essay on mines environment and mineral conservation

Mining and Its Impact on the Environment Essay

Introduction, effects of mining on the environment, copper mining, reference list.

Mining is an economic activity capable of supporting the developmental goals of countries and societies. It also ensures that different metals, petroleum, and coal are available to different consumers or companies. Unfortunately, this practice entails excavation or substantial interference of the natural environment. The negative impacts of mining can be recorded at the global, regional, and local levels. A proper understanding of such implications can make it possible for policymakers and corporations to implement appropriate measures. The purpose of this paper is to describe and discuss the effects of mining on the environment.

Ways Mining Impact on the Environment

Miners use different methods to extract various compounds depending on where they are found. The first common procedure is open cast, whereby people scrap away rocks and other materials on the earth’s surface to expose the targeted products. The second method is underground mining, and it allows workers to get deeper materials and deposits. Both procedures are subdivided further depending on the nature of the targeted minerals and the available resources (Minerals Council of Australia 2019). Despite their striking differences in procedures, the common denominator is that they both tend to have negative impacts on the natural environment.

Firstly, surface mining usually requires that machines and individuals clear forests and vegetation cover. This means that the integrity of the natural land will be obliterated within a short period. Permanent scars will always be left due to this kind of mining. Secondly, the affected land will be exposed to the problem of soil erosion because the topmost soil is loosened. This problem results in flooding, contamination of the following water in rivers, and sedimentation of dams. Thirdly, any form of mining is capable of causing both noise and air pollution (Minerals Council of Australia 2019). The use of heavy machines and blasts explains why this is the case.

Fourthly, other forms of mining result in increased volumes of rocks and soil that are brought to the earth’s surface. Some of them tend to be toxic and capable of polluting water and air. Fifthly, underground mines tend to result in subsidence after collapsing. This means that forests and other materials covering the earth’s surface will be affected. Sixthly, different firms of mining are known to reduce the natural water table. For example, around 500,000,000 cubic meters of water tend to be pumped out of underground mines in Germany annually (Mensah et al., 2015). This is also the same case in other countries across the globe. Seventhly, different mining activities have been observed to produce dangerous greenhouse gases that continue to trigger new problems, including climate change and global warming.

Remediating Mine Sites

The problem of mining by the fact that many people or companies will tend to abandon their sites after the existing minerals are depleted. This malpractice is usually common since it is costly to clean up such areas and minimize their negative impacts on the natural environment. The first strategy for remediating mine sites is that of reclamation. This method entails the removal of both environmental and physical hazards in the region (Motoori, McLellan & Tezuka 2018). This will then be followed by planting diverse plant species. The second approach is the installation of soil cover. When pursuing this method, participants and companies should mimic the original natural setting and consider the drainage patterns. They can also consider the possible or expected land reuse choices.

The third remediation strategy for mine sites entails the use of treatment systems. This method is essential when the identified area is contaminated with metals and acidic materials that pose significant health risks to human beings and aquatic life (Mensah et al., 2015). Those involved can consider the need to construct dams and contain such water. Finally, mining companies can implement powerful cleanup processes and reuse or restore the affected sites. The ultimate objective is to ensure that every ugly site is improved and designed in such a way that it reduces its potential implications on the natural environment. From this analysis, it is evident that the nature of the mining method, the topography of the site, and the anticipated future uses of the region can inform the most appropriate remediation approach. Additionally, the selected method should address the negative impacts on the environment and promote sustainability.

Lessening Impact

Mining is a common practice that continues to meet the demands of the current global economy. With its negative implications, companies and other key stakeholders can identify various initiatives that will minimize every anticipated negative impact. Motoori, McLellan, and Tezuka (2018) encourage mining corporations to diversify their models and consider the importance of recycling existing materials or metals. This approach is sustainable and capable of reducing the dangers of mining. Governments can also formulate and implement powerful policies that compel different companies to engage in desirable practices, minimize pollution, and reduce noise pollution. Such guidelines will make sure that every company remains responsible for remediating their sites. Mensah et al. 2015) also support the introduction of laws that compel organizations to conduct environmental impact assessment analyses before starting their activities. This model will encourage them to identify regions or sites that will have minimal effects on the surrounding population or aquatic life. The concept of green mining has emerged as a powerful technology that is capable of lessening the negative implications of mining. This means that all activities will be sustainable and eventually meet the diverse needs of all stakeholders, including community members. Finally, new laws are essential to compelling companies to shut down and reclaim sites that are no longer in use.

Extraction from the Ore Body

Copper mining is a complex process since it is found in more stable forms, such as oxide and sulfide ores. These elements are obtained after the overburden has been removed. Corporations complete a 3-step process or procedure before obtaining pure copper. This is usually called ore concentration, and it follows these stages: froth flotation, roasting, and leaching (Sikamo, Mwanza & Mweemba 201). During froth flotation, sulfide ores are crushed to form small particles and then mixed with large quantities of water. Ionic collectors are introduced to ensure that CuS becomes hydrophobic in nature. The introduction of frothing agent results in the agitation and aeration of the slurry (Sikamo, Mwanza & Mweemba 2016). This means that the ore containing copper will float to the surface. All tailings will sink to the bottom of the solution. The refined material can then be skimmed and removed.

The next stage is that of roasting, whereby the collected copper is baked. The purpose of this activity is to minimize the quantities of sulfur. Such a procedure results in sulfur dioxide, As, and Sb (Yaras & Arslanoglu 2017). This leaves a fine mixture of copper and other impurities. The next phase of the ore concentration method is that of leaching. Different Compounds are used to solubilize the compound, such as H2SO4 and HCI. The leachate will then be deposited at the bottom and purified.

Smelting is the second stage that experts use to remove copper from its original ore. This approach produces iron and copper sulfides. Exothermic processes are completed to remove SiO2 and FeSiO3 slag (Yaras & Arslanoglu 2017). According to this equation, oxygen is introduced to produce pure copper and sulfur dioxide:

CuO + CuS = Cu(s) + SO2

The final phase is called refinement. The collected Cu is used as anodes and cathodes, whereby they are immersed in H2SO4 and CuSO4. During this process, copper will be deposited on the cathode while the anode will dissolve in the compound. All impurities will settle at the bottom (Sikamo, Mwanza & Mweemba 2016). From this analysis, it is notable that a simple process is considered to collect pure copper from its ore body.

How Copper Mining Impacts the Environment

Copper mining is a complex procedure that requires the completion of several steps if a pure metallic compound is to be obtained. This means that it is capable of presenting complicated impacts on the natural environment. Copper mining can take different forms depending on the location of the identified ores and the policies put in place in the selected country (Yaras & Arslanoglu 2017). Nonetheless, the entire process will have detrimental effects on the surrounding environment. Due to the intensity of operations and involvement of heavy machinery, this process results in land degradation. The affected regions will have huge mine sites that disorient the original integrity of the environment.

Since copper is one of the most valuable metals in the world today due to its key uses, many companies continue to mine it in different countries. This practice has triggered the predicament of deforestation (Sikamo, Mwanza & Mweemba 2016). Additionally, rainwater collects in abandoned mine sites or existing ones, thereby leaking into nearby rivers, boreholes, or aquifers. This means that more people are at risk of being poisoned by this compound.

Air pollution is another common problem that individuals living near copper mines report frequently. This challenge is attributable to the use of heavy blasting materials and machinery. The dust usually contains hazardous chemicals that have negative health impacts on communities and animals. Some of the common ailments observed in most of the affected regions include asthma, silicosis, and tuberculosis (Mensah et al., 2015). This challenge arises from the toxic nature of high levels of copper. These problems explain why companies and stakeholders in the mining industry should implement superior appropriate measures and strategies to overcome them. Such a practice will ensure that they meet the needs of the affected individuals and make it easier for them to pursue their aims.

Copper processing can have significant negative implications on the integrity of the environment. For instance, the procedure is capable of producing tailings and overburden that have the potential to contaminate different surroundings. According to Mensah et al. (2015), some residual copper is left in the environment since around 85 percent of the compound is obtained through the refining process. This means that it will pose health problems to people and aquatic life. Other metals are present in the produced tailings, such as iron and molybdenum. During the separation process, hazardous chemicals and gases will be released, such as sulfur dioxide. This is a hazardous compound that is capable of resulting in acidic rain, thereby increasing the chances of environmental degradation.

There are several examples that explain why copper is capable of causing negative impacts on the natural environment. For example, Queenstown in Tasmania has been recording large volumes of acidic rain (Mensah et al., 2015). This is also the same case for El Teniente Mine in Chile. Recycling and reusing copper can be an evidence-based approach for minimizing these consequences and maintaining the integrity of the environment.

Farmlands that are polluted with this metal compound will have far-reaching impacts on both animals and human beings. This is the case since the absorption of copper in the body can have detrimental health outcomes. This form of poisoning can disorient the normal functions of body organs and put the individual at risk of various conditions. People living in areas that are known to produce copper continue to face these negative impacts (Yaras & Arslanoglu 2017). Such challenges explain why a superior model is needed to overcome this problem and ensure that more people lead high-quality lives and eventually achieve their potential.

The above discussion has identified mining as a major economic activity that supports the performance and integrity of many factories, countries, and companies. However, this practice continues to affect the natural environment and making it incapable of supporting future populations. Mining activities result in deforestation, land obliteration, air pollution, acidic rain, and health hazards. The separation of copper from its parent ore is a procedure that has been observed to result in numerous negative impacts on the environment and human beings. These insights should, therefore, become powerful ideas for encouraging governments and policymakers to implement superior guidelines that will ensure that miners minimize these negativities by remediating sites.

Mensah, AK, Mahiri, IO, Owusu, O, Mireku, OD, Wireko, I & Kissi, EA 2015, ‘Environmental impacts of mining: a study of mining communities in Ghana’, Applied Ecology and Environmental Sciences, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 81-94.

Minerals Council of Australia 2019, Australian minerals , Web.

Motoori, R, McLellan, BC & Tezuka, T 2018, ‘Environmental implications of resource security strategies for critical minerals: a case study of copper in Japan’, Minerals, vol. 8, no. 12, pp. 558-586.

Sikamo, J, Mwanza, A & Mweemba, C 2016, ‘Copper mining in Zambia – history and future’, The Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, vol. 116, no. 1, pp. 491-496.

Yaras, A & Arslanoglu, H 2017, ‘Leaching behaviour of low-grade copper ore in the presence of organic acid’, Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly, vol. 57, no. 3, pp. 319-327.

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Mining and the environment: the biggest conservation projects in mining

As the mining industry becomes more aware of the environmental damage large-scale extractive operations can cause, many are taking steps to reduce the harmfulness of their operations.

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Often, this takes the form of extensive land rehabilitation projects, where companies set out long-term plans to redevelop land after a mine has been exhausted; however, many companies have adopted a more specific approach, engaging in operations to protect individual species of wildlife native to the lands where they mine. Here are five of the biggest conservation projects in mining.

Appalachian Wildlife Center, Kentucky, US

In July this year, biologist David Ledford announced the formation of the Appalachian Wildlife Center, a non-profit organisation that aims to construct a conservation area on former mining land in the US state of Kentucky. The area will cover 12,500 acres, a third of which will consist of plains and grassland built on former mine sites.

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The reclaimed lands will be home to species such as the Rocky Mountain elk, which have lost habitats to mining operations, but will be reintroduced to enable hunting in the region. The elk are estimated to number 11,000 in the state.

The region will also host over 240 species of birds year-round, and Ledford plans to open up parts of the reserve to university researchers to test other rehabilitation options, such as the construction of orchards.

The project has already received $35m in funding from donors and the US Office of Surface Mining and Reclamation Enforcement, as the national government aims to improve on its historically poor performance of mine rehabilitation in the region; according to the Natural Resources Defense Council, by 2010, just 6%-11% of Appalachia’s former mines had been converted into profitable projects.

Construction on the project began in June and Ledford hopes to open the reserve to the public in summer 2020.

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Newmont’s Conservation Framework Agreement, Nevada, US

In September 2017, the Nevada Mining Association gave US mining giant Newmont the Leadership in Conservation Planning award for the company’s commitment to protecting wildlife in the state through its Conservation Framework Agreement (CFA).

The agreement was signed in August 2016, and commits Newmont, and both the state and national government, to conduct land exchanges to offset the environmental damage of mining operations , with a view to protecting sage-grouse habitats in the state.

The CFA covers an area of 1.5 million acres, much of which is home to the birds, which are reported to number fewer than 400,000 in the wild by Defenders of Wildlife. The sage-grouse is also considered near-threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

The CFA was updated in July 2018 to include a conservation credit system to further protect the sage-grouse at Newmont’s West IL Ranch project. The state’s Department of Conservation and Natural Resources describes the system as one “designed as a debit and credit system to mitigate disturbances to the sagebrush ecosystem,” and has resulted in Newmont committing to a new irrigation project at the operation to detoxify meadows that form the sage-grouse’s habitat.

BHP’s Chasing Ghosts programme, Pilbara region, Australia

In August last year, BHP announced its ‘Chasing Ghosts’ initiative to provide artificial habitats to ghost bats, Australia’s largest carnivorous bat, whose habitats had been damaged by the company’s mining operations in the country’s Pilbara region.

The Australian Wildlife Conservancy estimates that there are fewer than 10,000 ghost bats left in the wild, following a “dramatic” decline in population over the last century, but the lack of data on the bats’ population and distribution has impeded previous conservation efforts. Western Australia’s Department of Parks and Wildlife considers the ghost bat a Priority Four species, one that is near-threatened, but “in need of monitoring”.

BHP’s programme used techniques such as faecal analysis to collect more precise data on the bats’ population figures, and technology such as laser mapping to analyse existing ghost bat habitats and inform the construction of artificial roosts.

The project was awarded the state’s Golden Gecko award for Environmental Excellence earlier this month, as the population data collected confirmed the presence of ghost bats in lands mined by BHP, and was the starting point for a collaborative project to manage the bats’ population.

De Beers’ nature reserves, South Africa

De Beers received Wildlife Ranching South Africa’s Biodiversity and Social Responsibility award in June 2016 for the management of four game reserves alongside its mining operations. The company has committed to constructing 45 hectares of conservation land in South Africa for every one hectare used for mine land, an approach that has led to a string of accolades for the company. Ranching South Africa’s award was the fifth given to the company between 2010 and 2016.

The company manages close to 150,000 hectares of conservation land in South Africa, and has backed a number of initiatives to protect local wildlife, including a buffalo breeding project; the establishment of free ranging herds; and the protection of species such as rhinos.

De Beers’ operations are home to over 400 species of mammals and birds, 11 of which are classified as vulnerable, and nine of which are considered endangered. The company has continued to provide conservation services following the 2016 award.

In April, De Beers opened its Rooipoort Nature Reserve in South Africa’s Cape Province to researchers from the University of the Free State, who began work on a giraffe conservation project in the region.

Africa’s wild giraffe population has fallen by around 40% over the last 30 years, and the researchers collected a range of samples from giraffes, including blood, hair and semen, and fitted many with GPS trackers to provide data on the animals’ health and distribution.

Westmoreland Coal and bird populations, Texas, US

North American miner Westmoreland Coal has received a number of awards for its conservation projects in Texas, most recently in May 2013 with the Lone Star Land Steward award from the state’s Parks and Wildlife Department.

The company worked with the state government to develop revisions to Westmoreland’s reclamation guidelines for projects affecting quails and grassland birds, which led to clear increases in Texas’ quail populations.

From 2013-16, the Rolling Plains region saw the mean number of birds identified per route increase from six to 54, according to the Parks and Wildlife Department, and the High Plains reported an increase from three to 35 over the same period.

The state’s Railroad Commission also awarded Westmoreland with its 2013 Reclamation Award for its work on constructing artificial habitats to replace those lost to mining operations. The company claims that the appearance of its “more natural-looking woody species habitats” was a significant contributor to the integration of birds to its artificial habitats.

However, the company’s projects have not been as effective in the long term, and quail populations have declined over recent years. In the High Plains, the population fell from the peak of 35 to 16 in 2018, while in the Rolling Plains the number of quails plummeted to just five in 2018, significantly lower than the 15-year mean of 20.

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Physical Resources: Water, Pollution, and Minerals

Mineral resources: formation, mining, environmental impact, learning objectives.

In this module, the following topics will be covered: 1) the importance of minerals to society; 2) the factors that control availability of mineral resources, 3) the future world mineral supply and demand; 4) the environmental impact of mining and processing of minerals; 5) solutions to the crisis involving mineral supply.

After reading this module, students should be able to

• know the importance of minerals to society
• know factors that control availability of mineral resources
• know why future world mineral supply and demand is an important issue
• understand the environmental impact of mining and processing of minerals
• understand how we can work toward solving the crisis involving mineral supply

Importance of Minerals

Mineral resources are essential to our modern industrial society and they are used everywhere. For example, at breakfast you drink some juice in a glass (made from melted quartz sand), eat from a ceramic plate (created from clay minerals heated at high temperatures), sprinkle salt (halite) on your eggs, use steel utensils (from iron ore and other minerals), read a magazine (coated with up to 50% kaolinite clay to give the glossy look), and answer your cellphone (containing over 40 different minerals including copper, silver, gold, and platinum). We need minerals to make cars, computers, appliances, concrete roads, houses, tractors, fertilizer, electrical transmission lines, and jewelry. Without mineral resources, industry would collapse and living standards would plummet. In 2010, the average person in the U.S. consumed more than16,000 pounds of mineral resources 1 (see Table Per Capita Consumption of Minerals ). With an average life expectancy of 78 years, that translates to about1.3 million pounds of mineral resources over such a person’s lifetime. Here are a few statistics that help to explain these large values of mineral use: an average American house contains about 250,000 pounds of minerals (see Figure Mineral Use in the Kitchen for examples of mineral use in the kitchen), one mile of Interstate highway uses 170 million pounds of earth materials, and the U.S. has nearly 4 million miles of roads. All of these mineral resources are nonrenewable, because nature usually takes hundreds of thousands to millions of years to produce mineral deposits. Early hominids used rocks as simple tools as early as 2.6 million years ago. At least 500,000 years ago prehistoric people used flint (fine-grained quartz) for knives and arrowheads. Other important early uses of minerals include mineral pigments such as manganese oxides and iron oxides for art, salt for food preservation, stone for pyramids, and metals such as bronze (typically tin and copper), which is stronger than pure copper and iron for steel, which is stronger than bronze.

Mineral Resource Principles

A geologist defines a mineral as a naturally occurring inorganic solid with a defined chemical composition and crystal structure (regular arrangement of atoms). Minerals are the ingredients of rock , which is a solid coherent (i.e., will not fall apart) piece of planet Earth. There are three classes of rock, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form by cooling and solidification of hot molten rock called lava or magma. Lava solidifies at the surface after it is ejected by a volcano, and magma cools underground. Sedimentary rocks form by hardening of layers of sediment (loose grains such as sand or mud) deposited at Earth’s surface or by mineral precipitation, i.e., formation of minerals in water from dissolved mineral matter. Metamorphic rocks form when the shape or type of minerals in a preexisting rock changes due to intense heat and pressure deep within the Earth. Ore is rock with an enrichment of minerals that can be mined for profit. Sometimes ore deposits (locations with abundant ore) can be beautiful, such as the giant gypsum crystals at the amazing Cave of the Crystals in Mexico (see Figure Giant Gypsum Crystals ). The enrichment factor , which is the ratio of the metal concentration needed for an economic ore deposit over the average abundance of that metal in Earth’s crust, is listed for several important metals in the Table Enrichment Factor . Mining of some metals, such as aluminum and iron, is profitable at relatively small concentration factors, whereas for others, such as lead and mercury, it is profitable only at very large concentration factors. The metal concentration in ore (column 3 in Table Enrichment Factor ) can also be expressed in terms of the proportion of metal and waste rock produced after processing one metric ton (1,000 kg) of ore. Iron is at one extreme, with up to 690 kg of Fe metal and only 310 kg of waste rock produced from pure iron ore, and gold is at the other extreme with only one gram (.03 troy oz) of Au metal and 999.999 kg of waste rock produced from gold ore.

