equally or fairly. We see how sea level rise threatens communities of small island states like Kiribati and the Solomon Islands and of low-lying neighborhoods in coastal cities like Mumbai, Houston and Lagos. Similarly, people living in many low-income neighborhoods in urban areas in North America are disproportionately exposed to heat and flood risk due to a long history of racist policies like redlining.

Those who have done the least to contribute to this problem often bear the brunt of the impacts and have the fewest resources to adapt. That’s why it is particularly important to help vulnerable communities adapt and become more resilient to climate change.

We need to  increase renewable energy at least nine-fold  from where it is today to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement and avoid the worst climate change impacts. Every watt that we can reduce through efficiency or shift from fossil fuel to renewables like wind power or solar power is a step in the right direction.

The best science we have tells us that to avoid the worst impacts of global warming, we must globally achieve net-zero carbon emissions no later than 2050. To do this, the world must immediately identify pathways to reduce carbon emissions from all sectors: transportation, agriculture, electricity, and industry. This cannot be achieved without a major shift to renewable energy.

Clean energy and technological innovation are not only helping mitigate climate change, but also helping create jobs and support economic growth in communities across the world. Renewable energy such as wind and solar have experienced remarkable growth and huge cost improvements over the past decade with no signs of slowing down.

Prices are declining rapidly, and renewable energy is becoming increasingly competitive with fossil fuels all around the world. In some places, new renewable energy is already cheaper than continuing to operate old, inefficient, and dirty fossil fuel-fired power plants.

However, it’s important that renewable energy development isn’t built at the expense of protecting unique ecosystems or important agricultural lands. Without proactive planning, renewable energy developments could displace up to 76 million acres of farm and wildlife habitat—an area the size of Arizona.

Fortunately, TNC studies have found that  we can meet clean energy demand 17 times over  without converting more natural habitat. The key is to deploy new energy infrastructure on the wealth of previously converted areas such as agricultural lands, mine sites, and other transformed terrain, at a  lower cost .

Thoughtful planning is required at every step. For instance, much of the United States’ wind potential is in the Great Plains, a region with the best remaining grassland habitat on the continent. TNC has mapped out the right places to site wind turbines  in this region in order to catalyze renewable energy responsibly, and we’re doing the same analysis for India and Europe as well.

There can also be unique interventions to protect wildlife where clean energy has already been developed. In Kenya, for instance, a wind farm employs biodiversity monitors to watch for migrating birds , and can order individual turbines to shut down in less than a minute.

The Nature Conservancy is committed to tackling the dual crises of climate change and biodiversity loss. These two crises are, as our chief scientist says, two sides of the same coin .

What we do between now and 2030 will determine if we get on track to meet the targets of the Paris Agreement while also conserving enough land and water to slow accelerated species loss. That’s why we have ambitious 2030 goals that focus on people and the planet.

We're combatting these dual crises by:

• Enhancing nature’s ability to draw down and store carbon across forests, farmlands and wetlands by  accelerating the deployment of natural climate solutions .
• Mobilizing action for a clean energy future  and new, low-carbon technologies in harmony with nature.
• Supporting the leadership of Indigenous Peoples and local communities .
• Building resilience through natural defenses such as restored reefs, mangroves and wetlands that reduce the impact of storms and floods.
• Restoring and bolstering the resilience of vulnerable ecosystems like coral reefs and coastal wetlands.
• Helping countries around the globe, like India and Croatia , implement and enhance their commitments to the Paris Agreement.

Visit  Our Goals for 2030  to learn more about TNC’s actions and partnerships to tackle climate change this decade.

Why We Must Urgently Act on Climate

Some amount of change has already occurred, and some future changes are inevitable due to our past choices. However, the good news is that we know what causes it and what to do to stop it. It will take courage, ambition, and a push to create change, but it can be done.

Reaching net zero carbon emissions by 2050 is an ambitious goal, one that’s going to require substantial effort across every sector of the economy. We don’t have a lot of time, but if we are prepared to act now, and act together, we can substantially reduce the rate of global warming and prevent the worst impacts of climate change from coming to pass.

The even better news is that the low carbon economy that we need to create will also give us cleaner air, more abundant food and water, more affordable energy choices, and safer cities. Likewise, many of the solutions to even today’s climate change impacts benefit both people and nature.

When we really understand the benefits of climate action—how it will lead us to a world that is safer and healthier, more just and equitable—the only question we have left is: What are we waiting for?

Scientific studies show that climate change, if unchecked, would overwhelm our communities and pose an existential threat to certain ecosystems.

These catastrophic impacts include sea level rise from melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica that would flood most major global coastal cities; increasingly common and more severe storms, droughts, and heatwaves; massive crop failures and water shortages; and the large-scale destruction of habitats and ecosystems, leading to species extinctions .

To avoid the worst of climate change, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) says that “every bit of warming matters.” When it comes to limiting climate change, there’s no magic threshold: the faster we reduce our emissions, the better off we will be.

In 2015, all the countries in the world came together and signed the Paris Agreement . It’s a legally binding international treaty in which signatories agree to hold “the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2°C (3.5° F) above pre-industrial levels” and pursue efforts “to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C (2.7°F) above pre-industrial levels.”

Every day that goes by, we are releasing carbon into the atmosphere and increasing our planetary risk. Scientists agree that we need to begin reducing carbon emissions  RIGHT NOW .

To reach the goal of the Paris Agreement, the world must make significant progress toward decarbonization (reducing carbon from the atmosphere and replacing fossil fuels in our economies) by 2030 and commit ourselves to reaching net zero carbon emissions by 2050. This is no small feat and will require a range of solutions applied together, to reach the goal.

As the IPCC says, “every action matters.” You can be part of the climate change solution and you can activate others, too.

It’s really important that we use our voices for climate action.  Tell your policy makers that you care about climate change  and want to see them enact laws and policies that address greenhouse gas emissions and climate impacts.

One of the simplest—and most important—things that everyone can do is to  talk about climate change with family and friends . We know these conversations can seem like a recipe for discord and hard feelings. It starts with meeting people where they are. TNC has resources to help you break the climate silence and pave the way for action on global warming.

You can also talk about climate change where you work, and with any other organization you’re part of. Join an organization that shares your values and priorities, to help amplify your voice. Collective change begins with understanding the risks climate change poses and the actions that can be taken together to reduce emissions and build resilience.

Lastly, you can calculate your carbon footprint  and take actions individually or with your family and friends to lower it. You might be surprised which of your activities are emitting the most heat-trapping gases. But don’t forget to talk about the changes you’ve made, to help make them contagious —contagious in a good way, of course!

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Talking About Climate

COP28: Your Guide to the 2023 UN Climate Change Conference in UAE

COP28 takes place November 30-December 12, 2023 in United Arab Emirates. This guide will tell you what to expect at COP28, why TNC will be there, and what it all means for you.

Food, Climate and Nature FAQs: Understanding the Food System’s Role in Healing Our Planet

You've got questions about food, farming, climate and nature. We've got answers and easy ways you can support regenerative food systems that help the planet.

Renewable Energy Transition

We no longer need to choose between abundant energy and a cleaner environment. A renewable energy revolution is happening across the globe.

There is unequivocal evidence that Earth is warming at an unprecedented rate. Human activity is the principal cause.

• While Earth’s climate has changed throughout its history , the current warming is happening at a rate not seen in the past 10,000 years.
• According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ), "Since systematic scientific assessments began in the 1970s, the influence of human activity on the warming of the climate system has evolved from theory to established fact." 1
• Scientific information taken from natural sources (such as ice cores, rocks, and tree rings) and from modern equipment (like satellites and instruments) all show the signs of a changing climate.
• From global temperature rise to melting ice sheets, the evidence of a warming planet abounds.

The rate of change since the mid-20th century is unprecedented over millennia.

Earth's climate has changed throughout history. Just in the last 800,000 years, there have been eight cycles of ice ages and warmer periods, with the end of the last ice age about 11,700 years ago marking the beginning of the modern climate era — and of human civilization. Most of these climate changes are attributed to very small variations in Earth’s orbit that change the amount of solar energy our planet receives.

The current warming trend is different because it is clearly the result of human activities since the mid-1800s, and is proceeding at a rate not seen over many recent millennia. 1 It is undeniable that human activities have produced the atmospheric gases that have trapped more of the Sun’s energy in the Earth system. This extra energy has warmed the atmosphere, ocean, and land, and widespread and rapid changes in the atmosphere, ocean, cryosphere, and biosphere have occurred.

Earth-orbiting satellites and new technologies have helped scientists see the big picture, collecting many different types of information about our planet and its climate all over the world. These data, collected over many years, reveal the signs and patterns of a changing climate.

Scientists demonstrated the heat-trapping nature of carbon dioxide and other gases in the mid-19th century. 2 Many of the science instruments NASA uses to study our climate focus on how these gases affect the movement of infrared radiation through the atmosphere. From the measured impacts of increases in these gases, there is no question that increased greenhouse gas levels warm Earth in response.

Scientific evidence for warming of the climate system is unequivocal.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

Ice cores drawn from Greenland, Antarctica, and tropical mountain glaciers show that Earth’s climate responds to changes in greenhouse gas levels. Ancient evidence can also be found in tree rings, ocean sediments, coral reefs, and layers of sedimentary rocks. This ancient, or paleoclimate, evidence reveals that current warming is occurring roughly 10 times faster than the average rate of warming after an ice age. Carbon dioxide from human activities is increasing about 250 times faster than it did from natural sources after the last Ice Age. 3

The Evidence for Rapid Climate Change Is Compelling:

Global Temperature Is Rising

The planet's average surface temperature has risen about 2 degrees Fahrenheit (1 degrees Celsius) since the late 19th century, a change driven largely by increased carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere and other human activities. 4 Most of the warming occurred in the past 40 years, with the seven most recent years being the warmest. The years 2016 and 2020 are tied for the warmest year on record. 5 Image credit: Ashwin Kumar, Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic.

The Ocean Is Getting Warmer

The ocean has absorbed much of this increased heat, with the top 100 meters (about 328 feet) of ocean showing warming of 0.67 degrees Fahrenheit (0.33 degrees Celsius) since 1969. 6 Earth stores 90% of the extra energy in the ocean. Image credit: Kelsey Roberts/USGS

The Ice Sheets Are Shrinking

The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have decreased in mass. Data from NASA's Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment show Greenland lost an average of 279 billion tons of ice per year between 1993 and 2019, while Antarctica lost about 148 billion tons of ice per year. 7 Image: The Antarctic Peninsula, Credit: NASA

Glaciers Are Retreating

Glaciers are retreating almost everywhere around the world — including in the Alps, Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alaska, and Africa. 8 Image: Miles Glacier, Alaska Image credit: NASA

Snow Cover Is Decreasing

Satellite observations reveal that the amount of spring snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere has decreased over the past five decades and the snow is melting earlier. 9 Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

Sea Level Is Rising

Global sea level rose about 8 inches (20 centimeters) in the last century. The rate in the last two decades, however, is nearly double that of the last century and accelerating slightly every year. 10 Image credit: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Norfolk District

Arctic Sea Ice Is Declining

Both the extent and thickness of Arctic sea ice has declined rapidly over the last several decades. 11 Credit: NASA's Scientific Visualization Studio

Extreme Events Are Increasing in Frequency

The number of record high temperature events in the United States has been increasing, while the number of record low temperature events has been decreasing, since 1950. The U.S. has also witnessed increasing numbers of intense rainfall events. 12 Image credit: Régine Fabri,  CC BY-SA 4.0 , via Wikimedia Commons

Ocean Acidification Is Increasing

Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean waters has increased by about 30%. 13 , 14 This increase is due to humans emitting more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and hence more being absorbed into the ocean. The ocean has absorbed between 20% and 30% of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions in recent decades (7.2 to 10.8 billion metric tons per year). 1 5 , 16 Image credit: NOAA

1. IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, WGI, Technical Summary . B.D. Santer et.al., “A search for human influences on the thermal structure of the atmosphere.” Nature 382 (04 July 1996): 39-46. https://doi.org/10.1038/382039a0. Gabriele C. Hegerl et al., “Detecting Greenhouse-Gas-Induced Climate Change with an Optimal Fingerprint Method.” Journal of Climate 9 (October 1996): 2281-2306. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1996)009<2281:DGGICC>2.0.CO;2. V. Ramaswamy, et al., “Anthropogenic and Natural Influences in the Evolution of Lower Stratospheric Cooling.” Science 311 (24 February 2006): 1138-1141. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1122587. B.D. Santer et al., “Contributions of Anthropogenic and Natural Forcing to Recent Tropopause Height Changes.” Science 301 (25 July 2003): 479-483. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1084123. T. Westerhold et al., "An astronomically dated record of Earth’s climate and its predictability over the last 66 million years." Science 369 (11 Sept. 2020): 1383-1387. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1094123

2. In 1824, Joseph Fourier calculated that an Earth-sized planet, at our distance from the Sun, ought to be much colder. He suggested something in the atmosphere must be acting like an insulating blanket. In 1856, Eunice Foote discovered that blanket, showing that carbon dioxide and water vapor in Earth's atmosphere trap escaping infrared (heat) radiation. In the 1860s, physicist John Tyndall recognized Earth's natural greenhouse effect and suggested that slight changes in the atmospheric composition could bring about climatic variations. In 1896, a seminal paper by Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius first predicted that changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels could substantially alter the surface temperature through the greenhouse effect. In 1938, Guy Callendar connected carbon dioxide increases in Earth’s atmosphere to global warming. In 1941, Milutin Milankovic linked ice ages to Earth’s orbital characteristics. Gilbert Plass formulated the Carbon Dioxide Theory of Climate Change in 1956.

3. IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, WG1, Chapter 2 Vostok ice core data; NOAA Mauna Loa CO2 record O. Gaffney, W. Steffen, "The Anthropocene Equation." The Anthropocene Review 4, issue 1 (April 2017): 53-61. https://doi.org/abs/10.1177/2053019616688022.

4. https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/monitoring https://crudata.uea.ac.uk/cru/data/temperature/ http://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp

5. https://www.giss.nasa.gov/research/news/20170118/

6. S. Levitus, J. Antonov, T. Boyer, O Baranova, H. Garcia, R. Locarnini, A. Mishonov, J. Reagan, D. Seidov, E. Yarosh, M. Zweng, " NCEI ocean heat content, temperature anomalies, salinity anomalies, thermosteric sea level anomalies, halosteric sea level anomalies, and total steric sea level anomalies from 1955 to present calculated from in situ oceanographic subsurface profile data (NCEI Accession 0164586), Version 4.4. (2017) NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information. https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/OC5/3M_HEAT_CONTENT/index3.html K. von Schuckmann, L. Cheng, L,. D. Palmer, J. Hansen, C. Tassone, V. Aich, S. Adusumilli, H. Beltrami, H., T. Boyer, F. Cuesta-Valero, D. Desbruyeres, C. Domingues, A. Garcia-Garcia, P. Gentine, J. Gilson, M. Gorfer, L. Haimberger, M. Ishii, M., G. Johnson, R. Killick, B. King, G. Kirchengast, N. Kolodziejczyk, J. Lyman, B. Marzeion, M. Mayer, M. Monier, D. Monselesan, S. Purkey, D. Roemmich, A. Schweiger, S. Seneviratne, A. Shepherd, D. Slater, A. Steiner, F. Straneo, M.L. Timmermans, S. Wijffels. "Heat stored in the Earth system: where does the energy go?" Earth System Science Data 12, Issue 3 (07 September 2020): 2013-2041. https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-12-2013-2020.

7. I. Velicogna, Yara Mohajerani, A. Geruo, F. Landerer, J. Mouginot, B. Noel, E. Rignot, T. Sutterly, M. van den Broeke, M. Wessem, D. Wiese, "Continuity of Ice Sheet Mass Loss in Greenland and Antarctica From the GRACE and GRACE Follow-On Missions." Geophysical Research Letters 47, Issue 8 (28 April 2020): e2020GL087291. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL087291.

8. National Snow and Ice Data Center World Glacier Monitoring Service

9. National Snow and Ice Data Center D.A. Robinson, D. K. Hall, and T. L. Mote, "MEaSUREs Northern Hemisphere Terrestrial Snow Cover Extent Daily 25km EASE-Grid 2.0, Version 1 (2017). Boulder, Colorado USA. NASA National Snow and Ice Data Center Distributed Active Archive Center. doi: https://doi.org/10.5067/MEASURES/CRYOSPHERE/nsidc-0530.001 . http://nsidc.org/cryosphere/sotc/snow_extent.html Rutgers University Global Snow Lab. Data History

10. R.S. Nerem, B.D. Beckley, J. T. Fasullo, B.D. Hamlington, D. Masters, and G.T. Mitchum, "Climate-change–driven accelerated sea-level rise detected in the altimeter era." PNAS 15, no. 9 (12 Feb. 2018): 2022-2025. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1717312115.

11. https://nsidc.org/cryosphere/sotc/sea_ice.html Pan-Arctic Ice Ocean Modeling and Assimilation System (PIOMAS, Zhang and Rothrock, 2003) http://psc.apl.washington.edu/research/projects/arctic-sea-ice-volume-anomaly/ http://psc.apl.uw.edu/research/projects/projections-of-an-ice-diminished-arctic-ocean/

12. USGCRP, 2017: Climate Science Special Report: Fourth National Climate Assessment, Volume I [Wuebbles, D.J., D.W. Fahey, K.A. Hibbard, D.J. Dokken, B.C. Stewart, and T.K. Maycock (eds.)]. U.S. Global Change Research Program, Washington, DC, USA, 470 pp, https://doi.org/10.7930/j0j964j6 .

13. http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/What+is+Ocean+Acidification%3F

14. http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/Ocean+Acidification

15. C.L. Sabine, et al., “The Oceanic Sink for Anthropogenic CO2.” Science 305 (16 July 2004): 367-371. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1097403.

16. Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate , Technical Summary, Chapter TS.5, Changing Ocean, Marine Ecosystems, and Dependent Communities, Section 5.2.2.3. https://www.ipcc.ch/srocc/chapter/technical-summary/

Header image shows clouds imitating mountains as the sun sets after midnight as seen from Denali's backcountry Unit 13 on June 14, 2019. Credit: NPS/Emily Mesner Image credit in list of evidence: Ashwin Kumar, Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic.

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Facts About Earth

Climate Change

Frequently asked questions about climate change.

The Earth’s climate is changing. Rising temperatures are already driving changes in climate around the globe, including changes in precipitation patterns and the frequency or intensity of extreme events such as storms, floods, droughts, and heat waves.The warmer climate has also led to rising sea levels, changes in snow and ice cover, longer growing seasons, and impacts on infrastructure, public health, and ecosystems. Many of these observed changes are linked to the rising levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in our atmosphere, caused by human activities.  [1]  

See the frequently asked questions below to learn more about the causes of climate change, why it matters, and what we can do about it.

Climate refers to average weather conditions over many years. For example, the climate in Minnesota is cold and snowy in the winter, while the climate in Hawai'i is warm and humid all year long. Weather, in contrast, refers to a specific event or condition that happens over a period of hours or days. For example, a thunderstorm, a snowstorm, and today's temperature all describe weather. 

Climate change involves significant changes, over several decades or longer, in temperature, precipitation, wind patterns, and other aspects of climate. Weather varies naturally from year to year, so one unusually cold or wet year followed by an unusually warm or dry year would not be considered a sign of climate change. Climate change involves longer-term trends, such as a gradual shift toward warmer, wetter, or drier conditions. 

“Global Warming” vs. “Climate Change”

Global warming is just one aspect of climate change. It’s a term used to describe the recent rise in the global average temperature near Earth's surface, which is caused mostly by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide and methane) in the atmosphere. The terms “global warming” and “climate change” are sometimes used interchangeably, but warming is only one of the ways in which climate is affected by rising concentrations of greenhouse gases.

