policy memo assignment

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

A policy memo is a practical, professionally written document that can vary in length from one page to over twenty-five pages. It provides analysis and recommendations directed to a predetermined audience regarding a specific situation, topic, or issue. A well-written policy memo reflects attention to the policy problem. It is well organized and structured in a clear and concise style that assumes the reader possesses limited knowledge of, as well as little time to conduct research about, the topic of concern. There is no thesis statement or overall theoretical framework underpinning the document; the focus is on describing one or more specific policy recommendations and their supporting action items.

Bhasin, Tavishi and Charity Butcher. “Teaching Effective Policy Memo Writing and Infographics in a Policy Programme.” European Political Science 21 (2022): 1-17; Davis, Jennifer. Guide to Writing Effective Policy Memos. MIT OpenCourseWare, Water and Sanitation Infrastructure Planning in Developing Countries, Spring 2004; Judge, Andrew. "Designing and Implementing Policy Writing Assessments: A Practical Guide." Teaching Public Administration 39 (2021): 351-368; Pennock, Andrew. “The Case for Using Policy Writing in Undergraduate Political Science Courses.” PS: Political Science and Politics 44 (January 2011): 141-146.

How to Approach Writing a Policy Memo

Benefits of Writing a Policy Memo

Writing a policy memo is intended to support the following learning outcomes:

• Helps students learn how to write academically rigorous, persuasive papers about a specific “real-world” issue;
• Teaches how to choose and craft a document’s content based on the needs of a particular audience [rather than for a general readership];
• Prepares students to write an effective position paper in non-academic settings;
• Promotes researching, organizing, and writing a persuasive paper that emphasizes presenting evidence-based recommendations rather than simply reporting a study's findings;
• Teaches students to be client-oriented and to better anticipate the assumptions and concerns of their targeted readership;
• Encourages reflective thinking about the cause and consequential effect of a particular recommendation and to anticipate what questions stakeholder groups may have; and,
• Enables students to create original work that synthesizes policy-making research into a clearly written document advocating change and specific courses of action.

Do not approach writing a policy memo in the same way as you would an academic research paper . Yes, there are certain commonalities in how the content is presented [e.g., a well-written problem statement], but the overarching objective of a policy memo is not to discover or create new knowledge. It is focused on providing to a predetermined group of readers the rationale for choosing a particular policy alternative and/or specific courses of action leading to positive social and political change within society. In this sense, most policy memos possess a component of advocacy and advice intended to promote evidence-based dialog about an issue.

Essential Elements of an Effective Policy Memo Focus and Objectives The overall content of your memo should be strategically aimed at achieving the following goal: convincing your target audience about the accuracy of your analysis and, by extension, that your policy recommendations are valid. Avoid lengthy digressions and superfluous narration that can distract the reader from understanding the policy problem. Note that your target audience is defined in two ways: by the decision-makers who can advocate for or implement change and by individuals and groups most likely impacted by your policy recommendations should they be implemented. Professionally Written Always keep in mind that a policy memorandum is a tool for decision-making. Keep it professional and avoid hyperbole and clever or indeterminate language that could undermine the credibility of your document. The presentation and content of the memo should be polished, easy to understand, and free of jargon. Writing professionally does not imply that you can’t be passionate about your topic, but your policy recommendations should be evidence-based and grounded in solid reasoning and a succinct writing style. Evidence-based A policy memo is not an argumentative debate paper. The reader should expect your recommendations to be based upon evidence that the problem exists and understand the consequences [both good and bad] of adopting particular policy alternatives. To address this, policy memos should include a clear cost-benefit analysis that considers anticipated outcomes, the potential impact on stakeholder groups you have identified, clear and quantifiable performance goals, and how success will be measured. Accessibility A policy memo requires clear and simple language that avoids unnecessary jargon and concepts of an academic discipline. Do not skip around. Use one paragraph to develop one idea or argument and make that idea or argument explicit within the first one or two sentences. Your memo should have a straightforward, explicit organizational structure that provides well-explained arguments arranged within a logical sequence of reasoning [think in terms of an if/then logic model--if this policy recommendation, then this action; if this benefit, then this potential cost; if this group is allocated resources, then this group may be excluded]. Presentation Style The visual impact of your memo affects the reader’s ability to grasp your ideas quickly and easily. Include a table of contents and list of figures and charts, if necessary. Subdivide the text using clear and descriptive headings to guide the reader. Incorporate devices such as capitalization, bold text, and bulleted items, but be consistent, and don’t go crazy; the purpose is to facilitate access to specific sections of the paper for successive readings. If it is difficult to find information in your document, policy makers will not use it. Practical and Feasible Your memorandum should provide a set of actions based on what is actually happening in reality. Do not base your policy recommendations on future scenarios or hypothetical situations that could be interpreted as unlikely to occur or that do not appear possible because you have not adequately explained the circumstances supporting these scenarios. Here again, your cost-benefit analysis can be essential to validating the practicality and feasibility of your recommendations. Explicit Transparency Provide specific criteria to assess either the success or failure of the policies you are recommending. As much as possible, this criteria should be derived from your cost/benefit analysis. Do not hide or under-report information that does not support your policy recommendations. Just as you would note the limitations of your study in a research paper, a policy memo should describe issues of weakness of your analysis. Explain why they may arise and why your recommendations are still valid despite these issues. Be open and straightforward because doing so strengthens your arguments and it will help the reader assess the overall impact of recommended policy changes.

NOTE: Technically, it would not be wrong for your policy memo to argue for maintaining the status quo. However, the general objective of a policy memo assignment is to critically examine opportunities for transformative change and to highlight the risks of on-going complacency. If you choose to argue for maintaining the current policy trajectory, in whole or in part, be concise in identifying and systematically refuting all relevant policy options. Again, it must be rooted in an evidence-based cost/benefit analysis. Whether maintaining current policies is short-term or long-term [and these need to be clearly defined], you must explain concisely why each possible outcome of maintaining the status quo would be preferable to any alternative policy options and recommended courses of action. If your argument for maintaining the status quo is short-term, explain what factors in the future could trigger a policy-related course correction.

Herman, Luciana. Policy Memos. John F. Kennedy School of Government. Harvard University; How to Write a Public Policy Memo. Student Learning Center. University of California, Berkeley; Policy Memo. Thompson Writing Program, Writing Studio. Duke University; Policy Memo Guidelines. Cornell Fellows Program. Cornell University; Memo: Audience and Purpose. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Policy Memo Requirements and Guidelines, 2012-2013 edition. Institute for Public Policy Studies. University of Denver; Thrall, A. Trevor. How to Write a Policy Memo. University of Michigan--Dearborn, 2006; Mastro, Oriana Skylar. "Teach What you Preach: A Comprehensive Guide to the Policy Memo as a Methods Teaching Tool." Journal of Political Science Education 17 (2021): 326-340; Writing Effective Memos. Electronic Hallway. Daniel J. Evans School of Public Affairs. University of Washington; Writing Effective Policy Memos. Water & Sanitation Infrastructure Planning syllabus. Spring 2004. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Structure and Writing Style

The contents of a policy memo can be organized in a variety of ways. Below is a general template adapted from the “Policy Memo Requirements and Guidelines, 2012-2013 edition” published by the Institute for Public Policy Studies at the University of Denver and from suggestions made in the book, A Practical Guide for Policy Analysis: The Eightfold Path to More Effective Problem-Solving [Eugene Bardach. 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2012] . Both sources provide useful approaches to writing a policy memo in the event your professor does not provide specific guidance. Overall, the tone of your writing should be formal but assertive. Note that the most important consideration in terms of writing style is professionalism, not creativity. I.  Cover Page Provide a complete and informative cover page that includes the document title, date, the full names and titles of the writer or writers [i.e., Joe Smith, Student, Department of Political Science, University of Southern California]. The title of the policy memo should be formally written and specific to the policy issue [e.g., “Charter Schools, Fair Housing, and Legal Standards: A Call for Equal Treatment”]. For longer memos, consider including a brief executive summary that highlights key findings and recommendations.

II.  Introduction and Problem Definition A policy memorandum should begin with a short summary introduction that defines the policy problem, provides important contextual background information, and explains what issues are being covered. This is followed by a short justification for writing the memo, why a decision needs to be made [answering the “So What?” question], and an outline of the recommendations you make or key themes the reader should keep in mind. Summarize your main points in a few sentences, then conclude with a description of how the remainder of the memo is organized.

III.  Methods This is usually where other research about the problem or issue of concern is summarized. Describe how you plan to identify and locate the information on which your policy memo is based. This may include peer-reviewed journals and books as well as possible professionals you interviewed, databases and websites you explored, or legislative histories or relevant case law that you used. Remember this is not intended to be a thorough literature review; only choose sources that persuasively support your position or that help lay a foundation for understanding why actions need to be taken.