Giant Gypsum Crystals Giant gypsum crystals in the Cave of Crystals in Naica, Mexico. There are crystals up to 11 m long in this cave, which is located about 1 km underground. Source: National Geographic via Wikipedia

Formation of Ore Deposits

Ore deposits form when minerals are concentrated—sometimes by a factor of many thousands—in rock, usually by one of six major processes. These include the following: (a) igneous crystallization , where molten rock cools to form igneous rock. This process forms building stone such as granite, a variety of gemstones, sulfur ore, and metallic ores, which involve dense chromium or platinum minerals that sink to the bottom of liquid magma. Diamonds form in rare Mg-rich igneous rock called kimberlite that originates as molten rock at 150–200 km depth (where the diamonds form) and later moves very quickly to the surface, where it erupts explosively. The cooled magma forms a narrow, carrot-shaped feature called a pipe. Diamond mines in kimberlite pipes can be relatively narrow but deep (see Figure A Diamond Mine ). (b) Hydrothermal is the most common ore-forming process. It involves hot, salty water that dissolves metallic elements from a large area and then precipitates ore minerals in a smaller area, commonly along rock fractures and faults. Molten rock commonly provides the heat and the water is from groundwater, the ocean, or the magma itself. The ore minerals usually contain sulfide (S 2- ) bonded to metals such as copper, lead, zinc, mercury, and silver. Actively forming hydrothermal ore deposits occur at undersea mountain ranges, called oceanic ridges, where new ocean crust is produced. Here, mineral-rich waters up to 350°C sometimes discharge from cracks in the crust and precipitate a variety of metallic sulfide minerals that make the water appear black; they are called black smokers (see Figure Black Smokers ). (c) Metamorphism occurs deep in the earth under very high temperature and pressure and produces several building stones, including marble and slate, as well as some nonmetallic ore, including asbestos, talc, and graphite. (d) Sedimentary processes occur in rivers that concentrate sand and gravel (used in construction), as well as dense gold particles and diamonds that weathered away from bedrock. These gold and diamond ore bodies are called placer deposits . Other sedimentary ore deposits include the deep ocean floor, which contains manganese and cobalt ore deposits and evaporated lakes or seawater, which produce halite and a variety of other salts. (e) Biological processes involve the action of living organisms and are responsible for the formation of pearls in oysters, as well as phosphorous ore in the feces of birds and the bones and teeth of fish. (f) Weathering in tropical rain forest environments involves soil water that concentrates insoluble elements such as aluminum (bauxite) by dissolving away the soluble elements.

A Diamond Mine Udachnaya Pipe, an open-pit diamond mine in Russia, is more than 600 meters (1,970 ft) deep, making it the third deepest open-pit mine in the world. Source: Stapanov Alexander via Wikimedia Commons

Black Smoker A billowing discharge of superheated mineral-rich water at an oceanic ridge, in the Atlantic Ocean. Black “smoke” is actually from metallic sulfide minerals that form modern ore deposits. Source: P. Rona of U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration via Wikimedia Commons

Mining and Processing Ore

There are two kinds of mineral mines, surface mines and underground mines . The kind of mine used depends on the quality of the ore, i.e., concentration of mineral and its distance from the surface. Surface mines include open-pit mines , which commonly involve large holes that extract relatively low-grade metallic ore (see Figure Open Pit Mine ), strip mines , which extract horizontal layers of ore or rock, and placer mines , where gold or diamonds are extracted from river and beach sediment by scooping up (dredging) the sediment and then separating the ore by density. Large, open-pit mines can create huge piles of rock (called overburden) that was removed to expose the ore as well as huge piles of ore for processing. Underground mines, which are used when relatively high-grade ore is too deep for surface mining, involve a network of tunnels to access and extract the ore. Processing metallic ore (e.g., gold, silver, iron, copper, zinc, nickel, and lead) can involve numerous steps including crushing, grinding with water, physically separating the ore minerals from non-ore minerals often by density, and chemically separating the metal from the ore minerals using methods such as smelting (heating the ore minerals with different chemicals to extract the metal) and leaching (using chemicals to dissolve the metal from a large volume of crushed rock). The fine-grained waste produced from processing ore is called tailings . Slag is the glassy unwanted by-product of smelting ore. Many of the nonmetallic minerals and rocks do not require chemical separation techniques.

Open Pit Mine Bingham Canyon copper mine in Utah, USA. At 4 km wide and 1.2 km deep, it is the world’s deepest open-pit mine. It began operations in 1906. Source: Tim Jarrett via Wikimedia Commons

Mineral Resources and Sustainability Issues

Our heavy dependence on mineral resources presents humanity with some difficult challenges related to sustainability, including how to cope with finite supplies and how to mitigate the enormous environmental impacts of mining and processing ore. As global population growth continues—and perhaps more importantly, as standards of living rise around the world—demand for products made from minerals will increase. In particular, the economies of China, India, Brazil, and a few other countries are growing very quickly, and their demand for critical mineral resources also is accelerating. That means we are depleting our known mineral deposits at an increasing rate, requiring that new deposits be found and put into production. Figure Demand for Nonfuel Minerals Materials shows the large increase in US mineral consumption between 1900 and 2006. Considering that mineral resources are nonrenewable, it is reasonable to ask how long they will last. The Table Strategic Minerals gives a greatly approximated answer to that question for a variety of important and strategic minerals based on the current production and the estimated mineral reserves . Based on this simplified analysis, the estimated life of these important mineral reserves varies from more than 800 to 20 years. It is important to realize that we will not completely run out of any of these minerals but rather the economically viable mineral deposits will be used up. Additional complications arise if only a few countries produce the mineral and they decide not to export it. This situation is looming for rare earth elements, which currently are produced mainly by China, which is threatening to limit exports of these strategic minerals.

Demand for Nonfuel Minerals Materials US mineral consumption from 1900 – 2006, excluding energy-related minerals Source: U.S. Geological Survey

A more complex analysis of future depletions of our mineral supplies predicts that 20 out of 23 minerals studied will likely experience a permanent shortfall in global supply by 2030 where global production is less than global demand ( Clugston, 2010 ). Specifically this study concludes the following: for cadmium, gold, mercury, tellurium, and tungsten—they have already passed their global production peak, their future production only will decline, and it is nearly certain that there will be a permanent global supply shortfall by 2030; for cobalt, lead, molybdenum, platinum group metals, phosphate rock, silver, titanium, and zinc—they are likely at or near their global production peak and there is a very high probability that there will be a permanent global supply shortfall by 2030; for chromium, copper, indium, iron ore, lithium, magnesium compounds, nickel, and phosphate rock—they are expected to reach their global production peak between 2010 and 2030 and there is a high probability that there will be a permanent global supply shortfall by 2030; and for bauxite, rare earth minerals, and tin—they are not expected to reach their global production peak before 2030 and there is a low probability that there will be a permanent global supply shortfall by 2030. It is important to note that these kinds of predictions of future mineral shortages are difficult and controversial. Other scientists disagree with Clugston’s predictions of mineral shortages in the near future. Predictions similar to Clugston were made in the 1970s and they were wrong. It is difficult to know exactly the future demand for minerals and the size of future mineral reserves. The remaining life for specific minerals will decrease if future demand increases. On the other hand, mineral reserves can increase if new mineral deposits are found (increasing the known amount of ore) or if currently unprofitable mineral deposits become profitable ones due to either a mineral price increase or technological improvements that make mining or processing cheaper. Mineral resources , a much larger category than mineral reserves, are the total amount of a mineral that is not necessarily profitable to mine today but that has some sort of economic potential.

Mining and processing ore can have considerable impact on the environment. Surface mines can create enormous pits (see Figure Open Pit Mine ) in the ground as well as large piles of overburden and tailings that need to be reclaimed , i.e., restored to a useful landscape. Since 1977 surface mines in U.S. are required to be reclaimed, and commonly reclamation is relatively well done in this country. Unfortunately, surface mine reclamation is not done everywhere, especially in underdeveloped countries, due to lack of regulations or lax enforcement of regulations. Unreclaimed surface mines and active surface mines can be major sources of water and sediment pollution. Metallic ore minerals (e.g., copper, lead, zinc, mercury, and silver) commonly include abundant sulfide, and many metallic ore deposits contain abundant pyrite (iron sulfide). The sulfide in these minerals oxidizes quickly when exposed to air at the surface producing sulfuric acid, called acid mine drainage . As a result streams, ponds, and soil water contaminated with this drainage can be highly acidic, reaching pH values of zero or less (see Figure Acid Mine Drainage)! The acidic water can leach heavy metals such as nickel, copper, lead, arsenic, aluminum, and manganese from mine tailings and slag. The acidic contaminated water can be highly toxic to the ecosystem. Plants usually will not regrow in such acidic soil water, and therefore soil erosion rates skyrocket due to the persistence of bare, unvegetated surfaces. With a smaller amount of tailings and no overburden, underground mines usually are much easier to reclaim, and they produce much less acid mine drainage. The major environmental problem with underground mining is the hazardous working environment for miners primarily caused by cave-ins and lung disease due to prolonged inhalation of dust particles. Underground cave-ins also can damage the surface from subsidence. Smelting can be a major source of air pollution, especially SO 2 gas. The case history below examines the environmental impact of mining and processing gold ore.

Acid Mine Drainage The water in Rio Tinto River, Spain is highly acidic (pH = ~2) and the orange color is from iron in the water. A location along this river has been mined beginning some 5,000 years ago primarily for copper and more recently for silver and gold. Source: Sean Mack of NASA via Wikimedia Commons

Sustainable Solutions to the Mineral Crisis?

Providing sustainable solutions to the problem of a dwindling supply of a nonrenewable resource such as minerals seems contradictory. Nevertheless, it is extremely important to consider strategies that move towards sustainability even if true sustainability is not possible for most minerals. The general approach towards mineral sustainability should include mineral conservation at the top of the list. We also need to maximize exploration for new mineral resources while at the same time we minimize the environmental impact of mineral mining and processing .

Conservation of mineral resources includes improved efficiency, substitution, and the 3 Rs of sustainability, reduce, reuse, and recycle. Improved efficiency applies to all features of mineral use including mining, processing, and creation of mineral products. Substituting a rare nonrenewable resource with either a more abundant nonrenewable resource or a renewable resource can help. Examples include substituting glass fiber optic cables for copper in telephone wires and wood for aluminum in construction. Reducing global demand for mineral resources will be a challenge, considering projections of continuing population growth and the rapid economic growth of very large countries such as China, India, and Brazil. Historically economic growth is intimately tied to increased mineral consumption, and therefore it will be difficult for those rapidly developing countries to decrease their future demand for minerals. In theory, it should be easier for countries with a high mineral consumption rate such as the U.S. to reduce their demand for minerals but it will take a significant change in mindset to accomplish that. Technology can help some with some avenues to reducing mineral consumption. For example, digital cameras have virtually eliminated the photographic demand for silver, which is used for film development. Using stronger and more durable alloys of steel can translate to fewer construction materials needed. Examples of natural resource reuse include everything at an antique store and yard sale. Recycling can extend the lifetime of mineral reserves, especially metals. Recycling is easiest for pure metals such as copper pipes and aluminum cans, but much harder for alloys (mixtures of metals) and complex manufactured goods, such as computers. Many nonmetals cannot be recycled; examples include road salt and fertilizer. Recycling is easier for a wealthy country because there are more financial resources to use for recycling and more goods to recycle. Additional significant benefits of mineral resource conservation are less pollution and environmental degradation from new mineral mining and processing as well as reductions in energy use and waste production.

Because demand for new minerals will likely increase in the future, we must continue to search for new minerals, even though we probably have already found many of the “easy” targets, i.e., high-grade ore deposits close to the surface and in convenient locations. To find more difficult ore targets, we will need to apply many technologies including geophysical methods (seismic, gravity, magnetic, and electrical measurements, as well as remote sensing, which uses satellite-based measurements of electromagnetic radiation from Earth’s surface), geochemical methods (looking for chemical enrichments in soil, water, air, and plants), and geological information including knowledge of plate tectonics theory. We also may need to consider exploring and mining unconventional areas such as continental margins (submerged edges of continents), the ocean floor (where there are large deposits of manganese ore and other metals in rocks called manganese nodules), and oceanic ridges (undersea mountains that have copper, zinc, and lead ore bodies).

Finally, we need to explore for, mine, and process new minerals while minimizing pollution and other environmental impacts. Regulations and good engineering practices are necessary to ensure adequate mine reclamation and pollution reduction, including acid mine drainage. The emerging field of biotechnology may provide some sustainable solutions to metal extraction. Specific methods include biooxidation (microbial enrichment of metals in a solid phase), bioleaching (microbial dissolution of metals), biosorption (attachment of metals to cells), and genetic engineering of microbes (creating microorganisms specialized in extracting metal from ore).

Review Questions

Name some important ways mineral resources are used. Why are they important to society?

What are the major environmental issues associated with mineral resources?

What should society learn from the case history of gold?

Why is society facing a crisis involving mineral supply and how might we work to solve it?

Clugston, C. (2010) Increasing Global Nonrenewable Natural Resource Scarcity – An Analysis, The Oil Drum. Retrieved from http://www.theoildrum.com/node/6345

Craig J, Vaughan D, and Skinner B (2011) Earth Resources and the Environment (4th ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall, p. 92

• 1 Americans also consumed more than 21,000 pounds of energy resources from the Earth including coal, oil, natural gas, and uranium.
• 2 Economic concentration value for gold comes from Craig, Vaughan, Skinner (2011).
• Sustainability: A Comprehensive Foundation. Authored by : Tom Theis and Jonathan Tomkin, Editors.. Provided by : OpenStax CNX. Located at : http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected] . License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]

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Water in Mining and Environment for Sustainability

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• Published: 24 August 2021
• Volume 40 , pages 815–817, ( 2021 )

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• Nural Kuyucak   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3965-8160 1  

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Acid mine drainage (AMD) at mining sites has caused governments, industries, and research organizations to identify and investigate preventive measures and to develop technologies to manage mining wastes and mine water since the late 1970s. In Canada, a program called Mining Environment Neutral Drainage (MEND) was initiated in 1983 as a consortium of federal and provincial governments, mining associations, industry, and research organizations, with a mandate to develop prevention and control methods and treatment options for AMD. The MEND program raised awareness and created an international interest that included the USA and Australia. Noranda Minerals Inc., one of the largest natural resource companies in Canada at the time, participated in the MEND program by developing AMD control and prevention methods, treatment options, and monitoring strategies. Laboratories were set up at the Noranda Technology Centre (NTC), Pointe Claire, Quebec, to develop chemical, biological, and physical methods to treat AMD. The results were shared through publications and presentations (Kuyucak 1998 ).

Chemical treatment using lime (calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH) 2 ) for neutralization was easily adaptable to different sites, but the resulting waste sludge containing metal hydroxides and gypsum was an issue because of its large volume, requiring long storage times and management. Researchers developed a high-density sludge (HDS) process in the 1960s (Kostenbader and Haines 1970 ). In this process, a portion of sludge would be recycled to the lime slurry and to be used for neutralization process. The resulting sludge from HDS was less voluminous in comparison to the straight neutralization process. The sludge and its formation with different methods were investigated, and its structure was observed at the molecular level (Kuyucak et al. 1991a , b ). The results revealed that crystallization of gypsum (CaSO 4 ) could consolidate the sludge structure by making it chemically more stable and less voluminous. Because of its less viscosity, it was easier and less expensive for pumping, transporting and managing. Based on the new research results, a new HDS process was developed in which the neutralization of the acid water, especially one with high concentrations of sulphate ions, iron and other metals, could be carried out in two stages (Kuyucak and Sheremata 1995 ). Per classic HDS, the acid water is first neutralized to a pH of 4–4.5 with recycled sludge, which provides nuclei for crystallization and ferric iron precipitates and offer adsorption sites to metal ions. In the second step, the partially neutralized and reasonably diluted water was neutralized with a mixture of sludge and lime in the presence of aeration to a desired pH level, usually a pH of 9–9.5, where most cations, such as Fe 2+ , Zn + , and Cu 2+ precipitated, allowing the regulated limits to be met in the separated clear water. A mini-pilot plant was constructed and tested at several Noranda group mining sites (Kuyucak and Payant 1995 ). Based on the successful results, the process was scaled up and commissioned at several mining sites around the world such as: Geco Mattabi Mine, Ontario Canada; Kristineberg, Boliden Minerals, Sweden (Kuyucak et al. 2001a , b ); Falun Stora Mine, Sweden (Kuyucak et al. 2005 ); Apirsa Boliden Minerals, Spain (Kuyucak et al. 1999 ).

In addition, a ferric iron co-precipitation process for the treatment of wastewaters containing molybdenum (Mo), arsenic (As), and selenium (Se) and neutralization with sodium sulphide (Na 2 S), was developed to meet even more stringent limits. More efficient aeration and filtration methods were studied. In collaboration with McGill University, oxidation of ferrous iron (Fe 2+ ) to ferric iron (Fe 3+ ) and other possible options were examined (Kuyucak and Payant 1995 ). Oxidation of Fe 2+ with air at pH > 8, was found to be the most feasible method (Rao et al. 1994 ). Biosorption, ion exchange, and membrane processes were also investigated as potential ways to treat mining waters and AMD (Kuyucak et al. 1989 , Kuyucak 1998 ).

Next, sludge compaction was studied for sludge management. Freeze-thaw was found to be the best option for cold climates and a staged disposal method provided the best results. Ice formation pushes the metal hydroxide and gypsum particles together. After thawing, the melting ice drains, leaving compact particles and a porous sludge texture behind. Staged disposal where two or three disposal plots were alternately used produced a more compact, less voluminous sludge for storage. In addition, possible recovery of metals and gypsum from the sludge was investigated (Rao et al. 1994 ).

The Noranda Technology Centre pioneered the development of processes using sulphide-reducing bacteria (SRB) for treating AMD. Although AMD treatment in wetlands and the role of wetland plants and bacteria were investigated, the prime emphasis was given to the use of SRB. Treating acid water in situ as well as preventing further AMD generation in situ in open pits by SRB were explored and a process was developed (Kuyucak and St-Germain 1994a , b ; Kuyucak et al. 1991c ). In addition to the investigation of engineering parameters, suitable nutrient sources including hay, manure, sawdust, peat, litters, alfalfa, bark, paper pulp, and their mixtures were examined (Kuyucak and St-Germain 1993 ). The required nutrient source had to contain carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus in certain proportions and slowly released. A mixture of sawdust, manure, and hay were selected for scale-up studies. The use of SRB in reactors under controlled conditions using molasses or whey and anoxic limestone drains, aeration and precipitation systems as passive methods for treating seepages, were investigated (Kuyucak and St-Germain 1994c ).