Hundreds of independent lines of evidence confirm that our climate is changing. For example, scientists have documented long-term changes around the world in temperature , precipitation , sea level , and the amount of heat stored in the ocean . Especially dramatic changes are underway in the Arctic , where warming is amplified by powerful feedbacks. Reductions in sea ice , land-based ice, and snow cover, along with the thawing of permafrost, are having profound impacts in the Arctic and beyond. Rising sea levels, caused mainly by the expansion of seawater as it warms, along with billions of tons of water added to the ocean each year from melting glaciers , ice caps, and ice sheets, are affecting coastal communities in many parts of the world, including places like South Florida, Chesapeake Bay, and low-lying communities along the Gulf Coast in the United States. Changes in the length of growing seasons and pollen seasons , the timing of bird migrations , and range shifts in plants and wildlife provide still more evidence for recent changes in climate.

The Greenhouse Effect

Greenhouse gases, such as CO 2 , methane, and nitrous oxide, act like a blanket around the planet. They trap energy in the atmosphere and cause it to warm. This phenomenon, called the greenhouse effect, is natural and necessary to support life on Earth: without it the Earth’s average temperature would be around 0°F. But scientists agree that the continuing buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere—caused mainly by the burning of fossil fuels for energy—will upset the natural energy balance and change Earth's climate, with potentially dangerous risks to human health, infrastructure, the economy, and ecosystems. 

Climate scientists have concluded that humans are largely responsible for the climate change that has occurred since the 1950s. [1]  Human activities—such as burning fossil fuels for energy, cultivating crops, raising livestock, and clearing forests—are releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere . These greenhouse gases are being emitted faster than forests and the oceans can remove them, causing them to build up in the atmosphere. 

The atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) has increased by more than 40% since pre-industrial times, and the current CO 2  level is higher than it has been in at least 800,000 years. [1] We know that human activities are the cause of this increase because the CO 2  emitted by burning fossil fuels carries a distinct chemical fingerprint that’s detectable in the atmosphere. [2]

Scientists have known since the 1800s that greenhouse gases trap heat, preventing it from escaping to space. The warming effect of greenhouse gases is amplified by feedbacks, especially from water vapor (a powerful and plentiful natural greenhouse gas), leading to more warming and changes in climate. [1] Natural influences on climate, such as changes in solar radiation, natural cycles, volcanic eruptions, and the climate’s normal year-to-year variability, can‘t fully explain the current warming trend. [1]  The climate changes observed in recent decades follow a number of patterns—such as cooling at high altitudes and more warming at night than during the day—that are consistent with what scientists would expect from an increase in greenhouse gases rather than changes in solar variability or other natural causes. [1]

The Earth’s average temperature has risen by 1.5°F over the past century, and climate scientists estimate it will rise another 0.5 to 8.6°F by the end of this century, depending, in part, on future emissions. [1]  That may not sound like much to worry about, since most of us experience much greater temperature changes over the course of a day or from season to season. But the global average temperature during the height of the last ice age was only 5 to 9°F cooler than it is today. [3]  Relatively small changes in the planet’s average temperature can mean big changes in local and regional climate , creating risks to public health and safety [4] ,  water resources , agriculture , infrastructure , and ecosystems . [5]  Following are some examples:  [5]

• Increasing heat waves: Heat waves have become more frequent in the United States in recent decades. Climate scientists expect the number of days with temperatures above 90°F to increase in the United States as the climate changes, especially toward the end of this century. 
• More extreme weather: In addition to heat waves, changes in precipitation patterns, including extreme precipitation events, storms, and floods, are becoming more common and more severe in many regions, and this is expected to continue. 
• Intensified droughts: Higher temperatures lead to increased rates of evaporation and can lead to more rapid drying of soils. Without reductions in global greenhouse gas emissions, longer-term droughts are expected to intensify in much of the Southwest, the Great Plains, and the Southeast.
• Impacts on crops: Over the past 40 years, climate disruptions to agricultural production have increased, and this is expected to continue.
• Impacts on health: Climate change is increasing our exposure to extreme temperatures, extreme weather events; degraded air quality; diseases transmitted through food, water, and insects; and stresses to mental health and well-being. These threats to human health are expected to increase with continued climate change.
• More wildfires: The area burned by wildfire in parts of western North America is expected to double (or more) for each 1.8°F increase in global average temperature. [6]
• Rising sea levels: Global sea level has risen by about eight inches since the late 1800s, and is projected to rise another 1 to 4 feet by the end of this century. Flooding is becoming more frequent along the U.S. coastline, especially in the Mid-Atlantic region where the land is simultaneously sinking.

Climate change endangers our health by affecting our food and water sources, the air we breathe, the weather we experience, and our interactions with the built and natural environments. As the climate continues to change, the risks to human health continue to grow.

Although every American is vulnerable to the health impacts associated with climate change, some populations are disproportionately vulnerable , including those with low income, some communities of color, immigrant groups (including those with limited English proficiency), Indigenous peoples, children and pregnant women, older adults, vulnerable occupational groups, persons with disabilities, and persons with preexisting or chronic medical conditions. [4]

By making choices that reduce greenhouse gas pollution , and preparing for the changes expected in the future, we can reduce risks from climate change. Our decisions today will shape the world we live in and the world we leave to our children and grandchildren. 

Due to time lags in the climate system and the fact that CO 2 stays in the atmosphere for hundreds or thousands of years, the climate will continue to warm until at least mid-century regardless of what we do today to reduce emissions (see graph below). If we fail to make substantial cuts to greenhouse gas emissions, the Earth will keep warming for centuries to come. [1]

But it is not too late to address climate change and reduce the risks of impacts in the second half of this century and beyond. Doing so will require substantial cuts in greenhouse emissions. This will require stepping up improvements in energy efficiency, reducing waste, slowing deforestation, and shifting to cleaner energy sources. 

Communities can also prepare for the changes in the decades ahead by identifying and reducing their vulnerabilities and incorporating consideration of climate change risks into planning and development. Such actions can ensure that the most vulnerable populations—such as young children, older adults, and people living in poverty—are protected from health and safety threats from climate change.

Economic studies suggest that the longer we wait to act on climate change, the more expensive it will be. There are many technologies already available, and actions we can take today, that will help us reduce our risks. Many of the actions that we can take to address climate change will have immediate benefits, such as cleaner, healthier air, as well as significant future climate benefits. A recent EPA study found that global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions could avoid tens of thousands of deaths annually in the U.S. by the end of the century and avoid billions of dollars in damages related to water shortages, agricultural losses, flooding, and other impacts.

Yes – small actions really add up! There are many actions that individuals and business can take to reduce their carbon footprint and act on climate change. Simple actions such as using energy-efficient light bulbs, looking for the ENERGY STAR label on appliances and other products, recycling and composting, purchasing green power, using public transit, and bicycling or walking instead of driving can make a difference by reducing your household’s carbon footprint.

As thousands of households and businesses have already discovered, improving energy efficiency in our homes and products can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and also save money. EPA’s ENERGY STAR program, a voluntary initiative that drives more widespread use of energy-efficient products and practices, has saved U.S. businesses, organizations, and consumers more than $362 billion in energy costs since 1992 while avoiding more than 2 billion metric tons of greenhouse gas emissions.

• EPA’s Climate Change site provides details on the science and impacts of climate change, sources of emissions, a household emissions calculator, and much more.
• What You Can Do about Climate Change  on EPA's Climate Change site offers suggestions for what you can do at home, at the office, at school, and on the road to reduce your greenhouse gas emissions.
• Climate.gov , run by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, serves as a source for news and features on U.S. and global climate, maps and data, and resources for teachers.
• NASA’s Global Climate Change site provides news, educational information, apps, images, multimedia, and other resources.
• The U.S. Global Change Research Program conducts the U.S. National Climate Assessment and conducts a wide range of other research on climate change.
• Climate Change Evidence and Causes , a report by the National Academy of Sciences, looks at 20 common questions about climate change and provides authoritative answers from leading climate scientists. 

Top of Page

1. IPCC (2013). Summary for Policymakers. In:  Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis.  Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .  Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2. IPCC (2007). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Frequently Asked Questions . FAQ 7.1. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 3. IPCC (2007). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Executive Summary. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 4.​ USGCRP (2016). The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment .  Crimmins, A., J. Balbus, J.L. Gamble, C.B. Beard, J.E. Bell, D. Dodgen, R.J. Eisen, N. Fann, M.D. Hawkins, S.C. Herring, L. Jantarasami, D.M. Mills, S. Saha, M.C. Sarofim, J. Trtanj, and L. Ziska, Eds. U.S. Global Change Research Program. 5. USGCRP (2014). Climate Change Impacts in the United States: The Third National Climate Assessment . Melillo, Jerry M., Theres (T.C.) Richmond, and Gary W. Yohe, Eds., U.S. Global Change Research Program. 6. National Research Council (2011). Climate Stabilization Targets: Emissions, Concentrations, and Impacts over Decades to Millenia. National Academies Press.

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Climate change: Answers to your most asked questions

• Published 24 May 2019

During the last worldwide school strikes in March, BBC News asked for your questions on climate change.

Since then, thousands of you have been talking to our climate change chatbot on Facebook Messenger.

Below are some of the topics that came up many times - with some answers from science and our climate team.

You can chat to our climate bot here , external .

You asked: Can we adapt to climate change instead of fighting it?

Humans are already adapting. In South Korea, farmers are growing different crops to future-proof themselves against changing temperatures.

London's Thames Barrier was designed to help the city deal with an increasing risk of flooding.

And the United Nations has made adaptation a key part of its strategy, alongside measures to curb rising global average temperatures.

Under the Paris climate agreement, richer countries have agreed to help poorer nations by providing "climate finance" to help them adapt.

You asked: Should I change my diet?

Avoiding meat and dairy products is one of the biggest ways to reduce your environmental impact.

Cutting these from your diet could reduce an individual's carbon footprint from food by two-thirds, according to one Oxford study , external .

Climate change food calculator: What's your diet's carbon footprint?

Beef and lamb have a big environmental impact, as the digestive systems of livestock produce methane - a powerful greenhouse gas.

The UN says we need to eat more locally-sourced seasonal food, and throw less of it away.

How and where your food is produced is also important, as the same food can have very different impacts.

For example, beef cattle raised on deforested land is responsible for 12 times more emissions than cows reared on natural pastures.

You asked: What can I do?

Lots. The UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) says the world cannot meet its emissions targets without changes by individuals.

Buy less meat, milk, cheese and butter and more locally sourced seasonal food - and throw less of it away

Change how you get around. Drive electric cars but walk or cycle short distances. Take trains and buses instead of planes

Use video-conferencing instead of business travel

Use a washing line instead of a tumble dryer

Insulate homes

Demand low carbon in every consumer product

Research reported by the IPCC also said , external people tend to overestimate the energy-saving potential of lighting, and underestimate the energy used to heat water.

It also says people don't think a lot about the energy used for the creation of products they buy.

You asked: Why has so much changed in food labelling for personal health but not planet health?

In 2013, the government set out plans for a consistent "traffic light" food labelling system to help people easily understand what's in their food.

But we don't have a similar system for the carbon footprint or environmental impact.

It would involve considering things such as air freight versus importing food by sea, the use of water in food production, as well as the impact on land and forests.

Tesco did try it in 2007 - it started calculating the carbon footprint of every one of its 70,000 products.

But five years later the supermarket gave up, saying it was "a minimum of several months' work" for each product.

In 2007, Walkers Crisps was the first , external UK firm to put carbon footprint figures on its products. But the company confirmed to the BBC that it has since removed them.

You asked: What about the world's increasing population?

Human-induced climate change is happening. And the UN estimates , external the world has added approximately one billion humans since 2005.

But depending on where in the world you live - and your lifestyle - a person's emissions can be very different.

Generally, people living in countries like the UK depend heavily on fossil fuels.

According to one study , external , having one fewer child is the single most effective thing you can do to reduce your emissions.

But this result is contentious and leads to many philosophical and ethical questions which we're not going to wade into here.

Like, if you are responsible for your children's emissions, are your parents responsible for yours?

You asked: What are governments doing on climate change?

Individual governments are choosing to tackle climate change in various ways.

But the one thing that has pulled the world together is the Paris agreement.

What is in the Paris climate agreement?

'Trump effect' threatens Paris agreement

The deal has united nearly 200 countries in a single agreement on tackling climate change for the first time ever.

Nations pledged to keep global temperatures "well below" 2.0C (3.6F) above pre-industrial times and "endeavour to limit" them even more, to 1.5C.

However, scientists point out that the agreement must be stepped up if it is to have any chance of curbing dangerous climate change.

You asked: How much hotter has the world got - and how hot will it get?

Global temperatures rises are generally compared to "pre-industrial times". Many researchers define that as 1850-1900 - before the world was chugging out greenhouse gases on a global scale.

The world is now about 1C warmer than it was back then, according to the IPCC.

For decades, researchers argued the global temperature rise must be kept below 2C by the end of this century to avoid the worst impacts.

But scientists now argue that keeping below 1.5C is a far safer limit for the world.

What does 1.5C mean in a warming world?

It's hard to know much hotter the world will get. But if current trends continue, the World Meteorological Organization says temperatures may rise by 3-5C by 2100.

You asked: Why doesn't BBC News do more on climate change?

Covering climate change and its impact on people around the world is a top priority for BBC News.

We know climate change is an increasingly important subject. Younger audiences in particular tell us they would like to see more journalism on the issue, the BBC says.

There has been a significant increase in the number and range of stories across our output.

This includes prominent coverage of the latest scientific research, extreme weather events, climate protests, how climate change is affecting people's lives and the search for solutions to this enormous global challenge.

These stories are resonating with our audiences and it is a subject we are committed to covering in depth across BBC News.

You asked: What if I can't afford to change my way of life?

Being climate conscious can often feel very expensive, from changing your food habits to buying an electric car.

But there are some things that will save you money - like eating wonky vegetables instead of red meat and cycling to work instead of driving.

And making your home more energy efficient should actually bring down your bills.

Chat to our climate change bot on Facebook Messenger , external

Global warming frequently asked questions

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News & features, climate change: atmospheric carbon dioxide, does it matter how much the united states reduces its carbon dioxide emissions if china doesn't do the same, how much will earth warm if carbon dioxide doubles pre-industrial levels, maps & data, air - atmospheric climate variables, land - terrestrial climate variables, what environmental data are relevant to the study of infectious diseases like covid-19, teaching climate, toolbox for teaching climate & energy, white house climate education and literacy initiative, climate youth engagement, climate resilience toolkit, annual greenhouse gas index, food safety and nutrition, climate change indicators in the united states—2016.

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Climate change questions and answers

Why is our climate changing? What are the impacts? Here we address some of the common questions raised about the changing climate and the science involved in studying it.

What is climate change?

Climate change refers to any long-term trends or shifts in climate over many decades.

How has climate changed in the past?

There is a great deal of evidence that the Earth's climate has warmed over the past century, with recent years the warmest on record.

Why do sea levels change?

Sea levels can change for a variety of reasons over a range of different time scales.

How are large scale climate processes responding in a changing climate?

Large-scale climate processes, such as El Niño and the Indian Ocean Dipole, affect Australia’s climate. Climate change may make the impacts of these processes more extreme.

How is climate likely to change in the future?

The Earth's future climate will depend on whether the world manages to slow or reduce greenhouse gas emissions, but warming is likely to continue.

How do greenhouse gases warm the planet?

The greenhouse effect keeps the Earth’s climate liveable, but human activities have increased the amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the air, warming the planet and changing our climate.

What are the sources of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere?

About 90 per cent of the world’s carbon emissions comes from the burning of fossil fuels, and most of Australia’s emissions also comes from energy production, followed by transport, agriculture, and industrial processes.

How are greenhouse gases measured, estimated, and reported?

The Australian Government uses a ‘bottom-up’ approach to estimate the country’s greenhouse emissions, which is complemented by CSIRO measurements to provide ‘top-down’ estimates.

How can we address the causes of climate change?

We need to address climate change through mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation addresses the cause of climate change, primarily through emissions reductions.

How can we adapt to climate change?

Adaption to climate change can prepare communities, industries and infrastructure for the future. Adaptation can build resilience and reduce the risks posed by climate change, but there are barriers and limits. Some risks are unavoidable.

How does CSIRO contribute to climate change knowledge?

Our climate researchers contribute significantly to the international effort of weather and climate understanding.

What are the impacts of extreme weather and climate events?

Increases in extreme climate events pose challenges for Australia now and in the future.

How will climate extremes change Australia?

Australia experiences many different climate types across its large area, including a range of climate extremes from freezing mountains to scorching deserts. As climate changes, Australia’s weather and climate extremes will also change.

How fast is the climate changing?

While our climate has always changed, it is now changing at a rate that is unprecedented for many thousands of years and is due to human activities that emit greenhouse gases into the air.

How confident are we about the science of climate change?

The main impacts and mechanisms of physical climate change are scientifically well-understood, but specific estimates of these impacts are uncertain.

Where can I find more information about climate change?

Check where information comes from to ensure it is based on reliable and quality-assured sources of climate change science, such as peer-reviewed papers.

Find out how we can help you and your business. Get in touch using the form below and our experts will get in contact soon!

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Climate change research.

Science in Space: April 2024

Everyone on Earth is touched by the effects of climate change, such as hotter temperatures, shifts in rain patterns, and sea level rise. Collecting climate data helps communities better plan for these changes and build more resilience to them.

The International Space Station, one of dozens of NASA missions contributing to this effort, has multiple instruments collecting various types of climate-related data. Because the station’s orbit passes over 90 percent of Earth’s population and circles the planet 16 times each day, these instruments have views of multiple locations at different times of day and night. The data inform climate decisions and help scientists understand and solve the challenges created by climate change.

While crew members have little involvement in the ongoing operation of these instruments, they do play a critical role in unpacking hardware when it arrives at the space station and in assembling and installing the instruments via spacewalks or using the station’s robotic arm.

One investigation on the orbiting lab that contributes to efforts to monitor and address climate change is ECOsystem Spaceborne Thermal Radiometer Experiment on Space Station ( ECOSTRESS ). It provides thermal infrared measurements of Earth’s surface that help answer questions about water stress in plants and how specific regions respond to climate change. Research confirmed the accuracy of ECOSTRESS surface estimates 1 and found that the process of photosynthesis in plants begins to fail at 46.7 degrees C (114 degrees F). 2 Average temperatures have increased 0.5 degrees C per decade in some tropical regions, and temperature extremes are becoming more pronounced. Rainforests are a primary producer of oxygen and, without sufficient mitigation of the effects of climate change, leaf temperatures in these tropical forests soon could approach this failure threshold.

The Total and Spectral Solar Irradiance Sensor ( TSIS ) measures total solar irradiance (TSI) and solar spectral irradiance (SSI). TSI is the total solar energy input to Earth and SSI measures the Sun’s energy in individual wavelengths. Energy from the Sun drives atmospheric and oceanic circulations on Earth, and knowing its magnitude and variability is essential to understanding Earth’s climate. Researchers verified the instrument’s performance and showed that it made more accurate measurements than previous instruments. 3,4 TSIS maintains a continuity of nearly 40 years of data on solar irradiance from space-based observations.

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The Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation ( GEDI ) observes global forests and topography using light detection and ranging (lidar). These observations could provide insight into important carbon and water cycling processes, biodiversity, and habitat. One study used GEDI data to estimate pan-tropical and temperate biomass densities at the national level for every country observed and the sub-national level for the United States. 5

Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source Investigation ( EMIT ) determines the type and distribution of minerals in the dust of Earth’s arid regions using an imaging spectrometer. Mineral dust affects local warming and cooling, air quality, rate of snow melt, and ocean plankton growth. Researchers demonstrated that data from EMIT also can be used to identify and monitor specific sources of methane and carbon dioxide emissions. Carbon dioxide and methane are the primary human-caused drivers of climate change. Increasing emissions in areas with poor reporting requirements create significant uncertainty in the global carbon budget. 6 The high spatial resolution of EMIT data could allow precise monitoring even of sources that are close together.

The station’s Orbiting Carbon Observatory-3 ( OCO-3 ) collects data on global carbon dioxide during sunlit hours, mapping emissions of targeted local hotspots. This type of satellite-based remote sensing helps assess and verify emission reductions included in national and global plans and agreements. Monitoring by OCO-3 and the Italian Space Agency’s PRecursore IperSpettrale della Missione Applicativa (PRISMA) satellite of 30 coal-fired power plants between 2021 and 2022 showed agreement with on-site observations. 7 This result suggests that under the right conditions, satellites can provide reliable estimates of emissions from discreet sources. Combustion for power and other industrial uses account for an estimated 59% of global human-caused carbon dioxide emissions.

The Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment III-ISS ( SAGE III-ISS ) measures ozone and other gases and tiny particles in the atmosphere, called aerosols, that together act as Earth’s sunscreen. The instrument can distinguish between clouds and aerosols in the atmosphere. A study showed that aerosols dominate Earth’s tropical upper troposphere and lower stratosphere, a transition region between the two atmospheric levels. Continuous monitoring and identification of these layers of the atmosphere helps quantify their effect on Earth’s climate. 8

An early remote sensing system, ISS SERVIR Environmental Research and Visualization System ( ISERV ), captured images of Earth at pre-programmed intervals through a window in the space station with high-quality optics, known as the Window Observational Research Facility ( WORF ). Researchers reported that this type of Earth observation is critical for applications such as mapping land use and assessing carbon biomass and ocean health. 9

John Love, ISS Research Planning Integration Scientist Expedition 71

Search this database of scientific experiments to learn more about those mentioned above.

1 Weidberg N, Lopez Chiquillo L, Roman S, Roman M, Vazquez E, et al. Assessing high resolution thermal monitoring of complex intertidal environments from space: The case of ECOSTRESS at Rias Baixas, NW Iberia. Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment. 2023 November; 32101055. DOI: 10.1016/j.rsase.2023.101055.

2 Doughty CE, Keany JM, Wiebe BC, Rey-Sanchez C, Carter KR, et al. Tropical forests are approaching critical temperature thresholds. Nature. 2023 August 23; 621105-111. DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06391-z.

3 Richard EC, Harber D, Coddington OM, Drake G, Rutkowski J, et al. SI-traceable spectral irradiance radiometric characterization and absolute calibration of the TSIS-1 Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SIM). Remote Sensing. 2020 January; 12(11): 1818. DOI:  10.3390/rs12111818.

4 Coddington OM, Richard EC, Harber D, Pilewskie P, Chance K, et al. The TSIS-1 hybrid solar reference spectrum. Geophysical Research Letters. 2021 April 26; 48(12): e2020GL091709. DOI:  10.1029/2020GL091709

5 Dubayah R, Armston J, Healey S, Bruening JM, Patterson PL, et al. GEDI launches a new era of biomass inference from space. Environmental Research Letters. 2022 August; 17(9): 095001. DOI: 10.1088/1748-9326/ac8694.

6 Thorpe A, Green RD, Thompson DR, Brodrick PG, Chapman DK, et al. Attribution of individual methane and carbon dioxide emission sources using EMIT observations from space. Science Advances. 2023 November 17; 9(46): eadh2391. DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adh2391.

7 Cusworth DH, Thorpe A, Miller CE, Ayasse AK, Jiorle R, et al. Two years of satellite-based carbon dioxide emission quantification at the world’s largest coal-fired power plants. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 2023 November 24; 23(22): 14577-14591. DOI: 10.5194/acp-23-14577-2023.

8 Bhatta S, Pandit AK, Loughman R, Vernier J. Three-wavelength approach for aerosol-cloud discrimination in the SAGE III/ISS aerosol extinction dataset. Applied Optics. 2023 May; 62(13): 3454-3466. DOI: 10.1364/AO.485466 .

9 Kansakar P, Hossain F. A review of applications of satellite earth observation data for global societal benefit and stewardship of planet earth. Space Policy. 2016 May; 3646-54.

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A review of the global climate change impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures

Kashif abbass.

1 School of Economics and Management, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210094 People’s Republic of China

Muhammad Zeeshan Qasim

2 Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Xiaolingwei 200, Nanjing, 210094 People’s Republic of China

Huaming Song

Muntasir murshed.

3 School of Business and Economics, North South University, Dhaka, 1229 Bangladesh

4 Department of Journalism, Media and Communications, Daffodil International University, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Haider Mahmood

5 Department of Finance, College of Business Administration, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, 173, Alkharj, 11942 Saudi Arabia

Ijaz Younis

Associated data.

Data sources and relevant links are provided in the paper to access data.

Climate change is a long-lasting change in the weather arrays across tropics to polls. It is a global threat that has embarked on to put stress on various sectors. This study is aimed to conceptually engineer how climate variability is deteriorating the sustainability of diverse sectors worldwide. Specifically, the agricultural sector’s vulnerability is a globally concerning scenario, as sufficient production and food supplies are threatened due to irreversible weather fluctuations. In turn, it is challenging the global feeding patterns, particularly in countries with agriculture as an integral part of their economy and total productivity. Climate change has also put the integrity and survival of many species at stake due to shifts in optimum temperature ranges, thereby accelerating biodiversity loss by progressively changing the ecosystem structures. Climate variations increase the likelihood of particular food and waterborne and vector-borne diseases, and a recent example is a coronavirus pandemic. Climate change also accelerates the enigma of antimicrobial resistance, another threat to human health due to the increasing incidence of resistant pathogenic infections. Besides, the global tourism industry is devastated as climate change impacts unfavorable tourism spots. The methodology investigates hypothetical scenarios of climate variability and attempts to describe the quality of evidence to facilitate readers’ careful, critical engagement. Secondary data is used to identify sustainability issues such as environmental, social, and economic viability. To better understand the problem, gathered the information in this report from various media outlets, research agencies, policy papers, newspapers, and other sources. This review is a sectorial assessment of climate change mitigation and adaptation approaches worldwide in the aforementioned sectors and the associated economic costs. According to the findings, government involvement is necessary for the country’s long-term development through strict accountability of resources and regulations implemented in the past to generate cutting-edge climate policy. Therefore, mitigating the impacts of climate change must be of the utmost importance, and hence, this global threat requires global commitment to address its dreadful implications to ensure global sustenance.

Introduction

Worldwide observed and anticipated climatic changes for the twenty-first century and global warming are significant global changes that have been encountered during the past 65 years. Climate change (CC) is an inter-governmental complex challenge globally with its influence over various components of the ecological, environmental, socio-political, and socio-economic disciplines (Adger et al.  2005 ; Leal Filho et al.  2021 ; Feliciano et al.  2022 ). Climate change involves heightened temperatures across numerous worlds (Battisti and Naylor  2009 ; Schuurmans  2021 ; Weisheimer and Palmer  2005 ; Yadav et al.  2015 ). With the onset of the industrial revolution, the problem of earth climate was amplified manifold (Leppänen et al.  2014 ). It is reported that the immediate attention and due steps might increase the probability of overcoming its devastating impacts. It is not plausible to interpret the exact consequences of climate change (CC) on a sectoral basis (Izaguirre et al.  2021 ; Jurgilevich et al.  2017 ), which is evident by the emerging level of recognition plus the inclusion of climatic uncertainties at both local and national level of policymaking (Ayers et al.  2014 ).

Climate change is characterized based on the comprehensive long-haul temperature and precipitation trends and other components such as pressure and humidity level in the surrounding environment. Besides, the irregular weather patterns, retreating of global ice sheets, and the corresponding elevated sea level rise are among the most renowned international and domestic effects of climate change (Lipczynska-Kochany  2018 ; Michel et al.  2021 ; Murshed and Dao 2020 ). Before the industrial revolution, natural sources, including volcanoes, forest fires, and seismic activities, were regarded as the distinct sources of greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as CO 2 , CH 4 , N 2 O, and H 2 O into the atmosphere (Murshed et al. 2020 ; Hussain et al.  2020 ; Sovacool et al.  2021 ; Usman and Balsalobre-Lorente 2022 ; Murshed 2022 ). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) struck a major agreement to tackle climate change and accelerate and intensify the actions and investments required for a sustainable low-carbon future at Conference of the Parties (COP-21) in Paris on December 12, 2015. The Paris Agreement expands on the Convention by bringing all nations together for the first time in a single cause to undertake ambitious measures to prevent climate change and adapt to its impacts, with increased funding to assist developing countries in doing so. As so, it marks a turning point in the global climate fight. The core goal of the Paris Agreement is to improve the global response to the threat of climate change by keeping the global temperature rise this century well below 2 °C over pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5° C (Sharma et al. 2020 ; Sharif et al. 2020 ; Chien et al. 2021 .

Furthermore, the agreement aspires to strengthen nations’ ability to deal with the effects of climate change and align financing flows with low GHG emissions and climate-resilient paths (Shahbaz et al. 2019 ; Anwar et al. 2021 ; Usman et al. 2022a ). To achieve these lofty goals, adequate financial resources must be mobilized and provided, as well as a new technology framework and expanded capacity building, allowing developing countries and the most vulnerable countries to act under their respective national objectives. The agreement also establishes a more transparent action and support mechanism. All Parties are required by the Paris Agreement to do their best through “nationally determined contributions” (NDCs) and to strengthen these efforts in the coming years (Balsalobre-Lorente et al. 2020 ). It includes obligations that all Parties regularly report on their emissions and implementation activities. A global stock-take will be conducted every five years to review collective progress toward the agreement’s goal and inform the Parties’ future individual actions. The Paris Agreement became available for signature on April 22, 2016, Earth Day, at the United Nations Headquarters in New York. On November 4, 2016, it went into effect 30 days after the so-called double threshold was met (ratification by 55 nations accounting for at least 55% of world emissions). More countries have ratified and continue to ratify the agreement since then, bringing 125 Parties in early 2017. To fully operationalize the Paris Agreement, a work program was initiated in Paris to define mechanisms, processes, and recommendations on a wide range of concerns (Murshed et al. 2021 ). Since 2016, Parties have collaborated in subsidiary bodies (APA, SBSTA, and SBI) and numerous formed entities. The Conference of the Parties functioning as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA) convened for the first time in November 2016 in Marrakesh in conjunction with COP22 and made its first two resolutions. The work plan is scheduled to be finished by 2018. Some mitigation and adaptation strategies to reduce the emission in the prospective of Paris agreement are following firstly, a long-term goal of keeping the increase in global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels, secondly, to aim to limit the rise to 1.5 °C, since this would significantly reduce risks and the impacts of climate change, thirdly, on the need for global emissions to peak as soon as possible, recognizing that this will take longer for developing countries, lastly, to undertake rapid reductions after that under the best available science, to achieve a balance between emissions and removals in the second half of the century. On the other side, some adaptation strategies are; strengthening societies’ ability to deal with the effects of climate change and to continue & expand international assistance for developing nations’ adaptation.

However, anthropogenic activities are currently regarded as most accountable for CC (Murshed et al. 2022 ). Apart from the industrial revolution, other anthropogenic activities include excessive agricultural operations, which further involve the high use of fuel-based mechanization, burning of agricultural residues, burning fossil fuels, deforestation, national and domestic transportation sectors, etc. (Huang et al.  2016 ). Consequently, these anthropogenic activities lead to climatic catastrophes, damaging local and global infrastructure, human health, and total productivity. Energy consumption has mounted GHGs levels concerning warming temperatures as most of the energy production in developing countries comes from fossil fuels (Balsalobre-Lorente et al. 2022 ; Usman et al. 2022b ; Abbass et al. 2021a ; Ishikawa-Ishiwata and Furuya  2022 ).

This review aims to highlight the effects of climate change in a socio-scientific aspect by analyzing the existing literature on various sectorial pieces of evidence globally that influence the environment. Although this review provides a thorough examination of climate change and its severe affected sectors that pose a grave danger for global agriculture, biodiversity, health, economy, forestry, and tourism, and to purpose some practical prophylactic measures and mitigation strategies to be adapted as sound substitutes to survive from climate change (CC) impacts. The societal implications of irregular weather patterns and other effects of climate changes are discussed in detail. Some numerous sustainable mitigation measures and adaptation practices and techniques at the global level are discussed in this review with an in-depth focus on its economic, social, and environmental aspects. Methods of data collection section are included in the supplementary information.

Review methodology

Related study and its objectives.

Today, we live an ordinary life in the beautiful digital, globalized world where climate change has a decisive role. What happens in one country has a massive influence on geographically far apart countries, which points to the current crisis known as COVID-19 (Sarkar et al.  2021 ). The most dangerous disease like COVID-19 has affected the world’s climate changes and economic conditions (Abbass et al. 2022 ; Pirasteh-Anosheh et al.  2021 ). The purpose of the present study is to review the status of research on the subject, which is based on “Global Climate Change Impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures” by systematically reviewing past published and unpublished research work. Furthermore, the current study seeks to comment on research on the same topic and suggest future research on the same topic. Specifically, the present study aims: The first one is, organize publications to make them easy and quick to find. Secondly, to explore issues in this area, propose an outline of research for future work. The third aim of the study is to synthesize the previous literature on climate change, various sectors, and their mitigation measurement. Lastly , classify the articles according to the different methods and procedures that have been adopted.

Review methodology for reviewers

This review-based article followed systematic literature review techniques that have proved the literature review as a rigorous framework (Benita  2021 ; Tranfield et al.  2003 ). Moreover, we illustrate in Fig.  1 the search method that we have started for this research. First, finalized the research theme to search literature (Cooper et al.  2018 ). Second, used numerous research databases to search related articles and download from the database (Web of Science, Google Scholar, Scopus Index Journals, Emerald, Elsevier Science Direct, Springer, and Sciverse). We focused on various articles, with research articles, feedback pieces, short notes, debates, and review articles published in scholarly journals. Reports used to search for multiple keywords such as “Climate Change,” “Mitigation and Adaptation,” “Department of Agriculture and Human Health,” “Department of Biodiversity and Forestry,” etc.; in summary, keyword list and full text have been made. Initially, the search for keywords yielded a large amount of literature.

Methodology search for finalized articles for investigations.

Source : constructed by authors

Since 2020, it has been impossible to review all the articles found; some restrictions have been set for the literature exhibition. The study searched 95 articles on a different database mentioned above based on the nature of the study. It excluded 40 irrelevant papers due to copied from a previous search after readings tiles, abstract and full pieces. The criteria for inclusion were: (i) articles focused on “Global Climate Change Impacts, adaptation, and sustainable mitigation measures,” and (ii) the search key terms related to study requirements. The complete procedure yielded 55 articles for our study. We repeat our search on the “Web of Science and Google Scholars” database to enhance the search results and check the referenced articles.

In this study, 55 articles are reviewed systematically and analyzed for research topics and other aspects, such as the methods, contexts, and theories used in these studies. Furthermore, this study analyzes closely related areas to provide unique research opportunities in the future. The study also discussed future direction opportunities and research questions by understanding the research findings climate changes and other affected sectors. The reviewed paper framework analysis process is outlined in Fig.  2 .

Framework of the analysis Process.

Natural disasters and climate change’s socio-economic consequences

Natural and environmental disasters can be highly variable from year to year; some years pass with very few deaths before a significant disaster event claims many lives (Symanski et al.  2021 ). Approximately 60,000 people globally died from natural disasters each year on average over the past decade (Ritchie and Roser  2014 ; Wiranata and Simbolon  2021 ). So, according to the report, around 0.1% of global deaths. Annual variability in the number and share of deaths from natural disasters in recent decades are shown in Fig.  3 . The number of fatalities can be meager—sometimes less than 10,000, and as few as 0.01% of all deaths. But shock events have a devastating impact: the 1983–1985 famine and drought in Ethiopia; the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami; Cyclone Nargis, which struck Myanmar in 2008; and the 2010 Port-au-Prince earthquake in Haiti and now recent example is COVID-19 pandemic (Erman et al.  2021 ). These events pushed global disaster deaths to over 200,000—more than 0.4% of deaths in these years. Low-frequency, high-impact events such as earthquakes and tsunamis are not preventable, but such high losses of human life are. Historical evidence shows that earlier disaster detection, more robust infrastructure, emergency preparedness, and response programmers have substantially reduced disaster deaths worldwide. Low-income is also the most vulnerable to disasters; improving living conditions, facilities, and response services in these areas would be critical in reducing natural disaster deaths in the coming decades.

Global deaths from natural disasters, 1978 to 2020.

Source EMDAT ( 2020 )

The interior regions of the continent are likely to be impacted by rising temperatures (Dimri et al.  2018 ; Goes et al.  2020 ; Mannig et al.  2018 ; Schuurmans  2021 ). Weather patterns change due to the shortage of natural resources (water), increase in glacier melting, and rising mercury are likely to cause extinction to many planted species (Gampe et al.  2016 ; Mihiretu et al.  2021 ; Shaffril et al.  2018 ).On the other hand, the coastal ecosystem is on the verge of devastation (Perera et al.  2018 ; Phillips  2018 ). The temperature rises, insect disease outbreaks, health-related problems, and seasonal and lifestyle changes are persistent, with a strong probability of these patterns continuing in the future (Abbass et al. 2021c ; Hussain et al.  2018 ). At the global level, a shortage of good infrastructure and insufficient adaptive capacity are hammering the most (IPCC  2013 ). In addition to the above concerns, a lack of environmental education and knowledge, outdated consumer behavior, a scarcity of incentives, a lack of legislation, and the government’s lack of commitment to climate change contribute to the general public’s concerns. By 2050, a 2 to 3% rise in mercury and a drastic shift in rainfall patterns may have serious consequences (Huang et al. 2022 ; Gorst et al.  2018 ). Natural and environmental calamities caused huge losses globally, such as decreased agriculture outputs, rehabilitation of the system, and rebuilding necessary technologies (Ali and Erenstein  2017 ; Ramankutty et al.  2018 ; Yu et al.  2021 ) (Table ​ (Table1). 1 ). Furthermore, in the last 3 or 4 years, the world has been plagued by smog-related eye and skin diseases, as well as a rise in road accidents due to poor visibility.

Main natural danger statistics for 1985–2020 at the global level

Source: EM-DAT ( 2020 )

Climate change and agriculture

Global agriculture is the ultimate sector responsible for 30–40% of all greenhouse emissions, which makes it a leading industry predominantly contributing to climate warming and significantly impacted by it (Grieg; Mishra et al.  2021 ; Ortiz et al.  2021 ; Thornton and Lipper  2014 ). Numerous agro-environmental and climatic factors that have a dominant influence on agriculture productivity (Pautasso et al.  2012 ) are significantly impacted in response to precipitation extremes including floods, forest fires, and droughts (Huang  2004 ). Besides, the immense dependency on exhaustible resources also fuels the fire and leads global agriculture to become prone to devastation. Godfray et al. ( 2010 ) mentioned that decline in agriculture challenges the farmer’s quality of life and thus a significant factor to poverty as the food and water supplies are critically impacted by CC (Ortiz et al.  2021 ; Rosenzweig et al.  2014 ). As an essential part of the economic systems, especially in developing countries, agricultural systems affect the overall economy and potentially the well-being of households (Schlenker and Roberts  2009 ). According to the report published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, i.e., CH 4, CO 2 , and N 2 O, are increased in the air to extraordinary levels over the last few centuries (Usman and Makhdum 2021 ; Stocker et al.  2013 ). Climate change is the composite outcome of two different factors. The first is the natural causes, and the second is the anthropogenic actions (Karami 2012 ). It is also forecasted that the world may experience a typical rise in temperature stretching from 1 to 3.7 °C at the end of this century (Pachauri et al. 2014 ). The world’s crop production is also highly vulnerable to these global temperature-changing trends as raised temperatures will pose severe negative impacts on crop growth (Reidsma et al. 2009 ). Some of the recent modeling about the fate of global agriculture is briefly described below.