IV.  Issue Analysis This section is where you explain in detail how you examined the issue and, by so doing, persuade the reader of the appropriateness of your analysis. This is followed by a description of how your analysis contributes to the current policy debate. It is important to demonstrate that the policy issue may be more complex than a basic pro versus con debate. Very few public policy debates can be reduced to this type of rhetorical dichotomy. Be sure your analysis is thorough and takes into account all factors that may influence possible strategies that could advance a recommended set of solutions.

V.  Proposed Solutions Write a brief review of the specific solutions you evaluated, noting the criteria by which you examined and compared different proposed policy alternatives. Identify the stakeholders impacted by the proposed solutions and describe in what ways they will benefit from your proposed solution. Focus on identifying solutions that have not been proposed or tested elsewhere. Offer a contrarian viewpoint that challenges the reader to take into account a new perspective on the research problem. Note that you can propose solutions that may be considered radical or unorthodox, but they must be realistic and politically feasible.

VI.  Strategic Recommendations Solutions are just opinions until you provide a path that delineates how to get from where you are to where you want to go. Describe what you believe are the best recommended courses of action [i.e., "action items"]. In writing this section, state the broad approach to be taken, with specific, practical steps or measures that should be implemented. Be sure to also state by whom and within what time frame these actions should be taken. Conclude by highlighting the consequences of maintaining the status quo [or if supporting the status quo, why change at this time would be detrimental]. Also, clearly explain why your strategic recommendations are best suited for addressing the current policy situation.

VI.  Limitations As in any academic paper, you must describe limitations to your analysis. In particular, ask yourself if each of your recommendations are realistic, feasible, and sustainable, and in particular, that they can be implemented within the current bureaucratic, economic, political, cultural, social, or other type of contextual climate in which they reside. If not, you should go back and clarify your recommendations and provide further evidence as to why the recommendation is most appropriate for addressing the issue. It does not necessarily undermine the overall recommendations of your study if the limitation cannot be overcome, but you must clearly acknowledge this. Place the limitation within the context of a critical issue that needs further study in concurrence with possible implementation [i.e., findings indicate service learning promotes civic engagement, but there is a lack of data on the types of service learning programs that exist among high schools in South Central Los Angeles].

VII.  Cost-Benefit Analysis This section may be optional but, in some cases, your professor may ask you to include an explicit summary analysis of the costs and benefits of each recommendation. If you are asked to include a separate cost-benefit analysis, be concise and brief. Since most policy memos do not have a formal conclusion, the cost-benefit analysis can act as your conclusion by summarizing the key differences among policy alternatives and recommended courses of action.

Bardach, Eugene. A Practical Guide for Policy Analysis: The Eightfold Path to More Effective Problem-Solving . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2012; Herman, Luciana. Policy Memos. John F. Kennedy School of Government. Harvard University; How to Write a Public Policy Memo. Student Learning Center. University of California, Berkeley; Policy Memo Guidelines. Cornell Fellows Program. Cornell University; Memo: Audience and Purpose. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Pennock, Andrew. “The Case for Using Policy Writing in Undergraduate Political Science Courses.” PS: Political Science and Politics 44 (January 2011): 141-146; Policy Memo Requirements and Guidelines, 2012-2013 edition. Institute for Public Policy Studies. University of Denver; Thrall, A. Trevor. How to Write a Policy Memo. University of Michigan--Dearborn, 2006; Sajedinejad, S., et al. From Research to Impact: A Toolkit for Developing Effective Policy Briefs . Toronto, Ontario: Policy Bench, Fraser Mustard Institute of Human Development, University of Toronto, 2021; What Are Policy Briefs. FAO Corporate Document Repository. United Nations; Writing Effective Memos. Electronic Hallway. Daniel J. Evans School of Public Affairs. University of Washington; Writing Effective Policy Memos. Water & Sanitation Infrastructure Planning syllabus. Spring 2004. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Proofreading the Memo

Problems to Avoid

The style and arrangement of an effectively written memo can differ because no two policies, nor their intended audience of readers, are exactly the same. Nevertheless, before you submit your policy memo, be sure you proofread the document so that you avoid these common problems. If you identify one or more of these problems, you should rewrite or re-organize the content accordingly.

1.  Acknowledge the Law of Unintended Consequences . No policy analysis is complete until you have identified for whom the policy actions are supposed to benefit and identify what groups may be impacted by the consequences of their implementation. Review your memo and make sure you have clearly delineated who could be helped and who could be potentially harmed or excluded from benefiting from your recommended policy actions. As noted by Wilcoxen, this is also important because describing who may or may not benefit can help you anticipate which stakeholder groups will support your policy recommendations and which groups will likely oppose it. Calculating potential "winners" and "losers" will help reveal how much it may cost to compensate those groups excluded from benefiting. By building this compensation into your policy recommendations, you are better able to show the reader how to reduce political obstacles.

2.  Anticipate the Reader's Questions . Examine your recommended courses of action and identify any open-ended, declarative, indeterminate, or ambiguous statements that could lead the reader to have to ask further questions. For example, you declare that the most important factor supporting school choice among parents is distance from home. Without clarification or additional information, this could lead the reader to ask numerous questions, such as, why or by what means do you know this, what distance is considered to be too far, what factors contribute to parent's decision about school choice and distance from schools, or what age group does this most apply to. Clarify these types of open-ended statements so that your policy recommendations can be more fully understood and accepted as valid.

3.  Be Concise . Being succinct in your writing does not relate to the overall length of the policy memo or the amount of words you use. It relates to your ability to provide a lot of information clearly and without superfluous detail. Strategies include r eviewing long paragraphs and breaking them up into parts, looking for long sentences and eliminating unnecessary qualifiers and modifiers, and deleting prepositional phrases in favor of adjectives or adverbs. The overarching goal is to be thorough and precise in how your ideas are presented and to avoid writing that uses too many words or excessively technical expressions.

4.  Focus on the Results . While it is important that your memo describe the methods by which you gathered and analyzed the data informing your policy recommendations, the content should focus on explaining the results of your analysis and the logic underpinning your recommendations. Remember your audience. The reader is presumably a decision-maker with limited knowledge of the issue and who has little time to contemplate the methods of analysis. The validity of your findings will be determined primarily by your reader's determination that your policy recommendations and supporting action items are realistic and rooted in sound reasoning. Review your memo and make sure the statement about how you gathered the data is brief and concise. If necessary, technical issues or raw data can be included in an appendix.

5.  Minimize Subjective Reasoning . Although the memo should be persuasive, avoid emphasizing your personal opinion about the topic. A policy memo should be written in a professional tone with recommendations based upon empirical reasoning while, at the same time, reflecting a level of passion about your topic. However, being passionate does not imply being opinionated. The memo should emphasize presenting all of the facts a reader would need to reach their own conclusions about the validity of your recommendations.

6.  Use of Non-textual Elements . Review all tables, charts, figures, graphs, or other non-textual elements and make sure they are labeled correctly. Examine each in relation to the text, making sure they are described adequately and that they relate to the overall content of your memo. If these elements are located in appendices, make sure references to them within the text are correct [i.e., reference to Figure 2 is actually the table you want the reader to look at].

Bardach, Eugene and Eric M. Pataschnik. A Practical Guide for Policy Analysis: The Eightfold Path to More Effective Problem-Solving . 5th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2016; Herman, Luciana. Policy Memos. John F. Kennedy School of Government. Harvard University; How to Write a Public Policy Memo. Student Learning Center. University of California, Berkeley; Memo: Audience and Purpose. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Policy Memo Requirements and Guidelines, 2012-2013 edition. Institute for Public Policy Studies. University of Denver; Wilcoxen, Peter J. Tips on Writing a Policy Memo. PAI 723, Economics for Public Decisions Course Syllabus. Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs, Syracuse University.

Writing Tip

Difference Between a Policy Memo and a Policy Brief

A policy memo and a policy brief share much in common. They both describe the rationale for choosing particular policy alternatives or courses of action, they both contain persuasive language, and both documents are written for non-experts, such as, practitioners, politicians, non-governmental agency workers, lobbyists, and others who work on or regularly make decisions about the issue addressed in the document. Both documents are free of jargon or technical terminology and focus on communicating the practical implications of prior policy research to a specific audience based on available evidence.

Ironically, however, a policy memo is typically shorter in length than a policy “brief.” A policy memo usually ranges from one to twenty-five pages, while a policy brief can be anywhere from twenty to more than a hundred pages in length depending on the complexity of the topic. Therefore:

• A policy brief is commonly produced in response to a request from a decision-maker concerning an issue that requires more thorough information to address the underlying policy problem or they are produced by an advocacy group or organization for the purpose of influencing a specific policy, often in an urgent tone. Non-textual elements , such as, figures, charts, graphs, or diagrams, are often included.
• A policy memo is concisely written and presents information, ideas, and recommendations clearly so the reader can quickly scan the document for the most relevant points. Policy memos focus on brevity and often synthesize existing evidence in language that is direct, specific, and with minimal background information or historical context. Non-textual elements are only included if necessary.