Combinations of biological treatment options with water covers was explored to prevent AMD generation in situ (St-Germain and Kuyucak 1998 ). Later, these biological methods were applied at several mine sites (Kuyucak 2002 ). Treatment of seepage with a passive SRB system was successfully applied by Golder Associates at a site in northern Quebec, Canada, where winter temperatures could be below 40 °C (Kuyucak et al. 2006 ; Kuyucak and Chabot 2010 ). A mixture of sawdust, manure, hay, and lime were used as nutrients. The design was based on an up-gradient, trickling filter principle. The top of the system was covered with a layer of plastic fabric, Styrofoam, and soil for heat insulation and to prevent water infiltration from rain and snow precipitation. One of the factors for the successful implementation was the preparation and conditioning of the nutrients during warm temperatures prior to the start-up of the system.

With the help of funding from the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), Golder Associates investigated the possible use of treated AMD from the Kingsmill Tunnel to supplement the drinking water supply of Lima, Peru (Kuyucak et al. 2003 ). The studies involved site investigation, suitable treatment technology selection, pilot tests, analysis of technical and economic feasibility, potential environmental and social impact, and preliminary design. The quality of treated water was examined by chemical and biological analyses. We found that AMD treated with HDS lime neutralization produced a water quality that was suitable for mixing with the source, which could be sent to the water treatment plant for its distribution as drinking water. Staged sludge disposal was a feasible method for sludge management at the site (Kuyucak et al. 2004 ).

Recycling and reuse of process water could make mining operations more sustainable and minimize adverse effects on the environment by reducing the need for freshwater resources and the amount of discharge to the environment. The presence of thiosalts (reduced sulphide species) in process waters create issues when the water is discharged to water resources. Thiosalts continue to oxidize in the water resource resulting in significant acidification and harming the biological life (Kuyucak et al. 2001a , b ). Lime neutralization with carbonate buffering was found be a viable option to prevent a pH drop in water and a portion of it could be used at some stages of metallurgical processes (Kuyucak and Yaschyshyn 2007 ).

Degradation of cyanide is an important issue for gold and precious metal mining. Chemical, biological, and passive methods have been tried as a remedy at many mine sites. Growing algae in the pits and enhanced oxidation in the tailings ponds were identified to be the most feasible options for the Canadian mining sites, as they allowed the construction of large ponds. The mine water resulting from Noranda’s gold mine located in environmentally sensitive sites required total nitrogen (ammonia (NH 4 − ) and nitrate [NO 3 − ]) levels to be less than 0.5 mg/L at the discharge. The Noranda Technology Centre developed a biological process for treating the mine water, built a pilot system to test the process, and subsequently used it at the site.

Management and treatment of mining waters and AMD to the required water quality limits are essential for the successful operation and responsibly protecting the environment. Several conventional and established methods of treatment are available; nevertheless, research continues to explore other innovative and more feasible alternatives to the existing ones. Reusing and recycling treated mine water back to the mining and metallurgical processes will make the mining a more sustainable industry. The use of treated AMD to supplement to drinking water sources, instead of discharging it to the environment, expands the horizons in the field of mine water management and treatment.

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Acknowledgements

The studies and processes described above were carried out by the author during her employment at Noranda Technology Centre as Group Leader for Treatment Technologies, and Golder Associates Ltd., Ottawa Office, as Senior Engineer and Project Manager. She closely worked with MEND and collaborated on several research projects. This summary aims to provide a Canadian perspective on mine water and AMD management and treatment. She has taken her retirement, but still undertakes some consulting work.

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Kuyucak, N. Water in Mining and Environment for Sustainability. Mine Water Environ 40 , 815–817 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10230-021-00814-x

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Conserving Earth

Earth’s natural resources include air, water, soil, minerals, plants, and animals. Conservation is the practice of caring for these resources so all living things can benefit from them now and in the future.

Biology, Ecology, Earth Science, Geography, Geology, Conservation

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Earth ’s natural resources include air , water , soil , minerals , fuels , plants, and animals. Conservation is the practice of caring for these resources so all living things can benefit from them now and in the future. All the things we need to survive , such as food , water, air, and shelter , come from natural resources. Some of these resources, like small plants, can be replaced quickly after they are used. Others, like large trees, take a long time to replace. These are renewable resources . Other resources, such as fossil fuels , cannot be replaced at all. Once they are used up, they are gone f orever . These are nonrenewable resources . People often waste natural resources. Animals are overhunted . Forests are cleared, exposing land to wind and water damage. Fertile soil is exhausted and lost to erosion because of poor farming practices. Fuel supplies are depleted . Water and air are polluted . If resources are carelessly managed, many will be used up. If used wisely and efficiently , however, renewable resources will last much longer. Through conservation, people can reduce waste and manage natural resources wisely. The population of human beings has grown enormously in the past two centuries. Billions of people use up resources quickly as they eat food, build houses, produce goods, and burn fuel for transportation and electricity . The continuation of life as we know it depends on the careful use of natural resources. The need to conserve resources often conflicts with other needs. For some people, a wooded area may be a good place to put a farm. A timber company may want to harvest the area’s trees for construction materials. A business may want to build a factory or shopping mall on the land. All these needs are valid, but sometimes the plants and animals that live in the area are forgotten. The benefits of development need to be weighed against the harm to animals that may be forced to find new habitats , the depletion of resources we may want in the future (such as water or timber), or damage to resources we use today. Development and conservation can coexist in harmony. When we use the environment in ways that ensure we have resources for the future, it is called sustainable development . There are many different resources we need to conserve in order to live sustainably. Forests A forest is a large area covered with trees grouped so their foliage shades the ground. Every continent except Antarctica has forests, from the evergreen -filled boreal forests of the north to mangrove forests in tropical wetlands . Forests are home to more than two-thirds of all known land species . Tropical rainforests are especially rich in biodiversity . Forests provide habitats for animals and plants. They store carbon , helping reduce global warming . They protect soil by reducing runoff . They add nutrients to the soil through leaf litter . They provide people with lumber and firewood. Deforestation is the process of clearing away forests by cutting them down or burning them. People clear forests to use the wood, or to make way for farming or development. Each year, Earth loses about 14.6 million hectares (36 million acres) of forest to deforestation—an area about the size of the U.S. state of New York. Deforestation destroys wildlife habitats and increases soil erosion. It also releases greenhouse gases into the atmosphere , contributing to global warming. Deforestation accounts for 15 percent of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions. Deforestation also harms the people who rely on forests for their survival, hunting and gathering, harvesting forest products, or using the timber for firewood. About half of all the forests on Earth are in the tropics —an area that circles the globe near the Equator . Although tropical forests cover fewer than 6 percent of the world’s land area, they are home to about 80 percent of the world’s documented species. For example, more than 500 different species of trees live in the forests on the small U.S. island of Puerto Rico in the Caribbean Sea. Tropical forests give us many valuable products, including woods like mahogany and teak , rubber , fruits, nuts, and flowers. Many of the medicines we use today come from plants found only in tropical rainforests. These include quinine , a malaria drug; curare , an anesthetic used in surgery; and rosy periwinkle , which is used to treat certain types of cancer . Sustainable forestry practices are critical for ensuring we have these resources well into the future. One of these practices is leaving some trees to die and decay naturally in the forest. This “ deadwood ” builds up soil. Other sustainable forestry methods include using low-impact logging practices, harvesting with natural regeneration in mind, and avoiding certain logging techniques , such as removing all the high-value trees or all the largest trees from a forest. Trees can also be conserved if consumers recycle . People in China and Mexico, for example, reuse much of their wastepaper, including writing paper, wrapping paper, and cardboard. If half the world’s paper were recycled, much of the worldwide demand for new paper would be fulfilled, saving many of Earth’s trees. We can also replace some wood products with alternatives like bamboo , which is actually a type of grass. Soil Soil is vital to food production. We need high-quality soil to grow the crops that we eat and feed to livestock . Soil is also important to plants that grow in the wild. Many other types of conservation efforts, such as plant conservation and animal conservation, depend on soil conservation. Poor farming methods, such as repeatedly planting the same crop in the same place, called monoculture , deplete nutrients in the soil. Soil erosion by water and wind increases when farmers plow up and down hills. One soil conservation method is called contour strip cropping . Several crops, such as corn, wheat, and clover , are planted in alternating strips across a slope or across the path of the prevailing wind . Different crops, with different root systems and leaves, help slow erosion.

Harvesting all the trees from a large area, a practice called clearcutting , increases the chances of losing productive topsoil to wind and water erosion. Selective harvesting —the practice of removing individual trees or small groups of trees—leaves other trees standing to anchor the soil. Biodiversity Biodiversity is the variety of living things that populate Earth. The products and benefits we get from nature rely on biodiversity. We need a rich mixture of living things to provide foods, building materials, and medicines, as well as to maintain a clean and healthy landscape . When a species becomes extinct , it is lost to the world forever. Scientists estimate that the current rate of extinction is 1,000 times the natural rate. Through hunting, pollution , habitat destruction, and contribution to global warming, people are speeding up the loss of biodiversity at an alarming rate. It’s hard to know how many species are going extinct because the total number of species is unknown. Scientists discover thousands of new species every year. For example, after looking at just 19 trees in Panama, scientists found 1,200 different species of beetles—80 percent of them unknown to science at the time. Based on various estimates of the number of species on Earth, we could be losing anywhere from 200 to 100,000 species each year. We need to protect biodiversity to ensure we have plentiful and varied food sources. This is true even if we don’t eat a species threatened with extinction because something we do eat may depend on that species for survival. Some predators are useful for keeping the populations of other animals at manageable levels. The extinction of a major predator might mean there are more herbivores looking for food in people’s gardens and farms. Biodiversity is important for more than just food. For instance, we use between 50,000 to 70,000 plant species for medicines worldwide. The Great Barrier Reef , a coral reef off the coast of northeastern Australia, contributes about $6 billion to the nation’s economy through commercial fishing , tourism , and other recreational activities. If the coral reef dies, many of the fish, shellfish , marine mammals , and plants will die, too. Some governments have established parks and preserves to protect wildlife and their habitats. They are also working to abolish hunting and fishing practices that may cause the extinction of some species. Fossil Fuels Fossil fuels are fuels produced from the remains of ancient plants and animals. They include coal , petroleum (oil), and natural gas . People rely on fossil fuels to power vehicles like cars and airplanes, to produce electricity, and to cook and provide heat. In addition, many of the products we use today are made from petroleum. These include plastics , synthetic rubber, fabrics like nylon , medicines, cosmetics , waxes, cleaning products, medical devices, and even bubblegum.

Fossil fuels formed over millions of years. Once we use them up, we cannot replace them. Fossil fuels are a nonrenewable resource. We need to conserve fossil fuels so we don’t run out. However, there are other good reasons to limit our fossil fuel use. These fuels pollute the air when they are burned. Burning fossil fuels also releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming. Global warming is changing ecosystems . The oceans are becoming warmer and more acidic , which threatens sea life. Sea levels are rising, posing risks to coastal communities. Many areas are experiencing more droughts , while others suffer from flooding . Scientists are exploring alternatives to fossil fuels. They are trying to produce renewable biofuels to power cars and trucks. They are looking to produce electricity using the sun, wind, water, and geothermal energy — Earth’s natural heat. Everyone can help conserve fossil fuels by using them carefully. Turn off lights and other electronics when you are not using them. Purchase energy-efficient appliances and weatherproof your home. Walk, ride a bike, carpool , and use public transportation whenever possible. Minerals Earth’s supply of raw mineral resources is in danger. Many mineral deposits that have been located and mapped have been depleted. As the ores for minerals like aluminum and iron become harder to find and extract , their prices skyrocket . This makes tools and machinery more expensive to purchase and operate. Many mining methods, such as mountaintop removal mining (MTR) , devastate the environment. They destroy soil, plants, and animal habitats. Many mining methods also pollute water and air, as toxic chemicals leak into the surrounding ecosystem. Conservation efforts in areas like Chile and the Appalachian Mountains in the eastern United States often promote more sustainable mining methods. Less wasteful mining methods and the recycling of materials will help conserve mineral resources. In Japan, for example, car manufacturers recycle many raw materials used in making automobiles. In the United States, nearly one-third of the iron produced comes from recycled automobiles. Electronic devices present a big problem for conservation because technology changes so quickly. For example, consumers typically replace their cell phones every 18 months. Computers, televisions, and mp3 players are other products contributing to “ e-waste .” The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that Americans generated more than three million tons of e-waste in 2007. Electronic products contain minerals as well as petroleum-based plastics. Many of them also contain hazardous materials that can leach out of landfills into the soil and water supply. Many governments are passing laws requiring manufacturers to recycle used electronics. Recycling not only keeps materials out of landfills, but it also reduces the energy used to produce new products. For instance, recycling aluminum saves 90 percent of the energy that would be required to mine new aluminum.

Water Water is a renewable resource. We will not run out of water the way we might run out of fossil fuels. The amount of water on Earth always remains the same. However, most of the planet’s water is unavailable for human use. While more than 70 percent of Earth’s surface is covered by water, only 2.5 percent of it is freshwater . Out of that freshwater, almost 70 percent is permanently frozen in the ice caps covering Antarctica and Greenland. Only about 1 percent of the freshwater on Earth is available for people to use for drinking, bathing, and irrigating crops. People in many regions of the world suffer water shortages . These are caused by depletion of underground water sources known as aquifers , a lack of rainfall due to drought, or pollution of water supplies. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 2.6 billion people lack adequate water sanitation . More than five million people die each year from diseases caused by using polluted water for drinking, cooking, or washing. About one-third of Earth’s population lives in areas that are experiencing water stress . Most of these areas are in developing countries. Polluted water hurts the environment as well as people. For instance, agricultural runoff—the water that runs off of farmland—can contain fertilizers and pesticides . When this water gets into streams , rivers , and oceans, it can harm the organisms that live in or drink from those water sources. People can conserve and protect water supplies in many ways. Individuals can limit water use by fixing leaky faucets, taking shorter showers, planting drought-resistant plants, and buying low-water-use appliances. Governments, businesses, and nonprofit organizations can help developing countries build sanitation facilities. Farmers can change some of their practices to reduce polluted runoff. This includes limiting overgrazing , avoiding over-irrigation, and using alternatives to chemical pesticides whenever possible. Conservation Groups Businesses, international organizations , and some governments are involved in conservation efforts. The United Nations (UN) encourages the creation of national parks around the world. The UN also established World Water Day, an event to raise awareness and promote water conservation. Governments enact laws defining how land should be used and which areas should be set aside as parks and wildlife preserves. Governments also enforce laws designed to protect the environment from pollution, such as requiring factories to install pollution-control devices. Finally, governments often provide incentives for conserving resources, using clean technologies, and recycling used goods. Many international organizations are dedicated to conservation. Members support causes such as saving rain forests, protecting threatened animals, and cleaning up the air. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is an alliance of governments and private groups founded in 1948. The IUCN works to protect wildlife and habitats. In 1980, the group proposed a world conservation strategy . Many governments have used the IUCN model to develop their own conservation plans. In addition, the IUCN monitors the status of endangered wildlife, threatened national parks and preserves, and other environments around the world. Zoos and botanical gardens also work to protect wildlife. Many zoos raise and breed endangered animals to increase their populations. They conduct research and help educate the public about endangered species . For instance, the San Diego Zoo in the U.S. state of California runs a variety of research programs on topics ranging from disease control in amphibians to heart-healthy diets for gorillas. Scientists at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in London, England, work to protect plant life around the world. Kew’s Millennium Seed Bank , for example, works with partners in 54 countries to protect biodiversity through seed collection. Kew researchers are also exploring how DNA technology can help restore damaged habitats. Individuals can do many things to help conserve resources. Turning off lights, repairing leaky faucets, and recycling paper, aluminum cans, glass, and plastic are just a few examples. Riding bikes, walking, carpooling, and using public transportation all help conserve fuel and reduce the amount of pollutants released into the environment. Individuals can plant trees to create homes for birds and squirrels. At grocery stores, people can bring their own reusable bags. And people can carry reusable water bottles and coffee mugs rather than using disposable containers. If each of us would conserve in small ways, the result would be a major conservation effort.

Tree Huggers The Chipko Movement, which is dedicated to saving trees, was started by villagers in Uttar Pradesh, India. Chipko means hold fast or embrace. The villagers flung their arms around trees to keep loggers from cutting them down. The villagers won, and Uttar Pradesh banned the felling of trees in the Himalayan foothills. The movement has since expanded to other parts of India.

Thirsty Food People require about 2 to 4 liters of drinking water each day. However, a day's worth of food requires 2,000 to 5,000 liters of water to produce. It takes more water to produce meat than to produce plant-based foods.

Tiger, Tiger Tigers are dangerous animals, but they have more to fear from us than we have to fear from them. Today there are only about 3,200 tigers living in the wild. Three tiger subspecies the Bali, Caspian, and Javan tigers have gone extinct in the past century. Many organizations are working hard to protect the remaining tigers from illegal hunting and habitat loss.

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Guest Essay

A Dire Threat to a National Wildlife Treasure

By Margaret Renkl

Ms. Renkl is a contributing Opinion writer who covers flora, fauna, politics and culture in the American South.

One of the hardest things to reconcile about living in the American South is how this region of extraordinary natural beauty, this still wild place of irreplaceable biodiversity, is mostly in the hands of politicians who will gladly sell it to the highest bidder. It’s hard to reconcile how even land that’s ostensibly protected is never truly safe . And how state regulators charged with protecting it will often look the other way when the highest bidder violates the state’s own environmental regulations .

An egregious example of this pattern is unfolding in Georgia, where state officials are poised to approve a strip mine on the southeastern edge of the magnificent Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge .

At 407,000 acres, the Okefenokee is the largest ecologically intact blackwater swamp in North America and the largest National Wildlife Refuge east of the Mississippi River. It hosts or shelters a huge range of plant and animal life , including endangered and threatened species. It is a crucial way station for migratory birds. Designated a wetland of international importance under the RAMSAR Convention of 1971, it sequesters an immense amount of carbon in the form of peat .

The proposed mine poses a profound risk to the swamp. Trail Ridge, the site where Twin Pines Minerals will begin operations, is a geological formation that functions as a low earthen dam holding the waters of the Okefenokee in place. The mine would remove the topsoil, dig out the sand pits, separate the titanium from the sand and then return sand and soil to some approximation of their original place. To manage all this, Twin Pines would need to pump 1.4 million gallons of groundwater a day from the aquifer that serves the Okefenokee.

It doesn’t sound too bad, I guess, unless you know that this destroy-extract-replace plan is effectively mountaintop-removal mining transferred to the watery lowlands. There is no restoring an ecosystem after an assault like that. Aquatic plants and animals die off if waterways become clogged with silt. Drinking water can be contaminated by heavy metals. Ancient land formations and the habitats they underpin are lost forever. The living soil is left barren.

As a species, we have never let ecological necessity get in the way of something we think we need from the land. Thing is, we don’t need this mine. Titanium dioxide is used primarily as pigment in a range of products, including paint and toothpaste. It is not difficult to find in less environmentally sensitive areas.

Twin Pines, an Alabama company, claims that its proposed mine would bring hundreds of much-needed jobs to an economically depressed part of the state. It does not say how much income would be lost if the mine depresses tourism to this ethereal place, which each year attracts more than 800,000 visitors who spend some $91.5 million while they’re there. Okefenokee tourism “supports 750 jobs, $79 million in economic output and $11.1 million in annual tax revenue in the area,” notes an analysis by The Conservation Fund .

Even by a purely human measure, in other words, there is no compelling reason for Georgia to allow mining on a fragile ridge of land less than three miles from the Okefenokee Swamp.

By environmental measures, of course, setting up a strip mine anywhere near this wildlife sanctuary should be flat-out illegal. Arguably, it already is. Hydrologists at the National Park Service last year found “ critical shortcomings ” in the model Twin Pines used to demonstrate the safety of its plan — a model that “obfuscates the true impacts from mining on the refuge.”