Decline in cereal productivity

Crop productivity will also be affected dramatically in the next few decades due to variations in integral abiotic factors such as temperature, solar radiation, precipitation, and CO 2 . These all factors are included in various regulatory instruments like progress and growth, weather-tempted changes, pest invasions (Cammell and Knight 1992 ), accompanying disease snags (Fand et al. 2012 ), water supplies (Panda et al. 2003 ), high prices of agro-products in world’s agriculture industry, and preeminent quantity of fertilizer consumption. Lobell and field ( 2007 ) claimed that from 1962 to 2002, wheat crop output had condensed significantly due to rising temperatures. Therefore, during 1980–2011, the common wheat productivity trends endorsed extreme temperature events confirmed by Gourdji et al. ( 2013 ) around South Asia, South America, and Central Asia. Various other studies (Asseng, Cao, Zhang, and Ludwig 2009 ; Asseng et al. 2013 ; García et al. 2015 ; Ortiz et al. 2021 ) also proved that wheat output is negatively affected by the rising temperatures and also caused adverse effects on biomass productivity (Calderini et al. 1999 ; Sadras and Slafer 2012 ). Hereafter, the rice crop is also influenced by the high temperatures at night. These difficulties will worsen because the temperature will be rising further in the future owing to CC (Tebaldi et al. 2006 ). Another research conducted in China revealed that a 4.6% of rice production per 1 °C has happened connected with the advancement in night temperatures (Tao et al. 2006 ). Moreover, the average night temperature growth also affected rice indicia cultivar’s output pragmatically during 25 years in the Philippines (Peng et al. 2004 ). It is anticipated that the increase in world average temperature will also cause a substantial reduction in yield (Hatfield et al. 2011 ; Lobell and Gourdji 2012 ). In the southern hemisphere, Parry et al. ( 2007 ) noted a rise of 1–4 °C in average daily temperatures at the end of spring season unti the middle of summers, and this raised temperature reduced crop output by cutting down the time length for phenophases eventually reduce the yield (Hatfield and Prueger 2015 ; R. Ortiz 2008 ). Also, world climate models have recommended that humid and subtropical regions expect to be plentiful prey to the upcoming heat strokes (Battisti and Naylor 2009 ). Grain production is the amalgamation of two constituents: the average weight and the grain output/m 2 , however, in crop production. Crop output is mainly accredited to the grain quantity (Araus et al. 2008 ; Gambín and Borrás 2010 ). In the times of grain set, yield resources are mainly strewn between hitherto defined components, i.e., grain usual weight and grain output, which presents a trade-off between them (Gambín and Borrás 2010 ) beside disparities in per grain integration (B. L. Gambín et al. 2006 ). In addition to this, the maize crop is also susceptible to raised temperatures, principally in the flowering stage (Edreira and Otegui 2013 ). In reality, the lower grain number is associated with insufficient acclimatization due to intense photosynthesis and higher respiration and the high-temperature effect on the reproduction phenomena (Edreira and Otegui 2013 ). During the flowering phase, maize visible to heat (30–36 °C) seemed less anthesis-silking intermissions (Edreira et al. 2011 ). Another research by Dupuis and Dumas ( 1990 ) proved that a drop in spikelet when directly visible to high temperatures above 35 °C in vitro pollination. Abnormalities in kernel number claimed by Vega et al. ( 2001 ) is related to conceded plant development during a flowering phase that is linked with the active ear growth phase and categorized as a critical phase for approximation of kernel number during silking (Otegui and Bonhomme 1998 ).

The retort of rice output to high temperature presents disparities in flowering patterns, and seed set lessens and lessens grain weight (Qasim et al. 2020 ; Qasim, Hammad, Maqsood, Tariq, & Chawla). During the daytime, heat directly impacts flowers which lessens the thesis period and quickens the earlier peak flowering (Tao et al. 2006 ). Antagonistic effect of higher daytime temperature d on pollen sprouting proposed seed set decay, whereas, seed set was lengthily reduced than could be explicated by pollen growing at high temperatures 40◦C (Matsui et al. 2001 ).

The decline in wheat output is linked with higher temperatures, confirmed in numerous studies (Semenov 2009 ; Stone and Nicolas 1994 ). High temperatures fast-track the arrangements of plant expansion (Blum et al. 2001 ), diminution photosynthetic process (Salvucci and Crafts‐Brandner 2004 ), and also considerably affect the reproductive operations (Farooq et al. 2011 ).

The destructive impacts of CC induced weather extremes to deteriorate the integrity of crops (Chaudhary et al. 2011 ), e.g., Spartan cold and extreme fog cause falling and discoloration of betel leaves (Rosenzweig et al. 2001 ), giving them a somehow reddish appearance, squeezing of lemon leaves (Pautasso et al. 2012 ), as well as root rot of pineapple, have reported (Vedwan and Rhoades 2001 ). Henceforth, in tackling the disruptive effects of CC, several short-term and long-term management approaches are the crucial need of time (Fig.  4 ). Moreover, various studies (Chaudhary et al. 2011 ; Patz et al. 2005 ; Pautasso et al. 2012 ) have demonstrated adapting trends such as ameliorating crop diversity can yield better adaptability towards CC.

Schematic description of potential impacts of climate change on the agriculture sector and the appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures to overcome its impact.

Climate change impacts on biodiversity

Global biodiversity is among the severe victims of CC because it is the fastest emerging cause of species loss. Studies demonstrated that the massive scale species dynamics are considerably associated with diverse climatic events (Abraham and Chain 1988 ; Manes et al. 2021 ; A. M. D. Ortiz et al. 2021 ). Both the pace and magnitude of CC are altering the compatible habitat ranges for living entities of marine, freshwater, and terrestrial regions. Alterations in general climate regimes influence the integrity of ecosystems in numerous ways, such as variation in the relative abundance of species, range shifts, changes in activity timing, and microhabitat use (Bates et al. 2014 ). The geographic distribution of any species often depends upon its ability to tolerate environmental stresses, biological interactions, and dispersal constraints. Hence, instead of the CC, the local species must only accept, adapt, move, or face extinction (Berg et al. 2010 ). So, the best performer species have a better survival capacity for adjusting to new ecosystems or a decreased perseverance to survive where they are already situated (Bates et al. 2014 ). An important aspect here is the inadequate habitat connectivity and access to microclimates, also crucial in raising the exposure to climate warming and extreme heatwave episodes. For example, the carbon sequestration rates are undergoing fluctuations due to climate-driven expansion in the range of global mangroves (Cavanaugh et al. 2014 ).

Similarly, the loss of kelp-forest ecosystems in various regions and its occupancy by the seaweed turfs has set the track for elevated herbivory by the high influx of tropical fish populations. Not only this, the increased water temperatures have exacerbated the conditions far away from the physiological tolerance level of the kelp communities (Vergés et al. 2016 ; Wernberg et al. 2016 ). Another pertinent danger is the devastation of keystone species, which even has more pervasive effects on the entire communities in that habitat (Zarnetske et al. 2012 ). It is particularly important as CC does not specify specific populations or communities. Eventually, this CC-induced redistribution of species may deteriorate carbon storage and the net ecosystem productivity (Weed et al. 2013 ). Among the typical disruptions, the prominent ones include impacts on marine and terrestrial productivity, marine community assembly, and the extended invasion of toxic cyanobacteria bloom (Fossheim et al. 2015 ).

The CC-impacted species extinction is widely reported in the literature (Beesley et al. 2019 ; Urban 2015 ), and the predictions of demise until the twenty-first century are dreadful (Abbass et al. 2019 ; Pereira et al. 2013 ). In a few cases, northward shifting of species may not be formidable as it allows mountain-dwelling species to find optimum climates. However, the migrant species may be trapped in isolated and incompatible habitats due to losing topography and range (Dullinger et al. 2012 ). For example, a study indicated that the American pika has been extirpated or intensely diminished in some regions, primarily attributed to the CC-impacted extinction or at least local extirpation (Stewart et al. 2015 ). Besides, the anticipation of persistent responses to the impacts of CC often requires data records of several decades to rigorously analyze the critical pre and post CC patterns at species and ecosystem levels (Manes et al. 2021 ; Testa et al. 2018 ).

Nonetheless, the availability of such long-term data records is rare; hence, attempts are needed to focus on these profound aspects. Biodiversity is also vulnerable to the other associated impacts of CC, such as rising temperatures, droughts, and certain invasive pest species. For instance, a study revealed the changes in the composition of plankton communities attributed to rising temperatures. Henceforth, alterations in such aquatic producer communities, i.e., diatoms and calcareous plants, can ultimately lead to variation in the recycling of biological carbon. Moreover, such changes are characterized as a potential contributor to CO 2 differences between the Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods (Kohfeld et al. 2005 ).

Climate change implications on human health

It is an understood corporality that human health is a significant victim of CC (Costello et al. 2009 ). According to the WHO, CC might be responsible for 250,000 additional deaths per year during 2030–2050 (Watts et al. 2015 ). These deaths are attributed to extreme weather-induced mortality and morbidity and the global expansion of vector-borne diseases (Lemery et al. 2021; Yang and Usman 2021 ; Meierrieks 2021 ; UNEP 2017 ). Here, some of the emerging health issues pertinent to this global problem are briefly described.

Climate change and antimicrobial resistance with corresponding economic costs

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is an up-surging complex global health challenge (Garner et al. 2019 ; Lemery et al. 2021 ). Health professionals across the globe are extremely worried due to this phenomenon that has critical potential to reverse almost all the progress that has been achieved so far in the health discipline (Gosling and Arnell 2016 ). A massive amount of antibiotics is produced by many pharmaceutical industries worldwide, and the pathogenic microorganisms are gradually developing resistance to them, which can be comprehended how strongly this aspect can shake the foundations of national and global economies (UNEP 2017 ). This statement is supported by the fact that AMR is not developing in a particular region or country. Instead, it is flourishing in every continent of the world (WHO 2018 ). This plague is heavily pushing humanity to the post-antibiotic era, in which currently antibiotic-susceptible pathogens will once again lead to certain endemics and pandemics after being resistant(WHO 2018 ). Undesirably, if this statement would become a factuality, there might emerge certain risks in undertaking sophisticated interventions such as chemotherapy, joint replacement cases, and organ transplantation (Su et al. 2018 ). Presently, the amplification of drug resistance cases has made common illnesses like pneumonia, post-surgical infections, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, etc., too difficult and costly to be treated or cure well (WHO 2018 ). From a simple example, it can be assumed how easily antibiotic-resistant strains can be transmitted from one person to another and ultimately travel across the boundaries (Berendonk et al. 2015 ). Talking about the second- and third-generation classes of antibiotics, e.g., most renowned generations of cephalosporin antibiotics that are more expensive, broad-spectrum, more toxic, and usually require more extended periods whenever prescribed to patients (Lemery et al. 2021 ; Pärnänen et al. 2019 ). This scenario has also revealed that the abundance of resistant strains of pathogens was also higher in the Southern part (WHO 2018 ). As southern parts are generally warmer than their counterparts, it is evident from this example how CC-induced global warming can augment the spread of antibiotic-resistant strains within the biosphere, eventually putting additional economic burden in the face of developing new and costlier antibiotics. The ARG exchange to susceptible bacteria through one of the potential mechanisms, transformation, transduction, and conjugation; Selection pressure can be caused by certain antibiotics, metals or pesticides, etc., as shown in Fig.  5 .

A typical interaction between the susceptible and resistant strains.

Source: Elsayed et al. ( 2021 ); Karkman et al. ( 2018 )

Certain studies highlighted that conventional urban wastewater treatment plants are typical hotspots where most bacterial strains exchange genetic material through horizontal gene transfer (Fig.  5 ). Although at present, the extent of risks associated with the antibiotic resistance found in wastewater is complicated; environmental scientists and engineers have particular concerns about the potential impacts of these antibiotic resistance genes on human health (Ashbolt 2015 ). At most undesirable and worst case, these antibiotic-resistant genes containing bacteria can make their way to enter into the environment (Pruden et al. 2013 ), irrigation water used for crops and public water supplies and ultimately become a part of food chains and food webs (Ma et al. 2019 ; D. Wu et al. 2019 ). This problem has been reported manifold in several countries (Hendriksen et al. 2019 ), where wastewater as a means of irrigated water is quite common.

Climate change and vector borne-diseases

Temperature is a fundamental factor for the sustenance of living entities regardless of an ecosystem. So, a specific living being, especially a pathogen, requires a sophisticated temperature range to exist on earth. The second essential component of CC is precipitation, which also impacts numerous infectious agents’ transport and dissemination patterns. Global rising temperature is a significant cause of many species extinction. On the one hand, this changing environmental temperature may be causing species extinction, and on the other, this warming temperature might favor the thriving of some new organisms. Here, it was evident that some pathogens may also upraise once non-evident or reported (Patz et al. 2000 ). This concept can be exemplified through certain pathogenic strains of microorganisms that how the likelihood of various diseases increases in response to climate warming-induced environmental changes (Table ​ (Table2 2 ).

Examples of how various environmental changes affect various infectious diseases in humans

Source: Aron and Patz ( 2001 )

A recent example is an outburst of coronavirus (COVID-19) in the Republic of China, causing pneumonia and severe acute respiratory complications (Cui et al. 2021 ; Song et al. 2021 ). The large family of viruses is harbored in numerous animals, bats, and snakes in particular (livescience.com) with the subsequent transfer into human beings. Hence, it is worth noting that the thriving of numerous vectors involved in spreading various diseases is influenced by Climate change (Ogden 2018 ; Santos et al. 2021 ).

Psychological impacts of climate change

Climate change (CC) is responsible for the rapid dissemination and exaggeration of certain epidemics and pandemics. In addition to the vast apparent impacts of climate change on health, forestry, agriculture, etc., it may also have psychological implications on vulnerable societies. It can be exemplified through the recent outburst of (COVID-19) in various countries around the world (Pal 2021 ). Besides, the victims of this viral infection have made healthy beings scarier and terrified. In the wake of such epidemics, people with common colds or fever are also frightened and must pass specific regulatory protocols. Living in such situations continuously terrifies the public and makes the stress familiar, which eventually makes them psychologically weak (npr.org).

CC boosts the extent of anxiety, distress, and other issues in public, pushing them to develop various mental-related problems. Besides, frequent exposure to extreme climatic catastrophes such as geological disasters also imprints post-traumatic disorder, and their ubiquitous occurrence paves the way to developing chronic psychological dysfunction. Moreover, repetitive listening from media also causes an increase in the person’s stress level (Association 2020 ). Similarly, communities living in flood-prone areas constantly live in extreme fear of drowning and die by floods. In addition to human lives, the flood-induced destruction of physical infrastructure is a specific reason for putting pressure on these communities (Ogden 2018 ). For instance, Ogden ( 2018 ) comprehensively denoted that Katrina’s Hurricane augmented the mental health issues in the victim communities.

Climate change impacts on the forestry sector

Forests are the global regulators of the world’s climate (FAO 2018 ) and have an indispensable role in regulating global carbon and nitrogen cycles (Rehman et al. 2021 ; Reichstein and Carvalhais 2019 ). Hence, disturbances in forest ecology affect the micro and macro-climates (Ellison et al. 2017 ). Climate warming, in return, has profound impacts on the growth and productivity of transboundary forests by influencing the temperature and precipitation patterns, etc. As CC induces specific changes in the typical structure and functions of ecosystems (Zhang et al. 2017 ) as well impacts forest health, climate change also has several devastating consequences such as forest fires, droughts, pest outbreaks (EPA 2018 ), and last but not the least is the livelihoods of forest-dependent communities. The rising frequency and intensity of another CC product, i.e., droughts, pose plenty of challenges to the well-being of global forests (Diffenbaugh et al. 2017 ), which is further projected to increase soon (Hartmann et al. 2018 ; Lehner et al. 2017 ; Rehman et al. 2021 ). Hence, CC induces storms, with more significant impacts also put extra pressure on the survival of the global forests (Martínez-Alvarado et al. 2018 ), significantly since their influences are augmented during higher winter precipitations with corresponding wetter soils causing weak root anchorage of trees (Brázdil et al. 2018 ). Surging temperature regimes causes alterations in usual precipitation patterns, which is a significant hurdle for the survival of temperate forests (Allen et al. 2010 ; Flannigan et al. 2013 ), letting them encounter severe stress and disturbances which adversely affects the local tree species (Hubbart et al. 2016 ; Millar and Stephenson 2015 ; Rehman et al. 2021 ).

Climate change impacts on forest-dependent communities

Forests are the fundamental livelihood resource for about 1.6 billion people worldwide; out of them, 350 million are distinguished with relatively higher reliance (Bank 2008 ). Agro-forestry-dependent communities comprise 1.2 billion, and 60 million indigenous people solely rely on forests and their products to sustain their lives (Sunderlin et al. 2005 ). For example, in the entire African continent, more than 2/3rd of inhabitants depend on forest resources and woodlands for their alimonies, e.g., food, fuelwood and grazing (Wasiq and Ahmad 2004 ). The livings of these people are more intensely affected by the climatic disruptions making their lives harder (Brown et al. 2014 ). On the one hand, forest communities are incredibly vulnerable to CC due to their livelihoods, cultural and spiritual ties as well as socio-ecological connections, and on the other, they are not familiar with the term “climate change.” (Rahman and Alam 2016 ). Among the destructive impacts of temperature and rainfall, disruption of the agroforestry crops with resultant downscale growth and yield (Macchi et al. 2008 ). Cruz ( 2015 ) ascribed that forest-dependent smallholder farmers in the Philippines face the enigma of delayed fruiting, more severe damages by insect and pest incidences due to unfavorable temperature regimes, and changed rainfall patterns.

Among these series of challenges to forest communities, their well-being is also distinctly vulnerable to CC. Though the detailed climate change impacts on human health have been comprehensively mentioned in the previous section, some studies have listed a few more devastating effects on the prosperity of forest-dependent communities. For instance, the Himalayan people have been experiencing frequent skin-borne diseases such as malaria and other skin diseases due to increasing mosquitoes, wild boar as well, and new wasps species, particularly in higher altitudes that were almost non-existent before last 5–10 years (Xu et al. 2008 ). Similarly, people living at high altitudes in Bangladesh have experienced frequent mosquito-borne calamities (Fardous; Sharma 2012 ). In addition, the pace of other waterborne diseases such as infectious diarrhea, cholera, pathogenic induced abdominal complications and dengue has also been boosted in other distinguished regions of Bangladesh (Cell 2009 ; Gunter et al. 2008 ).

Pest outbreak

Upscaling hotter climate may positively affect the mobile organisms with shorter generation times because they can scurry from harsh conditions than the immobile species (Fettig et al. 2013 ; Schoene and Bernier 2012 ) and are also relatively more capable of adapting to new environments (Jactel et al. 2019 ). It reveals that insects adapt quickly to global warming due to their mobility advantages. Due to past outbreaks, the trees (forests) are relatively more susceptible victims (Kurz et al. 2008 ). Before CC, the influence of factors mentioned earlier, i.e., droughts and storms, was existent and made the forests susceptible to insect pest interventions; however, the global forests remain steadfast, assiduous, and green (Jactel et al. 2019 ). The typical reasons could be the insect herbivores were regulated by several tree defenses and pressures of predation (Wilkinson and Sherratt 2016 ). As climate greatly influences these phenomena, the global forests cannot be so sedulous against such challenges (Jactel et al. 2019 ). Table ​ Table3 3 demonstrates some of the particular considerations with practical examples that are essential while mitigating the impacts of CC in the forestry sector.

Essential considerations while mitigating the climate change impacts on the forestry sector

Source : Fischer ( 2019 )

Climate change impacts on tourism

Tourism is a commercial activity that has roots in multi-dimensions and an efficient tool with adequate job generation potential, revenue creation, earning of spectacular foreign exchange, enhancement in cross-cultural promulgation and cooperation, a business tool for entrepreneurs and eventually for the country’s national development (Arshad et al. 2018 ; Scott 2021 ). Among a plethora of other disciplines, the tourism industry is also a distinct victim of climate warming (Gössling et al. 2012 ; Hall et al. 2015 ) as the climate is among the essential resources that enable tourism in particular regions as most preferred locations. Different places at different times of the year attract tourists both within and across the countries depending upon the feasibility and compatibility of particular weather patterns. Hence, the massive variations in these weather patterns resulting from CC will eventually lead to monumental challenges to the local economy in that specific area’s particular and national economy (Bujosa et al. 2015 ). For instance, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report demonstrated that the global tourism industry had faced a considerable decline in the duration of ski season, including the loss of some ski areas and the dramatic shifts in tourist destinations’ climate warming.