Guide to Writing an Effective Policy Memo. Leadership for Educational Equity, New York; Policy Briefs. The Writing Center, University of North Carolina;  Policy Memo. Writing Studio, Duke University; Manny, Karoline. What is a Policy Brief/Memo? Grace Doherty Library, Centra College; Sajedinejad, S., et al. From Research to Impact: A Toolkit for Developing Effective Policy Briefs . Toronto, Ontario: Policy Bench. Fraser Mustard Institute of Human Development, University of Toronto, 2021.

Another Writing Tip

Citing Sources

Policy memos generally do not include extensive footnotes, endnotes, further readings, or a bibliography. However, if you use supporting information in a memo, cite the source in the text. For example, you may refer to a study that supported a specific assertion by referencing it in the following manner: "A study published in 2012 by the Eagleton Center for Public Interest Polling showed that public opinion towards China was....” However, some assignments may require a formal list of references. Before writing your memo, be sure you are clear about how your professor wants you to cite any sources referred to in your analysis.

Policy Memo. Thompson Writing Program, Writing Studio. Duke University.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Using Non-Textual Elements

Policy memos are not just text-based but frequently include numeric tables and charts or other non-textual elements, such as photographs, maps, and illustrations. However, it is important that you use non-textual elements judiciously and only in relation to supplementing and clarifying arguments made in the text so as not to distract the reader from the main points of your memo . As with any non-textual elements, describe what the reader is seeing and why the data is important to understanding the policy problem.

Still Yet Another Writing Tip

Including Appendices

The purpose of an appendix is to provide supplementary material that is not an essential part of the main text but which may be helpful in providing the reader with more complete information. If you have information that is vital to understanding an issue discussed in the memo, it can be included in one or more appendices. However, if you have a lot of information, don't write a five page memo and include twenty pages of appendices. Memos are intended to be  succinct and clearly expressed. If there is a lot of data, refer to the source and summarize it, or discuss with your professor how it should be included.

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Policy Memo

Developed in collaboration with Dr. Dan Pomeroy, manager of MIT’s International Policy Lab .

Criteria for success

• Bottom line up front. Start with your most important recommendations.
• Provide relevant, concise background. Don’t assume policy makers or staff have any previous knowledge of the topic. Catch them up to speed as briefly as possible. What is the issue being briefed and what is the significance of it to the reader? The more direct the significance, the more effective the memo.
• Prioritize evidence that will support your recommendations or conclusions. What factors affect the topic?
• Implementation and Recommendations. Provide a blueprint for implementing your recommendations. Be as specific as possible.

Structure diagram

A policy memo can either provide a concise summary of information relevant to a policy maker or a policy recommendation for them to implement. It is also possible to provide multiple options for the policy maker to consider implementing. If multiple options are provided, you will want to discuss the pros and cons of each option and give the policy maker the context needed to select one.

Your work or the issue you’re writing about is likely broad and complex, with a great deal of nuance. In a policy memo, you must distill your issue down to the most important points in a single page that a policy maker can use to make a decision.

Anticipate reader behavior and organize the memo for the audience

If given limited time to review a document, many people will skim for headers and section titles or read the first sentence of paragraphs to determine the paragraph’s importance. Anticipate the reader’s behavior to increase the impact of your memo:

• Divide the memo into sections and use the headers to convey the main point of the section. If describing the importance of government healthcare programs in West Virginia, use a section title like “23% of West Virginians Rely on Medicare for Health Insurance” instead of “Importance of Medicare in West Virginia.”
• Don’t bury the most important point of your paragraph by building up to it. Put the most significant point of a paragraph in the first sentence and use the rest of paragraph to support or expand on the point.
• Use separate paragraphs and spacing for each important point so they do not get missed by the reader. It should look more like a sectioned summary than a continuous essay to increase readability.

Use figures and tables only where appropriate

If you find it necessary to provide a large amount of numerical data, consider if tables or figures may be more appropriate. Listing data in text form can be overwhelming and can obscure the main point being presented. Conversely, use of complicated or unnecessary tables can confused readers and detract from the effectiveness of the memo. Give only the information that is necessary but be ready to provide the full source for any data provided.

Think about the take-away from the data (individual values or trends) and what format most accurately conveys the main point. The best format will vary depending on audience, data, and major points being made.

Option 1 – Text with data

“The past 5 years have seen an increase renewable generation in New England. In 2011, renewable sources generated 7261 GWh of power, representing 5.6% of annual generation. In 2012, renewable generation increased by over 10% to 8000 GWh of power and represented 6.2% of the 128000 GWh of electrical generation on the New England grid. The amount of renewable generation has continued to grow in both total output in GWh and percent of total generation every year since 2011, increasing to 7.7% of total generation in 2015 with a total generation of nearly 10000 GWh.”

Option 2 – Text with table

“The past 5 years have seen an increase renewable generation in New England. Table 1 shows how renewable energy generation has grown in both total output in GWh and percent of total generation since 2011.”

Table 1. Annual Renewable Generation on New England Grid

Option 3 – Text with figure

“The past 5 years have seen an increase renewable generation in New England. Figure 1 shows how renewable generation has increased as percent of total generation since 2011.”

Figure 1. Growth of Renewable Generation as a Percent of Total Generation in New England 2011 – 2015.

Option 4 – Text with take-away

“The past 5 years have seen an increase renewable generation in New England. While total renewable generation continues to increase (7.7% of total generation in 2015), the yearly growth of total renewable generation is slowing.”

References:

Wilcoxen, Peter – http://wilcoxen.maxwell.insightworks.com/pages/275.html

Frakt, Steve- http://wws.princeton.edu/admissions/wws-blog/item/policy-memo-writing-tips

NE-ISO Annual Generation Statistics from 2015

Resources and Annotated Examples

Annotated example 1.

Source: Third Way, http://www.thirdway.org/third-way-take/setting-the-stage-for-a-sunshot-for-ccs This example makes effective use of headers and whitespace to emphasize its specific recommendations. 3 MB

Annotated Example 2

Source: Olivetti Group, Massachusetts Institute of Technology 3 MB

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Writing a Policy Memo

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Reading Research Effectively
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods

Using Non-Textual Elements

• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Bibliography

A policy memo is a practical and professionally written document that can vary in length from one page to over one hundred pages. It provides analysis and/or recommendations directed to a predetermined audience regarding a specific situation or topic. A well-written policy memo reflects attention to the research problem. It is well organized and structured in a clear and concise style that assumes the reader possesses limited knowledge of, as well as little time to conduct research about, the issue of concern. There is no thesis statement or overall theoretical framework underpinning the document; the focus is on describing one or more specific policy recommendations and their supporting action items.

Davis, Jennifer. Guide to Writing Effective Policy Memos . MIT OpenCourseWare, Water and Sanitation Infrastructure Planning in Developing Countries, Spring 2004; Pennock, Andrew. “The Case for Using Policy Writing in Undergraduate Political Science Courses.” PS: Political Science and Politics 44 (January 2011): 141-146.

How to Approach Writing a Policy Memo

Policy memo writing assignments are intended to promote the following learning outcomes :

• Help students learn how to write academically rigorous, persuasive papers about a specific “real-world” issue;
• Learn how to choose and craft a document’s content based on the needs of a particular audience [rather than for a general readership];
• Prepare students about how to write effectively in non-academic settings;
• Teach students to be client-oriented and to better anticipate the assumptions and concerns of their targeted readership; and,
• Enable students to create original work that synthesizes their research into a succinctly written document advocating change or a specific course of action.

You should not approach writing a policy memo like you would an academic research paper. Yes, there are certain commonalities in how the content is presented [e.g., a well-written problem statement], but the overarching objective of a policy memo is not to discover or create new knowledge. It is focused on providing a pre-determined group of readers the rationale for choosing a particular policy alternative or specific course of action. In this sense, most policy memos possess a component of advocacy and policy advice intended to promote evidence-based dialog about an issue.