It’s important to note that this is not a battle between the people of Georgia and some out-of-state environmental organizations that don’t understand the dynamics of rural poverty. The people of Georgia treasure the Okefenokee. When I wrote about this risk to the swamp last year, the first period of public comment was coming to a close, and sentiment was already clear: 69 percent of Georgians supported permanently protecting the swamp from development, and Georgia’s Environmental Protection Division received more than 200,000 public responses opposing the mine .

What the people of Georgia know — which Georgia environmental regulators refuse to acknowledge — is that we should react as fiercely to the idea of a mine on the edge of the Okefenokee as we would to “any action that jeopardizes the integrity of something like Yellowstone or Yosemite or the Grand Canyon,” Bill Sapp, a senior attorney with the Southern Environmental Law Center, told Brady Dennis of The Washington Post . Instead of handing it over to some out-of-state company to profit from, Georgia officials ought to be protecting this swamp with every tool they have at hand.

Nevertheless, on Feb. 9, just days after I wrote an essay about the danger to American wetlands in general and to the Okefenokee in particular, Georgia’s Environmental Protection Division — don’t even get me started on the irony — issued draft permits for the mine.

Here’s another irony for you, courtesy of reporting by The Associated Press’s Russ Bynum : “The draft permits were released barely two weeks after Twin Pines agreed to pay a $20,000 fine ordered by Georgia regulators, who said the company violated state laws while collecting soil samples for its permit application.” To put this sequence of events another way, Georgia’s Environmental Protection Division gave the company a slap on the wrist and then threw it a parade.

How is it even possible that state regulators are on the cusp of approving an unnecessary mine on the boundary of a desperately needed federal wildlife sanctuary? A mine that the state’s own citizens, along with a bipartisan majority of its lawmakers, so vehemently oppose? In a comprehensive report for The Atlanta Journal-Constitution , Drew Kann lays out the role that lobbying efforts and campaign donations — and a devastating rollback of environmental protections during Donald Trump’s presidency — have played in leaving the Okefenokee so vulnerable.

When Georgia regulators issued the draft permits for the mine, they also allowed 60 days for the public to comment. After April 9, the final permits could be issued, and Twin Pines could begin operations. In the meantime, efforts to defeat the mine have shifted into an even higher gear .

The National Park Service has nominated the Okefenokee refuge as a UNESCO World Heritage site , a distinction that, if granted, would bring additional visitors to the area — and additional scrutiny to Georgia’s management of the swamp.

Officials at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service have informed Georgia regulators that the agency is formally asserting federal rights over waters that affect the Okefenokee. “Disruption to the natural flow of groundwater in this interconnected system could have far-reaching consequences for both the refuge and surrounding areas,” wrote Mike Oetker, the acting Southeast regional director of the agency.

A new bill before the Georgia House of Representatives — which the Georgia Conservancy supports — would call a moratorium on new permit applications for mineral mines using the method that Twin Pines plans to use at Trail Ridge. If passed by the House and Senate and signed by Gov. Brian Kemp of Georgia before the end of the legislative session on March 28, the new bill would effectively turn the first phase of the Twin Pines mine into a pilot site, preventing the company from expanding mining operations until scientists have had time to gather data and assess the mine’s impact on the swamp. The House is set to vote on Tuesday.

In a virtual public meeting attended by hundreds of people this month, commenters spoke for three hours in defense of the swamp. (No one spoke in favor of the mine.) “There’s just no sense in risking the national wildlife refuge just to make rich people richer by mining for an extremely nonessential mineral,” one local resident said.

There’s no sense in it at all. To build a mine on the edge of the Okefenokee would be to rob nearby Georgians of safe drinking water, to rob our wild neighbors of one of the few truly wild places we have left and to rob the world of an ecological treasure. The Okefenokee does not belong to Georgia. It belongs to the planet. It belongs to us. And we should all do everything in our power to save it.

To comment on the proposed mine by April 9, email [email protected] or send a letter to the Land Protection Branch, 4244 International Parkway, Atlanta Tradeport Suite 104, Atlanta, GA 30354. It is not necessary to live in Georgia to comment.

Margaret Renkl , a contributing Opinion writer, is the author of the books “ The Comfort of Crows: A Backyard Year, ” “ Graceland, at Last ” and “ Late Migrations .”

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

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MINING IN PALAWAN: EFFECT ON ENVIRONMENT, LIVELIHOOD, EMPLOYMENT AND HEALTH

2021, European Scholar Journal (ESJ)

Mining activities are important in the economic development of any country endowed with mineral resources. This is due to the economic benefits made available to countries involved in the extraction of mineral resources, internal and external. Internally, employment and revenue generation; externally, a substantial foreign exchange is available to such countries. This research work examined the ore extraction and mining operations of the three (3) largest Mining companies in Palawan, Philippines, and their effect on the environment and the people. This research work undertook a thorough and broader outlook into the environmental implications of Mining on the island of Palawan, both negative and positive. The study utilized the descriptive-evaluative research design while using a combination of quantitative and qualitative methodology. A total of one hundred eighty-eight respondents from four different communities in four municipalities in the Southern part of Palawan were contacted for relevant information through questionnaire administration and interviews. A researcher-made questionnaire was formulated to gather data on mining and ore extraction methods employed by different mining firms in the Province of Palawan, their effect on the environment and people. The study is well-aimed to find out whether the mining companies are compliant with the different government regulations. Findings show that the community members were aware that mining companies employed surface mining as their method of mineral extraction, as revealed by a weighted mean of 2.66. Surface mining causes air/noise pollution, water pollution, and siltation of rivers, and land degradation. Mining companies have attempted re-afforestation of the minedout areas (2.57), resettle affected communities and other measures (2.28), provided livelihoods (3.14) and satisfactory crop compensations (2.85), employment, and other benefits (3.22). They also provided development projects, school buildings as well as healthcare facilities. Mining companies are compliant with all the mining regulations set by the government. It has been recommended stringent and rigorous efforts at re-afforestation, resettlement of affected communities, and other measures aimed at restoring back degraded lands to their proximate state after mining activities should be intensified by the mining companies and additional health facilities be built which will particularly be made accessible to non-workers and other neighboring municipalities at very affordable charges.

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Conservation of Mineral Resources – UPSC World Geography Notes

Preserving mineral resources has emerged as a pressing concern in recent times. While these resources play a vital role in fostering economic growth and development, it is imperative to acknowledge their finite and non-renewable nature.

The extraction and utilisation of these resources pose substantial environmental challenges, encompassing habitat degradation, contamination of water and air, and the release of greenhouse gases. The implementation of robust conservation strategies is paramount to achieving sustainable development and mitigating the adverse consequences associated with the utilisation of mineral resources.

Table of Contents

IMPORTANCE OF CONSERVATION OF MINERAL RESOURCES 

The role of mineral resources in economic development is indisputable, given their utilisation across various industries such as construction, transportation, energy, and electronics. 

However, the finite and non-renewable nature of these resources, coupled with the substantial environmental impacts associated with their extraction and use, underscores the necessity for conservation efforts.

The importance of mineral resource conservation is multi-faceted.  

Firstly, the limitation of these resources highlights the potential for economic instability, resource conflicts, and geopolitical tensions upon depletion. Conserving mineral resources becomes a proactive measure to extend their availability and ensure their sustainable utilisation for future generations.

Secondly , the adverse environmental effects stemming from the extraction and use of mineral resources, including habitat destruction, water and air pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions, emphasise the need for a shift towards sustainable practices. Reducing dependence on virgin mineral resources and advocating for the reuse and recycling of existing materials can mitigate these environmental impacts and foster sustainable development.

Thirdly, mineral resource conservation yields substantial economic benefits. It not only reduces production costs but also creates employment opportunities in recycling and reprocessing industries. Moreover, it encourages innovation and the development of alternative materials, contributing to economic diversification and resilience.

In essence, the conservation of mineral resources emerges as a pivotal strategy for sustainable development, offering a pathway to minimise detrimental impacts on the environment and the economy.

STRATEGIES OF MINERAL CONSERVATION

Various conservation strategies can be implemented to advance the sustainable use of mineral resources. These strategies encompass:

1-Recycling and Reusing Mineral Resources:

• Objective: Minimise demand for virgin materials, reduce waste, and conserve energy.
• Implementation: Encourage and invest in recycling programs, promote consumer awareness, and incentivize industries to incorporate recycled materials into their production processes.

2-Efficient Use of Mineral Resources:

• Objective: Enhance efficiency in production and consumption, reducing waste through advanced technologies and processes.
• Implementation: Adopt cutting-edge technologies, such as automation and precision manufacturing, to optimise resource utilisation. Implement sustainable practices that prioritise resource efficiency in various industries.

3-Development of Alternative Materials:

• Objective: Explore and utilise materials that can replace traditional mineral resources.
• Implementation: Invest in research and development to discover and utilize alternative materials, including renewable resources like bamboo and hemp. Embrace innovative materials like graphene and carbon nanotubes to diversify material sources.

4-Reduction of Waste in Mining and Production Processes:

• Objective: Minimise environmental impact and enhance sustainability in mining and production activities.
• Implementation : Integrate advanced technologies in mining operations, such as precision mining and automation, to reduce waste. Implement sustainable practices in production processes, including the use of eco-friendly chemicals and responsible waste disposal methods.

These conservation strategies collectively contribute to the sustainable management of mineral resources, fostering a balance between economic development and environmental preservation. By promoting recycling, optimising resource use, exploring alternative materials, and minimising waste, societies can work towards a more sustainable and responsible approach to mineral resource utilisation.

CHALLENGES IN MINERAL CONSERVATION

Despite the various strategies and policies aimed at promoting mineral resource conservation, several challenges hinder their effective implementation. These challenges include:

1-Economic and Political Interests:

• Challenge: Short-term economic benefits and political interests may prioritise immediate gains from mineral extraction over long-term sustainability.
• Impact: Powerful mining and extraction industries, influenced by profit motives, can shape political decisions that compromise conservation efforts.

2-Lack of Access to Information:

• Challenge: Limited transparency in disclosing information about mining and production practices makes it challenging to monitor and enforce conservation regulations.
• Impact: Without comprehensive data, regulatory bodies and the public face difficulties in holding entities accountable for their impact on mineral resources.

3-Technological Limitations:

• Challenge: Many sustainable production and recycling technologies are still in early development stages and may lack commercial viability or cost-effectiveness.
• Impact: The slow adoption of advanced technologies hinders progress in minimising the environmental footprint of mineral resource extraction and utilisation.

4-Infrastructure and Logistics:

• Challenge: Conservation efforts, particularly in recycling and reusing mineral resources, may require substantial investments in new technologies and infrastructure.
• Impact: The financial and temporal demands of building necessary infrastructure may impede the widespread adoption of conservation practices.

5-Illegal Mining and Extraction:

• Challenge: Illicit mining activities are associated with environmental degradation, social conflict, and human rights abuses.
• Impact: Regulation and monitoring of illegal mining become challenging, contributing to the continued exploitation of mineral resources without adherence to conservation measures.

Addressing these challenges necessitates a multi-faceted approach involving government regulations, industry collaboration, and advancements in technology. Overcoming economic and political interests, improving access to information, advancing sustainable technologies, investing in infrastructure, and combating illegal practices are critical steps toward effective mineral resource conservation.

FAQs – Mineral Resource Conservation

1. why is mineral resource conservation important.

Answer: Mineral resources are crucial for economic development, but they are finite and non-renewable. Conservation ensures sustainable use, preventing economic instability, resource conflicts, and environmental degradation.

2. How do mineral resources contribute to economic development?

Answer: Mineral resources are utilised in construction, transportation, energy, and electronics industries, playing a vital role in economic growth and development.

3. What are the environmental impacts of mineral resource extraction?

Answer: Extraction leads to habitat degradation, water and air pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions, impacting ecosystems. Conservation aims to mitigate these environmental consequences.

4. How does conserving mineral resources benefit the economy?

Answer: Conservation reduces production costs, creates jobs in recycling industries, fosters innovation in alternative materials, and contributes to economic diversification and resilience.

5. What are the key strategies for mineral resource conservation?

Answer: Conservation strategies include recycling and reusing mineral resources, efficient resource use, development of alternative materials, and reducing waste in mining and production processes.

6. How can individuals contribute to mineral resource conservation?

Answer: Individuals can promote recycling, reduce consumption, support sustainable products, and stay informed about conservation practices.

7. What challenges hinder effective mineral resource conservation?

Answer: Challenges include economic and political interests prioritising short-term gains, lack of information transparency, technological limitations, infrastructure demands, and illegal mining activities.

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Minerals, Critical Minerals, and the U.S. Economy (2008)

Chapter: 6 conclusions and recommendations, chapter 6 conclusions and recommendations.

Minerals, or more specifically the mineral products derived from them, are essential to the functioning of modern processes and products. Some minerals are more essential than others, in the sense that they have few if any substitutes capable of providing similar functionality at similar costs.

The availability of these minerals is a function of geologic, technical, environmental and social, political, and economic factors. Some minerals are more prone than others to disruptive restrictions in supply.

It is this combination of importance in use and supply risk, and specifically the potential that an important mineral may be subject to supply restrictions, that motivated this study. The committee was charged to carry out a number of specific tasks identified in Chapter 1 :

Identify the critical minerals and mineral products that are essential for industry and emerging technologies in the domestic economy.

Assess the trends in the sources and production status of these critical minerals and mineral products worldwide.

Examine actual or potential constraints, including but not limited to geologic, technologic, economic, and political issues, on the availability of these minerals and mineral products for domestic applications.

Identify the impacts of disruptions in supply of critical minerals and mineral products on the domestic workforce and economy.

Describe and evaluate the current mineral and mineral product databases and other sources of information available for decision making on mineral policy issues.

Identify types of information and possible research initiatives that will enhance understanding of critical minerals and mineral products in a global context.

Chapters 2 through 5 have examined the various dimensions of the overall task, and each chapter concluded with principal findings. This chapter presents the committee’s principal conclusions, drawing on each previous chapter’s findings, and summarizes the committee’s recommendations following from these conclusions. Throughout its examination of these issues, the committee found it essential to consider minerals, and critical minerals, in the context of a global mineral and material cycle—from mineral ores at the mine to metallic and nonmetallic minerals in potentially recyclable materials and products.

The committee established parameters regarding a mineral’s importance in use and availability (supply risk) to apply the criticality matrix to 11 minerals or mineral groups: copper, gallium, indium, lithium, manganese, niobium, platinum group metals (PGMs), rare earth elements (REs), tantalum, titanium, and vanadium. The committee did not have the time or resources to evaluate all potentially critical minerals. Instead, the committee selected the minerals identified above on the basis of two considerations. First, the set of minerals the committee examined had to illustrate the range of circumstances that the matrix methodology accommodates and considers. For example, in its selection of the minerals examined in this report, the committee considered minerals used in large quantities throughout the economy in traditional applications and others used in limited quantities in a small number of (often emerging) applications, minerals produced largely as by-products, and other minerals for which recycling of scrap is an important source of supply. Second, the set of minerals had to consist of those that, in the professional judgment of committee members, would likely be included in a more comprehensive assessment of all potentially critical minerals. The committee used a combination of quantitative

measures and expert (qualitative) judgment in implementing the matrix methodology.

CONCLUSIONS

Defining criticality.

The committee concludes that all minerals and mineral products could be or could become critical to some degree, depending on their importance and availability —in the sense that the chemical and physical properties they provide are essential to a specific product or use or more broadly, that specific minerals are an essential input for a national priority (for example, national defense) or for an industry, or may be important (or have the potential to become important) to a region or the nation as a whole. Materials derived from minerals are essential to the performance of nearly all products and services we take for granted—cellular telephones, automobiles, home appliances, computers and other electronic products, and aircraft, for example. The degree of a mineral’s importance can vary considerably over time as technologies and the economy evolve and change.

The committee also concludes, however, that more useful from the federal perspective is the concept of a critical mineral as one that is both essential in use and subject to supply restriction . In other words, the key determinants of criticality here are importance in use and availability. Based on these determinants, the committee developed a methodology—a ‘criticality matrix’—for assessing the criticality of specific minerals and identified the information requirements for implementing this methodology. The matrix has two dimensions. The first (vertical axis) represents the degree of importance of a mineral or, equivalently, the impact of a supply restriction. The second dimension (horizontal axis) represents the degree of supply risk or the risk of a supply restriction.

This methodology emphasizes that criticality is a relative concept in that minerals are more or less critical, rather than critical or not critical. At any time, and for any organization or nation, some minerals will be more critical than others. Over time, the criticality of a specific mineral

can and likely will change as production technologies evolve and new products are developed.

Furthermore, the committee concludes that in implementing the methodology to assess criticality, it is important to distinguish among three time or adjustment periods . In the short term (period of a few months to a few years), mineral markets and in turn prices are influenced primarily by unexpected changes in mineral demand, such as the largely unanticipated increase in Chinese mineral demand over the last several years, and by unexpected shortfalls in production due to technical or other problems at existing mines and production facilities. In the short term, from the perspective of a mineral market as a whole, mineral users and producers are constrained by their existing production capacity, and therefore, unexpected changes in demand or supply are reflected largely in inventories held by producers, users, and commodity exchanges.

In the medium term (a few years, but no more than about a decade), markets respond to short-term developments but still in a relatively limited manner; for example, if a mineral’s availability has become restricted, mineral users make any easy substitution for this mineral, and mineral producers bring into production any easy-to-develop, higher-cost sources of the restricted mineral (e.g., higher-cost scrap that previously was not recycled; and higher-cost, known but underdeveloped mineral deposits). In the medium term, mineral users and producers are essentially limited by existing technologies and known primary and secondary mineral resources.

Over the long term (roughly a decade or more), mineral users and producers can respond more significantly to changes in mineral availability through conscious decisions about whether and to what degree to invest in innovative activities in mineral exploration, mine development, mineral processing, product design and manufacturing, and recycling technology and policy.

Understanding Importance in Use or the Impact of a Supply Restriction

Users demand minerals and mineral attributes for the functionality they provide—their chemical and physical properties in specific applications

such as strength, corrosion resistance, electrical conductivity, low density, and so on. As noted at the beginning of this chapter, some minerals are more essential than others in the sense that they have few if any substitutes capable of providing similar functionality at similar costs. The greater the difficulty, expense, or time it takes for material substitution to occur, the more critical a mineral is to a specific application or product—or analogously, the greater is the impact of a supply restriction.

The impact of a specific supply restriction, in other words, depends on the nature of the restriction. A supply restriction can occur in two general forms. First, demand can increase and outstrip existing production capacity (a demand shock). Second, in what normally would be considered a disruption, a material that previously was available becomes unavailable (a supply shock). In either case, it is possible that a mineral or mineral product becomes physically unavailable; in this situation, the product a user makes cannot be manufactured, sold, and then used by the prospective purchaser. More typically, however, a mineral or mineral product remains physically available, but at a higher price. In this situation, supply will be reallocated to those users willing to pay more for a mineral or mineral product and away from lower-valued uses.