Furthermore, different studies (Neuvonen et al. 2015 ; Scott et al. 2004 ) indicated that various currently perfect tourist spots, e.g., coastal areas, splendid islands, and ski resorts, will suffer consequences of CC. It is also worth noting that the quality and potential of administrative management potential to cope with the influence of CC on the tourism industry is of crucial significance, which renders specific strengths of resiliency to numerous destinations to withstand against it (Füssel and Hildén 2014 ). Similarly, in the partial or complete absence of adequate socio-economic and socio-political capital, the high-demanding tourist sites scurry towards the verge of vulnerability. The susceptibility of tourism is based on different components such as the extent of exposure, sensitivity, life-supporting sectors, and capacity assessment factors (Füssel and Hildén 2014 ). It is obvious corporality that sectors such as health, food, ecosystems, human habitat, infrastructure, water availability, and the accessibility of a particular region are prone to CC. Henceforth, the sensitivity of these critical sectors to CC and, in return, the adaptive measures are a hallmark in determining the composite vulnerability of climate warming (Ionescu et al. 2009 ).

Moreover, the dependence on imported food items, poor hygienic conditions, and inadequate health professionals are dominant aspects affecting the local terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity. Meanwhile, the greater dependency on ecosystem services and its products also makes a destination more fragile to become a prey of CC (Rizvi et al. 2015 ). Some significant non-climatic factors are important indicators of a particular ecosystem’s typical health and functioning, e.g., resource richness and abundance portray the picture of ecosystem stability. Similarly, the species abundance is also a productive tool that ensures that the ecosystem has a higher buffering capacity, which is terrific in terms of resiliency (Roscher et al. 2013 ).

Climate change impacts on the economic sector

Climate plays a significant role in overall productivity and economic growth. Due to its increasingly global existence and its effect on economic growth, CC has become one of the major concerns of both local and international environmental policymakers (Ferreira et al. 2020 ; Gleditsch 2021 ; Abbass et al. 2021b ; Lamperti et al. 2021 ). The adverse effects of CC on the overall productivity factor of the agricultural sector are therefore significant for understanding the creation of local adaptation policies and the composition of productive climate policy contracts. Previous studies on CC in the world have already forecasted its effects on the agricultural sector. Researchers have found that global CC will impact the agricultural sector in different world regions. The study of the impacts of CC on various agrarian activities in other demographic areas and the development of relative strategies to respond to effects has become a focal point for researchers (Chandioet al. 2020 ; Gleditsch 2021 ; Mosavi et al. 2020 ).

With the rapid growth of global warming since the 1980s, the temperature has started increasing globally, which resulted in the incredible transformation of rain and evaporation in the countries. The agricultural development of many countries has been reliant, delicate, and susceptible to CC for a long time, and it is on the development of agriculture total factor productivity (ATFP) influence different crops and yields of farmers (Alhassan 2021 ; Wu  2020 ).

Food security and natural disasters are increasing rapidly in the world. Several major climatic/natural disasters have impacted local crop production in the countries concerned. The effects of these natural disasters have been poorly controlled by the development of the economies and populations and may affect human life as well. One example is China, which is among the world’s most affected countries, vulnerable to natural disasters due to its large population, harsh environmental conditions, rapid CC, low environmental stability, and disaster power. According to the January 2016 statistical survey, China experienced an economic loss of 298.3 billion Yuan, and about 137 million Chinese people were severely affected by various natural disasters (Xie et al. 2018 ).

Mitigation and adaptation strategies of climate changes

Adaptation and mitigation are the crucial factors to address the response to CC (Jahanzad et al. 2020 ). Researchers define mitigation on climate changes, and on the other hand, adaptation directly impacts climate changes like floods. To some extent, mitigation reduces or moderates greenhouse gas emission, and it becomes a critical issue both economically and environmentally (Botzen et al. 2021 ; Jahanzad et al. 2020 ; Kongsager 2018 ; Smit et al. 2000 ; Vale et al. 2021 ; Usman et al. 2021 ; Verheyen 2005 ).

Researchers have deep concern about the adaptation and mitigation methodologies in sectoral and geographical contexts. Agriculture, industry, forestry, transport, and land use are the main sectors to adapt and mitigate policies(Kärkkäinen et al. 2020 ; Waheed et al. 2021 ). Adaptation and mitigation require particular concern both at the national and international levels. The world has faced a significant problem of climate change in the last decades, and adaptation to these effects is compulsory for economic and social development. To adapt and mitigate against CC, one should develop policies and strategies at the international level (Hussain et al. 2020 ). Figure  6 depicts the list of current studies on sectoral impacts of CC with adaptation and mitigation measures globally.

Sectoral impacts of climate change with adaptation and mitigation measures.

Conclusion and future perspectives

Specific socio-agricultural, socio-economic, and physical systems are the cornerstone of psychological well-being, and the alteration in these systems by CC will have disastrous impacts. Climate variability, alongside other anthropogenic and natural stressors, influences human and environmental health sustainability. Food security is another concerning scenario that may lead to compromised food quality, higher food prices, and inadequate food distribution systems. Global forests are challenged by different climatic factors such as storms, droughts, flash floods, and intense precipitation. On the other hand, their anthropogenic wiping is aggrandizing their existence. Undoubtedly, the vulnerability scale of the world’s regions differs; however, appropriate mitigation and adaptation measures can aid the decision-making bodies in developing effective policies to tackle its impacts. Presently, modern life on earth has tailored to consistent climatic patterns, and accordingly, adapting to such considerable variations is of paramount importance. Because the faster changes in climate will make it harder to survive and adjust, this globally-raising enigma calls for immediate attention at every scale ranging from elementary community level to international level. Still, much effort, research, and dedication are required, which is the most critical time. Some policy implications can help us to mitigate the consequences of climate change, especially the most affected sectors like the agriculture sector;

Warming might lengthen the season in frost-prone growing regions (temperate and arctic zones), allowing for longer-maturing seasonal cultivars with better yields (Pfadenhauer 2020 ; Bonacci 2019 ). Extending the planting season may allow additional crops each year; when warming leads to frequent warmer months highs over critical thresholds, a split season with a brief summer fallow may be conceivable for short-period crops such as wheat barley, cereals, and many other vegetable crops. The capacity to prolong the planting season in tropical and subtropical places where the harvest season is constrained by precipitation or agriculture farming occurs after the year may be more limited and dependent on how precipitation patterns vary (Wu et al. 2017 ).

The genetic component is comprehensive for many yields, but it is restricted like kiwi fruit for a few. Ali et al. ( 2017 ) investigated how new crops will react to climatic changes (also stated in Mall et al. 2017 ). Hot temperature, drought, insect resistance; salt tolerance; and overall crop production and product quality increases would all be advantageous (Akkari 2016 ). Genetic mapping and engineering can introduce a greater spectrum of features. The adoption of genetically altered cultivars has been slowed, particularly in the early forecasts owing to the complexity in ensuring features are expediently expressed throughout the entire plant, customer concerns, economic profitability, and regulatory impediments (Wirehn 2018 ; Davidson et al. 2016 ).

To get the full benefit of the CO 2 would certainly require additional nitrogen and other fertilizers. Nitrogen not consumed by the plants may be excreted into groundwater, discharged into water surface, or emitted from the land, soil nitrous oxide when large doses of fertilizer are sprayed. Increased nitrogen levels in groundwater sources have been related to human chronic illnesses and impact marine ecosystems. Cultivation, grain drying, and other field activities have all been examined in depth in the studies (Barua et al. 2018 ).

• The technological and socio-economic adaptation

The policy consequence of the causative conclusion is that as a source of alternative energy, biofuel production is one of the routes that explain oil price volatility separate from international macroeconomic factors. Even though biofuel production has just begun in a few sample nations, there is still a tremendous worldwide need for feedstock to satisfy industrial expansion in China and the USA, which explains the food price relationship to the global oil price. Essentially, oil-exporting countries may create incentives in their economies to increase food production. It may accomplish by giving farmers financing, seedlings, fertilizers, and farming equipment. Because of the declining global oil price and, as a result, their earnings from oil export, oil-producing nations may be unable to subsidize food imports even in the near term. As a result, these countries can boost the agricultural value chain for export. It may be accomplished through R&D and adding value to their food products to increase income by correcting exchange rate misalignment and adverse trade terms. These nations may also diversify their economies away from oil, as dependence on oil exports alone is no longer economically viable given the extreme volatility of global oil prices. Finally, resource-rich and oil-exporting countries can convert to non-food renewable energy sources such as solar, hydro, coal, wind, wave, and tidal energy. By doing so, both world food and oil supplies would be maintained rather than harmed.

IRENA’s modeling work shows that, if a comprehensive policy framework is in place, efforts toward decarbonizing the energy future will benefit economic activity, jobs (outweighing losses in the fossil fuel industry), and welfare. Countries with weak domestic supply chains and a large reliance on fossil fuel income, in particular, must undertake structural reforms to capitalize on the opportunities inherent in the energy transition. Governments continue to give major policy assistance to extract fossil fuels, including tax incentives, financing, direct infrastructure expenditures, exemptions from environmental regulations, and other measures. The majority of major oil and gas producing countries intend to increase output. Some countries intend to cut coal output, while others plan to maintain or expand it. While some nations are beginning to explore and execute policies aimed at a just and equitable transition away from fossil fuel production, these efforts have yet to impact major producing countries’ plans and goals. Verifiable and comparable data on fossil fuel output and assistance from governments and industries are critical to closing the production gap. Governments could increase openness by declaring their production intentions in their climate obligations under the Paris Agreement.

It is firmly believed that achieving the Paris Agreement commitments is doubtlful without undergoing renewable energy transition across the globe (Murshed 2020 ; Zhao et al. 2022 ). Policy instruments play the most important role in determining the degree of investment in renewable energy technology. This study examines the efficacy of various policy strategies in the renewable energy industry of multiple nations. Although its impact is more visible in established renewable energy markets, a renewable portfolio standard is also a useful policy instrument. The cost of producing renewable energy is still greater than other traditional energy sources. Furthermore, government incentives in the R&D sector can foster innovation in this field, resulting in cost reductions in the renewable energy industry. These nations may export their technologies and share their policy experiences by forming networks among their renewable energy-focused organizations. All policy measures aim to reduce production costs while increasing the proportion of renewables to a country’s energy system. Meanwhile, long-term contracts with renewable energy providers, government commitment and control, and the establishment of long-term goals can assist developing nations in deploying renewable energy technology in their energy sector.

Author contribution

KA: Writing the original manuscript, data collection, data analysis, Study design, Formal analysis, Visualization, Revised draft, Writing-review, and editing. MZQ: Writing the original manuscript, data collection, data analysis, Writing-review, and editing. HS: Contribution to the contextualization of the theme, Conceptualization, Validation, Supervision, literature review, Revised drapt, and writing review and editing. MM: Writing review and editing, compiling the literature review, language editing. HM: Writing review and editing, compiling the literature review, language editing. IY: Contribution to the contextualization of the theme, literature review, and writing review and editing.

Availability of data and material

Declarations.

Not applicable.

The authors declare no competing interests.

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Contributor Information

Kashif Abbass, Email: nc.ude.tsujn@ssabbafihsak .

Muhammad Zeeshan Qasim, Email: moc.kooltuo@888misaqnahseez .

Huaming Song, Email: nc.ude.tsujn@gnimauh .

Muntasir Murshed, Email: [email protected] .

Haider Mahmood, Email: moc.liamtoh@doomhamrediah .

Ijaz Younis, Email: nc.ude.tsujn@sinuoyzaji .

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• 9 questions about climate change you were too embarrassed to ask

Basic answers to basic questions about global warming and the future climate.

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This explainer was updated by Umair Irfan in December 2018 and draws heavily from a card stack written by Brad Plumer in 2015. Brian Resnick contributed the section on the Paris climate accord in 2017.

There’s a vast and growing gap between the urgency to fight climate change and the policies needed to combat it.

In 2018, the United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change found that it is possible to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius this century, but the world may have as little as 12 years left to act. The US government’s National Climate Assessment , with input from NASA, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Pentagon, also reported that the consequences of climate change are already here, ranging from nuisance flooding to the spread of mosquito-borne viruses into what were once colder climates. Left unchecked, warming will cost the US economy hundreds of billions of dollars.

However, these facts have failed to register with the Trump administration, which is actively pushing policies that will increase the emissions of heat-trapping gases.

Ever since he took office, President Donald Trump has rejected or undermined President Barack Obama’s signature climate achievements: the Paris climate agreement; the Clean Power Plan , the main domestic policy for limiting greenhouse gas emissions; and fuel economy standards , which target transportation, the largest US source of greenhouse gases.

At the same time, the Trump administration has aggressively boosted fossil fuels: opening unprecedented swaths of public lands to mining and drilling , attempting to bail out foundering coal power plants , and promoting hydrocarbon exploitation at climate change conferences .

Trump has also appointed climate change skeptics to key positions. Quietly, officials at these and other science agencies have been removing the words “climate change” from government websites and press releases.

Yet the evidence for humanity’s role in changing the climate continues to mount, and its consequences are increasingly difficult to ignore. Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations now top 408 parts per million, a threshold the planet hasn’t seen in millions of years . Greenhouse gas emissions reached a record high in 2018. Disasters worsened by climate change have taken hundreds of lives, destroyed thousands of homes, and cost billions of dollars.

The big questions now are how these ongoing changes in the climate will reverberate throughout the rest of the world, and what we should do about them. The answers bridge decades of research across geology, economics, and social science, which have been confounded by uncertainty and obscured by jargon. That’s why it can be a bit daunting to join the discussion for the first time, or to revisit the conversation after a hiatus.

To help, we’ve provided answers to some fundamental questions about climate change you may have been afraid to ask.

1) What is global warming?

In short: The world is getting hotter, and humans are responsible.

Yes, the planet’s temperature has changed before, but it’s the rise in average temperature of the Earth's climate system since the late 19th century, the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, that’s important here. Temperatures over land and ocean have gone up 0.8° to 1° Celsius (1.4° to 1.8° Fahrenheit), on average, in that span:

Many people use the term “climate change” to describe this rise in temperatures and the associated effects on the Earth's climate. (The shift from the term “global warming” to “climate change” was also part of a deliberate messaging effort by a Republican pollster to undermine support for environmental regulations.)

Like detectives solving a murder, climate scientists have found humanity’s fingerprints all over the planet’s warming, with the overwhelming majority of the evidence pointing to the extra greenhouse gases humans have put into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels. Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide trap heat at the Earth’s surface, preventing that heat from escaping back out into space too quickly. When we burn coal, natural gas, or oil for energy, or when we cut down forests that usually soak up greenhouse gases, we add even more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, so the planet warms up.

Global warming also refers to what scientists think will happen in the future if humans keep adding greenhouse gases to the atmosphere.

Though there is a steady stream of new studies on climate change, one of the most robust aggregations of the science remains the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s fifth assessment report from 2013. The IPCC is convened by the United Nations, and the report draws on more than 800 expert authors. It projects that temperatures could rise at least 2°C (3.6°F) by the end of the century under many plausible scenarios — and possibly 4°C or more. A more recent study by scientists in the United Kingdom found a narrower range of expected temperatures if atmospheric carbon dioxide doubled, rising between 2.2°C and 3.4°C.

Many experts consider 2°C of warming to be unacceptably high , increasing the risk of deadly heat waves, droughts, flooding, and extinctions. Rising temperatures will drive up global sea levels as the world’s glaciers and ice sheets melt. Further global warming could affect everything from our ability to grow food to the spread of disease.

That’s why the IPCC put out another report in 2018 comparing 2°C of warming to a scenario with 1.5°C of warming . The researchers found that this half-degree difference is actually pretty important, since every bit of warming matters. Between the two outlooks, less warming means fewer people will have to move from coastal areas, natural weather events will be less severe, and economies will take a smaller hit.

However, limiting warming would likely require a complete overhaul of our energy system. Fossil fuels currently provide just over 80 percent of the world’s energy. To zero out emissions this century, we’d have to replace most of that with low-carbon sources like wind, solar, nuclear, geothermal, or carbon capture.

Beyond that, we may have to electrify everything that uses energy and start pulling greenhouse gases straight from the air. And to get on track for 1.5°C of warming, the world would have to halve greenhouse gas emissions from current levels by 2030.

That’s a staggering task, and there are huge technological and political hurdles standing in the way. As such, the world's nations have been slow to act on global warming — many of the existing targets for curbing greenhouse gas emissions are too weak , yet many countries are falling short of even these modest goals.

2) How do we know global warming is real?

The simplest way is through temperature measurements. Agencies in the United States, Europe, and Japan have independently analyzed historical temperature data and reached the same conclusion: The Earth’s average surface temperature has risen roughly 0.8° Celsius (1.4° Fahrenheit) since the early 20th century.

But that’s not the only clue. Scientists have also noted that glaciers and ice sheets around the world are melting. Satellite observations since the 1970s have shown warming in the lower atmosphere. There’s more heat in the ocean, causing water to expand and sea levels to rise. Plants are flowering earlier in many parts of the world. There’s more humidity in the atmosphere. Here’s a summary from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration:

These are all signs that the Earth really is getting warmer — and that it’s not just a glitch in the thermometers. That explains why climate scientists say things like , “Warming in the climate system is unequivocal.” They’re really confident about this one.

3) How do we know humans are causing global warming?

Climate scientists say they are more than 95 percent certain that human influence has been the dominant cause of global warming since 1950. They’re about as sure of this as they are that cigarette smoke causes cancer.

Why are they so confident? In part because they have a good grasp of how greenhouse gases can warm the planet, in part because the theory fits the available evidence, and in part because alternate theories have been ruled out. Let's break it down in six steps:

1) Scientists have long known that greenhouse gases in the atmosphere — such as carbon dioxide, methane, or water vapor — absorb certain frequencies of infrared radiation and scatter them back toward the Earth. These gases essentially prevent heat from escaping too quickly back into space, trapping that radiation at the surface and keeping the planet warm.

2) Climate scientists also know that concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have grown significantly since the Industrial Revolution. Carbon dioxide has risen 45 percent . Methane has risen more than 200 percent . Through some relatively straightforward chemistry and physics , scientists can trace these increases to human activities like burning oil, gas, and coal.

3) So it stands to reason that more greenhouse gases would lead to more heat. And indeed, satellite measurements have shown that less infrared radiation is escaping out into space over time and instead returning to the Earth’s surface. That’s strong evidence that the greenhouse effect is increasing.

4) There are other human fingerprints that suggest increased greenhouse gases are warming the planet. For instance, back in the 1960s, simple climate models predicted that global warming caused by more carbon dioxide would lead to cooling in the upper atmosphere (because the heat is getting trapped at the surface). Later satellite measurements confirmed exactly that . Here are a few other similar predictions that have also been confirmed.

5) Meanwhile, climate scientists have ruled out other explanations for the rise in average temperatures over the past century. To take one example: Solar activity can shift from year to year, affecting the Earth's climate. But satellite data shows that total solar irradiance has declined slightly in the past 35 years, even as the Earth has warmed.

6) More recent calculations have shown that it’s impossible to explain the temperature rise we’ve seen in the past century without taking the increase in carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into account. Natural causes, like the sun or volcanoes, have an influence, but they’re not sufficient by themselves.

Ultimately, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change concluded that most of the warming since 1951 has been due to human activities. The Earth’s climate can certainly fluctuate from year to year due to natural forces (including oscillations in the Pacific Ocean, such as El Niño ). But greenhouse gases are driving the larger upward trend in temperatures.

And as the Climate Science Special Report , released by 13 US federal agencies in November 2017, put it, “For the warming over the last century, there is no convincing alternative explanation supported by the extent of the observational evidence.”

More: This chart breaks down all the different factors affecting the Earth’s average temperature. And there’s much more detail in the IPCC’s report , particularly this section and this one .

4) How has global warming affected the world so far?

Here’s a list of ongoing changes that climate scientists have concluded are likely linked to global warming, as detailed by the IPCC here and here .

Higher temperatures: Every continent has warmed substantially since the 1950s. There are more hot days and fewer cold days, on average, and the hot days are hotter.

Heavier storms and floods : The world’s atmosphere can hold more moisture as it warms. As a result, the overall number of heavier storms has increased since the mid-20th century, particularly in North America and Europe (though there’s plenty of regional variation). Scientists reported in December that at least 18 percent of Hurricane Harvey’s record-setting rainfall over Houston in August was due to climate change.