Given these intended learning outcomes, keep in mind the following: Focus and Objectives The overall content of your memo should be strategically aimed at achieving the following goal: convincing your target audience about the accuracy of your analysis and, by extension, that your policy recommendations are valid. Avoid lengthy digressions and superfluous narration that can distract the reader from understanding the policy problem. Professionally Written Always keep in mind that a policy memorandum is a tool for decision-making. Keep it professional and avoid hyperbole that could undermine the credibility of your document. The presentation and content of the memo should be polished, easy to understand, and free of jargon. Writing professionally does not imply that you can’t be passionate about your topic, but your policy recommendations should be grounded in solid reasoning and a succinct writing style. Evidence-based A policy memo is not an argumentative debate paper. The reader should expect your recommendations to be based upon evidence that the problem exists and of the consequences [both good and bad] of adopting particular policy alternatives. To address this, policy memos should include a clear cost-benefit analysis that considers anticipated outcomes, the potential impact on stakeholder groups you have identified, clear and quantifiable performance goals, and how success is to be measured. Accessibility A policy memo requires clear and simple language that avoids unnecessary jargon and concepts of an academic discipline. Do not skip around. Use one paragraph to develop one idea or argument and make that idea or argument explicit within the first one or two sentences. Your memo should have a straightforward, explicit organizational structure that provides well-explained arguments arranged within a logical sequence of reasoning [think in terms of an if/then logic model--if this policy recommendation, then this action; if this benefit, then this potential cost; if this group is allocated resources, then who may be excluded]. Presentation Style The visual impact of your memo affects the reader’s ability to grasp your ideas quickly and easily. Include a table of contents and list of figures and charts, if necessary. Subdivide the text using clear and descriptive headings to guide the reader. Incorporate devices such as capitalization, bold text, and bulleted items but be consistent, and don’t go crazy; the purpose is to facilitate access to specific sections of the paper for successive readings. If it is difficult to find information in your document, policy makers will not use it. Practical and Feasible Your memorandum should provide a set of actions based on what is actually happening in reality. The purpose is never to base your policy recommendations on future scenarios that are unlikely to occur or that do not appear realistic to your targeted readers. Here again, your cost-benefit analysis can be essential to validating the practicality and feasibility to your recommendations. Explicit Transparency Provide specific criteria to assess either the success or failure of the policies you are recommending. As much as possible, this criteria should be derived from your cost/benefit analysis. Do not hide or under-report information that does not support your policy recommendations. Just as you should note limitations in an original research study, a policy memo should describe the weaknesses of your analysis. Be straightforward about it because doing so strengthens your arguments and it will help the reader to assess the overall impact of recommended policy changes.

NOTE : Technically, your policy memo could argue for maintaining the status quo. However, the general objective of policy memos is to examine opportunities for transformative change and the risks of on-going complacency. If you choose to argue for maintaining the current policy trajectory, be concise in identifying and systematically refuting all relevant policy options. Summarize why the outcomes of maintaining the status quo are preferable to any alterative policy options.

Herman, Luciana. Policy Memos . John F. Kennedy School of Government. Harvard University; How to Write a Public Policy Memo . Student Learning Center. University of California, Berkeley; Policy Memo . Thompson Writing Program, Writing Studio. Duke University; Policy Memo Guidelines . Cornell Fellows Program. Cornell University; Memo: Audience and Purpose . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Policy Memo Requirements and Guidelines, 2012-2013 edition . Institute for Public Policy Studies. University of Denver; Thrall, A. Trevor. How to Write a Policy Memo . University of Michigan--Dearborn, 2006; Writing Effective Memos . Electronic Hallway. Daniel J. Evans School of Public Affairs. University of Washington; Writing Effective Policy Memos . Water & Sanitation Infrastructure Planning syllabus. Spring 2004. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Structure and Writing Style

The contents of a policy memo can be organized in a variety of ways. Below is a general template adapted from the “Policy Memo Requirements and Guidelines, 2012-2013 edition” published by the Institute for Public Policy Studies at the University of Denver and from suggestions made in the book, A Practical Guide for Policy Analysis: The Eightfold Path to More Effective Problem-Solving [Eugene Bardach. 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2012] . Both provide useful approaches to writing a policy memo should your professor not provide you with specific guidance. The tone of your writing should be formal but assertive. Note that the most important consideration in terms of writing style is professionalism, not creativity. I.  Cover Page Provide a complete and informative cover page that includes the document title, date, the full names and titles of the writer or writers [i.e., Joe Smith, Student, Department of Political Science, University of Southern California]. The title of the policy memo should be formally written and specific to the policy issue [e.g., “Charter Schools, Fair Housing, and Legal Standards: A Call for Equal Treatment”]. For longer memos, consider including a brief executive summary that highlights key findings and recommendations.

II.  Introduction and Problem Definition A policy memorandum should begin with a short summary introduction that defines the policy problem, provides important contextual background information, and explains what issues the memo covers. This is followed by a short justification for writing the memo, why a decision needs to be made [answering the “So What?” question], and an outline of the recommendations you make or key themes the reader should keep in mind. Summarize your main points in a few sentences, then conclude with a description of how the remainder of the memo is organized.

III.  Methods This is usually where other research about the problem or issue of concern is summarized. Describe how you plan to identify and locate the information on which your policy memo is based. This may include peer-reviewed journals and books as well as possible professionals you interviewed, databases and websites you explored, or legislative histories or relevant case law that you used. Remember this is not intended to be a thorough literature review; only choose sources that persuasively support your position or that helps lay a foundation for understanding why actions need to be taken.

IV.  Issue Analysis This section is where you explain in detail how you examined the issue and, by so doing, persuade the reader of the appropriateness of your analysis. This is followed by a description of how your analysis contributes to the current policy debate. It is important to demonstrate that the policy issue may be more complex than a basic pro versus con debate. Very few public policy debates can be reduced to this type of rhetorical dichotomy. Be sure your analysis is thorough and takes into account all factors that may influence possible strategies that could advance a recommended set of solutions.

V.  Proposed Solutions Write a brief review of the specific solutions you evaluated, noting the criteria by which you examined and compared different proposed policy alternatives. Identify the stakeholders impacted by the proposed solutions and describe in what ways the stakeholders benefit from your proposed solution. Focus on identifying solutions that have not been proposed or tested elsewhere. Offer a contrarian viewpoint that challenges the reader to take into account a new perspective on the research problem. Note that you can propose solutions that may be considered radical or unorthodox, but they must be realistic and politically feasible.

VI.  Strategic Recommendations Solutions are just opinions until you provide a path that delineates how to get from where you are to where you want to go. Describe what you believe are the best recommended courses of action ["action items"]. In writing this section, state the broad approach to be taken, with specific practical steps or measures that should be implemented. Be sure to also state by whom and within what time frame these actions should be taken. Conclude by highlighting the consequences of maintaining the status quo [or if supporting the status quo, why change at this time would be detrimental]. Also, clearly explain why your strategic recommendations are best suited for addressing the current policy situation.

VI.  Limitations As in any academic paper, you must describe limitations to your analysis. In particular, ask yourself if each of your recommendations are realistic, feasible, and sustainable, and in particular, that they can be implemented within the current bureaucratic, economic, political, cultural, or other type of contextual climate in which they reside. If not, you should go back and clarify your recommendations or provide further evidence as to why the recommendation is most appropriate for addressing the issue. If the limitation cannot be overcome, it does not necessarily undermine the overall recommendations of your study, but you must clearly acknowledge it. Place the limitation within the context of a critical issue that needs further study in concurrence with possible implementation [i.e., findings indicate service learning promotes civic engagement, but.there is a lack of data on the types of service learning programs that exist among high schools in Los Angeles].

VII.  Cost-Benefit Analysis This section may be optional but, in some cases, policy memos include an explicit summary analysis of the costs and benefits of each strategic recommendation. If you are asked to include a separate cost-benefit analysis, be concise and brief. Since most policy memos do not have a formal conclusion, the cost-benefit analysis can act as your conclusion by summarizing the key differences among policy alternatives and recommended courses of action.

Bardach, Eugene. A Practical Guide for Policy Analysis: The Eightfold Path to More Effective Problem-Solving . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2012; Herman, Luciana. Policy Memos . John F. Kennedy School of Government. Harvard University; How to Write a Public Policy Memo . Student Learning Center. University of California, Berkeley;  Policy Memo Guidelines . Cornell Fellows Program. Cornell University; Memo: Audience and Purpose . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Pennock, Andrew. “The Case for Using Policy Writing in Undergraduate Political Science Courses.” PS: Political Science and Politics 44 (January 2011): 141-146; Policy Memo Requirements and Guidelines, 2012-2013 edition . Institute for Public Policy Studies. University of Denver; Thrall, A. Trevor. How to Write a Policy Memo . University of Michigan--Dearborn, 2006; “ What Are Policy Briefs? ” FAO Corporate Document Repository. United Nations; Writing Effective Memos . Electronic Hallway. Daniel J. Evans School of Public Affairs. University of Washington; Writing Effective Policy Memos . Water & Sanitation Infrastructure Planning syllabus. Spring 2004. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Proofreading the Memo

Problems to Avoid

The style and arrangement of an effectively written memo can differ because no two policies, nor their intended audience of readers, are exactly the same. Nevertheless, before you submit your policy memo, be sure you proofread the document in order to avoid these common problems. If you identify one or more of them, you should rewrite or re-organize the content accordingly.