The specific impact of a supply restriction will depend on circumstances: Is the mineral physically unavailable, or have prices increased? If prices rise, by how much? How flexible or inflexible is demand (that is, how easy or difficult is it to substitute for the restricted mineral)? Finally, time is important. In the short term, mineral users will be relatively limited in the degree to which they can adjust to physical unavailability or higher prices for a mineral or mineral product. Users are constrained by the flexibility of their production processes that use minerals as inputs. Most production processes are relatively inflexible in the short term. A facility that manufactures aluminum cans, for example, cannot immediately reduce the amount of aluminum it uses per can or convert itself into glass bottle making facility. In the medium term, users have somewhat more flexibility. An aluminum can-making facility might be able to invest in existing technology that uses less aluminum per can than its facility currently requires. Alternatively, it might decide to become a glass bottle-making facility. Over

the long term, users of minerals and mineral products will be relatively most flexible to respond to a supply restriction. There is time for a facility that manufactures aluminum cans to innovate and develop a process for using less aluminum per can than previously.

In any of these adjustment periods, the types of possible effects include impacts on:

Domestic production of minerals and mineral products: there may be opportunities for increased domestic production of the mineral or mineral product whose supply has been restricted (higher-cost but previously uneconomic primary or secondary production).

Domestic users of minerals or mineral products (typically producers of semifabricated products and manufacturers of final products):

Lost production due to lack of availability or higher costs (use will be concentrated in higher-valued uses of a mineral or mineral product);

Higher costs of production, which producers may or may not be able to pass along to consumers;

Slower growth than otherwise in emerging-use industries;

Less employment than otherwise in industries using minerals and mineral products as inputs;

Ultimately lower value added in those sectors using minerals and mineral products, and lower gross domestic product (GDP), although the impact on GDP of a supply disruption for any single mineral or mineral product will be small from the perspective of the national economy;

Higher costs or reduced availability of products related to national defense.

Domestic purchasers of goods containing minerals and mineral products: there may be fewer purchases or more expensive purchases because goods have become more expensive (in either case, purchasers are worse off than previously).

The committee did not attempt to quantify these effects. To do so would have required detailed and separate economic impact analyses for each specific circumstance, and the committee was not constituted with sufficient expertise to carry out this type of quantitative analysis. However, the committee notes that the largest impacts on national employment and GDP would come from supply restrictions on minerals and mineral products used in large quantities; of the minerals the committee examined using its criticality methodology, copper falls into this category, even though copper did not qualify as critical in the committee’s eyes because its supply risk is low. Other minerals that the committee believes would be evaluated similarly include iron ore, aluminum, and aggregates.

Understanding Availability and Supply Risk

Fundamentally, minerals are a primary resource in that we obtain them from the Earth’s crust. At any point in time, however, minerals—or more precisely the mineral products obtained from them—are available as secondary resources through recycling of obsolete or discarded products and materials. Finally, from the perspective of a nation, mineral products are available as tertiary resources embodied in imported products or imported scrap. The U.S. economy obtains minerals and mineral products in all three forms—primary, secondary, and tertiary. Although the United States has been and remains an important producer of primary and secondary minerals, it also relies on imports for a number of primary and tertiary minerals.

For primary production worldwide and in the United States, mineral exploration, mining, and mineral processing are sectors whose fortunes change significantly from year to year because of the strong link between mineral demand and economic growth. In periods of especially strong economic growth, mineral use in general expands more quickly than production capacity, tending to drive up mineral prices, whereas in periods of slower growth or recession, mineral use tends to grow more slowly than production capacity and prices tend to fall. Given the fragility of the balance between demand and supply, mineral prices tend to swing significantly

from one year to another. Since early in this decade, the mineral sector overall has experienced an extended boom (and relatively high mineral prices) due to a number of factors, including unexpectedly large increases in mineral demand in China and some other countries and unexpected interruptions in production at a number of mines due to technical problems and other factors.

The level and location of mine production today depend on the level and location of mineral exploration in the past. The level of exploration tends to follow changes in mineral prices, but usually with a short time lag. The composition of exploration activity varies with mineral prices. In recent years during a period of relatively high mineral prices, exploration by small exploration companies (termed “juniors”) in riskier and more remote locations has increased proportionately more than exploration by larger and more established mining companies. Conversely, when mineral prices fall, exploration by junior companies tends to fall proportionately more than that by larger companies, resulting in relatively less exploration in remote locations and more exploration in proximity to existing mines. The geographic location of exploration and mining also evolves over time. In recent years, relatively more exploration and mining has occurred outside the established areas of Australia, Canada, and the United States.

Turning from primary to secondary production, recycling tends to be concentrated close to semifabrication and metal manufacturing facilities and close to urban centers to take advantage of the creation of scrap when buildings are demolished and products are discarded. As a result, most metal recycling occurs in industrialized economies where the majority of metal use historically has occurred. Nevertheless, a significant amount of recycling occurs in developing economies, where perhaps a larger percentage of the available scrap is actually recycled than in industrialized economies. Given the long-term trend of increasing mineral use and low rates of recycling, recycled materials cannot presently meet a large proportion of demand for most materials. Over time, as products used in developing economies become available for recycling, we can expect scrap flows to increase and the location of recycling to become more geographically diverse than at present.

In considering supply risk and implementing the matrix methodology, as noted above, the committee found it essential to distinguish between short- and medium-term availability of minerals and mineral products, on the one hand, and long-term availability, on the other. In the short and medium term , there may be significant restrictions to supply for at least five reasons. First, demand may increase significantly , and if production already is occurring at close to capacity, then either a mineral may become physically unavailable or, more likely, its price will rise significantly—demand can increase more quickly than production capacity can respond. Second, an increase in demand due to growth in new applications of a mineral may be especially restrictive or disruptive if preexisting uses were small relative to the new use ( thin markets ). Third, supply may be prone to restriction if production is concentrated ; if concentrated in a small number of mines, supply may be prone to restriction if unexpected technical or labor problems occur at a mine; if concentrated in the hands of a small number of companies, supply may be prone to restriction by opportunistic behavior of companies with market power; if concentrated in the hands of a small number of producing countries, supply may be prone to restriction due to political decisions in the producing country. Fourth, if mine production comes predominantly in the form of by-product production , then the output over the short term (and perhaps even longer) may be insensitive to changes in market conditions for the by-product because the output of a by-product is largely a function of market conditions for the main product. Finally, the lack of available old scrap for recycling or of the infrastructure required for recycling makes a market more prone to supply restriction than otherwise.

An additional factor, import dependence, often is cited as an indicator of vulnerable supply and has carried the implication that imported supply may be less secure than domestic supply. The committee concludes that import dependence by itself is not a useful indicator of supply risk . In fact, import reliance may be good for the U.S. economy if an imported mineral has a lower cost than the domestic alternative. Rather, for imports to be vulnerable to supply restriction, some other factor must be present that makes them vulnerable to disruption—for example, supply is concentrated

in one or a small number of exporting nations with high political risk or in a nation with such significant growth in internal demand that formerly exported minerals may be redirected toward internal, domestic use. However, imports may be no less secure than domestic supply if they come from a diverse set of countries or firms or if they represent intracompany transfers within the vertical chain of a firm (for example, imported metal concentrate to be smelted and refined at a company’s domestic processing facilities).

Over the longer term , the availability of minerals and mineral prod ucts is largely a function of investment and the various factors that influ ence the level of investment and its geographic allocation and success. An important investment is that in education and research, and the committee suggests that the long-term availability of minerals and mineral products also requires continued investment in mineral education and research .

Education and research contribute to determining long-term mineral availability for both primary and secondary resources in all of their dimensions. For primary resources, the first important dimension is geologic availability (in what quantities, concentrations, and mineralogical forms does a mineral exist in Earth’s crust?). Education and research of course do not determine whether and in what form a mineral occurs in Earth’s crust; rather education and research determine our knowledge of Earth’s crust. The second determinant is technical availability (does the technology exist to extract and process the element or mineral?). Technical availability depends on investment in technological knowledge. The third determinant is environmental and social availability (can we mine and process minerals such that the consequences of these activities on local communities and on the natural environment are consistent with social preferences and requirements?). Environmental and social availability depends on investment in activities that appeal to social preferences and that develop means for carrying out mining and mineral processing in socially acceptable ways. The fourth determinant is political availability (to what extent do public policies influence mineral supply?). Political availability depends on investment in the design of public policy and on the political decisions governments make that influence the level and location of production. The fifth and

final determinant is economic availability (can we produce minerals and mineral products at prices that users are willing and able to pay?). In some sense, economic availability reflects the combined effects of the other four determinants of availability.

For secondary resources over the longer term, availability depends on four of the same above factors. Technology in the secondary resources sector is far behind that in the primary sector, and many gains are to be had by investing additional engineering time and effort. On the environmental and social front, recycling needs to occur with a greater degree of urgency, and making changes in this area is largely a social challenge. Politically, attention needs to be paid to understanding the national implications of resource scarcity, to providing the funds to better characterize the secondary resource, and to better evaluate opportunities for domestic recovery of secondary materials. Finally, it will be necessary to create economic incentives to make better use of the secondary resources now above the ground and in use, but often more costly to use at present than imported virgin material. Well-designed and competently directed research into improved recycling technologies may prove an effective tool in the reduction of our dependence on imports of critical minerals.

Implementing the Mineral Criticality Matrix

The committee applied its criticality matrix methodology to 11 minerals or mineral families it considered candidates for criticality. The committee acknowledges the existence of numerous other minerals that individuals, industrial sectors, organizations, or government officials might consider critical to their particular needs or requirements now or in the future. At a practical level, the committee did not have the resources for comprehensive analysis of all minerals using its methodology.

In evaluating these minerals or mineral families, the committee took a short- and a medium-term perspective—that is, within the next decade, what are the risks of a supply restriction, and how significant would the impact of restrictions be should they occur? Of the 11 minerals or mineral families the committee examined, those that exhibit the highest degree

of criticality at present are: indium, manganese, niobium, PGMs, and REs . The committee studied PGMs and REs in some depth, while it examined indium, manganese, and niobium in a more limited manner. Each of these minerals has a slightly different story in terms of importance in use (impact of a supply restriction) and availability (supply risk), the two dimensions of criticality.

PGMs—consisting primarily of platinum, palladium, and rhodium—are essential in automotive catalysts. Palladium can partially substitute for platinum in gasoline vehicles. Palladium cannot be substituted for platinum in diesel vehicles. Rhodium has no known substitutes in the control of NO x emissions. PGMs also are essential determinants of product quality in several industrial applications (the production of fertilizers, explosives, and petrochemicals). PGMs are mined almost exclusively in South Africa and Russia, and are typically mined as coproducts. The United States has two small PGM mines and a minor quantity of subeconomic PGM resources. Recycling occurs, primarily of spent automotive catalysts, but this amount is modest relative to annual use. The PGM market is relatively small, with annual worldwide mine production on the order of 200,000 kilograms.

REs are essential, with few if any good substitutes, in automotive catalytic converters, permanent magnets, and phosphors used in medical imaging devices, televisions, and computer monitors. The RE market is fragile because it is small—worldwide mine production in 2006 was on the order of 100,000 metric tons. U.S. manufacturers import REs predominantly from China. Very little recycling occurs. The United States has significant RE resources, but at present these resources are subeconomic.

Indium has no adequate substitutes for flat-panel displays. This use has experienced rapid growth in recent years. Worldwide mine production is small—some 500 metric tons in 2006, largely as a by-product of zinc mining and processing. The indium that U.S. manufacturers use comes primarily from China, Canada, Japan, and Russia. Very little indium is recovered through recycling.

Manganese has no satisfactory substitutes as a hardening element in various types of steel. It is not mined at present in the United States. The

majority of U.S. imports comes in the form of ore from Gabon and South Africa and ferromanganese from South Africa, China, Brazil, and France. U.S. manganese resources are subeconomic. Some manganese is recovered as a part of ferrous and nonferrous scrap recovery; almost none of this recovery is for manganese in particular but rather for the steel or other nonferrous metal of which manganese is a minor element.

Niobium is used in carbon, high-strength low-alloy (HSLA), and stainless steels. It also is used in superalloys for aircraft engines. Where substitution is technically possible, performance is sacrificed. Niobium use in HSLA steels has fallen considerably, but has increased in superalloys. Niobium is not mined in the United States, at least not in any significant quantity. U.S. users import the majority of their niobium from Brazil and to a lesser extent from Canada. The niobium market is small; estimated 2006 mine production was on the order of 60,000 metric tons. Known U.S. resources are very small and subeconomic. Significant recycling of niobium from niobium-containing steels and superalloys occurs; very little of this recycling is targeted at niobium in particular but rather for the steel or superalloy itself.

On the basis of these applications of the methodology, the committee concludes that the criticality matrix methodology is a useful conceptual framework for evaluating a mineral’s criticality in a balanced manner in a variety of circumstances that will be useful for decision makers in the public and private sectors . Decision makers should be prepared to reevaluate a mineral’s criticality whenever one of the underlying determinants of criticality changes or appears likely to change. In the short to medium term, the most likely factors to change are, first of all, demand, which could increase sharply if a new application is developed for a specific mineral and, second, the degree to which a mineral’s production is concentrated in a small number of companies or countries, which in turn might be prone to opportunistic behavior. A more nuanced and quantitative version of the matrix could be established and used as part of the federal program for mineral data collection, analysis, and dissemination.

Assessing Information and Research Needs

In the progress of this study, the committee has frequently compared the constrained scope and depth of information on minerals with the broad scope and great depth of financial information acquired and analyzed by the federal government. The usefulness of this financial information by governments, industries, and many other users suggests that an enhanced information program on minerals could be more broadly and deeply beneficial as well. The mineral information available at present is used widely but is also acknowledged to be considerably less detailed than is desirable. This is particularly the case for mineral information related to other countries, where high-quality data are essential for accurate determinations of criticality for U.S. industries and for the country as a whole.

A large number of government and nongovernmental, international, and domestic organizations collect and disseminate information and databases relevant for decision making on critical minerals and other mineral policy issues for public and private use. The consensus view of private, academic, and federal professionals is that the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Minerals Information Team is the most comprehensive, responsible, and responsive source of mineral information internationally, but that the quantity and depth of its data and analysis have fallen in recent years, due at least in part to reduced or static budgets and associated reductions in staff and data coverage.

In its evaluation of information and research needs, the committee concludes the following:

Decision makers in both the public and the private sectors need continuous, unbiased, and thorough mineral information pro vided through a federally funded system of information collec tion and dissemination.

The effectiveness of a government agency or program is de pendent on the agency’s or program’s autonomy, its level of resources, and its authority to enforce data collection. In the committee’s view, federal information gathering for minerals at

present does not have sufficient authority and autonomy to ap propriately carry out data collection, dissemination, and analy sis. In particular, the committee concludes that USGS Minerals Information Team activities are less robust than they might be, in part because it does not have status as a “principal” statistical agency.

More complete information needs to be collected, and more re search needs to be conducted, on the full mineral life cycle. The committee includes its specific recommendations in the following section. A common theme in these recommendations is the value of an investment in material flow accounting to better quantify stocks, flows, and uncertainty for primary, secondary, and tertiary resources.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Recognizing the dynamic nature of mineral supply and demand and of criticality, and in light of the conclusions above, the committee makes the following recommendations:

The federal government should enhance the types of data and infor mation it collects, disseminates, and analyzes on minerals and mineral products, especially as these data and information relate to minerals and mineral products that are or may become critical.

In particular, more attention than at present needs to be given to those areas of the mineral life cycle that are underrepresented in current information-gathering activities, including: reserves and subeconomic resources; by-product and coproduct primary production; stocks and flows of secondary material available for recycling; in-use stocks; material flows; international trade, especially of metals and mineral products embodied in imported and exported products; and related information deemed appropriate and necessary. Enhanced mineral analysis should include periodic assessment of mineral criticality over a wider range of minerals and in

greater depth than was possible for this committee to undertake, using the committee’s methodology or some other suitable method.

The federal government should continue to carry out the neces sary function of collecting, disseminating, and analyzing mineral data and information. The USGS Minerals Information Team, or whatever federal unit might later be assigned these responsibilities, should have greater authority and autonomy than at present. It also should have suf ficient resources to carry out its mandate, which would be broader than the Minerals Information Team’s current mandate if the committee’s recommendations are adopted. It should establish formal mechanisms for communicating with users, government and nongovernmental or ganizations or institutes, and the private sector on the types and quality of data and information it collects, disseminates, and analyzes. It should be organized to have the flexibility to collect, disseminate, and analyze additional, nonbasic data and information, in consultation with users, as specific minerals and mineral products become relatively more critical over time (and vice versa).

The Energy Information Administration provides a potential model for such an agency or administrative unit. The federal government should consider whether a comparable mineral information administration would have status as a principal statistical agency and, if not, what other procedures should be investigated and implemented to give an agency with the mandate to collect mineral data and information greater autonomy and authority, as well as sufficient resources to carry out its mandate. In the globalized mineral market, it is essential that the United States has a central authority through which to conduct outreach and exchange programs on mineral data with international counterparts and to collect and harmonize data from international sources. Combined U.S. government and foreign government efforts are likely to provide the most accurate, uniform, and complete data sets of this information over time and thereby provide adequate information to all communities concerned about future global mineral or material supply and demand trends.

Federal agencies, including the National Science Foundation, De partment of the Interior (including the USGS), Department of Defense, Department of Energy, and Department of Commerce, should develop and fund activities, including basic science and policy research, to en courage U.S. innovation in the areas of critical minerals and materials and to enhance understanding of global mineral availability and use.

Without renewed federal commitment to innovative mineral research and education, it is doubtful whether the recommended activities regarding mineral information will be sufficient for the nation to successfully anticipate and respond to possible short- to long-term restrictions in mineral markets.

The committee recommends the following additional initiatives in this regard:

Funded support for scientific, technical, and social scientific research focusing on the entire mineral life cycle, especially those specific areas identified in Recommendation 1; and

Cooperative programs involving academic organizations, industry, and government to enhance education and applied research.

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Minerals are part of virtually every product we use. Common examples include copper used in electrical wiring and titanium used to make airplane frames and paint pigments. The Information Age has ushered in a number of new mineral uses in a number of products including cell phones (e.g., tantalum) and liquid crystal displays (e.g., indium). For some minerals, such as the platinum group metals used to make cataytic converters in cars, there is no substitute. If the supply of any given mineral were to become restricted, consumers and sectors of the U.S. economy could be significantly affected. Risks to minerals supplies can include a sudden increase in demand or the possibility that natural ores can be exhausted or become too difficult to extract. Minerals are more vulnerable to supply restrictions if they come from a limited number of mines, mining companies, or nations. Baseline information on minerals is currently collected at the federal level, but no established methodology has existed to identify potentially critical minerals. This book develops such a methodology and suggests an enhanced federal initiative to collect and analyze the additional data needed to support this type of tool.

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Plan, Prepare & Make the Best Career Choices

Conservation of Environment Essay

Air, water, land, sunlight, minerals, plants, and animals are just a few of the many blessings that nature has given us. Our Earth is a place worth living because of all these elements of nature that act as a blessing. Without any of these, life on Earth would not be conceivable. Here are a few essays on the topic ‘Conservation Of Environment’.

100 Words Essay On Conservation Of Environment

200 words essay on conservation of environment, 500 words essay on conservation of environment.

It is important to conserve the environment because if we don’t, the earth will be ruined. The main factor that leads to environmental destruction is the way people use and abuse natural resources. For example, people cut down trees without planting new ones to replace them. They also pollute air and water with harmful chemicals and waste. As a result, animals and plants die, and eventually humans will too. So it’s important for everyone to do their part in conserving the environment. By taking action to conserve our environment, we can protect it for future generations. A healthy environment is essential for humans and other species to thrive.