Heat waves: Heat waves have become longer and more frequent around the world over the past 50 years, particularly in Europe, Asia, and Australia.

Shrinking sea ice: The extent of sea ice in the Arctic, always at its maximum in winter, has shrunk since 1979, by 3.3 percent per decade. Summer sea ice has dwindled even more rapidly, by 13.2 percent per decade. Antarctica has seen recent years with record growth in sea ice, but it’s a very different environment than the Arctic, and the losses in the north far exceed any gains at the South Pole, so total global sea ice is on the decline:

Global, Arctic and Antarctic Sea Ice Area Spiral February 2018 #GlobalWarming #ClimateChange pic.twitter.com/gayoLFSJ5u — Kevin Pluck (@kevpluck) March 1, 2018

Shrinking glaciers and ice sheets : Glaciers around the world have, on average, been losing ice since the 1970s. In some areas, that is reducing the amount of available freshwater. The ice sheet on Greenland, which would raise global sea levels by 25 feet if it all melted, is declining, with some sections experiencing a sudden surge in the melt rate. The Antarctic ice sheet is also getting smaller, but at a much slower rate .

Sea level rise: Global sea levels rose 9.8 inches (25 centimeters) in the 19th and 20th centuries, after 2,000 years of relatively little change , and the pace is speeding up . Sea level rise is caused by both the thermal expansion of the oceans — as water warms up, it expands — and the melting of glaciers and ice sheets (but not sea ice).

Food supply: A hotter climate can be both good for crops (it lengthens the growing season, and more carbon dioxide can increase photosynthesis) and bad for crops (excess heat can damage plants). The IPCC found that global warming was currently benefiting crops in some high-latitude areas but that negative effects are becoming increasingly common worldwide. In areas like California, crop yields are estimated to decline 40 percent by 2050.

Shifting species: Many land and marine species have had to shift their geographic ranges in response to warmer temperatures. So far, several extinctions have been linked to global warming, such as certain frog species in Central America.

Warmer winters: In general, winters are warming faster than summers . Average low temperatures are rising all over the world. In some cases, these temperatures are climbing above the freezing point of water. We’re already seeing massive declines in snow accumulation in the United States, which can paradoxically increase flood, drought, and wildfire risk — as water that would ordinarily dispatch slowly over the course of a season instead flows through a region all at once.

Debated impacts

Here are a few other ways the Earth’s climate has been changing — but scientists are still debating whether and how they’re linked to global warming:

Droughts have become more frequent and more intense in some parts of the world — such as the American Southwest, Mediterranean Europe, and West Africa — though it’s hard to identify a clear global trend. In other parts of the world, such as the Midwestern United States and Northwestern Australia, droughts appear to have become less frequent. A recent study shows that, globally, the time between droughts is shrinking and more areas are affected by drought and taking longer to recover from them.

Hurricanes have clearly become more intense in the North Atlantic Ocean since 1970, the IPCC says. But it’s less clear whether global warming is driving this. 2017 was an exceptionally bad year for Atlantic hurricanes in terms of strength and damage. And while scientists are still uncertain whether they were a fluke or part of a trend, they are warning we should treat it as a baseline year. There doesn’t yet seem to be any clear trajectory for tropical cyclones worldwide.

5) What impacts will global warming have in the future?

It depends on how much the planet actually heats up. The changes associated with 4° Celsius (or 7.2° Fahrenheit) of warming are expected to be more dramatic than the changes associated with 2°C of warming.

Here’s a basic rundown of big impacts we can expect if global warming continues, via the IPCC ( here and here ).

Hotter temperatures: If emissions keep rising unchecked, then global average surface temperatures will be at least 2°C higher (3.6°F) than preindustrial levels by 2100 — and possibly 3°C or 4°C or more.

Higher sea level rise: The expert consensus is that global sea levels will rise somewhere between 0.2 and 2 meters by the end of the century if global warming continues unchecked (that’s between 0.6 and 6.6 feet). That’s a wide range, reflecting some of the uncertainties scientists have in how ice will melt. In specific regions like the Eastern United States, sea level rise could be even higher, and around the world, the rate of rise is accelerating .

Heat waves: A hotter planet will mean more frequent and severe heat waves .

Droughts and floods: Across the globe, wet seasons are expected to become wetter, and dry seasons drier. As the IPCC puts it , the world will see “more intense downpours, leading to more floods, yet longer dry periods between rain events, leading to more drought.”

Hurricanes: It’s not yet clear what impact global warming will have on tropical cyclones. The IPCC said it was likely that tropical cyclones would get stronger as the oceans heat up, with faster winds and heavier rainfall. But the overall number of hurricanes in many regions was likely to “either decrease or remain essentially unchanged.”

Heavier storm surges: Higher sea levels will increase the risk of storm surges and flooding when storms do hit.

Agriculture: In many parts of the world, the mix of increased heat and drought is expected to make food production more difficult. The IPCC concluded that global warming of 1°C or more could start hurting crop yields for wheat, corn, and rice by the 2030s, especially in the tropics. (This wouldn’t be uniform, however; some crops may benefit from mild warming, such as winter wheat in the United States.)

Extinctions: As the world warms, many plant and animal species will need to shift habitats at a rapid rate to maintain their current conditions. Some species will be able to keep up; others likely won’t. The Great Barrier Reef, for instance, may not be able to recover from major recent bleaching events linked to climate change. The National Research Council has estimated that a mass extinction event “could conceivably occur before the year 2100.”

Long-term changes: Most of the projected changes above will occur in the 21st century. But temperatures will keep rising after that if greenhouse gas levels aren’t stabilized. That increases the risk of more drastic longer-term shifts. One example: If West Antarctica’s ice sheet started crumbling, that could push sea levels up significantly. The National Research Council in 2013 deemed many of these rapid climate surprises unlikely this century but a real possibility further into the future.

6) What happens if the world heats up more drastically — say, 4°C?

The risks of climate change would rise considerably if temperatures rose 4° Celsius (7.2° Fahrenheit) above preindustrial levels — something that’s possible if greenhouse gas emissions keep rising at their current rate.

The IPCC says 4°C of global warming could lead to “substantial species extinctions,” “large risks to global and regional food security,” and the risk of irreversibly destabilizing Greenland’s massive ice sheet.

One huge concern is food production: A growing number of studies suggest it would become significantly more difficult for the world to grow food with 3°C or 4°C of global warming. Countries like Bangladesh, Egypt, Vietnam, and parts of Africa could see large tracts of farmland turn unusable due to rising seas. Scientists are also concerned about crops getting less nutritious due to rising CO2.

Humans could struggle to adapt to these conditions. Many people might think the impacts of 4°C of warming will simply be twice as bad as those of 2°C. But as a 2013 World Bank report argued, that’s not necessarily true. Impacts may interact with each other in unpredictable ways. Current agriculture models, for instance, don’t have a good sense of what will happen to crops if increased heat waves, droughts, new pests and diseases, and other changes all start to combine.

“Given that uncertainty remains about the full nature and scale of impacts,” the World Bank report said, “there is also no certainty that adaptation to a 4°C world is possible.” Its conclusion was blunt: “The projected 4°C warming simply must not be allowed to occur.”

7) What do climate models say about the warming that could actually happen in the coming decades?

That depends on your faith in humanity.

Climate models depend on not only complicated physics but the intricacies of human behavior over the entire planet.

Generally, the more greenhouse gases humanity pumps into the atmosphere, the warmer it will get. But scientists aren’t certain how sensitive the global climate system is to increases in greenhouse gases. And just how much we might emit over the coming decades remains an open question, depending on advances in technology and international efforts to cut emissions.

The IPCC groups these scenarios into four categories of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations known as Representative Concentration Pathways . They serve as standard benchmarks for evaluating climate models, but they also have some assumptions baked in .

RCP 2.6, also called RCP 3PD, is the scenario with very low greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. It bets on declining oil use, a population of 9 billion by 2100, increasing energy efficiency, and emissions holding steady until 2020, at which point they’ll decline and even go negative by 2100. This is, to put it mildly, very optimistic.

The next tier up is RCP 4.5, which still banks on ambitious reductions in emissions but anticipates an inflection point in the emissions rate around 2040. RCP 6 expects emissions to increase 75 percent above today’s levels before peaking and declining around 2060 as the world continues to rely heavily on fossil fuels.

The highest tier, RCP 8.5, is the pessimistic business-as-usual scenario, anticipating no policy changes nor any technological advances. It expects a global population of 12 billion and triple the rate of carbon dioxide emissions compared to today by 2100.

Here’s how greenhouse gas emissions under each scenario stack up next to each other:

And here’s what that means for global average temperatures, assuming that a doubling of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere leads to 3°C of warming:

As you can see, RCP 3PD is the only trajectory that keeps the planet below 2°C of warming. Recall what it would take to keep emissions in line with this pathway and you’ll understand the enormity of the challenge of meeting this goal.

8) How do we stop global warming?

The world’s nations would need to cut their greenhouse gas emissions by a lot. And even that wouldn’t stop all global warming.

For example, let’s say we wanted to limit global warming to below 2°C. To do that, the IPCC has calculated that annual greenhouse gas emissions would need to drop at least 40 to 70 percent by midcentury.

Emissions would then have to keep falling until humans were hardly emitting any extra greenhouse gases by the end of the century. We’d also have to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere .

Cutting emissions that sharply is a daunting task. Right now, the world gets 87 percent of its primary energy from fossil fuels: oil, gas, and coal. By contrast, just 13 percent of the world’s primary energy is “low carbon”: a little bit of wind and solar power, some nuclear power plants, a bunch of hydroelectric dams. That’s one reason global emissions keep rising each year.

To stay below 2°C, that would all need to change radically. By 2050, the IPCC notes, the world would need to triple or even quadruple the share of clean energy it uses — and keep scaling it up thereafter. Second, we’d have to get dramatically more efficient at using energy in our homes, buildings, and cars. And stop cutting down forests. And reduce emissions from agriculture and from industrial processes like cement manufacturing.

The IPCC also notes that this task becomes even more difficult the longer we put it off, because carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases will keep piling up in the atmosphere in the meantime, and the cuts necessary to stay below the 2°C limit become more severe.

9) What are we actually doing to fight climate change?

A global problem requires global action, but with climate change, there is a yawning gap between ambition and action.

The main international effort is the 2015 Paris climate accord, of which the United States is the only country in the world that wants out . The deal was hammered out over weeks of tense negotiations and weighs in at 31 pages . What it does is actually pretty simple.

The backbone is the global target of keeping global average temperatures from rising 2°C (compared to temperatures before the Industrial Revolution) by the end of the century. Beyond 2 degrees, we risk dramatically higher seas, changes in weather patterns, food and water crises, and an overall more hostile world.

Critics have argued that the 2-degree mark is arbitrary, or even too low , to make a difference. But it’s a starting point, a goal that, before Paris, the world was on track to wildly miss.

Paris is voluntary

To accomplish this 2-degree goal, the accord states that countries should strive to reach peak emissions “as soon as possible.” (Currently, we’re on track to hit peak emissions around 2030 or later , which will likely be too late.)

But the agreement doesn’t detail exactly how these countries should do that. Instead, it provides a framework for getting momentum going on greenhouse gas reduction, with some oversight and accountability. For the US, the pledge involves 26 to 28 percent reductions by 2025. (Under Trump’s current policies, that goal is impossible .)

There’s also no defined punishment for breaking it. The idea is to create a culture of accountability (and maybe some peer pressure) to get countries to step up their climate game.

In 2020, delegates are supposed to reconvene and provide updates about their emission pledges and report on how they’re becoming more aggressive on accomplishing the 2-degree goal.

However, many countries are already falling behind on their climate change commitments, and some, like Germany, are giving up on their near-term targets.

Paris asks richer countries to help out poorer countries

There’s a fundamental inequality when it comes to global emissions. Rich countries have plundered and burned huge amounts of fossil fuels and gotten rich from them. Poor countries seeking to grow their economies are now being admonished for using the same fuels. Many low-lying poor countries also will be among the first to bear the worst impacts of climate change.

The main vehicle for rectifying this is the Green Climate Fund , via which richer countries, like the US, are supposed to send $100 billion a year in aid and financing by 2020 to the poorer countries. The United States’ share was $3 billion , but with President Trump’s decision to withdraw from the Paris accord, this goal is unlikely to be met.

The agreement matters because we absolutely need momentum on this issue

The Paris agreement is largely symbolic, and it will live on even though Trump is aiming to pull the US out. But, as Jim Tankersley wrote for Vox , “the accord will be weakened, and, much more importantly, so will the fragile international coalition” around climate change.

We’re already seeing the Paris agreement lose steam. At a follow-up climate meeting this year in Katowice, Poland , negotiators forged an agreement on measuring and verifying their progress in cutting greenhouse gases, but left many critical questions of how to achieve these reductions unanswered.

But the Paris accord isn’t the only international climate policy game in town

There are regional international climate efforts like the European Union’s Emissions Trading System . However, the most effective global policy at keeping warming in check to date doesn’t have to do with climate change, at least on the surface.

The 1987 Montreal Protocol , which was convened by countries to halt the destruction of the ozone layer, had a major side effect of averting warming. In fact, it’s been the single most effective effort humanity has undertaken to fight climate change. Since many of the substances that eat away at the ozone layer are potent heat-trappers, limiting emissions of gases like chlorofluorocarbons has an outsize effect.

And the Trump administration doesn’t appear as hostile to Montreal as it does to Paris. The White House may send the 2016 Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol to the Senate for ratification, giving the new regulations the force of law. If implemented, the amendment would avert 0.5°C of warming by 2100.

Regardless of what path we choose, the key thing to remember is that we are going to pay for climate change one way or another. We have the opportunity now to address warming on our own terms, with investments in clean energy, moving people away from disaster-prone areas, and regulating greenhouse gas emissions. Otherwise, we’ll pay through diminished crop harvests, inundated coastlines, destroyed homes, lost lives, and an increasingly unlivable planet. Ignoring or stalling on climate change chooses the latter option by default. Our choices do matter, but we’re running out of time to make them.

F urther reading:

Avoiding catastrophic climate change isn’t impossible yet. Just incredibly hard.

Reckoning with climate change will demand ugly tradeoffs from environmentalists — and everyone else

Show this cartoon to anyone who doubts we need huge action on climate change

It’s time to start talking about “negative” carbon dioxide emissions

A history of the 2°C global warming target

Scientists made a detailed “roadmap” for meeting the Paris climate goals. It’s eye-opening.

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The Climate Establishment and the Paris partnerships

• Published: 17 May 2024
• Volume 177 , article number  84 , ( 2024 )

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• Jessica F. Green   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6700-1126 1  

The Paris Agreement created an institutionalized role for non-state actors through voluntary cooperation. Many international NGOs (INGOs) are particularly active in these “Paris partnerships,” often working with multinational corporations to reduce emissions and promote decarbonization. Though there is ample work on both the effectiveness of the Paris partnerships and on the role of INGOs in the global climate regime, much of this work focuses “outward” – on how INGOs contribute to climate mitigation and adaptation, or influence norms, discourse and policy. Yet, there is considerably less work that focuses “inward” – examining who INGOs work with in order to achieve their policy goals. This paper provides a descriptive analysis of key INGOs in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) process, as a first step in a larger research agenda to understand the incentives and opportunities that drive INGO behavior. Specifically, it uses network analysis to identify the “climate establishment” – which I define as the insider INGOs working within the multilateral process and with large corporations to influence rulemaking, soft law and firm behavior . Measures of network centrality demonstrate that two INGOs – WWF and the World Resources Institute – are by far, the most authoritative members of the climate establishment. They participate in the largest number of partnerships, and have “important” friends, as measured by eigenvector centrality. The data also indicate that the climate establishment sees carbon pricing as a key strategy, and it often cooperates with banks that are large funders of fossil fuel projects. The descriptive analysis of the climate establishment and its partners raises important questions for future research about why INGOs choose to partner with F100 companies, and how such cooperation might influence INGO behavior.

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Acknowledgements

I am grateful for comments and feedback from Michael Barnett, Steven Bird, Fergus Green, Tom Hale, Matt Hoffmann, Matt Huber, Paasha Mahdavi, Matto Mildenberger, Thea Riofrancos, Wendy Wong, members of the Comparative Political Economy Workshop at LSE, participants in the IR seminar at GWU, the environmental politics seminar at UCSB, and the 2021 Climate Futures Workshop. I also wish to acknowledge the outstanding research assistance by Louis Frank, Andreea Musulaan and Pietro Bonnacorsi, and the generosity of Jen Iris Allan in sharing her data with me. This research is supported by the Climate Social Science Network at Brown University.

This research is supported by the Climate Social Science Network at Brown University.

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• Published: 14 May 2024

Rain, rain, go away, come again another day: do climate variations enhance the spread of COVID-19?

• Masha Menhat 1 ,
• Effi Helmy Ariffin   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8534-0113 2 ,
• Wan Shiao Dong 3 ,
• Junainah Zakaria 2 ,
• Aminah Ismailluddin 3 ,
• Hayrol Azril Mohamed Shafril 4 ,
• Mahazan Muhammad 5 ,
• Ahmad Rosli Othman 6 ,
• Thavamaran Kanesan 7 ,
• Suzana Pil Ramli 8 ,
• Mohd Fadzil Akhir 2 &
• Amila Sandaruwan Ratnayake 9  

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The spread of infectious diseases was further promoted due to busy cities, increased travel, and climate change, which led to outbreaks, epidemics, and even pandemics. The world experienced the severity of the 125 nm virus called the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), a pandemic declared by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2019. Many investigations revealed a strong correlation between humidity and temperature relative to the kinetics of the virus’s spread into the hosts. This study aimed to solve the riddle of the correlation between environmental factors and COVID-19 by applying RepOrting standards for Systematic Evidence Syntheses (ROSES) with the designed research question. Five temperature and humidity-related themes were deduced via the review processes, namely 1) The link between solar activity and pandemic outbreaks, 2) Regional area, 3) Climate and weather, 4) Relationship between temperature and humidity, and 5) the Governmental disinfection actions and guidelines. A significant relationship between solar activities and pandemic outbreaks was reported throughout the review of past studies. The grand solar minima (1450-1830) and solar minima (1975-2020) coincided with the global pandemic. Meanwhile, the cooler, lower humidity, and low wind movement environment reported higher severity of cases. Moreover, COVID-19 confirmed cases and death cases were higher in countries located within the Northern Hemisphere. The Blackbox of COVID-19 was revealed through the work conducted in this paper that the virus thrives in cooler and low-humidity environments, with emphasis on potential treatments and government measures relative to temperature and humidity.

• The coronavirus disease 2019 (COIVD-19) is spreading faster in low temperatures and humid area.

• Weather and climate serve as environmental drivers in propagating COVID-19.

• Solar radiation influences the spreading of COVID-19.

• The correlation between weather and population as the factor in spreading of COVID-19.

Graphical abstract

Introduction

The revolution and rotation of the Earth and the Sun supply heat and create differential heating on earth. The movements and the 23.5° inclination of the Earth [ 1 ] separate the oblate-ellipsoid-shaped earth into northern and southern hemispheres. Consequently, the division results in various climatic zones at different latitudes and dissimilar local temperatures (see Fig.  1 ) and affects the seasons and length of a day and night in a particular region [ 2 ]. Global differential heating and climate variability occur due to varying solar radiation received by each region [ 3 ]. According to Trenberth and Fasullo [ 4 ] and Hauschild et al. [ 5 ] the new perspective on the issue of climate change can be affected relative to the changes in solar radiation patterns. Since the study by Trenberth and Fasullo [ 4 ] focused on climate model changes from 1950 to 2100, it was found that the role of changing clouds and trapped sunlight can lead to an opening of the aperture for solar radiation.

The annual average temperature data for 2021 in the northern and southern hemispheres ( Source: meteoblue.com ). Note: The black circles mark countries with high Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infections

Furthermore, the heat from sunlight is essential to humans; several organisms could not survive without it. Conversely, the spread of any disease-carrying virus tends to increase with less sunlight exposure [ 6 ]. Historically, disease outbreaks that led to epidemic and pandemic eruptions were correlated to atmospheric changes. Pandemic diseases, such as the flu (1918), Asian flu (1956–1958), Hong Kong flu (1968), and recently, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) (2019), recorded over a million death toll each during the winter season or minimum temperature conditions [ 7 ]. The total number of COVID-19 cases is illustrated in Fig.  2 .