1.  Acknowledge the law of unintended consequences -- no policy analysis is complete until you have identified for whom the policy is supposed to benefit as well as identify what groups may be impacted by the consequences of implementation. Review your memo and make sure you have clearly delineated who could be helped and who could be potentially harmed or excluded from benefiting from your recommended policy actions. As noted by Wilcoxen, this is also important because describing who may or may not benefit can help you anticipate which stakeholder groups will support your policy recommendations and which groups will likely oppose it. Calculating potential winners and losers will help reveal how much it may cost to compensate those groups excluded from benefiting. By building this compensation into your policy recommendations, you are better able to show the reader how to reduce political obstacles.

2.  Anticipate the reader's questions -- examine your recommended courses of action and identify any open-ended, declarative, or ambiguous statements that could lead the reader to have to ask further questions. For example, you declare that the most important factor supporting school choice among parents is distance from home. Without clarification or additional information, a reader may question why or by what means do you know this, or what distance is considered to be too far? Or, what factors contribute to parent's decision about school choice and distance from schools? What age group does this most apply to? Clarify these types of open-ended statements so that your policy can be more fully understood.

3.  Be concise -- being succinct in your writing does not relate to the overall length of the policy memo or the amount of words you use. It relates to an ability to provide a lot of information clearly and without superfluous detail. Strategies include r eviewing long paragraphs and breaking them up into parts, looking for long sentences and eliminating unnecessary qualifiers and modifiers, and deleting prepositional phrases in favor of adjectives or adverbs. The overarching goal is to be thorough and precise in how you present ideas and to avoid writing that uses too many words or excessively technical expressions.

4. Focus on the results -- while it's important that your memo describe the methods by which you gathered and analyzed the data informing your policy recommendations, the content should focus on explaining the results of your analysis and the logic underpinning your recommendations. Remember your audience. The reader is presumably a decision-maker with limited knowledge of the issue and with little time to contemplate the methods of analysis. The validity of your findings will be determined primarily by your reader's determination that your policy recommendations and supporting action items are realistic and rooted in sound reasoning. Review your memo and make sure the statement about how you gathered the data is brief and concise. If necessary, technical issues or raw data can be included as an appendix.

5.  Minimize subjective reasoning -- avoid emphasizing your personal opinion about the topic. A policy memo should be written in a professional tone with recommendations based upon empirical reasoning while, at the same time, reflecting a level of passion about your topic. However, being passionate does not imply being opinionated. The memo should emphasize presenting all of the facts a reader would need to reach his or her own conclusions about the validity of your recommendations.

6.  Use of non-textual elements -- review all tables, charts, figures, graphs, or other non-textual elements and make sure they are labeled correctly. Examine each in relation to the text and make sure they are described adequately and relate to the overall content of your memo. If these elements are located in appendices, make sure references to them within the text is correct [i.e., reference to Figure 2 is actually the table you want the reader to look at].

Bardach, Eugene and Eric M. Pataschnik. A Practical Guide for Policy Analysis: The Eightfold Path to More Effective Problem-Solving . 5th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2016; Herman, Luciana. Policy Memos . John F. Kennedy School of Government. Harvard University; How to Write a Public Policy Memo . Student Learning Center. University of California, Berkeley; Memo: Audience and Purpose . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University;  Policy Memo Requirements and Guidelines, 2012-2013 edition . Institute for Public Policy Studies. University of Denver; Wilcoxen, Peter J. Tips on Writing a Policy Memo . PAI 723, Economics for Public Decisions Course Syllabus. Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs, Syracuse University.

Writing Tip

Referencing Sources

Policy memos generally do not include footnotes, endnotes, further readings, or a bibliography. However, if you use supporting information in a memo, cite the source in the text. For example, you may refer to a study that supported a specific assertion by referencing it in the following manner: "A study published in 2012 by the Eagleton Center for Public Interest Polling showed that public opinion towards China was....” However, some assignments may require a formal list of references. Before writing your memo, be sure you are clear about how your professor wants you to cite any sources referred to in your analysis.

Policy Memo . Thompson Writing Program, Writing Studio. Duke University .

Another Writing Tip

Policy memos are not just text-based but they may also include numeric tables and charts or non-textual elements, such as photographs, maps, and illustrations. However, it is very important that you use non-textual elements judiciously and only in relation to supplementing and clarifying arguments made in the text so as not to distract the reader from the main points of your memo . As with any non-textual elements, describe what the reader is seeing and why the data is important to understanding the research problem.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Including Appendices

The purpose of an appendix is to provide supplementary material that is not an essential part of the main text but which may be helpful in providing the reader with more complete information. If you have information that is vital to understanding an issue discussed in the memo, it can be included in one or more appendices. However, if you have a lot of information, don't write a five page memo and include twenty pages of appendices. Memos are intended to be  succinct and clearly expressed. If there is a lot of data, refer to the source and summarize it, or discuss with your professor how it could be included.

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Teaching effective policy memo writing and infographics in a policy programme

• Teaching and Learning
• Published: 25 March 2021
• Volume 21 , pages 165–181, ( 2022 )

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• Tavishi Bhasin 1 &
• Charity Butcher 1  

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The Scholarship on education and practice has recently encouraged the inclusion of writing assignments in the classroom. Writing-across-the-curriculum (WAC) programmes have been implemented across universities and colleges, promoting structured writing assignments outside of language-based programmes and courses. The collective knowledge on the subject highlights the effectiveness of frequent short assignments as being better for achieving learning goals, in comparison with more traditional, longer term papers often assigned in upper-division and graduate political science courses. This paper outlines our efforts to revise the curriculum in two of the courses in our policy-focused master’s program. In particular, we focus on two types of policy writing, policy memos and infographics. In this paper, we discuss the background of the program and courses, our choices of assignments, and their design and implementation. Further, we present evidence of how these assignments contributed to student learning in the courses.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their gratitude to Dr. Julia Marin Hellwege, attendees of the 2020 American Political Science Association Teaching and Learning Conference, and anonymous reviewers for their feedback on earlier drafts of this paper. Thanks also to Dr. Thomas Doleys, Director of the MSIPM program, for his support for this two-year experiment and to Mr. Gilbert Lopez for his research assistance on this project.

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Infographic assignment

Your task here is to create an infographic (a visual representation) that summarizes the policy problem or challenge that you are addressing in your chosen country.

The focus here is on looking back at how your country has handled this policy area up to this point. Summarize the challenges faced by the faces in this policy area? How has your country addressed these challenges in the past? Tell a clear story with the goal of convincing the reader that it is imperative that changes be made in this policy area.

Each infographic should include a minimum of two charts/graphs/maps/other visual representation of data. Multiple trends may be highlighted within each chart.

Please ensure you create the visual representations yourself and do not copy someone else’s work.

To create your infographic, you should choose two or three indicators (measures) that are relevant to your policy area. For example, literacy rates might be one measure used in the area of education. Percentage of population with high school degrees might be another. Using a reliable data source such as the World Bank, clearly find and state the current statistics for those measures. Summarize the trends over the last few decades for your country on these measures. [Provide some context—how does your country compare with other countries in its region on these measures?]

Note that at least one of the charts/figures should set up the problem that you will discuss in your policy memo. Think of this as an area for growth/improvement that you will address for which you will have policy recommendations when you write your memo. You are only setting up the problem here, highlighting an area for growth. You don’t need to have policy recommendations at this stage.

We expect you will use data from existing data sources, such as the World Bank. Enter the data into Word/Excel/other data analysis software. Examples of data could be literacy rates over a few decades for the country. Then use this data that you have entered into Excel to create a chart/graph/other visual representation. You may copy the chart or graph into word when you are done.

Each infographic should have a title that clearly summarizes the overall purpose of the infographic. Subsections and charts/representations should have relevant titles as well.

Your infographic should be designed to tell a coherent story using the visual representations and text within it.

Your infographic may include short portions of text in addition to the charts/visual representations that it contains.

Titles—Main and subsections

Clear, relevant, summarizes concepts 5

Contains at least two charts/visual representations covering at least two separate trends relevant to the policy area. 10

Effectiveness

Infographic presents a coherent overall story summarizing questions 10

Each data representation is clearly connected to the central theme of the infographic. 10

Each data representation provides compelling evidence to support the overall argument of the infographic. 10

Contains clear takeaways from the data and information presented. 10

Data and information used is from a reliable source 10

Data are manipulated and transformed to create an accurate visual representation. 10

Data are manipulated and transformed to create a visual representation appropriate for the data and information presented. The information being presented should be clearly relayed to the reader. 10

Visual representations are clearly and appropriately labelled with a legend/key included where necessary. This includes units of analysis for charts and an accurate and descriptive title for each representation. 5

Writing Style and Grammar. 10

Policy memo/brief instructions

The purpose of this assignment is to provide students with the opportunity to practice writing policy memos/briefs, which will be a useful skill in their international policy management career.

What is a policy memo/brief?

A policy memo/brief is a short document that outlines an issue or problem and presents recommendations based on evidence for a nonspecialized audience, such as key decision-makers, NGOs, journalists, etc. It provides policy advice and is meant to be informative and persuasive.