As the human population continues to grow and expand, it is important to take steps to conserve our environment. There are many factors that lead to environmental destruction. Rapidly increasing population and rapid consumption of resources are two major drivers of environmental degradation. As the world’s population increases, we need more food, water, and energy, which puts a strain on the planet’s resources. In addition, industrialization and economic development often come at the expense of the environment. Pollution from factories and automobiles harms air quality and contributes to climate change.

What Can We Do | The first step in conserving the environment is to reduce our reliance on natural resources. We can do this by using less water, energy and paper. We can also recycle more and waste less. Another important step is to promote sustainable development. This means meeting the needs of present generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. We can do this by using renewable resources, such as solar and wind power, rather than fossil fuels; by using environmentally friendly technologies; and by protecting ecosystems so that they can continue to provide vital services, such as clean air and water, food, and habitat for wildlife.

It is important to conserve the environment because if we don't, the natural resources that we depend on will eventually be depleted. Additionally, pollution and other environmental problems will continue to worsen if we don't take steps to reduce our impact on the planet. Conserving the environment can help to preserve delicate ecosystems, prevent species extinction, and improve air and water quality. It's important to remember that we all have a role to play in protecting our planet.

Fortunately, there are things we can do to help conserve our environment. One way is to reduce our consumption of natural resources. We can do this by using less water, recycling materials instead of throwing them away, and using energy-efficient appliances. Another way to help is to support businesses that are environmentally friendly.

Why We Should We Conserve The Environment

One of the most important reasons to conserve the environment is that it leads to environmental destruction. When we don't conserve the environment, we are putting strain on the very things that we depend on for our survival. This includes air, water, and soil.

We need to be good caretakers of our environment so that it can continue to provide for us. Additionally, conserving the environment helps ensure that future generations will be able to enjoy the same benefits that we do. It's not just about us, it's about preserving our planet for future generations.

Steps To Conserve The Environment

As the world’s population continues to grow, so does the demand on our natural resources. This increased demand often leads to environmental destruction, as we see with deforestation, water pollution and climate change. However, it is possible to conserve our environment, and in doing so we can help protect the planet for future generations. Here are some tips on how you can conserve environment—

Use Less Water | Water is an essential resource, but unfortunately it is often taken for granted. One way to help conserve water is to use less of it when you can. For example, water your plants during the cooler hours of the day to minimise evaporation, and fix any leaks in your home as soon as possible.

Recycle And Reuse | Another way to reduce your impact on the environment is to recycle and reuse materials whenever possible. Instead of throwing away paper, cans or plastic bottles, recycle them. And instead of buying new products made from fresh materials, opt for products that are made from recycled materials.

Drive Less | Transportation emits large amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, contributing to climate change. To help reduce these emissions, try driving less whenever possible. If you live close enough to work or school, walk or ride a bike instead of driving. And when you do drive, carpool or take mass transit when possible.

Save Energy | Home energy use accounts for a large portion of total energy consumption in most countries. So save energy when TVs, lights, fans, electronics, gadgets and even fixtures like water heaters are not in use. Unplug electrical equipment when not in use and only leave the lights on when absolutely necessary.

We should conserve the environment because it is essential for our survival. The factors which lead to environmental destruction are many and varied, but the most important are population growth, poverty, unsustainable resource use, and environmental degradation.

Explore Career Options (By Industry)

• Construction
• Entertainment
• Manufacturing
• Information Technology

Data Administrator

Database professionals use software to store and organise data such as financial information, and customer shipping records. Individuals who opt for a career as data administrators ensure that data is available for users and secured from unauthorised sales. DB administrators may work in various types of industries. It may involve computer systems design, service firms, insurance companies, banks and hospitals.

Bio Medical Engineer

The field of biomedical engineering opens up a universe of expert chances. An Individual in the biomedical engineering career path work in the field of engineering as well as medicine, in order to find out solutions to common problems of the two fields. The biomedical engineering job opportunities are to collaborate with doctors and researchers to develop medical systems, equipment, or devices that can solve clinical problems. Here we will be discussing jobs after biomedical engineering, how to get a job in biomedical engineering, biomedical engineering scope, and salary. 

Ethical Hacker

A career as ethical hacker involves various challenges and provides lucrative opportunities in the digital era where every giant business and startup owns its cyberspace on the world wide web. Individuals in the ethical hacker career path try to find the vulnerabilities in the cyber system to get its authority. If he or she succeeds in it then he or she gets its illegal authority. Individuals in the ethical hacker career path then steal information or delete the file that could affect the business, functioning, or services of the organization.

GIS officer work on various GIS software to conduct a study and gather spatial and non-spatial information. GIS experts update the GIS data and maintain it. The databases include aerial or satellite imagery, latitudinal and longitudinal coordinates, and manually digitized images of maps. In a career as GIS expert, one is responsible for creating online and mobile maps.

Data Analyst

The invention of the database has given fresh breath to the people involved in the data analytics career path. Analysis refers to splitting up a whole into its individual components for individual analysis. Data analysis is a method through which raw data are processed and transformed into information that would be beneficial for user strategic thinking.

Data are collected and examined to respond to questions, evaluate hypotheses or contradict theories. It is a tool for analyzing, transforming, modeling, and arranging data with useful knowledge, to assist in decision-making and methods, encompassing various strategies, and is used in different fields of business, research, and social science.

Geothermal Engineer

Individuals who opt for a career as geothermal engineers are the professionals involved in the processing of geothermal energy. The responsibilities of geothermal engineers may vary depending on the workplace location. Those who work in fields design facilities to process and distribute geothermal energy. They oversee the functioning of machinery used in the field.

Database Architect

If you are intrigued by the programming world and are interested in developing communications networks then a career as database architect may be a good option for you. Data architect roles and responsibilities include building design models for data communication networks. Wide Area Networks (WANs), local area networks (LANs), and intranets are included in the database networks. It is expected that database architects will have in-depth knowledge of a company's business to develop a network to fulfil the requirements of the organisation. Stay tuned as we look at the larger picture and give you more information on what is db architecture, why you should pursue database architecture, what to expect from such a degree and what your job opportunities will be after graduation. Here, we will be discussing how to become a data architect. Students can visit NIT Trichy , IIT Kharagpur , JMI New Delhi . 

Remote Sensing Technician

Individuals who opt for a career as a remote sensing technician possess unique personalities. Remote sensing analysts seem to be rational human beings, they are strong, independent, persistent, sincere, realistic and resourceful. Some of them are analytical as well, which means they are intelligent, introspective and inquisitive. 

Remote sensing scientists use remote sensing technology to support scientists in fields such as community planning, flight planning or the management of natural resources. Analysing data collected from aircraft, satellites or ground-based platforms using statistical analysis software, image analysis software or Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a significant part of their work. Do you want to learn how to become remote sensing technician? There's no need to be concerned; we've devised a simple remote sensing technician career path for you. Scroll through the pages and read.

Budget Analyst

Budget analysis, in a nutshell, entails thoroughly analyzing the details of a financial budget. The budget analysis aims to better understand and manage revenue. Budget analysts assist in the achievement of financial targets, the preservation of profitability, and the pursuit of long-term growth for a business. Budget analysts generally have a bachelor's degree in accounting, finance, economics, or a closely related field. Knowledge of Financial Management is of prime importance in this career.

Underwriter

An underwriter is a person who assesses and evaluates the risk of insurance in his or her field like mortgage, loan, health policy, investment, and so on and so forth. The underwriter career path does involve risks as analysing the risks means finding out if there is a way for the insurance underwriter jobs to recover the money from its clients. If the risk turns out to be too much for the company then in the future it is an underwriter who will be held accountable for it. Therefore, one must carry out his or her job with a lot of attention and diligence.

Finance Executive

Product manager.

A Product Manager is a professional responsible for product planning and marketing. He or she manages the product throughout the Product Life Cycle, gathering and prioritising the product. A product manager job description includes defining the product vision and working closely with team members of other departments to deliver winning products.  

Operations Manager

Individuals in the operations manager jobs are responsible for ensuring the efficiency of each department to acquire its optimal goal. They plan the use of resources and distribution of materials. The operations manager's job description includes managing budgets, negotiating contracts, and performing administrative tasks.

Stock Analyst

Individuals who opt for a career as a stock analyst examine the company's investments makes decisions and keep track of financial securities. The nature of such investments will differ from one business to the next. Individuals in the stock analyst career use data mining to forecast a company's profits and revenues, advise clients on whether to buy or sell, participate in seminars, and discussing financial matters with executives and evaluate annual reports.

A Researcher is a professional who is responsible for collecting data and information by reviewing the literature and conducting experiments and surveys. He or she uses various methodological processes to provide accurate data and information that is utilised by academicians and other industry professionals. Here, we will discuss what is a researcher, the researcher's salary, types of researchers.

Welding Engineer

Welding Engineer Job Description: A Welding Engineer work involves managing welding projects and supervising welding teams. He or she is responsible for reviewing welding procedures, processes and documentation. A career as Welding Engineer involves conducting failure analyses and causes on welding issues. 

Transportation Planner

A career as Transportation Planner requires technical application of science and technology in engineering, particularly the concepts, equipment and technologies involved in the production of products and services. In fields like land use, infrastructure review, ecological standards and street design, he or she considers issues of health, environment and performance. A Transportation Planner assigns resources for implementing and designing programmes. He or she is responsible for assessing needs, preparing plans and forecasts and compliance with regulations.

Environmental Engineer

Individuals who opt for a career as an environmental engineer are construction professionals who utilise the skills and knowledge of biology, soil science, chemistry and the concept of engineering to design and develop projects that serve as solutions to various environmental problems. 

Safety Manager

A Safety Manager is a professional responsible for employee’s safety at work. He or she plans, implements and oversees the company’s employee safety. A Safety Manager ensures compliance and adherence to Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) guidelines.

Conservation Architect

A Conservation Architect is a professional responsible for conserving and restoring buildings or monuments having a historic value. He or she applies techniques to document and stabilise the object’s state without any further damage. A Conservation Architect restores the monuments and heritage buildings to bring them back to their original state.

Structural Engineer

A Structural Engineer designs buildings, bridges, and other related structures. He or she analyzes the structures and makes sure the structures are strong enough to be used by the people. A career as a Structural Engineer requires working in the construction process. It comes under the civil engineering discipline. A Structure Engineer creates structural models with the help of computer-aided design software. 

Highway Engineer

Highway Engineer Job Description:  A Highway Engineer is a civil engineer who specialises in planning and building thousands of miles of roads that support connectivity and allow transportation across the country. He or she ensures that traffic management schemes are effectively planned concerning economic sustainability and successful implementation.

Field Surveyor

Are you searching for a Field Surveyor Job Description? A Field Surveyor is a professional responsible for conducting field surveys for various places or geographical conditions. He or she collects the required data and information as per the instructions given by senior officials. 

Orthotist and Prosthetist

Orthotists and Prosthetists are professionals who provide aid to patients with disabilities. They fix them to artificial limbs (prosthetics) and help them to regain stability. There are times when people lose their limbs in an accident. In some other occasions, they are born without a limb or orthopaedic impairment. Orthotists and prosthetists play a crucial role in their lives with fixing them to assistive devices and provide mobility.

Pathologist

A career in pathology in India is filled with several responsibilities as it is a medical branch and affects human lives. The demand for pathologists has been increasing over the past few years as people are getting more aware of different diseases. Not only that, but an increase in population and lifestyle changes have also contributed to the increase in a pathologist’s demand. The pathology careers provide an extremely huge number of opportunities and if you want to be a part of the medical field you can consider being a pathologist. If you want to know more about a career in pathology in India then continue reading this article.

Veterinary Doctor

Speech therapist, gynaecologist.

Gynaecology can be defined as the study of the female body. The job outlook for gynaecology is excellent since there is evergreen demand for one because of their responsibility of dealing with not only women’s health but also fertility and pregnancy issues. Although most women prefer to have a women obstetrician gynaecologist as their doctor, men also explore a career as a gynaecologist and there are ample amounts of male doctors in the field who are gynaecologists and aid women during delivery and childbirth. 

Audiologist

The audiologist career involves audiology professionals who are responsible to treat hearing loss and proactively preventing the relevant damage. Individuals who opt for a career as an audiologist use various testing strategies with the aim to determine if someone has a normal sensitivity to sounds or not. After the identification of hearing loss, a hearing doctor is required to determine which sections of the hearing are affected, to what extent they are affected, and where the wound causing the hearing loss is found. As soon as the hearing loss is identified, the patients are provided with recommendations for interventions and rehabilitation such as hearing aids, cochlear implants, and appropriate medical referrals. While audiology is a branch of science that studies and researches hearing, balance, and related disorders.

An oncologist is a specialised doctor responsible for providing medical care to patients diagnosed with cancer. He or she uses several therapies to control the cancer and its effect on the human body such as chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radiation therapy and biopsy. An oncologist designs a treatment plan based on a pathology report after diagnosing the type of cancer and where it is spreading inside the body.

Are you searching for an ‘Anatomist job description’? An Anatomist is a research professional who applies the laws of biological science to determine the ability of bodies of various living organisms including animals and humans to regenerate the damaged or destroyed organs. If you want to know what does an anatomist do, then read the entire article, where we will answer all your questions.

For an individual who opts for a career as an actor, the primary responsibility is to completely speak to the character he or she is playing and to persuade the crowd that the character is genuine by connecting with them and bringing them into the story. This applies to significant roles and littler parts, as all roles join to make an effective creation. Here in this article, we will discuss how to become an actor in India, actor exams, actor salary in India, and actor jobs. 

Individuals who opt for a career as acrobats create and direct original routines for themselves, in addition to developing interpretations of existing routines. The work of circus acrobats can be seen in a variety of performance settings, including circus, reality shows, sports events like the Olympics, movies and commercials. Individuals who opt for a career as acrobats must be prepared to face rejections and intermittent periods of work. The creativity of acrobats may extend to other aspects of the performance. For example, acrobats in the circus may work with gym trainers, celebrities or collaborate with other professionals to enhance such performance elements as costume and or maybe at the teaching end of the career.

Video Game Designer

Career as a video game designer is filled with excitement as well as responsibilities. A video game designer is someone who is involved in the process of creating a game from day one. He or she is responsible for fulfilling duties like designing the character of the game, the several levels involved, plot, art and similar other elements. Individuals who opt for a career as a video game designer may also write the codes for the game using different programming languages.

Depending on the video game designer job description and experience they may also have to lead a team and do the early testing of the game in order to suggest changes and find loopholes.

Radio Jockey

Radio Jockey is an exciting, promising career and a great challenge for music lovers. If you are really interested in a career as radio jockey, then it is very important for an RJ to have an automatic, fun, and friendly personality. If you want to get a job done in this field, a strong command of the language and a good voice are always good things. Apart from this, in order to be a good radio jockey, you will also listen to good radio jockeys so that you can understand their style and later make your own by practicing.

A career as radio jockey has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. If you want to know more about a career as radio jockey, and how to become a radio jockey then continue reading the article.

Choreographer

The word “choreography" actually comes from Greek words that mean “dance writing." Individuals who opt for a career as a choreographer create and direct original dances, in addition to developing interpretations of existing dances. A Choreographer dances and utilises his or her creativity in other aspects of dance performance. For example, he or she may work with the music director to select music or collaborate with other famous choreographers to enhance such performance elements as lighting, costume and set design.

Social Media Manager

A career as social media manager involves implementing the company’s or brand’s marketing plan across all social media channels. Social media managers help in building or improving a brand’s or a company’s website traffic, build brand awareness, create and implement marketing and brand strategy. Social media managers are key to important social communication as well.

Photographer

Photography is considered both a science and an art, an artistic means of expression in which the camera replaces the pen. In a career as a photographer, an individual is hired to capture the moments of public and private events, such as press conferences or weddings, or may also work inside a studio, where people go to get their picture clicked. Photography is divided into many streams each generating numerous career opportunities in photography. With the boom in advertising, media, and the fashion industry, photography has emerged as a lucrative and thrilling career option for many Indian youths.

An individual who is pursuing a career as a producer is responsible for managing the business aspects of production. They are involved in each aspect of production from its inception to deception. Famous movie producers review the script, recommend changes and visualise the story. 

They are responsible for overseeing the finance involved in the project and distributing the film for broadcasting on various platforms. A career as a producer is quite fulfilling as well as exhaustive in terms of playing different roles in order for a production to be successful. Famous movie producers are responsible for hiring creative and technical personnel on contract basis.

Copy Writer

In a career as a copywriter, one has to consult with the client and understand the brief well. A career as a copywriter has a lot to offer to deserving candidates. Several new mediums of advertising are opening therefore making it a lucrative career choice. Students can pursue various copywriter courses such as Journalism , Advertising , Marketing Management . Here, we have discussed how to become a freelance copywriter, copywriter career path, how to become a copywriter in India, and copywriting career outlook. 

In a career as a vlogger, one generally works for himself or herself. However, once an individual has gained viewership there are several brands and companies that approach them for paid collaboration. It is one of those fields where an individual can earn well while following his or her passion. 

Ever since internet costs got reduced the viewership for these types of content has increased on a large scale. Therefore, a career as a vlogger has a lot to offer. If you want to know more about the Vlogger eligibility, roles and responsibilities then continue reading the article. 

For publishing books, newspapers, magazines and digital material, editorial and commercial strategies are set by publishers. Individuals in publishing career paths make choices about the markets their businesses will reach and the type of content that their audience will be served. Individuals in book publisher careers collaborate with editorial staff, designers, authors, and freelance contributors who develop and manage the creation of content.

Careers in journalism are filled with excitement as well as responsibilities. One cannot afford to miss out on the details. As it is the small details that provide insights into a story. Depending on those insights a journalist goes about writing a news article. A journalism career can be stressful at times but if you are someone who is passionate about it then it is the right choice for you. If you want to know more about the media field and journalist career then continue reading this article.

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5.6: Mineral Resources- Formation, Mining, Environmental Impact

• Last updated
• Save as PDF
• Page ID 12043

• Heriberto Cabezas
• Georgia College and State University via GALILEO Open Learning Materials

Learning Objectives

After reading this module, students should be able to

• know the importance of minerals to society
• know factors that control availability of mineral resources
• know why future world mineral supply and demand is an important issue
• understand the environmental impact of mining and processing of minerals
• understand how we can work toward solving the crisis involving mineral supply

Importance of Minerals

Mineral resources are essential to our modern industrial society and they are used everywhere. For example, at breakfast you drink some juice in a glass (made from melted quartz sand), eat from a ceramic plate (created from clay minerals heated at high temperatures), sprinkle salt (halite) on your eggs, use steel utensils (from iron ore and other minerals), read a magazine (coated with up to 50% kaolinite clay to give the glossy look), and answer your cellphone (containing over 40 different minerals including copper, silver, gold, and platinum). We need minerals to make cars, computers, appliances, concrete roads, houses, tractors, fertilizer, electrical transmission lines, and jewelry. Without mineral resources, industry would collapse and living standards would plummet. In 2010, the average person in the U.S. consumed more than 16,000 pounds of mineral resources 1 (see Table \(\PageIndex{1}\)). With an average life expectancy of 78 years, that translates to about1.3 million pounds of mineral resources over such a person’s lifetime. Here are a few statistics that help to explain these large values of mineral use: an average American house contains about 250,000 pounds of minerals (see Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) for examples of mineral use in the kitchen), one mile of Interstate highway uses 170 million pounds of earth materials, and the U.S. has nearly 4 million miles of roads. All of these mineral resources are nonrenewable, because nature usually takes hundreds of thousands to millions of years to produce mineral deposits. Early hominids used rocks as simple tools as early as 2.6 million years ago. At least 500,000 years ago prehistoric people used flint (fine-grained quartz) for knives and arrowheads. Other important early uses of minerals include mineral pigments such as manganese oxides and iron oxides for art, salt for food preservation, stone for pyramids, and metals such as bronze (typically tin and copper), which is stronger than pure copper and iron for steel, which is stronger than bronze.