A graphical representation of the total number of COVID-19 cases across various periods between 2020 and 2021. ( Source : www.worldometers.info ). Note: The black circles indicate countries with high numbers COVID-19-infections

In several previous outbreaks, investigations revealed a significant association between temperature and humidity with a particular focus on the transmission dynamics of the infection from the virus into the hosts [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. Moreover, disease outbreaks tended to heighten in cold temperatures and low humidity [ 11 ]. Optimal temperature and sufficient relative humidity during evaporation are necessary for cloud formation, resulting in the precipitated liquid falling to the ground as rain, snow, or hail due to the activity of solar radiation balancing [ 4 ].

Consequently, the radiation balancing processes in the atmosphere are directly linked to the living beings on the earth, including plants and animals, and as well as viruses and bacterias. According to Carvalho et al. [ 12 ]‘s study, the survival rate of the Coronaviridae Family can decrease during summer seasons. Nevertheless, numerous diseases were also developed from specific viruses, such as influenza, malaria, and rubella, and in November 2019, a severe health threat originated from a 125 nm size of coronavirus, had resulted in numerous deaths worldwide.

Transmission and symptoms of COVID-19

The COVID-19, or severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is an infectious disease caused by a newly discovered pathogenic virus from the coronavirus family, the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) [ 13 ]. The first case was recorded in Wuhan, China, in December 2019 [ 14 ]. The pathogenic virus is transmitted among humans when they breathe in air contaminated with droplets and tiny airborne particles containing the virus [ 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ].

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the most common symptoms of COVID-19 infection include fever, dry cough, and tiredness. Nevertheless, older people and individuals with underlying health problems (lung and heart problems, high blood pressure, diabetes, or cancer) are at higher risk of becoming seriously ill and developing difficulty breathing [ 19 ]. The COVID-19 was initially only predominant in China but rapidly spread to other countries globally. The remarkably swift acceleration of the number of infections and mortality forced WHO to declare COVID-19 a global public health emergency on the 30th of January 2020, which was later declared as a pandemic on the 11th of March 2020 [ 20 ].

Since no vaccine was available then, WHO introduced the COVID-19 preventative measures to reduce the chances of virus transmission. The guideline for individual preventative included practising hand and respiratory hygiene by regularly cleaning hands with soap and water or alcohol-based sanitisers, wear a facemask and always maintaining at least a one-meter physical distance [ 21 ]. Nevertheless, the worldwide transmission of COVID-19 has resulted in fear and forced numerous countries to impose restrictions rules, such as lockdown, travel bans, closed country borders, restrictions on shipping activities, and movement limitations, to diminish the spread of COVID-19 [ 22 ].

According to WHO, by the 2nd of December 2020, 63,379,338 confirmed cases and 1,476,676 mortalities were recorded globally. On the 3rd of December 2021, 263,655,612 confirmed cases and deaths were recorded, reflecting increased COVID-19 infections compared to the previous year. The American and European regions documented the highest COVID-19 patients with 97,341,769 and 88,248,591 cases, respectively (see Fig. 2 ), followed by Southeast Asia with 44,607,287, Eastern Mediterranean accounted 16,822,791, Western Pacific recorded 6,322,034, and Africa reported the lowest number of cases at 6,322,034 [ 19 ].

Recently, an increasing number of studies are investigating the association between environmental factors (temperature and humidity) and the viability, transmission, and survival of the coronavirus [ 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 ]. The results primarily demonstrated that temperature was more significantly associated with the transmission of COVID-19 [ 27 , 28 , 29 ] and its survival period on the surfaces of objects [ 30 ]. Consequently, the disease was predominant in countries with low temperature and humidity [ 31 ], which was also proven by Diao et al. [ 32 ]‘s study demonstrating higher rates of COVID-19 transmission in China, England, Germany, and Japan.

A comprehensive systematic literature review (SLR) is still lacking despite numerous research on environmental factors linked to coronavirus. Accordingly, this article aimed to fill the gap in understanding and identifying the correlation between environmental factors and COVID-19 by analysing existing reports. Systematically reviewing existing literature is essential to contribute to the body of knowledge and provide beneficial information for public health policymakers.

Methodology

The present study reviewed the protocols, formulation of research questions, selection of studies, appraisal of quality, and data abstraction and analysis.

The protocol review

The present SLR was performed according to the reporting standards for systematic evidence syntheses (ROSES) and followed or adapted the guidelines as closely as possible. Thus, in this study, a systematic literature review was guided by the ROSES review protocol (Fig.  3 ). Compared to preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis (PRISMA), ROSES is a review protocol specifically designed for a systematic review in the conservation or environment management fields [ 33 ]. Compared to PRISMA, ROSES offers several advantages, as it is tailored to environmental systematic review, which reduces emphasis on quantitative synthesis (e.g. meta-analysis etc.) that is only reliable when used with appropriate data [ 34 ].

The flow diagram guide by ROSES protocol and Thematical Analysis

The current SLR started by determining the appropriate research questions, followed by the selection criteria, including the review, specifically on the keywords employed and the selection of journals database. Subsequently, the appraisal quality process and data abstraction and analysis were conducted.

Formulation of research questions

The entire process of this SLR was guided by the specific research questions, while sources to be reviewed and data abstraction and analysis were in line with the determined research question [ 35 , 36 ]. In the present article, a total of five research questions were formed, namely:

What the link between solar activity and COVID-19 pandemic outbreaks?

Which regions were more prone to COVID-19?

What were the temporal and spatial variabilities of high temperature and humidity during the spread of COVID-19?

What is the relationship between temperature and humidity in propagating COVID-19?

How did the government’s disinfection actions and guidelines can be reducing the spread of COVID-19?

Systematic searching strategies

Selection of studies.

In this stage of the study, the appropriate keywords to be employed in the searching process were determined. After referring to existing literature, six main keywords were chosen for the searching process, namely COVID-19, coronavirus, temperature, humidity, solar radiation and population density. The current study also utilised the boolean operators (OR, AND, AND NOT) and phrase searching.

Scopus was employed as the main database during the searching process, in line with the suggestion by Gusenbauer and Haddaway [ 37 ], who noted the strength of the database in terms of quality control and search and filtering functions. Furthermore, Google Scholar was selected as the supporting database. Although Halevi et al. [ 38 ] expressed concerns about its quality, Haddaway et al. [ 39 ] reported that due to its quantity, Google Scholar was suitable as a supporting database in SLR studies.

In the first stage of the search, 2550 articles were retrieved, which were then screened. The suitable criteria were also determined to control the quality of the articles reviewed [ 40 ]. The criteria are: any documents published between 2000 to 2022, documents that consist previously determined keywords, published in English, and any environment-related studies that focused on COVID-19. Based on these criteria, 2372 articles were excluded and 178 articles were proceeded to the next step namely eligibility. In the eligibility process, the title and the abstract of the articles were examined to ensure its relevancy to the SLR and in this process a total of 120 articles were excluded and only 58 articles were processed in the next stage.

Appraisal of the quality

The study ensured the rigor of the chosen articles based on best evidence synthesis. In the process, predefined inclusion criteria for the review were appraised by the systematic review team based on previously established guidelines and the studies were then judged as being scientifically admissible or not [ 40 ]. Hence, by controlling the quality based on the best evidence synthesis, the present SLR controls its quality by including articles that are in line with the inclusion criteria. It means that any article published within the timeline (in the year 2000 and above), composed of predetermined keywords, in English medium, and environment-related investigations focusing on COVID-19 are included in the review. Based on this process, all 58 articles fulfilled all the inclusion criteria and are considered of good quality and included in the review.

Data abstraction and analysis

The data abstraction process in this study was performed based on five research questions (please refer to 2.2, formulation of research questions). The data that was able to answer the questions were abstracted and placed in a table to ease the data analysis process. The primary data analysis technique employed in the current study was qualitative and relied on thematic analysis.

The thematic technique is a descriptive method that combines data flexibly with other information evaluation methods [ 41 ], aiming to identify the patterns in studies. Any similarities and relationships within the abstracted data emerge as patterns. Subsequently, suitable themes and sub-themes would be developed based on obtained patterns [ 42 ]. Following the thematic process, five themes were selected in this study.

Background of the selected articles

The current study selected 58 articles for the SLR. Five themes were developed based on the thematic analysis from the predetermined research questions: the link between solar activity and pandemic outbreaks, regional area, climate and weather, the relationship between temperature and humidity, and government disinfection action guidelines. Among the articles retrieved between 2000 and 2022; two were published in 2010, one in 2011, four in 2013, three in 2014, two in 2015, six in 2016 and 2017, respectively, one in 2018, six in 2019, twelve in 2020, eight in 2021, and seven in 2022.

Temperature- and humidity-related themes

The link between solar activity and pandemic outbreaks.

Numerous scientists have investigated the relationship between solar activities and pandemic outbreaks over the years ([ 43 ]; A [ 27 , 44 , 45 ].). Nuclear fusions from solar activities have resulted in minimum and maximum solar sunspots. Maximum solar activities are characterised by a high number of sunspots and elevated solar flare frequency and coronal mass injections. Minimum solar sunspot occurrences are identified by low interplanetary magnetic field values entering the earth [ 1 ].

A diminished magnetic field was suggested to be conducive for viruses and bacteria to mutate, hence the onset of pandemics. Nonetheless, Hoyle and Wickramasinghe [ 46 ] reported that the link between solar activity and pandemic outbreaks is only speculative. The literature noted that the data recorded between 1930 and 1970 demonstrated that virus transmissions and pandemic occurrences were coincidental. Moreover, no pandemic cases were reported in 1979, when minimum solar activity was recorded [ 47 ].

Chandra Wickramasinghe et al. [ 48 ] suggested a significant relationship between pandemic outbreaks and solar activities as several grand solar minima, including Sporer (1450–1550 AD), Mounder (1650–1700 AD), and Dalton (1800–1830) minimums, were recorded coinciding with global pandemics of diseases, such as smallpox, the English sweat, plague, and cholera pandemics. Furthermore, since the Dalton minimum, which recorded minimum sunspots, studies from 2002 to 2015 have documented the reappearance of previous pandemics. For example, influenza subtype H1N1 1918/1919 episodically returned in 2009, especially in India, China, and other Asian countries. Zika virus, which first appeared in 1950, flared and became endemic in 2015, transmitted sporadically, specifically in African countries. Similarly, SARS-CoV was first recorded in China in 2002 and emerged as an outbreak, MERS-CoV, in middle east countries a decade later, in 2012.

In 2020, the World Data Centre Sunspot Index and Long-term Solar Observations ( http://sidc.be ) confirmed that a new solar activity was initiated in December 2019, during which a novel coronavirus pandemic also occurred, and present a same as the previous hypothesis. Nevertheless, a higher number of pandemic outbreaks were documented during low minimum solar activities, including Ebola (1976), H5N1 (Nipah) (1967–1968), H1N1 (2009), and COVID-19 (2019–current). Furthermore, Wickramasinghe and Qu [ 49 ] reported that since 1918 or 1919, more devastating and recurrent pandemics tend to occur, particularly after a century. Consequently, within 100 years, a sudden surge of influenza was recorded, and novel influenza was hypothesised to emerge.

Figure  4 demonstrates that low minimum solar activity significantly reduced before 2020, hence substantiating the claim that pandemic events are closely related to solar activities. Moreover, numerous studies (i.e. [ 43 ], Chandra [ 46 , 47 , 48 ]) reported that during solar minimums, new viruses could penetrate the surfaces of the earth and high solar radiation would result in lower infection rates, supporting the hypothesis mentioned above.

The number of sunspots in the last 13 years. Note : The yellow curve indicates the daily sunspot number and the 2010–2021 delineated curve illustrates the minimum solar activity recorded (source: http://sidc.be/silso )

Regional area

In early December 2019, Wuhan, China, was reported as the centre of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) outbreak [ 50 ]. Chinese health authorities immediately investigated and controlled the spread of the disease. Nevertheless, by late January 2020, the WHO announced that COVID-19 was a global public health emergency. The upgrade was due to the rapid rise in confirmed cases, which were no longer limited to Wuhan [ 28 ]. The disease had spread to 24 other countries, which were mainly in the northern hemisphere, particularly the European and Western Pacific regions, such as France, United Kingdom, Spain, South Korea, Japan, Malaysia, and Indonesia [ 51 , 52 ]. The migration or movement of humans was the leading agent in the spread of COVID-19, resulting in an almost worldwide COVID-19 pandemic [ 53 ].

The first hotspots of the epidemic outspread introduced by the Asian and Western Pacific regions possessed similar winter climates with an average temperature and humidity rate of 5–11 °C and 47–79%. Consequently, several publications reviewed in the current study associated the COVID-19 outbreak with regional climates (i.e. [ 1 , 29 , 54 , 55 ]) instead of its close connection to China. This review also discussed the effects of a range of specific climatological variables on the transmission and epidemiology of COVID-19 in regional climatic conditions.

America and Europe documented the highest COVID-19 cases, outnumbering the number reported in Asia [ 19 ] and on the 2nd of December 2020, the United States of America (USA) reported the highest number of confirmed COVID-19 infections, with over 13,234,551 cases and 264,808 mortalities (Da S [ 56 ].). The cases in the USA began emerging in March 2020 and peaked in late November 2020, during the wintertime in the northern hemisphere (December to March) [ 53 ]. Figure  5 demonstrates the evolution of the COVID-19 pandemic in several country which represent comparison two phase of summer and one phase of winter. Most of these countries tend to increase of COVID cases close to winter season. Then, it can be worsening on phase two of summer due to do not under control of human movement although the normal trend it is presenting during winter phase.

The evolution of the COVID-19 pandemic from the 15th of February 2020 to the 2nd of December 2020 ( Source: https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus )

The coronavirus spread aggressively across the European region, which recorded the second highest COVID-19 confirmed cases after America. At the end of 2020, WHO reported 19,071,275 Covid-19 cases in the area, where France documented 2,183,275 cases, the European country with the highest number of confirmed cases, followed by the United Kingdom (1,629,661 cases) and Spain (1,652,801 cases) [ 19 ]. Europe is also located in the northern hemisphere and possesses a temperate climate.

The spatial and temporal transmission patterns of coronavirus infection in the European region were similar to America and the Eastern Mediterranean, where the winter season increased COVID-19 cases. Typically, winter in Europe occurs at the beginning of October and ends in March. Hardy et al. [ 57 ] also stated that temperature commonly drops below freezing (approximately − 1 °C) when snow accumulates between December to mid-March, resulting in an extreme environment. Figure 5 indicates that COVID-19 cases peaked in October when the temperature became colder [ 21 ]. Similarly, the cases were the highest in the middle of the year in Australia and South Asian countries, such as India, that experience winter and monsoon, respectively, during the period.

In African regions, the outbreak of COVID-19 escalated rapidly from June to October before falling from October to March, as summer in South Africa generally occurs from November to March, while winter from June to August. Nevertheless, heavy rainfall generally transpires during summer, hence the warm and humid conditions in South Africa and Namibia during summer, while the opposite happens during winter (cold and dry). Consequently, the outbreak in the region recorded an increasing trend during winter and subsided during the summer, supporting the report by Gunthe et al. [ 58 ]. Novel coronavirus disease presents unique and grave challenges in Africa, as it has for the rest of the world. However, the infrastructure and resources have limitations for Africa countries facing COVID-19 pandemic and the threat of other diseases [ 59 ].

Conclusively, seasonal and regional climate patterns were associated with COVID-19 outbreaks globally. According to Kraemer et al. [ 60 ], they used real-time mobility data in Wuhan and early measurement presented a positive correlation between human mobility and spread of COVID-19 cases. However, after the implementation of control measures, this correlation dropped and growth rates became negative in most locations, although shifts in the demographics of reported cases were still indicative of local chains of transmission outside of Wuhan.

Climate and weather

The term “weather” represents the changes in the environment that occur daily and in a short period, while “climate” is defined as atmospheric changes happening over a long time (over 3 months) in specific regions. Consequently, different locations would experience varying climates. Numerous reports suggested climate and weather variabilities as the main drivers that sped or slowed the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 worldwide [ 44 , 61 , 62 , 63 ].

From a meteorological perspective, a favourable environment has led to the continued existence of the COVID-19 virus in the atmosphere [ 64 ]. Studies demonstrated that various meteorological conditions, such as the rate of relative humidity (i.e. [ 28 ]), precipitation (i.e. [ 65 ]), temperature (i.e. [ 66 ]), and wind speed factors (i.e. [ 54 ]), were the crucial components that contributed to the dynamic response of the pandemic, influencing either the mitigation or exacerbation of novel coronavirus transmission. In other words, the environment was considered the medium for spreading the disease when other health considerations were put aside. Consequently, new opinions, knowledge, and findings are published and shared to increase awareness, thus encouraging preventive measures within the public.

The coronavirus could survive in temperatures under 30 °C with a relative humidity of less than 80% [ 67 ], suggesting that high temperatures and lower relative humidity contributed to the elicitation of COVID-19 cases [ 18 , 51 , 58 , 68 ]. Lagtayi et al. [ 7 ] highlighted temperature as a critical factor, evidently from the increased transmission rate of MERS-Cov in African states with a warm and dry climate. Similarly, the highest COVID-19 cases were recorded in dry temperate regions, especially in western Europe (France and Spain), China, and the USA, while the countries nearer to the equator were less affected. Nevertheless, the temperature factor relative to viral infections depends on the protein available in the viruses. According to Chen and Shakhnovich [ 69 ], there is a good correlation between decreasing temperature and the growth of proteins in virus. Consequently, preventive measures that take advantage of conducive environments for specific viruses are challenging.

Precipitation also correlates with influenza [ 43 ]. A report demonstrated that regions with at least 150 mm of monthly precipitation threshold level experienced fewer cases than regions with lower precipitation rates. According to Martins et al. [ 70 ], influenza and COVID-19 can be affected by climate, where virus can be spread through the respiratory especially during rainfall season. The daily spread of Covid-19 cases in tropical countries, which receive high precipitation levels, are far less than in temperate countries [ 27 ]. Likewise, high cases of COVID-19 were reported during the monsoon season (mid-year) in India during which high rainfall is recorded [ 71 ]. Moreover, the majority of the population in these regions has lower vitamin D levels, which may contribute to weakened immune responses during certain seasons [ 27 ].

Rainfall increases the relative atmospheric humidity, which is unfavourable to the coronaviruses as its transmission requires dry and cold weather. Moreover, several reports hypothesised that rain could wash away viruses on object surfaces, which is still questioned. Most people prefer staying home on rainy days, allowing less transmission or close contact. Conversely, [ 72 ] exhibited that precipitation did not significantly impact COVID-19 infectiousness in Oslo, Norway due the location in northern hemisphere which are during winter season presenting so cold.

Coşkun et al. [ 54 ] and Wu et al. [ 29 ] claimed that wind could strongly correlate with the rate of COVID-19 transmission. Atmospheric instability (turbulent occurrences) leads to increased wind speed and reduces the dispersion of particulate matter (PM 2.5 and PM 10 ) in the environment and among humans. An investigation performed in 55 cities in Italy during the COVID-19 outbreak proved that the areas with low wind movement (stable atmospheric conditions) possessed a higher correlation coefficient and exceeded the threshold value of the safe level of PM 2.5 and PM 10 . Resultantly, more individuals were recorded infected with the disease in the regions. As mentioned in Martins et al. [ 70 ] the COVID-19 can be affected by climate and the virus can be spread through respiratory which is the virus moving in the wind movement.

The relationship between temperature and humidity

Climatic parameters, such as temperature and humidity, were investigated as the crucial factors in the epidemiology of the respiratory virus survival and transmission of COVID-19 ([ 61 ]; S [ 73 , 74 ].). The rising number of confirmed cases indicated the strong transmission ability of COVID-19 and was related to meteorological parameters. Furthermore, several studies found that the disease transmission was associated with the temperature and humidity of the environment [ 55 , 64 , 68 , 75 ], while other investigations have examined and reviewed environmental factors that could influence the epidemiological aspects of Covid-19.