Organization of your policy memo/brief

While in your professional careers policy memos might vary in their organization, below is a common organizational flow for policy briefs, and one that you must use in these two courses.

Title Your title should clearly communicate your topic and may include the position of the writer on the issue. A good title should grab the attention of the reader. (five points)

Introductory Paragraph/Executive Summary Your memo/brief should include a short introductory paragraph that summarizes the problem you are addressing in the memo. In addition, the summary should briefly and clearly state the primary findings and recommendations of the memo. (ten points)

Description of the Problem and Reasons for Action You will provide a brief overview of the policy that needs to be addressed and why it is important to do something different than current policy. Basically—what is the problem and why do we need to fix it? In this section, students should discuss key measures that illustrate the problem and failures of current or past policies. For example, current literacy levels and trends might be used to demonstrate the lack of effective current policies. Data and information are important here. You should specifically analyse the strengths and weakness of existing policy—be sure to include both! Do not just present your data, but rather discuss the implications or significant findings based on the data. (20 points)

Proposed Policy Alternatives What are some potential alternatives to the current policy based on your research? Specifically, you should discuss the process through which each proposed alternative policy might fix the problems with the current policy. You should include a minimum of two potential policy alternatives. (ten points)

Analysing Policy Alternatives and Making a Policy Recommendation In this section, you will evaluate and analyse the proposed policy alternatives you discussed in the previous section and ultimately make a recommendation on the best course of action. You should discuss the strengths and weaknesses of each policy alternative and clearly state the criteria are you using to evaluate these options. Weigh the costs and benefits of various options (based on these criteria), building an argument for the “best” recommendation. You should support your assertions with relevant data and avoid generalizations. You should also be sure to address potential counterarguments and rebuttals to your findings and ultimate recommendation. The key object of this section is to ultimately create a compelling argument for the option that you have chosen as a recommendation from the presented alternatives. (25 points)

Implementing Policy Recommendation Clearly state how your policy recommendations should be implemented and a timeframe for implementation. Be sure to provide specific and detailed steps that need to be followed for the implementation of this policy; this requires you to consider the key actors (agencies, leaders, executives, etc.) involved in the implementation. Further, you should discuss the potential (intended or unintended) impact, both positive and negative, of these recommendations on key constituents. (20 points)

Conclusion Provide a succinct and clear conclusion. Remind the reader of the “big picture” and overall goal of your policy recommendations—answering the “so what?” question. In other words, why is your proposed alternative better than the current policy and status quo? Why is it important to make this change and why is the proposed timeframe appropriate and necessary? (ten points)

Format of your policy memo/brief

While the length of policy memos/briefs may vary, since you are still acquiring the ability to write succinctly, for the purpose of these classes your policy memos should be 4–5 pages in length (single spaced). In addition, policy memos should be written with the reader in mind. They should be easy to read, and it should be easy to find important information. You may consider bold or italicized fonts, clearly defined subsections, and/or bullets and lists to help the reader quickly and easily find key information.

Additional grading information

This is a formal writing assignment and you are expected to write clearly and for a professional audience. Such clarity and organization of writing, use of appropriate grammar, spelling, and appropriate word choice and usage will be considered when grading your memos. Memos with such mistakes may be penalized up to ten points, depending on the severity of the problems.

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Bhasin, T., Butcher, C. Teaching effective policy memo writing and infographics in a policy programme. Eur Polit Sci 21 , 165–181 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41304-021-00330-0

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How to Write a Policy Assignment

What is a policy assignment, policy critique.

• Policy Brief/Briefing Note

Reading and Analyzing Policy

Writing policy assignments, research and writing process.

Understanding, evaluating, and writing policy documents are important competencies to develop as undergraduate students in a wide range of fields, spanning from Health Care to Environmental Science to Education. Policy is informed by strong research and accurate evidence, often compiled and presented by government and non-governmental organizations. Public policies include formal legislation, official plans, and regulations created by various levels of government. Each of these can act as guiding principles for governmental decision making and program delivery. Non-governmental and para-governmental organizations publish policy briefs, commission reports, and fact sheets to inform policy makers and recommend policy change.

Course instructors often ask students to analyze policy documents to better understand issues and policy alternatives, and students in many disciplines must write policy documents, including critiques and briefs or briefing notes. This guide offers steps to reading policy and keys for effective policy writing.

Types of Policy Assignments

In a policy critique, students are expected to read and critically analyze one or more policy documents that address a common issue. The goal of this assignment is to present an overall assessment of current or proposed policies and their efficacy or potential considering both scholarly theory and real-world, practical application with consideration of environmental, social, or economic contexts.

Proposed structure

• Issue: what is the policy in question?
• Background: where did it emerge? What problem does it try to address?
• Application: so far, based on evidence, how effective has it been?
• Limits: what are limits with the policy? How has it been adapted? What questions remain?
• Evaluation/potential: based on concepts and theories from course materials, what is the potential for this policy to address particular issue/problem?

Policy Brief (Briefing Note)

Policy briefs or briefing notes are documents written by governmental and non-governmental organizations to propose evidence-based policy solutions to a well-defined social, environmental, or economic issue. Briefs present findings from academic and grey literature to demonstrate the scope of an issue and to analyze its context and background. The brief is organized with clear headings and short sections, which are supported by figures or tables.

• Executive Summary: similar to an abstract, briefly explains the goal, findings, and recommendations. Although it is placed first in the document, it is written last.
• Issue Definition: identify and explain the key issue and its scope and significance.
• Policy Background: synthesize evidence to explain the context of the issue – its origins, key stakeholders, overlapping issues, and potential barriers – and any existing policy.
• Best Practices: describe relevant policies from other jurisdictions and introduce specific examples of policy and best practices that reinforce the argument your briefing note presents.
• Policy Options: synthesize your research to present a few policy options; for each option, describe the approach and present advantages, challenges, and potential barriers. Present one policy recommendation from these options.
• References: divide references into sections (e.g., academic sources, grey literature, policy documents etc.)

Each policy document is focused on a specific issue and establishes particular goals; when you read any policy document, you are working to understand and analyze the issue and how the policy addresses the issue. These messages are often presented in different ways. Policy briefs are, well, brief, but other policy documents or commissioned reports can be quite lengthy, so it is important to develop a reading strategy for each new document. Generally, it is best to follow this process: preview, plan, read and take notes, and assess within course context.

Because policy documents vary significantly in form and purpose, it is essential to preview the document prior to reading it: identify its author, its purpose, and its form. Take time to read the executive summary, which presents a short explanation of the issue and purpose of the document. Understand its authorship and the interests of the individual or organizational author.

Make a plan

Identify your goal in reading the document: do you wish to better understand the issue, to identify policy alternatives, to appreciate broader context, or to determine efficacy of policy? How will this document inform your understanding of the issue you are studying? What sections will be most useful or relevant?

Read and take notes

Your preview and plan can direct your reading and notetaking. Read closely to understand the policy or issue, its context, and the evidence used to support it. Identify stakeholders and their interests, the goals of the policy and how those goals are measurable and actionable. You may find it helpful to refer to the table of contents or index (or to use the ‘find’ tool in your browser) to seek out sections that contain relevant keywords in documents spanning more than 100 pages.

Assess policy within course context

Refer to theories, frameworks, and indices that you have discussed in class to assess a policy. Consider whether it follows a particular conceptual framework or achieves particular numerical targets. Compare it to other policies in similar contexts and analyze its parts to assess its adaptability to different contexts. Evaluate its fit to the specific issue and its relevance for various stakeholder needs or values.

Reading an Official Plan

An official plan is often a lengthy document that covers many topics and issues within a set of overarching goals for an organization, like a university, hospital, or municipality. Your aim should be to understand the overarching goals of the plan and its broader context, which are likely laid out in the executive summary and introductory sections. Then you may need to seek out references to a particular topic, issue, or stakeholder; the index, table of contents, or “find” tool can be helpful for this.

Reading a Policy Brief

The goal of a policy brief is to inform and persuade policy makers, so your aim should be to understand the issue the brief identifies and to analyze the policy it proposes. The structure and design of the policy brief will guide your reading. Take time to understand the context of the issue and the policy: who are the stakeholders, what are the goals, what is the process, and what are the barriers? Analyze the policy within the disciplinary concepts you’re learning in class; how does the policy fit particular frameworks, theories, or indices you’ve discussed? What is unique about this policy? How can this policy be adapted to different contexts? What is its potential to address the issue?

Successful policy assignments are focused, well-researched, analytical, organized, and concise. Therefore, it is important to take time to define the issue, understand the context of the issue, and seek out policy alternatives prior to identifying a recommended course of action.

• Focused Issue
• Using Research
• Demonstrating Analysis
• Organized, Concise, and Clear Writing

Focused issue

It is essential that you present a focused and clear issue, and that issue must be at the scale of policy action. For example, policy briefs can address ER wait times or agricultural pesticide use, but issues such as access to health care or the sustainability of food production are too complex for you to address in a short policy assignment. Often, course material and core concepts provide useful direction for you to narrow your issue.