Mineral Resource Principles

A geologist defines a mineral as a naturally occurring inorganic solid with a defined chemical composition and crystal structure (regular arrangement of atoms). Minerals are the ingredients of rock, which is a solid coherent (i.e., will not fall apart) piece of planet Earth. There are three classes of rock, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form by cooling and solidification of hot molten rock called lava or magma. Lava solidifies at the surface after it is ejected by a volcano, and magma cools underground. Sedimentary rocks form by hardening of layers of sediment (loose grains such as sand or mud) deposited at Earth's surface or by mineral precipitation, i.e., formation of minerals in water from dissolved mineral matter. Metamorphic rocks form when the shape or type of minerals in a preexisting rock changes due to intense heat and pressure deep within the Earth. Ore is rock with an enrichment of minerals that can be mined for profit. Sometimes ore deposits (locations with abundant ore) can be beautiful, such as the giant gypsum crystals at the amazing Cave of the Crystals in Mexico (see Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). The enrichment factor, which is the ratio of the metal concentration needed for an economic ore deposit over the average abundance of that metal in Earth’s crust, is listed for several important metals in the Table \(\PageIndex{2}\). Mining of some metals, such as aluminum and iron, is profitable at relatively small concentration factors, whereas for others, such as lead and mercury, it is profitable only at very large concentration factors. The metal concentration in ore (column 3 in Table \(\PageIndex{2}\)) can also be expressed in terms of the proportion of metal and waste rock produced after processing one metric ton (1,000 kg) of ore. Iron is at one extreme, with up to 690 kg of Fe metal and only 310 kg of waste rock produced from pure iron ore, and gold is at the other extreme with only one gram (.03 troy oz) of Au metal and 999.999 kg of waste rock produced from gold ore.

Formation of Ore Deposits

Ore deposits form when minerals are concentrated—sometimes by a factor of many thousands—in rock, usually by one of six major processes. These include the following: (a) igneous crystallization, where molten rock cools to form igneous rock. This process forms building stone such as granite, a variety of gemstones, sulfur ore, and metallic ores, which involve dense chromium or platinum minerals that sink to the bottom of liquid magma. Diamonds form in rare Mg-rich igneous rock called kimberlite that originates as molten rock at 150–200 km depth (where the diamonds form) and later moves very quickly to the surface, where it erupts explosively. The cooled magma forms a narrow, carrot-shaped feature called a pipe. Diamond mines in kimberlite pipes can be relatively narrow but deep (see Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\)). (b) Hydrothermal is the most common ore-forming process. It involves hot, salty water that dissolves metallic elements from a large area and then precipitates ore minerals in a smaller area, commonly along rock fractures and faults. Molten rock commonly provides the heat and the water is from groundwater, the ocean, or the magma itself. The ore minerals usually contain sulfide (S 2- ) bonded to metals such as copper, lead, zinc, mercury, and silver. Actively forming hydrothermal ore deposits occur at undersea mountain ranges, called oceanic ridges, where new ocean crust is produced. Here, mineral-rich waters up to 350°C sometimes discharge from cracks in the crust and precipitate a variety of metallic sulfide minerals that make the water appear black; they are called black smokes (see Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\)). (c) Metamorphism occurs deep in the earth under very high temperature and pressure and produces several building stones, including marble and slate, as well as some nonmetallic ore, including asbestos, talc, and graphite. (d) Sedimentary Processes occur in rivers that concentrate sand and gravel (used in construction), as well as dense gold particles and diamonds that weathered away from bedrock. These gold and diamond ore bodies are called placer deposits. Other sedimentary ore deposits include the deep ocean floor, which contains manganese and cobalt ore deposits and evaporated lakes or seawater, which produce halite and a variety of other salts. (e) Biological Processes involve the action of living organisms and are responsible for the formation of pearls in oysters, as well as phosphorous ore in the feces of birds and the bones and teeth of fish. (f) Weathering in tropical rain forest environments involves soil water that concentrates insoluble elements such as aluminum (bauxite) by dissolving away the soluble elements.

Mining and Processing Ore

There are two kinds of mineral mines, surface mines and underground mines. The kind of mine used depends on the quality of the ore, i.e., concentration of mineral and its distance from the surface. Surface mines include open-pit mines, which commonly involve large holes that extract relatively low-grade metallic ore (see Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\)), strip mines, which extract horizontal layers of ore or rock, and placer mines, where gold or diamonds are extracted from river and beach sediment by scooping up (dredging) the sediment and then separating the ore by density. Large, open-pit mines can create huge piles of rock (called overburden) that was removed to expose the ore as well as huge piles of ore for processing. Underground mines, which are used when relatively high-grade ore is too deep for surface mining, involve a network of tunnels to access and extract the ore. Processing metallic ore (e.g., gold, silver, iron, copper, zinc, nickel, and lead) can involve numerous steps including crushing, grinding with water, physically separating the ore minerals from non-ore minerals often by density, and chemically separating the metal from the ore minerals using methods such as smelting (heating the ore minerals with different chemicals to extract the metal) and leaching (using chemicals to dissolve the metal from a large volume of crushed rock). The fine-grained waste produced from processing ore is called tailings. Slag is the glassy unwanted by-product of smelting ore. Many of the nonmetallic minerals and rocks do not require chemical separation techniques.

Mineral Resources and Sustainability Issues

Our heavy dependence on mineral resources presents humanity with some difficult challenges related to sustainability, including how to cope with finite supplies and how to mitigate the enormous environmental impacts of mining and processing ore. As global population growth continues—and perhaps more importantly, as standards of living rise around the world—demand for products made from minerals will increase. In particular, the economies of China, India, Brazil, and a few other countries are growing very quickly, and their demand for critical mineral resources also is accelerating. That means we are depleting our known mineral deposits at an increasing rate, requiring that new deposits be found and put into production. Figure \(\PageIndex{5}\) shows the large increase in US mineral consumption between 1900 and 2006. Considering that mineral resources are nonrenewable, it is reasonable to ask how long they will last. The Table \(\PageIndex{3}\) gives a greatly approximated answer to that question for a variety of important and strategic minerals based on the current production and the estimated mineral reserves. Based on this simplified analysis, the estimated life of these important mineral reserves varies from more than 800 to 20 years. It is important to realize that we will not completely run out of any of these minerals but rather the economically viable mineral deposits will be used up. Additional complications arise if only a few countries produce the mineral and they decide not to export it. This situation is looming for rare earth elements, which currently are produced mainly by China, which is threatening to limit exports of these strategic minerals.

A more complex analysis of future depletions of our mineral supplies predicts that 20 out of 23 minerals studied will likely experience a permanent shortfall in global supply by 2030 where global production is less than global demand (Clugston, 2010). Specifically this study concludes the following: for cadmium, gold, mercury, tellurium, and tungsten—they have already passed their global production peak, their future production only will decline, and it is nearly certain that there will be a permanent global supply shortfall by 2030; for cobalt, lead, molybdenum, platinum group metals, phosphate rock, silver, titanium, and zinc—they are likely at or near their global production peak and there is a very high probability that there will be a permanent global supply shortfall by 2030; for chromium, copper, indium, iron ore, lithium, magnesium compounds, nickel, and phosphate rock—they are expected to reach their global production peak between 2010 and 2030 and there is a high probability that there will be a permanent global supply shortfall by 2030; and for bauxite, rare earth minerals, and tin—they are not expected to reach their global production peak before 2030 and there is a low probability that there will be a permanent global supply shortfall by 2030. It is important to note that these kinds of predictions of future mineral shortages are difficult and controversial. Other scientists disagree with Clugston’s predictions of mineral shortages in the near future. Predictions similar to Clugston were made in the 1970s and they were wrong. It is difficult to know exactly the future demand for minerals and the size of future mineral reserves. The remaining life for specific minerals will decrease if future demand increases. On the other hand, mineral reserves can increase if new mineral deposits are found (increasing the known amount of ore) or if currently unprofitable mineral deposits become profitable ones due to either a mineral price increase or technological improvements that make mining or processing cheaper. Mineral resources, a much larger category than mineral reserves, are the total amount of a mineral that is not necessarily profitable to mine today but that has some sort of economic potential.

Mining and processing ore can have considerable impact on the environment. Surface mines can create enormous pits (see Figure Open pit mine) in the ground as well as large piles of overburden and tailings that need to be reclaimed, i.e., restored to a useful landscape. Since 1977 surface mines in U.S. are required to be reclaimed, and commonly reclamation is relatively well done in this country. Unfortunately, surface mine reclamation is not done everywhere, especially in underdeveloped countries, due to lack of regulations or lax enforcement of regulations. Unreclaimed surface mines and active surface mines can be major sources of water and sediment pollution. Metallic ore minerals (e.g., copper, lead, zinc, mercury, and silver) commonly include abundant sulfide, and many metallic ore deposits contain abundant pyrite (iron sulfide). The sulfide in these minerals oxidizes quickly when exposed to air at the surface producing sulfuric acid, called acid mine drainage. As a result streams, ponds, and soil water contaminated with this drainage can be highly acidic, reaching pH values of zero or less (see Figure Acid Mine Drainage)! The acidic water can leach heavy metals such as nickel, copper, lead, arsenic, aluminum, and manganese from mine tailings and slag. The acidic contaminated water can be highly toxic to the ecosystem. Plants usually will not regrow in such acidic soil water, and therefore soil erosion rates skyrocket due to the persistence of bare, unvegetated surfaces. With a smaller amount of tailings and no overburden, underground mines usually are much easier to reclaim, and they produce much less acid mine drainage. The major environmental problem with underground mining is the hazardous working environment for miners primarily caused by cave-ins and lung disease due to prolonged inhalation of dust particles. Underground cave-ins also can damage the surface from subsidence. Smelting can be a major source of air pollution, especially SO 2 gas. The case history below examines the environmental impact of mining and processing gold ore.

Sustainable Solutions to the Mineral Crisis?

Providing sustainable solutions to the problem of a dwindling supply of a nonrenewable resource such as minerals seems contradictory. Nevertheless, it is extremely important to consider strategies that move towards sustainability even if true sustainability is not possible for most minerals. The general approach towards mineral sustainability should include mineral conservation at the top of the list. We also need to maximize exploration for new mineral resources while at the same time we minimize the environmental impact of mineral mining and processing .

Conservation of mineral resources includes improved efficiency, substitution, and the 3 Rs of sustainability, reduce, reuse, and recycle. Improved efficiency applies to all features of mineral use including mining, processing, and creation of mineral products. Substituting a rare nonrenewable resource with either a more abundant nonrenewable resource or a renewable resource can help. Examples include substituting glass fiber optic cables for copper in telephone wires and wood for aluminum in construction. Reducing global demand for mineral resources will be a challenge, considering projections of continuing population growth and the rapid economic growth of very large countries such as China, India, and Brazil. Historically economic growth is intimately tied to increased mineral consumption, and therefore it will be difficult for those rapidly developing countries to decrease their future demand for minerals. In theory, it should be easier for countries with a high mineral consumption rate such as the U.S. to reduce their demand for minerals but it will take a significant change in mindset to accomplish that. Technology can help some with some avenues to reducing mineral consumption. For example, digital cameras have virtually eliminated the photographic demand for silver, which is used for film development. Using stronger and more durable alloys of steel can translate to fewer construction materials needed. Examples of natural resource reuse include everything at an antique store and yard sale. Recycling can extend the lifetime of mineral reserves, especially metals. Recycling is easiest for pure metals such as copper pipes and aluminum cans, but much harder for alloys (mixtures of metals) and complex manufactured goods, such as computers. Many nonmetals cannot be recycled; examples include road salt and fertilizer. Recycling is easier for a wealthy country because there are more financial resources to use for recycling and more goods to recycle. Additional significant benefits of mineral resource conservation are less pollution and environmental degradation from new mineral mining and processing as well as reductions in energy use and waste production.

Because demand for new minerals will likely increase in the future, we must continue to search for new minerals, even though we probably have already found many of the “easy” targets, i.e., high-grade ore deposits close to the surface and in convenient locations. To find more difficult ore targets, we will need to apply many technologies including geophysical methods (seismic, gravity, magnetic, and electrical measurements, as well as remote sensing, which uses satellite-based measurements of electromagnetic radiation from Earth’s surface), geochemical methods (looking for chemical enrichments in soil, water, air, and plants), and geological information including knowledge of plate tectonics theory. We also may need to consider exploring and mining unconventional areas such as continental margins (submerged edges of continents), the ocean floor (where there are large deposits of manganese ore and other metals in rocks called manganese nodules), and oceanic ridges (undersea mountains that have copper, zinc, and lead ore bodies).

Finally, we need to explore for, mine, and process new minerals while minimizing pollution and other environmental impacts. Regulations and good engineering practices are necessary to ensure adequate mine reclamation and pollution reduction, including acid mine drainage. The emerging field of biotechnology may provide some sustainable solutions to metal extraction. Specific methods include biooxidation (microbial enrichment of metals in a solid phase), bioleaching (microbial dissolution of metals), biosorption (attachment of metals to cells), and genetic engineering of microbes (creating microorganisms specialized in extracting metal from ore).

Review Questions

• Name some important ways mineral resources are used. Why are they important to society?
• What are the major environmental issues associated with mineral resources?
• What should society learn from the case history of gold?
• Why is society facing a crisis involving mineral supply and how might we work to solve it?

Clugston, C. (2010) Increasing Global Nonrenewable Natural Resource Scarcity - An Analysis, The Oil Drum. Retrieved from http://www.theoildrum.com/node/6345

Craig J, Vaughan D, and Skinner B (2011) Earth Resources and the Environment (4th ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall, p. 92

• Americans also consumed more than 21,000 pounds of energy resources from the Earth including coal, oil, natural gas, and uranium.
• Economic concentration value for gold comes from Craig, Vaughan, Skinner (2011).

JSW Steel celebrates MEMC Week at its mines

Bhubaneswar: The 25th Mines Environment and Mineral Conservation (MEMC) Week was celebrated at four mines of JSW Steel Ltd under the aegis of IBM, Bhubaneswar. The MEMC week inspection was conducted at Jajang iron ore mine, Nuagaon iron ore mine, Ganua iron ore mine and Narayanposhi iron ore mine.

The inspection teams led by the convenors KC Jyotishi, GM (Geology) of Utkal Allumina International Ltd (for Jajang&Nuagaoniron ore mines), Gyana Prakash Mohapatra, DGM of OMC Ltd (for Ganua iron ore mine), Nihar Ranjan Mitra, Sukinda Chromite Mines Manager of Tata Steel Ltd (for Narayanposhi iron ore mine)evaluated all JSW mines.

The team assessed four mines based on their performance in afforestation, waste dump management, top   soil management, reclamation and rehabilitation, management of sub   -grade minerals, and installation and use of ore beneficiation facilities, as well as monitoring and  sustainability.

In order to promote awareness about mine environments and mineral conservation, observance, inspection of mines, and competitions were organized for employees and stakeholders. These activities included various environment awareness programs such as slogan, poster, debate, and essay competitions. These initiatives were aimed at creating awareness and promoting the importance of mine environment and mineral conservation.

JSW Steel senior officials were felicitated during the observation and best workers at mines were also awarded. A cultural program was also hosted at the end of the observation.

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Essay on Minerals

Students are often asked to write an essay on Minerals in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Minerals

Introduction.

Minerals are solid substances found naturally in the earth. They have a definite chemical composition and crystal structure. Minerals are the building blocks of rocks.

Types of Minerals

There are over 3000 known minerals. They are categorized into two types: Macro-minerals and Trace minerals. Macro-minerals are needed in large amounts, like calcium and potassium. Trace minerals are required in smaller amounts, like iron and zinc.

Uses of Minerals

Minerals are vital for our daily life. They are used in construction, manufacturing, and even in our bodies for various functions like bone formation and carrying oxygen in blood.

Conservation

It’s essential to conserve minerals as they are non-renewable resources. Over-exploitation can lead to their depletion, affecting future generations.

250 Words Essay on Minerals

Minerals, the naturally occurring, inorganic substances with a definite chemical composition and ordered internal structure, are indispensable components of our everyday life. Their significance transcends various realms, including economic, environmental, and health sectors.

Classification and Formation

Minerals are classified based on their physical and chemical properties. The process of their formation is a complex interplay of geological activities like erosion, sedimentation, and volcanic eruptions. The formation process significantly influences the mineral’s characteristics, making each type unique.

Economic Importance

Minerals are the backbone of industrial development. They serve as raw materials in industries like construction, manufacturing, and technology. For instance, iron ore is crucial in steel production, while silicon is used in computer chips.

Environmental Implications

While minerals contribute to economic development, their extraction often has environmental implications. Mining activities can lead to habitat destruction, pollution, and climate change. Therefore, sustainable mining practices are imperative to mitigate these impacts.

Health Significance

Minerals also play a vital role in human health. Essential minerals like calcium, potassium, and iron are necessary for various bodily functions, from bone health to oxygen transport.

In conclusion, minerals are integral to our existence, contributing significantly to economic growth, technological advancement, and human health. However, their extraction must be balanced with environmental sustainability to ensure the wellbeing of our planet.

500 Words Essay on Minerals

Introduction to minerals.

Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic substances that exist as solids. They have a defined chemical composition and crystal structure, exhibiting unique physical properties. These substances are integral to the Earth’s structure and vital for human survival, providing necessary nutrients for plants and animals, and raw materials for industries.

Classification of Minerals

Minerals are classified based on their chemical composition into major groups: silicates, carbonates, oxides, sulfates, sulfides, phosphates, and native elements. Silicates, the most abundant group, form the earth’s crust. Carbonates are often part of sedimentary rocks, while oxides include valuable ores like hematite and magnetite.

Formation of Minerals

Minerals form under various geological processes. They originate from magma cooling into igneous rocks, or from sediment accumulation forming sedimentary rocks. Metamorphic rocks bear minerals that form under intense heat and pressure. Minerals also form from hydrothermal fluids rich in dissolved elements, which cool to form mineral-rich deposits.

Minerals and Human Life

Minerals play a critical role in human life. They are essential components of our diet, supplying necessary elements for bodily functions. For instance, calcium from minerals forms our bones and teeth, while iron is vital for blood production. Moreover, minerals are indispensable in industries. We extract metals from mineral ores, use minerals in construction, and harness their unique properties in technology.

Environmental Impact of Mineral Extraction

However, the extraction and use of minerals also pose environmental challenges. Mining activities can lead to deforestation, soil erosion, and water pollution. Additionally, the processing of mineral ores releases greenhouse gases, contributing to climate change. Therefore, sustainable mining practices and efficient use of minerals are vital for environmental conservation.

Conclusion: The Future of Minerals

The future of minerals lies in sustainable practices and innovative technologies. As resources deplete, recycling and substitution will become increasingly important. Simultaneously, advancements in technology can lead to the discovery of new mineral deposits and more efficient extraction methods. It is crucial to strike a balance between our dependence on minerals and the need to preserve the environment, ensuring that future generations can also benefit from these invaluable resources.