Generally, increased COVID-19 cases and deaths corresponded with temperature, humidity, and viral transmission and mortality. Various studies reported that colder and dryer environments favoured COVID-19 epidemiologically [ 45 , 76 , 77 ]. As example tropical region, the observations indicated that the summer (middle of year) and rainy seasons (end of the year) could effectively diminish the transmission and mortality from COVID-19. High precipitation statistically increases relative air humidity, which is unfavourable for the survival of coronavirus, which prefers dry and cold conditions [ 32 , 34 , 78 , 79 ]. Consequently, warmer conditions could reduce COVID-19 transmission. A 1 °C increase in the temperature recorded a decrease in confirmed cases by 8% increase [ 45 ].

Several reports established that the minimum, maximum, and average temperature and humidity correlated with COVID-19 occurrence and mortality [ 55 , 80 , 81 ]. The lowest and highest temperatures of 24 and 27.3 °C and a humidity between 76 and 91% were conducive to spreading the virulence agents. The propagation of the disease peaked at the average temperature of 26 °C and humidity of 55% before gradually decreasing with elevated temperature and humidity [ 78 ].

Researchers are still divided on the effects of temperature and humidity on coronavirus transmission. Xu et al. [ 26 ] confirmed that COVID-19 cases gradually increased with higher temperature and lower humidity, indicating that the virus was actively transmitted in warm and dry conditions. Nevertheless, several reports stated that the spread of COVID-19 was negatively correlated with temperature and humidity [ 10 , 29 , 63 ]. The conflicting findings require further investigation. Moreover, other factors, such as population density, elderly population, cultural aspects, and health interventions, might potentially influence the epidemiology of the disease and necessitate research.

Governmental disinfection actions and guidelines

The COVID-19 is a severe health threat that is still spreading worldwide. The epidemiology of the SAR-CoV-2 virus might be affected by several factors, including meteorological conditions (temperature and humidity), population density, and healthcare quality, that permit it to spread rapidly [ 16 , 17 ]. Nevertheless, in 2020, no effective pharmaceutical interventions or vaccines were available for the diagnosis, treatment, and epidemic prevention against COVID-19 [ 73 , 82 ]. Consequently, after 2020 the governments globally have designed and executed non-pharmacological public health measures, such as lockdown, travel bans, social distancing, quarantine, public place closure, and public health actions, to curb the spread of COVID-19 infections and several studies have reported on the effects of these plans [ 13 , 83 ].

The COVID-19 is mainly spread via respiratory droplets from an infected person’s mouth or nose to another in close contact [ 84 ]. Accordingly, WHO and most governments worldwide have recommended wearing facemasks in public areas to curb the transmission of COVID-19. The facemasks would prevent individuals from breathing COVID-19-contaminated air [ 85 ]. Furthermore, the masks could hinder the transmission of the virus from an infected person as the exhaled air is trapped in droplets collected on the masks, suspending it in the atmosphere for longer. The WHO also recommended adopting a proper hand hygiene routine to prevent transmission and employing protective equipment, such as gloves and body covers, especially for health workers [ 86 ].

Besides wearing protective equipment, social distancing was also employed to control the Covid-19 outbreak [ 74 , 87 ]. Social distancing hinders the human-to-human transmission of the coronavirus in the form of droplets from the mouth and nose, as evidenced by the report from Sun and Zhai [ 88 ]. Conversely, Nair & Selvaraj [ 89 ] demonstrated that social distancing was less effective in communities and cultures where gatherings are the norm. Nonetheless, the issue could be addressed by educating the public and implementing social distancing policies, such as working from home and any form of plague treatment.

Infected persons, individuals who had contact with confirmed or suspected COVID-19 patients, and persons living in areas with high transmission rates were recommended to undergo quarantine by WHO. The quarantine could be implemented voluntarily or legally enforced by authorities and applicable to individuals, groups, or communities (community containment) [ 90 ]. A person under mandatory quarantine must stay in a place for a recommended 14-day period, based on the estimated incubation period of the SARS-CoV-2 [ 19 , 91 ]. According to Stasi et al. [ 92 ], 14-days period for mandatory quarantine it is presenting a clinical improvement after they found 5-day group and 10-day group can be decrease number of patient whose getting effect of COVID-19 from 64 to 54% respectively. This also proven by Ahmadi et al. [ 43 ] and Foad et al. [ 93 ], quarantining could reduce the transmission of COVID-19.

Lockdown and travel bans, especially in China, the centre of the coronavirus outbreak, reduced the infection rate and the correlation of domestic air traffic with COVID-19 cases [ 17 ]. The observations were supported by Sun & Zhai [ 88 ] and Sun et al. [ 94 ], who noted that travel restrictions diminished the number of COVID-19 reports by 75.70% compared to baseline scenarios without restrictions. Furthermore, example in Malaysia, lockdowns improved the air quality of polluted areas especially in primarily at main cities [ 95 ]. As additional, Martins et al. [ 70 ] measure the Human Development Index (HDI) with the specific of socio-economic variables as income, education and health. In their study, the income and education levels are the main relevant factors that affect the socio-economic.

A mandatory lockdown is an area under movement control as a preventive measure to stop the coronavirus from spreading to other areas. Numerous governments worldwide enforced the policy to restrict public movements outside their homes during the pandemic. Resultantly, human-to-human transmission of the virus was effectively reduced. The lockdown and movement control order were also suggested for individuals aged 80 and above or with low or compromised immunities, as these groups possess a higher risk of contracting the disease [ 44 ].

Governments still enforced movement orders even after the introduction of vaccines by Pfizer, Moderna, and Sinovac, as the vaccines only protect high-risk individuals from the worst effects of COVID-19. Consequently, in most countries, after receiving the first vaccine dose, individuals were allowed to resume life as normal but were still required to follow the standard operating procedures (SOP) outlined by the government.

The government attempted to balance preventing COVID-19 spread and recovering economic activities, for example, local businesses, maritime traders, shipping activities, oil and gas production and economic trades [ 22 , 96 ]. Nonetheless, the COVID-19 cases demonstrated an increasing trend during the summer due to the higher number of people travelling and on vacation, primarily to alleviate stress from lockdowns. Several new variants were discovered, including the Delta and Omicron strains, which spread in countries such as the USA and the United Kingdom. The high number of COVID-19 cases prompted the WHO to suggest booster doses to ensure full protection.

As mentioned in this manuscript, the COVID-19 still uncertain for any kind factors that can be affected on spreading of this virus. However, regarding many sources of COVID-19 study, the further assessment on this factor need to be continue to be sure, that we ready to facing probably in 10 years projection of solar minimum phase can be held in same situation for another pandemic.

The sun has an eleven-year cycle known as the solar cycle, related to its magnetic field, which controls the activities on its surface through sunspots. When the magnetic fields are active, numerous sunspots are formed on its surface, hence the sun produces more radiation energy emitted to the earth. The condition is termed solar maximum (see Fig.  6 , denoted by the yellow boxes). Alternatively, as the magnetic field of the sun weakens, the number of sunspots decreases, resulting in less radiation energy being emitted to the earth. The phenomenon is known as the solar minimum (see Fig. 6 , represented by the blue boxes).

The emergence and recurrence of pandemics every 5 years in relation to solar activities ( Source: www.swpc.noaa.gov/ ). Note: The yellow boxes indicate the solar maximum, while the blue boxes represent the solar minimum

The magnetic field of the sun protects the earth from cosmic or galactic cosmic rays emitted by supernova explosions, stars, and gamma-ray bursts [ 97 ]. Nevertheless, galactic cosmic rays could still reach the earth during the solar minimum, the least solar radiation energy period. In the 20th and early 21st centuries, several outbreaks of viral diseases that affected the respiratory system (pneumonia or influenza), namely the Spanish (1918–1919), Asian (1957–1958) and Hong Kong (1968) flu, were documented. Interestingly, the diseases that claimed numerous lives worldwide occurred at the peak of the solar maximum.

Figure  6 illustrates the correlation between the number of sunspots and disease outbreaks from 1975 to 2021, including COVID-19, that began to escalate in December 2019. Under the solar minimum conditions, the spread of Ebola (1976), H5N1 (1997–1998), H1N1 (2009), and COVID-19 (2019-2020) were documented, while the solar maximum phenomenon recorded SARS (2002) and H7N9 (2012–2013) or MERS outbreaks. Nonetheless, solar activity through the production of solar sunspots began to decline since the 22nd solar cycle. Accordingly, further studies are necessary to investigate the influence such solar variations could impart or not on pandemic development.

Despite the findings mentioned above, the sun and cosmic radiations could influence the distribution or outspread of disease-spreading viruses. The rays could kill the viruses via DNA destruction or influence their genetic mutations, which encourage growth and viral evolution. Nevertheless, the connection between radiation and the evolutionary process requires further study by specialists in the field it is become true or not.

The spread of viral diseases transpires naturally in our surroundings and occurs unnoticed by humans. According to records, the spread of pandemic diseases, including the Black Death (fourteenth century) and the Spanish flu (1919), was significantly influenced by the decline and peak of solar activities. Furthermore, in the past 20 years, various diseases related to the influenza virus have been recorded. According to the pattern observed, if all diseases were related to the solar cycle (solar maximum and minimum), the viral diseases would reoccur every 5 to 6 years since they first appeared between 1995 and 2020. Accordingly, the next pandemic might occur around 2024 or 2025 and need to have a proper study for prove these statements. Nonetheless, the activities on the surface of the sun have been weakening since the 23rd solar cycle and it can be proven later after the proper study can be make it.

The beginning of the COVID-19 spread, only several countries with the same winter climate with an average temperature of 5–11 °C and an average humidity rate of 47–79% located at latitudes 30–50 N reported cases. The areas included Wuhan distribution centres in China, the United Kingdom, France, Spain, South Korea, Japan, and the USA (see Fig.  5 ). Other than biological aspects, the higher number of confirmed cases recorded in colder environments was due to the human body secreting less lymphoproliferative hormone, leading to decreased immunogenicity effects and increased risk of infection [ 24 ]. Consequently, the virus could attack and rapidly infect humans during the period [ 1 , 54 ].

The lymphoproliferative response is a protective immune response that plays a vital role in protecting and eradicating infections and diseases. On the other hand, staying in warm conditions or being exposed to more sunlight would lower the risks of infection. According to Asyary and Veruswati [ 98 ], sunlight triggers vitamin D, which increases immunity and increases the recovery rates of infected individuals.

Researchers believe that viruses could survive in the environment for up to 3 to 4 years or even longer. The survival rate of the microorganisms is relatively high, which is related to their biological structures, adaptability on any surfaces, and transmission medium to spread diseases. Viruses possess simple protein structures, namely the spike, membrane, and envelope protein; therefore, when they enter living organisms (such as through the respiratory system), the viruses are easily transmitted.

Once they have entered a host, the viruses duplicate exponentially and swarm the lungs. Subsequently, after the targeted organs, such as the lungs, are invaded, the viruses attack the immune system and create confusion in protective cells to destroy healthy cells. The situation is still considered safe in younger and healthy individuals as their immune systems could differentiate and counter-attack the viruses, curing them. Nonetheless, in elders and individuals with several chronic diseases, most of their protective cells are dead, hence their immune system is forced to work hard to overcome the infection. Pneumonia and death tend to occur when the situation is overwhelming [ 85 ]. Consequently, the viruses are harmful to humans as they could multiply in a short period, enter the blood, and overrun the body.

The coronavirus could attach to surfaces without a host, including door knobs and steel and plastic materials. The microorganisms could survive alone, but virologists have yet to determine how long. If someone touches any surface with the virus, the individual would then be infected. The situation would worsen if the infected person contacted numerous people and became a super spreader. A super spreader does not exhibit any symptoms and continuously transmits the virus without realising it. An infected individual transmits the coronavirus via droplets from coughs or sneezes. Nevertheless, scientists have yet to determine if coronavirus is spread via airborne or droplets, hence requiring thorough evaluation [ 99 ].

The COVID-19 virus mutates over time, and it can be changing any times. Mutations alter the behaviour and genetic structure of the virus, resulting in a new strain. Numerous research have been conducted to procure vaccines and anti-viral medications, but mutations have led to evolutionary disadvantages. The novel strains are more infectious than the original ones. As of November 2020, approximately six new coronavirus strains have been detected, each displaying different transmission behaviours [ 100 ].

Recent studies demonstrated that the mutated viruses exhibit little variability, allowing scientists to produce viable vaccines [ 71 ]. Furthermore, different types of vaccines are manufactured by different countries, which could be advantageous. Currently, most countries also recommend booster doses to attain extra protection after receiving the mandatory two vaccine doses. In same time, the social and physical interactions between humans also necessitate to be aware.

The COVID-19 virus is primarily transmitted through droplets produced by an infected person. Accordingly, physical distancing, a one-metre minimum distance between individuals [ 19 ], and following the SOP might prevent or avoid spreading the disease. Moreover, self-quarantine, school closures, working from home, cancelling large events, limiting gatherings, and avoiding spending long periods in crowded places are essential strategies in enforcing physical distancing at a community level. The policies are essential precautions that could reduce the further spreading of coronavirus and break the chain of transmission.

Government support also need to control the spread of COVID-19 with the strict SOP. The SOP enforcement in public places would enhance adherence to the new practice among the public and the community, aiding in curbing disease transmission. Practising limited meetings and social gatherings, avoiding crowded places, workplace distancing, preventing non-necessary travels of high-risk family members, especially those with chronic disease, and adhering to the recommended SOP could reduce coronavirus outbreaks. Nonetheless, individual awareness is also necessary to achieve COVID-19 spread prevention.

Many researchers are focused on identifying the primary drivers of pandemic outbreaks. Seasonal, temperature, and humidity differences significantly impacted COVID-19 growth rate variations. It is crucial to highlight the potential link between the recurrence of pandemics every 5 years and solar activities, which can influence temperature and humidity variations. Notable variations in COVID-19 mortality rates were observed between northern and southern hemisphere countries, with the former having higher rates. One hypothesis suggests that populations in the northern hemisphere may receive insufficient sunlight to maintain optimal vitamin D levels during winter, possibly leading to higher mortality rates.

The first COVID-19 case was detected in Wuhan, China, which is in the northern hemisphere. The number of cases rapidly propagated in December during the winter season. At the time, the temperature in Wuhan was recorded at 13–18 °C. Accordingly, one theory proposes that the survival and transmission of the coronavirus were due to meteorological conditions, namely temperatures between 13 and 18 °C and 50–80% humidity.

Daily rainfall directly impacts humidity levels. The coronavirus exhibited superior survival rates in cold and dry conditions. Furthermore, transmissible gastroenteritis (TGEV) suspensions and possibly other coronaviruses remain viable longer in their airborne states, which are more reliably collected in low relative humidity than in high humidity. Consequently, summer rains would effectively reduce COVID-19 transmission in southern hemisphere regions.

In southern hemisphere regions, the summer seasons are accompanied by a high average temperature at the end and beginning of the year. Countries with temperatures exceeding 24 °C reported fewer infections. As temperatures rise from winter to summer, virus transmission is expected to decline. Nonetheless, the activities and transmission of the virus were expected to decrease during winter to summer transitions, when the countries would be warmer. The peak intensity of infections strongly depends on the level of seasonal transmissions.

Social distancing plays a critical role in preventing the overload of healthcare systems. Many respiratory pathogens, including those causing mild common cold-like syndromes, show seasonal fluctuations, often peaking in winter. This trend can be attributed to increased indoor crowding, school reopening, and climatic changes during autumn.

The spread of COVID-19 to neighbouring regions can be attributed to population interactions. Migration patterns, such as the movement from northern to southern regions during the warmer months, have significant epidemiological impacts. This trend mirrors the behavior of influenza pandemics where minor outbreaks in spring or summer are often followed by major waves in autumn or winter.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

Novel coronavirus

Coronavirus disease 2019

Deoxyribonucleic acid

Swine influenza

Influenza A virus subtype H5N1

Asian Lineage Avian Influenza A(H7N9) Virus

Middle East respiratory syndrome

Middle East respiratory syndrome Coronavirus

Particulate matter

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses

RepOrting standards for Systematic Evidence Syntheses

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus

Syndrome coronavirus 2

Systematic literature review

Standard operating procedure

Transmissible gastroenteritis Virus

United States of America

World Health Organization

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Menhat, M., Ariffin, E.H., Dong, W.S. et al. Rain, rain, go away, come again another day: do climate variations enhance the spread of COVID-19?. Global Health 20 , 43 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-024-01044-w

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Against a backdrop of reported historical peaks in monthly temperatures, the past months have seen increasing visibility of the issue of climate change health, as several institutions have pushed awareness, research and action to limit the effects that warming has on human health. These include the inaugural Declaration on Climate and Health at COP28, the publication of the report Quantifying the Impact of Climate Change on Human Health 1 by the World Economic Forum, and a pledge of £23 million by the Wellcome Trust to support transdisciplinary research to protect human health from climate change.

In this issue of Nature Climate Change and an associated online Focus , we highlight research and other content at the climate–health intersection.

Across these works, a clear and familiar theme that arises is the world’s current lack of preparation to deal with the ongoing crisis. This is exemplified in an Analysis by Braithwaite and colleagues of the ability of healthcare systems to cope with climate change. In line with the World Economic Forum’s finding that climate impacts will cost healthcare systems a further US$1.1 trillion globally by 2050 (ref. 1 ), Braithwaite and colleagues highlight the need for multi-pronged plans to future-proof these at-risk systems. They also demonstrate the heavy bias of current research on acute disaster events and in the Global North.

The second conspicuous theme is that responding to the climate–health crisis will involve diverse actors. In a Viewpoint article, six researchers highlight key issues in their fields, which include mental health, labour, disease spread, maternal and neonatal health, air quality and nutrition, while advocating the need for collaboration across disciplines, sectors and geography. Echoing this need for collaboration, a Feature article by Yessenia Funes on the public drive to seek climate action through the courts focuses on the varied yet complementary roles the public, research scientists, healthcare professionals and lawyers have to play.

Thirdly, and critically linked to the previous points, is that improved communication is key for translating research into action. Part of this involves learning the languages of different fields or sectors: in a Q&A article, Maria Neira, director of the Department of Environment, Climate Change and Health at the World Health Organization (WHO), describes how understanding that the climate terms ‘adaptation’ and ‘mitigation’ corresponded to the terms ‘primary intervention’ and ‘secondary intervention’ in public health helped to align communication between the two fields. Another part also involves ensuring that language is used carefully to support positive action. Psychologist Elizabeth Marks (writing in the Viewpoint article) discusses the importance of identifying eco-anxiety without pathologizing it, while Neira discusses the impact of communicating a negative message (that is, climate change is harming human health) with or without actionable plans, underscoring the difference between problem solving and panic. Funes also highlights the important role of health practitioners, whose personal relationships with patients makes them ‘trusted messengers’ to discuss climate change health information. In line with this, the WHO has just released a new toolkit to support healthcare professionals to effectively communicate about climate change and health 2 . A Comment from Noa Heiman in this issue also discusses the best ways for therapists to support their clients who experience climate distress.

Overall, talking about climate change health is not just a question of slipping from the technical jargon of climate models to that of healthcare or legal systems. It is also about communicating with an increasingly engaged public on a deeply personal and politicized issue. Finding the right wording is therefore extremely important. But the personal part of health is also what makes discussing climate change from a health point of view such a powerful tool to move forward.

An ongoing global crisis lacking preparedness that requires multiple actors to move forward can leave a lot of room for debate. But as Neira suggests, if instead of talking only about reducing emissions or limiting the amount of degrees warming, we discuss the number of lives that can be saved, there is less room for discussion, and more room to translate words into action.

Quantifying the Impact of Climate Change on Human Health (World Economic Forum, 2024).

WHO launches new toolkit empowering health professionals to tackle climate change. WHO (22 March 2024); https://go.nature.com/3w1i7yO

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Talking about climate change and health. Nat. Clim. Chang. 14 , 409 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-024-02020-3

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Published : 10 May 2024

Issue Date : May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-024-02020-3

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