In policy assignments, an issue is clearly defined and contextualized with evidence from scholarly and grey literature. It is important for you to explain how scholars, governments, or NGOs have discussed the issue, and numerical data or figures can demonstrate the scale of an issue or its projected trajectory. Provide details about the issue in its context: be specific about place, time, and stakeholders, and acknowledge any overlapping economic, environmental, or social issues.

Example: Effective issue definition 1

Age-friendly municipalities foster solidarity among generations within communities and reach out to older people at risk of isolation by making them feel socially included and involved (WHO, 2007). It is well documented that these trends are happening across Canada, and evidence suggests that local governments have a key role in enabling older people to live longer. It is unclear to what degree Aurora’s municipal government is prepared to support its expanding ageing population. It is essential to continue to examine new approaches to housing and transportation infrastructure within Aurora in order to improve public policy matters in regards to their ageing population.

• Issue is grounded by focused concept and evidence; writer demonstrates value of municipal policy to address the issue
• Writer precisely identifies the issue to be discussed in brief and the goals of the report

Example: Ineffective issue definition 1

In addition to the infrastructure issue in Peterborough, there is also an issue regarding how spread out the community is. The city is too big for residents to be able to walk the entire city. Amenities are also very spread out; it is unlikely that pedestrians would be able to access the required amenities within walking distance from their house. Ultimately, the main issues surrounding the walkability in the City of Peterborough are the lack of infrastructure and maintenance, as well as the lack of available activities near to peoples’ residences.

• Not grounded in conceptual framework or theory; writer needs to explain why walkability is an issue that a municipality should address
• Lack of precision or evidence to support claims about the size of the city or accessibility to amenities

Using research

Policy is informed by evidence from scholarly literature, government data, and research by various stakeholder organizations. Effective policy assignments synthesize evidence from academic and grey literature to create an accurate account of the issue and policy options. Common forms of evidence in policy writing include numerical and financial data, figures such as graphs and maps, excerpts from existing policies, recommendations from NGOs, and conceptual frameworks.

In policy writing, your goal is to present research both accurately and accessibly, as decision-makers in government and business may not be familiar with terminology or concepts presented by scholars. Make efforts to paraphrase the evidence you use and be sure to include citations in the form requested by your professor (footnotes or author-date systems are common).

One of the key factors in Municipal Cultural Planning is increasing cross-sectoral strategies by building new partnerships “…between the municipality and its community and business partners” (Municipal Cultural Plan, toolkit, 2011, p.21) for long term sustainability. Therefore, municipal cultural planning “…does not look at policy sectorally” (Gollmitzer, 2008, p.18), but instead strengthens and integrates “…cultural resources across all facets of government planning and decision making” (Municipal Cultural Plan Toolkit, 2011, p.21). Building new networks are supported by leveraging the sense of place within a community. Adopting a place-based planning approach allows “…government, community organizations and citizens to explore, measure and asses the values, resources and assets of the community” (Huhtala, 2016, p.66), in order to leverage them for economic prosperity.

• Writer synthesizes academic and grey literature to demonstrate how concepts are applied in policy.
• Writer also demonstrates analysis of evidence and its relevance to the brief’s focused issue.
• Use of direct quotation can feature the language of a policy if the writer wishes to analyze discourse; however, this excerpt relies too heavily on direct quotation, and it would be stronger if this evidence was paraphrased.

Demonstrating analysis

The quality of your policy assignment is closely tied to your analysis of the issue and the policy options you present. It is important to evaluate policy options as you research and to critically analyze how those options address the issue within its particular context. Take time to examine specific factors and parties involved in an issue and consider how these factors may facilitate or challenge each policy option; furthermore, you should also assess the advantages and disadvantages of each policy option and its impacts on these factors or parties.

You may find it valuable to consider theories, concepts, or frameworks from your course to develop your argument and to establish coherence throughout your assignment. If you assess all policy options through the same critical lens or theory, then your message will be clear and consistent throughout your document.

Integrating senior housing into the fabric of the inner core communities could make housing developments viable and situate seniors in settings where they can access these services by foot or nearby transit (Fang, 2013).  This concept can allow seniors, who may be considering downsizing, to remain within their community where they can keep active, live within easy access to medical and community services, and stay close to their support network that they have spent their lives establishing. However, the growing demand for these developments could put major pressure on the municipality.  City officials would have to amend current zoning by-laws to allow commercial and residential uses to be a part of mixed-use development and appropriate provisions need to be provided to ensure compatibility and to minimize potential negative impacts. 

• Writer presents both advantages and challenges of policy option within common concept of healthy aging communities.
• Writer also includes potential impacts and barriers of policy option, which demonstrates their consideration of the issue and its context.

Organized, concise, and clear writing

Policy writing should be well-organized and easy to follow. Use headings and subheadings to create structure and to support your reader. It is common to number sections and subsections to further clarify the order of your ideas. In addition, good paragraph structure also supports organization and clarity, so we encourage you to use specific topic sentences to introduce the main idea of a paragraph.

Well-written policy assignments employ a formal writing style and use third-person voice (e.g., they) rather than first-person (e.g., I, we) or second-person (e.g., you) voice. Further, they avoid jargon, but use specific and clear language. When you revise your draft, take time to consider each sentence and remove repetitive or redundant phrases and words.

Finally, it is important to pay attention to the details. Label any figures or tables in your document; make reference to these figures or tables in the text of your work (e.g., see Figure 1). Also be sure to follow assignment instructions for referencing evidence in your text (e.g., footnotes or author-date system) and in your list of sources, which is often categorized by type of source (e.g., academic, government, NGOs).

There are many ways to approach a policy assignment, but it is important to take time to research and analyze issues and policy options thoroughly prior to writing. Consider the following steps to complete your policy assignment:

• Read assignment instructions closely
• Preliminary research: review course materials, brainstorm, conduct environmental scan or site visit, consider current issues relevant to course concepts
• Define issue: consider questions and frameworks
• Research issue and context
• Research and evaluate policy alternatives in other places
• Analyze policy alternatives and consider fit for current issue and context; select policy options to present
• Outline sections: what evidence goes where? How does evidence work together?
• Write sections (leave Executive Summary until last)
• Revise for organization, analysis, and use of evidence. See Strategies for Revision and Proofreading.
• Edit for clarity, concision, and grammar
• Complete final proof of document
• These examples are not to be reproduced in whole or part. Use of the ideas or words in this example is an act of plagiarism, which is subject to academic integrity policy at Trent University and other academic institutions.

• Utility Menu

Policy Memo Resource

Policy memo database.

While many interesting memos may still be classified, a variety of open source memos and archives exist and provide invaluable lessons in policy writing. The database below is a useful shortcut to exploring policy memos -- in the U.S. and abroad, at the federal and local levels -- in order to compare and contrast styles, tone, and structure.