In conclusion, minerals are more than just inanimate objects; they are the lifeblood of the Earth, supporting diverse ecosystems and human civilization. Their study and understanding are not only fascinating but also essential for our survival and progress.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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Conservation of Mineral Resources

Conservation of Mineral Resources: Mineral resources are being depleted at an alarming rate, even though they take millions of years to generate and concentrate. Mineral resources are limited and cannot be replenished. Continued ore extraction leads to rising prices as minerals are extracted from higher depths with deteriorating quality.  The mineral resources are depleting day by day because of the ever-increasing population and their demands. The exploration, mining, and subsequent processing of these minerals into usable products not only takes a toll on the environment but also causes a lot of pollution. Hence, it has become extremely important to conserve our mineral resources. In this blog post, we will discuss some ways in which this can be done.

What are Mineral Resources?

Conservation of Minerals

Mineral resources are essentially non-renewable, meaning once they are used they cannot be replaced. This is why it is so important to conserve these resources. Some ways to conserve mineral resources include:

• Recycling: One of the most effective ways to conserve mineral resources is to recycle them. This can be done with metals, glass, and other materials.
• Reuse: Another way to conserve mineral resources is to reuse them. This can be done by using products made from recycled materials, or by using products that can be reused multiple times.
• Reduce consumption: One of the best ways to conserve mineral resources is to simply reduce consumption. This can be done by using less water, electricity, and other resources.

Benefits of Conserving Mineral Resources

It is important to conserve mineral resources in order to ensure that they will be available for future generations. Mining can have a negative impact on the environment, so it is important to consider the long-term effects of our actions. There are many reasons to conserve mineral resources. By doing so, we can help protect the environment and reduce the amount of pollution that is produced by mining operations. Additionally, conserving these resources can help to ensure that they will be available for future generations to use.

There are a number of ways to conserve mineral resources. One way is to reduce the demand for them through efficient use and recycling. Another way is to find ways to extract minerals without damaging the environment. For example, some companies are now using green mining methods which don’t require the use of chemicals or other harmful substances. We all need to do our part in conserving mineral resources. By working together, we can help make sure that these vital resources will be around for years to come.

Process of Mining Minerals

The process of mining minerals is essential to the conservation of these natural resources. Without mining, minerals would be lost forever. The process begins with prospecting and exploration, which are used to identify potential mineral deposits. Once a deposit is found, mining can begin. Mining is the process of extracting minerals from the earth. There are several different methods of mining, including open-pit mining, underground mining, and placer mining. Each method has its own set of benefits and drawbacks.

Open-pit mining is the most common type of mining. It involves using large machines to remove minerals from the ground. This method is used for large deposits, such as copper and gold mines. Underground mining is used for smaller deposits that are too deep to mine using open-pit methods. It involves digging tunnels or shafts into the earth to reach the mineral deposit. This method can be dangerous, as it can cause cave-ins or explosions. Placer mining is a type of surface mining that is used to extract gold from riverbeds or beaches. It involves using a pan or other device to separate gold from sand and gravel. This method is often used in areas where there is not enough water for traditional methods of gold extraction, such as open-pit or underground mining.

Metallic Minerals 

Metallic minerals have one or more metals in them. Iron, copper, gold, bauxite, and manganese are examples of minerals that occur as mineral deposits and are great conductors of heat and electricity. 

Ferrous Minerals

Ferrous minerals account for almost three-fourths of the overall value of metallic mineral output.

• Iron Ore: Iron ore deposits are quite rich in India. Magnetite is the purest iron ore, having a high iron concentration of up to 70%. It possesses exceptional magnetic properties. The most significant industrial iron ore is hematite ore. It contains between 50 and 60 percent iron.  Some of the major iron ore belts in India are:
• Manganese : It is primarily utilized in the production of steel and ferromanganese alloys. One tonne of steel requires around ten kilograms of manganese. It’s also used to make bleaching powder, pesticides, and paints. 

Non-ferrous Minerals

Copper, bauxite, lead, zinc, and gold are examples of nonferrous minerals. These minerals are essential in a variety of metallurgical, engineering, and electrical applications.

•  Copper: Malleable, ductile, and excellent heat and electrical conductor. Electrical cables, electronics, and chemical industries are the primary applications for this material. Copper is produced in large quantities in the Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh, the Khetri mines in Rajasthan, and the Singhbhum area of Jharkhand. 
•  Bauxite: Bauxite deposits arise as a result of the breakdown of a wide range of rocks rich in aluminum silicates. Bauxite is the source of aluminum. Aluminum has high conductivity and is quite malleable. Deposits are mostly found in the Amarkantak plateau, the Maikal hills, and the Bilaspur-Katni plateau region. 

  Non-metals are minerals (non-metallic minerals) that are rarely utilized as raw materials in the extraction of metals. Non-metals, which are present in a broad variety of minerals, are commercially significant. Non-metallic minerals have no luster or glimmer. Minerals that are not metallic are good electrical and thermal insulators.

• Mica: Mica is a mineral composed of plates or leaves. It is available in clear, black, green, red, yellow, and brown. Mica is a vital material in the electrical and electronic industries. It possesses great dielectric strength, a low power loss factor, insulating qualities, and high voltage resistance. Mica deposits may be found on the Chota Nagpur plateau’s northern border. 
• Rock Minerals: Limestone can be found in rocks made up of calcium carbonates or calcium and magnesium carbonates. It is the primary raw material used in the cement industry and is required for the blast furnace to smelt iron ore.

Conservation of Minerals 

The importance of minerals in the economy and in daily life may be seen in the fact that the substances and objects made from them have become an integral part of human life. Minerals are also frequently used in industry and agriculture, either directly or indirectly. Because of the nature of minerals, their scarcity, and rising demand, human civilization is being forced to discover solutions to conserve minerals.

They are non-renewable and dispersed unevenly. We have a very limited amount of mineral resources accessible to us. It accounts for only 1% of the earth’s crust. Minerals are nonrenewable, and we are fast depleting them. If it becomes depleted, it may take millions of years to reform or it may never reform. Ore extraction continues to increase in cost as they are taken from higher depths, and the quality of the ores degrades as extraction continues. Minerals are an essential component of our daily existence. Minerals are found in almost everything we use. Minerals have a critical role in the transportation industry since they are utilized in both manufacturing and locomotive operations.

If they are misused, they will quickly deplete and become unavailable to future generations.  Mineral exploration has frequently resulted in the relocation of marginalized populations, such as local tribes, with few examples of sufficient compensation.  Mineral resources must be protected since they are a country’s most precious asset.

Minerals are also extremely important to all living things. Every biological cell contains iron. It is required for the formation of hemoglobin, the main component of red blood cells. Other minerals, such as zinc, manganese, copper, and fluoride, are also essential in our diet at very modest levels. Minerals are a finite resource that cannot be replenished. Controlling their usage and conserving minerals is critical for the future.

Mineral conservation may be accomplished in three ways: reduce, recycle, and reuse.

• You may cut down on the amount of garbage you produce by being selective about what you toss out.
• Returning a waste product to a location where it is converted into the same or a different product is referred to as recycling.
• The recycling of metals will also assist to reduce demand. 

Minerals can be Conserved in a Variety of Ways, Including,

• Minerals should be utilized in a strategic and long-term manner.
• Technology should be improved so that poor-grade ore may be used at a reasonable cost.
• Metal recycling also contributes to the conservation of mineral resources.
• Non-conventional sources of energy should be used to generate power.
• Every individual should take little effort, such as taking public transportation, carpooling, and turning off lights and fans when not in use. (This is due to the fact that coal is used to create 70% of India’s power.) 
• Using energy-saving equipment also helps to save minerals and energy resources. 

Related Links

• Classification of Minerals
• Mineral Distribution in India

Frequently Asked Questions

Explain natural gas and what are its benefits..

Natural gas is a significant energy source. It is a significant clean energy resource that may be found in conjunction with or without petroleum. It is also employed in the petrochemical sector as an industrial raw material. Its benefits are:  Natural gas is a clean-burning fuel. It emits less carbon dioxide during operation. It is increasingly being used to replace polluting fuels. Natural gas deposits of significant size have been identified in the Krishna-Godavari basin.  

Why does India have the potential for wind energy development? Which locations in India are wind energy sources?

India has a large coastline with potential for wind energy development. Windy locations near the beach can be developed with wind turbines. Wind energy or wind mills may be found at the following locations in India:  Wind Farm Cluster in Tamil Nadu, stretching from Nagercoil to Madurai. Wind Power Plants in Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra, Lakshadweep, and Andhra Pradesh. Jaisalmer Wind Farm .

Is there a compelling need in India to use renewable energy sources? Explain?

  Because of the following reasons, there is a rising need to increase the usage of renewable energy sources: Conventional or nonrenewable energy sources are rapidly depleting, and we are more reliant on petroleum and natural gas imports to satisfy our demands. Because renewable energy sources do not pollute the environment when used, we must shift to using more of them in order to protect our ecosystem. Non-traditional sources of energy are less expensive to utilize than conventional ones, hence we should adopt renewable energy sources to save money. 

“The discovery and usage of iron brought about a fundamental alteration in human life.” Give three instances to back up your claim.

 Agrarian revolution—the invention of various instruments such as the axe, hook, plough, and so on. Industrial revolution—new tools and machinery such as spinning Transportation revolution- bullock carts, ships, boats, etc. 

Why is mining commonly referred to as a “Killer Industry?” Provide three reasons.

There is a high danger involved. Because of the hazardous gases, mine employees are at risk of developing lung ailments. The risk of falling mine roofs and coal mine fires. Contamination of water sources 

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The Mines And Mineral Environmental Sciences Essay

Published Date: 23 Mar 2015

Disclaimer: This essay has been written and submitted by students and is not an example of our work. Please click this link to view samples of our professional work witten by our professional essay writers . Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of EssayCompany.

The relevant rules in force under the MMDR Act are the Mineral Concession rules, 1960, outlining the procedures and conditions for obtaining a prospecting license or a mining lease, and the Mineral Conservation and Development Rules,1988 that lay down the guidelines for ensuring mining on a scientific basis and without environment degradation.

All the major minerals come under the purview of the Central Government. Minor minerals are separately notified and come under purview of state Government who have formulated Mineral Concession Rules for this purpose.

Ministry of Coal and Public Sector Coal Companies

At the Government level projects each costing Rs.20 Crores and above are being monitored. As on 31-12-2001, there are 63 such projects (mining & non-mining) under implementation at Coal India Limited (CIL) Singareni Collieries Company Limited (SCCL).

Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs)  [ 1 ]  

There were four PSUs under the Department of Mines in 2003-2004, namely:

1. National Aluminium Company Limited (NALCO), Bhubaneswar;

2. Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL), Kolkata;

3. Mineral Exploration Corporation Limited (MECL), Nagpur;

4. Bharat Gold Mines Limited (BGML), Kolar Gold Fields, Karnataka*;

* Bharat Gold Mines Ltd. (BGML) has been closed under Section 25(O) of the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947 from 1.3.2001.

Joint Sector Companies

In the following two companies, Government of India holds a minority stake after disinvestment and transfer of management control to Strategic Partners:

1. Bharat Aluminium Company Limited (BALCO), Korba, Chattisgarh.

2. Hindustan Zinc Limited (HZL) Udaipur, Rajasthan.

Research Institutions

There are three Research Institutions under the Department of Mines:

1. Jawaharlal Nehru Aluminius Research Development and Design Centre (JNARDDC), Nagpur;

2. National Institute of Rock Mechanics (NIRM), Karnataka, and

3. National Institute of Miners' Health (NIMH), Nagpur.

Other Bodies

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA  [ 2 ]  

The Geological Survey of India (GSI), a premier scientific organisation in the country relentlessly pursuing its objectives since 1851 to fulfill the society's requirement of minerals and raw materials for industrial growth besides, ensuring a safe community life free from the vagaries of natural hazards. The organisation has now successfully completed 152 years of glorious service to the nation.

Thrust Areas of Activity

The thrust areas of GSI's activities have evolved with the changing national priorities throughout the successive Five Year Plans and are presently oriented in the light of the objectives and goals set up for the Xth plan. The major thrust areas in respect of GSI identified in the Xth Five Year Plan are:

✤ Creation and updating of National geo-scientific database through specialised thematic studies geochemical and geophysical mapping : Specialised thematic studies, multi-elemental geochemical mapping of the country with ultra-low detection level analytical facilities, low-altitude aerogeophysical multi-sensor surveys and ground geophysical mapping of prioritised areas have been stressed to locate so far undiscovered and/or deep-seated/ concealed prospects/deposits based on new concepts of ore genesis. Seabed survey will continue in Territorial Waters and parametric survey in EEZ along with preliminary assessment of economic materials in seabed.

✤ Concept oriented search for concealed mineral deposits with stress on deficient and high-tech minerals: The principal thrust of GSI in the mineral exploration would remain on noble metals, precious stone, base metal, coal and lignite. Appraisal will continue for ferrous and non-ferrous (bauxite), fertilizer, strategic, refractory and high-tech. minerals. In addition, to the mineral prognostication, the organization would continue with systematic updating of the data base in the mineral resource sector to provide reliable and relevant information on mineral and other natural resources to the public and private sector entrepreneurs to sustain investment in mineral sector.

✤ Seismic micro-zonation of urban clusters, active fault mapping and observational seismology for delineation of potential risk zones for geo-hazard management: Earthquake studies including active fault mapping, observational seismology for delineation of potential risk zones for geo-hazard management and seismic micro-zonation of urban clusters as a part of preparedness and hazard mitigation with state-of-the-art technology and instrumental support.  [ 3 ]  

✤ Compilation and digitisation of maps for archival preservation and dissemination: Information Technology is vital for preservation, management, retrieval and analysis of geoscientific data bank accumulated by GSI in past 152 years of existence. The task of soft copy conversion of all the reports taken up in previous year has almost been completed. GSI has also embarked upon an ambitious plan for creation of internet portal, which will provide uninterrupted connectivity among all the offices of GSI, spread over in 32 cities of the country. The portal, apart from dissemination of information via internet or intranet will also be useful to integrate work plan, collaboration, messaging and content management.

✤ Modernisation programmes of GSI: Modernisation as well as upgradation of laboratories as National, Regional and Operational level facilities to provide high quality laboratory support is continuing. It has remained constant endeavour to upgrade and modernise laboratory equipment. GSI procured Isotope Dilution Thermal Ionisation Mass Spectrometer

(IDTIMS). Using separated U and Pb from mineral grains first time in India, age data has been determined which are regarded as global standards. Digital MEQ recorder for earthquake studies, micro-thermometric apparatus for geothermal studies and micro-gravimeter and ground conductivity meters for geophysical studies were also procured.

Expert Committee Report

The report of the Expert Committee set up by the Department of Mines to examine and recommend suitable changes in the Charter of GSI through assessment of the role and functions of GSI in the light of developments in the field of earth sciences over the last 30 years has been accepted by the Government. The committee has revised the Charter and functions of GSI and has made recommendations to make GSI more responsive to the scientific and societal needs and enhance its visibility.

Some of the important recommendations of the committee incorporated in the revised charter of functions of GSI are (i) setting up of Geosciences Institute for attaining excellence in R & D efforts, (ii) setting up of a commercial wing, (iii) developing strong Management Information System (MIS), (iv) upgrading and modernising laboratories, (v) training of middle level scientists, and (vi) restructuring of personnel management.

INDIAN BUREAU OF MINES  [ 4 ]  

The Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM) is a subordinate office under the Department of Mines. It is engaged in the promotion & conservation of minerals, protection of mines' environment and scientific development of mineral resources of the country, other than coal, petroleum and natural gas, atomic minerals and minor minerals. It performs regulatory functions, namely enforcement of the Mineral Conservation and Development Rules, 1988, the relevant provisions of the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957, Mineral Conces-sion Rules, 1960 and Environmental Protection Act 1986 and Rules made thereunder. It also undertakes scientific, technoeconomic, research oriented studies in various aspects of mining, geological studies, ore beneficiation and environmental studies.

IBM provides technical consultancy services to the mining industry for the geological appraisal of mineral resources, and the preparation of feasibility reports of mining projects, including beneficiation plants. It prepares mineral maps and a countrywide inventory of mineral resources of leasehold and freehold areas. It also promotes and monitors community development activities in mining areas. IBM also functions as Data Bank of Mines and Minerals and publishes statistical periodicals. It also brings out technical publications/monographs on individual mineral commodities and bulletins of topical interest. It advises the Central and State Governments on all aspects of mineral industry, trade, legislation, etc

Statistical Publications  [ 5 ]  

IBM disseminates statistical information on mines, minerals, metals and mineral based industries through its various publications. Information on mineral production, stocks, despatches, employment, inputs in mining, mining machinery and related matters received from the mine owners on statutory basis under the MCDR, 1988 and ancillary statistics on metals production, mineral trade and market prices of minerals, revenue from the mining sector, rent, royalty and cess on minerals, etc. from other agencies is compiled regularly by IBM.

Consultancy Service

IBM provides technical consultancy services on prescribed charges for geological appraisals, survey of the areas, preparation of feasibility study reports, environment impact assessment and environment management plan, selection of suitable mining equipment, evaluation of feasibility report prepared by other consultants, financial institutions, etc.

Technical Publications

IBM brings out technical publications relating to mines and minerals, mineral based industries, trade, beneficiation, R&D activities, etc. During the year 2003-2004, Bulletin on Mining Leases and Prospecting Licences-2001 issue, three issues of half yearly bulletin on Mineral Information (October, 2001-March, 2002, April-September, 2002 and October, 2002 - March, 2003) and Indian Minerals Year Book 2003 issue were released.

Statutory Structure and Legal Regime

Following the enactment of the Nationalization Acts, the coal industry was reorganized into two major public sector companies, namely Coal India Limited (CIL) which owns and manages all the old Government-owned mines of National Coal Development Corporation (NCDC) and the nationalized private mines and Singreni Colliery Company Limited (SCCL) which was in existence under the ownership and management of Andhra Pradesh State Government at the time of the nationalization.  [ 6 ]  

According to Ministry of Coal, till 31st December 2007, 170 captive coal blocks have been allocated, of which 15 blocks allotted to 3 PSUs and 9 private companies have already started producing coal. Of the 170 captive coal blocks allotted (with reserves 39.3 billion tonnes), 76 coal blocks with reserves of about 23.6 billion tonnes have been allotted to power sector (with 24 coal blocks allotted in 2007)  [ 7 ]  

Legislation and policy developments in the coal sector  [ 8 ]  

Law/Act/Policy

Main provisions

Promoted the adoption of health and safety standards in coal mines.

Mines and Minerals Regulation and Development Act

Vested in the Central government control over prospecting and mining of coal reserves.

Coal Bearing Areas (Acquisition and Development) Act

Increased public control over coal production by empowering the Central government to acquire unworked land containing or likely to contain coal deposits.

Mineral Concession Rules

Provided for procedures for the grant of prospecting licences, mining leases, payment of royalty for `other minor minerals.

Coking Coal Mines (Emergency Provisions) Act

Provided for the take over of the management of coking coal mines and coke oven plants.

Coking Coal Mines (Nationalisation Act)

Provided for nationalization of 214 coking coal mines

Coal Mines (Taking over of Management) Act

Extended management control of the Central government to 738 coking and non-coking coal mines including the coking coal mines taken over earlier.

Coal Mines (Nationalisation) Act

Nationalization of all coking and non-coking coal mines and reserved coal mining for the public sector, with a few exceptions.

Coal Mines (Conservation and Development) Act

Provided for the conservation of coal during mining operations.

Coal Mines (Nationalisation) Amendment Act

Allowed private participation in captive coal mining and setting up of washeries.

Committee on Integrated Coal Policy (Chari Committee)

Recommendations included deregulating prices, allocation of blocks on the basis of a competitive bidding process in which Indian companies including national coal companies could participate and establishment of a regulatory body.

Colliery Control Order

Deregulated the prices of all grades of coal.

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