Search Memos

• FR: Commission of Education, NY, TO: School Administrators, RE: McKinney-Vento Homeless Education Act
• Nov., 16, 2020 - Memo for All Department of Defense Employees RE: Acting Sec. Miller's Goals
• May 2, 1945, Presidential Appointment of Justice Jackson to Prosecute Axis War Criminals
• Open Letter from U.S. Military Leaders on Arming Israel to Prevent a Nuclear Iran, published in "Jewish Institute for National Security of America" (JINSA) 3/20/23
• From: The Deputy Secretary of State (Clark) and the Under Secretary of State for Management (Kennedy), To: Secretary of State Haig, Re: Reinvigoration of Human Rights Policy, Date: October 26, 1981
• Ukraine: The Budapest Memorandum of 1994
• From: James Wine, Head of Community Relations Division of the DNC, To: JFK Campaign Coordinators, Re: "Religious Issues, October 1960
• From: Central Intelligence Agency, To: President George W. Bush Re: Bin Ladin Determined to Strike in US DATE: Date: 08/06/2001
• From: Town Manager, Amherst, MA., To: Town Council, Re: Funds Appropriated to Address Systemic Racism, Date: 3/18/2021
• From: County Administrator, To: Members of Pima County, AZ Board of Supervisors, Re: End of Mandatory County-Wide Temperature Screenings, Date: 6/18/2021
• From: Equipment Policy Ad Hoc Committee, To: Oakland Police Commission, Re: Police Equipment Policy, Date: 6/7/2020
• From: Senior Project Manager, City of Aspen, CO. To: Mayor and City Council, Re: Bicycle and Pedestrian Master Plan Update, Date: 9/2/2016
• From: Presidential Advisor, To: President Lyndon Johnson, Re: Notes to prepare for a meeting with Dr. Martin Luther King, Date: 3/4/1965
• From: President Biden To: Sec. of State, Sec. of Defense, et. al. Re: Protecting Women's Health at Home and Abroad, Date: 01/28/2021
• From: Executive Committee, Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party, To: Participants of Civil Rights, Re: Voting Registration in the 89th Congress, Date:1964
• From: NAACP Exec. Secretary To: President of Branches, et al., Re: Nat'l. Civil Rights Legislative Conference, Date: 7/25/63
• From: President of the Philippines, To: Heads of Departments, Agencies and Offices of the Government, Re: Nationwide Enforcement of Testing and Quarantine Protocols for air travel, Date: 5/27/21
• From: Senior Fellow, Center for Global Development and Senior Fellow, NYU's Ctr. on International Coop., To: Members of the DFID Select Committee, Re: Future UK Development Policy, Date: 9/5/2014
• From: World Bank Internat'l. Development Assoc., To: Executive Directors, Re: Assistance to The Republic of Togo, Date: 11/19/2010
• From: World Bank Internat'l. Development Assoc., To: Executive Directors, Re: Proposed Credit of SDR 26.2 Million to The Republic of Burundi, Date: 3/23/2000
• From: President of World Bank, To: Executive Directors, Re: Proposed Amendment to Instrument Establishing BioCarbon Fund, Date: 6/9/14
• From: U.S. Deputy Sec. of Defense, To: Sr. Pentagon Leadership, Re: Implementing Responsible AI in DOD, Date: May 26, 2021
• From: American Council on Education, To: President Joseph Biden, Re: Contributing to COVID-19 Resources, Date: 1/29/21
• From: U.S. Secretary of Defense, To: All Defense employees, Re: Message to the Force, Date: 03/04/21
• From: Legal Services Center of Harvard Law School, To: Sen. Elizabeth Warren, Re: Cancelation of Federal student loan debt, Date: 9/14/20
• From: Governor of New York, Andrew Cuomo, To: CEO of Pfizer, Re: Purchasing vaccines directly from Pfizer, Date: 01/18/21
• From: Acting U.S. Sec. of Defense, To: Dept. of Defense, Re: Goals, Date: 11/16/20
• From: Deputy Secretary of Defense, To: Senior. Pentagon Leaders, Re: Secretary of Defense for Space Policy, Date: 10/29/20
• From: Winston Churchill, To: The War Cabinet, Re: Brevity, Date: 08/09/1940
• From: Executive Director, Economic Research Ctr, Buckeye Institute, To: Ohio's Mental Health Licensing Boards, Re: Policy Solutions for the Pandemic, Date: 05/11/2020
• US City (6)
• Town/County (2)
• Presidential/White House (14)
• Federal (16)
• International (12)

Policy Memo Writing Tips:

Applicants often ask us to provide some guidance in writing a policy memo.  Steve Frakt, the School's writing advisor, has been advising the School's undergraduate and graduate students for the past 17 years.  Steve meets with students one-on-one during his office hours to advise them on their various writing assignments.  Graduate students in our Masters in Public Affairs program are required to take a core course entitled "The Politics of Public Policy" in which special attention is given to writing skills as they apply to the roles of advisers and decision makers in public-sector organizations. 

Below is an excerpt from Steve's policy memo writing guidelines he provides to the graduate students in that course:

Purpose .  A policy memo provides information, guidance or recommendations about an issue or problem to a decision-maker.  It must be well-organized, clearly written and succinct, with a logical connection between the background information, evidence and conclusions/recommendation.  The reader should be able to identify the essential points in a quick scan of the memo (particularly the section headings and topic sentences).

Structure.  The format of a memo should enhance its readability.  It is not written as one lengthy essay. Rather, it is divided into sections, with headings that identify the content or major point of each section.  Each paragraph should begin with a significant point (the “topic sentence”), to be supported or expanded upon in the rest of the paragraph.  Each major point should be the focus of a separate paragraph.  Do not “bury” major themes in the middle of a paragraph.

A typical memo may include the following sections:

• Description and significance of the issue or problem you are examining.
• Evidence of the scope of the issue.
• Factors contributing to the issue or problem.
• Recommendations or conclusions about the issue.
• Counter-arguments against your position.
• Rebuttal to counter-arguments.
• Implementation issues for any recommendations (i.e. political, economic, environmental, technical, etc.). 

Language.  Policy memos require brevity and specificity.  Each sentence must serve to advance your presentation.   Be concise and do not waste words.  Use clear, direct language, free of bureaucratic jargon, pompous language or clichés. Eliminate unnecessary words and avoid repetition.  Write in the active voice, keep sentences relatively short, and minimize the use of adjectives and adverbs.  Avoid vague language and sentences that have no substance or state the obvious.  Also, refrain from dramatic embellishment, hyperbole and emotional rhetoric (you are not writing a political speech or an op-ed article).

What Counts as Relevant Work Experience? Our Master’s degree students come from a wide range of professional backgrounds, primarily in the public and non-profit sectors. Post-graduate work experience can be obtained over time, beginning with summer employment, internship experience, volunteer experience, and professional experience after graduating from college. 

While you are in college, be sure to seek out your institution’s career services office for internship opportunities during the summer and during the semester (if your schedule permits). We do count those experiences as valid work experience, particularly if jobs are relevant to public service or international affairs. For example, some students are able to secure a semester working in Washington, D.C., or with their state or local governments, working on political campaigns, volunteer for their local boys and girls club or tutoring in their communities. Other students find opportunities to volunteer in many capacities while they are studying abroad. 

Upon graduating from college, many students pursue short-term positions with organizations like the Peace Corps and AmeriCorps, or they pursue fellowships opportunities with organizations like Fulbright. These programs offer relevant professional opportunities that demonstrate one’s commitment to public service and also provide prospective applicants with relevant experience abroad. This is another way to highlight major accomplishments and areas of leadership.

These are examples of the type of work experience applicants can pursue during and upon graduating from college to gain a few years of professional work experience before applying to and enrolling in graduate school. What most interests you?

Browse Course Material

Course info.

• Prof. Richard Nielsen

Departments

• Political Science

As Taught In

• International Relations

Learning Resource Types

Introduction to international relations, long policy memo.

This assignment is to write a long policy memo on an international relations topic of your choice. The memo should identify an important international challenge or problem, explain why this challenge is important, identify alternative potential policies, and ultimately advocate for the policy that you believe would be most effective. You should write this memo as an expert on international politics writing to an audience of your choice. For example, if you were writing on a problem like aid implementation or donor fragmentation, you could address your memo to NGO aid workers if that were the most appropriate audience. You may also make recommendations for countries other than the United States. We hope that this memo is a chance for you to more deeply engage the topic in International Relations that is most interesting to you.

The memo should be between 3,000 and 4,000 words, double-spaced (approximately 11–14 pp), not including bibliographical references. Within this range, more words will not necessarily mean a better grade – brevity and precision are best for communicating policy recommendations.

In general, the expectations are the same as for the earlier policy memos. These memos are designed to get you to apply the concepts you are learning in class to real world issues. Memos that regurgitate current events and do not apply key concepts from class will do poorly. Memos that creatively apply concepts from class to propose innovative policies will do well.

You are likely to have to do original research to flesh out the background, the current state of play, and the likelihood of different policy options working. This could include (1) Monitoring press outlets; (2), Looking at official policy statements to understand stated objectives; or (3) Consulting think tank reports, policy articles, and scholarly studies of the salient countries.

See the separate instructions for details about the oral presentation .

The first draft is due at the end of week 11.

The oral presentation is due in section during week 13 and week 14 (if necessary).

The final draft is due at the end of week 14.

• What should the draft look like? Ideally, the draft would be as close to complete as you can make it. This would mean treating the first draft as if it were the final draft, so all the normal standards apply. Pushing as far as you can now has several benefits. First, you get better feedback—it’s difficult to give constructive feedback on an outline. Second, you don’t get redundant feedback…there’s little use in getting criticism on the things that you already knew you were going to fix in a later draft.
• Should I write on a topic that’s “close to home” for me? Probably. We generally find that people write better papers when they are invested in the topic. That investment can come from a variety of sources, but having a personal interest in the topic is perhaps the best. Perhaps you’re concerned that you can’t be objective if it’s a topic you’re invested in. We think it’s very good practice to take a political issue on which you have strong feelings and force yourself to justify your preferred policy in the face of the strongest possible counter-arguments. Don’t worry about bias per se—almost all policy advisors have a bias. There’s a risk with topics that touch you personally because it can be hard to give a fair representation of the “other side’s” arguments, and there’s a temptation to make claims based on emotion rather than evidence. But if you keep these two risks in mind and make sure to avoid them, working on a topic that’s personal to you is best.

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Policy Memo Resources

 A policy memo provides information, guidance or recommendations about an issue or problem to a decision-maker.  It must be well-organized, clearly written and succinct, with a logical connection between the background information, evidence and conclusions/recommendation. 

• USC Libraries - Writing a Policy Memo
• Guide to Writing Effective Policy Memos, MIT OpenCourseWare
• Policy Memo Writing Tips, Woodrow Wilson School
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