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The 7 Steps to Becoming a Doctor: A Complete Guide

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Medicine is one of the most challenging yet rewarding fields a student can enter. But before you decide whether becoming a doctor is right for you, it's important that you know every step you'll have to take along the way.

Here, I'll walk you through exactly how to become a doctor, starting with high school . This career is definitely not for everyone—it requires huge investments of time, money, and effort—but if this path is right for you, this guide is what you should read to start preparing yourself early for a successful career as a doctor.

What Is the Career Outlook for Medical Doctors?

Medicine is a super competitive and rigorous field: doctors have a lot of responsibility and must spend tons of time and money on their training. Healthcare is also a growing field , which means that the demand for doctors will continue to increase in the coming years.

As long as you do all the necessary steps below, you shouldn't have an issue finding a job as a doctor.

Let's take a look at the career outlook for physicians and surgeons using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics :

• 2020 Median Pay: Greater than or equal to $208,000 per year
• Job Growth Rate (2020-30): 3%, which is slower than average

Note that pay and job outlook can vary depending on what type of doctor you want to be , so if you have a particular specialty in mind (such as dermatology or rheumatology), I encourage you to do your own research on that field's projected career outlook.

To lend you a hand, we've created the following chart, which presents the median salaries and job outlooks for various types of doctors (arranged in order of highest salary to lowest ):

Source: US Bureau of Labor Statistics

As you can see from the chart, all of the above medical specialties make six figures a year. They do have some differences in terms of job growth, however. The job growth rate for psychiatrists is expected to be a well-above-average 14% in the next ten years, but specialties such as surgeons and pediatricians are expected to shrink slightly. There are a lot of jobs in each of these fields though, so don't think there won't be a need for them in several years, even if their numbers are expected to contract a bit.

How to Become a Doctor: 7-Step Career Path Overview

Becoming a doctor is a pretty complex, multi-step process. Here are the seven major steps we'll be covering in more detail below (you can skip around by clicking the links to each step):

Step 1: Do well in high school Step 2: Get into a great college Step 3: Take the MCAT (and get a good score) Step 4: Apply and get into medical school Step 5: Attend medical school and pass your boards to become a licensed doctor Step 6: Choose your specialty and complete your residency Step 7: Take and pass your final boards to practice independently

Still interested in how to become a doctor? Time to get into the nitty-gritty of each major step.

Step 1: Do Well in High School

If you're serious about becoming a doctor, you'll do yourself a big favor by getting focused in high school . As mentioned, this is a pretty competitive field, so the earlier you start distinguishing yourself as a great student, the easier the process will be.

Here's what you can do in high school to help prepare you for later steps.

Focus on Science and Math

To fulfill all pre-med requirements in college (I'll get to that in a bit), you'll have to take quite a few science and math classes. Lay a solid foundation by taking a science and math course every year, and make it a priority to take advanced and/or AP courses . You'll also want to keep your GPA (in these classes and all others) as high as possible .

This is an important step because it gives you a tiny glimpse into what college and medical school will be like. If you don't enjoy science and math courses in high school, it's unlikely you'll enjoy them later on. Use this as an opportunity to think critically about whether you'd like to pursue this career.

Do Plenty of Community Service

Being a good doctor isn't just about being a science and math whiz—it's about being invested in caring for other people. Show how you care about helping others by volunteering consistently in high school.

It's best if you can do volunteer work that's at least somewhat related to healthcare. You might see whether there are any opportunities at a nearby hospital or clinic (for example, I had friends in high school who helped escort people who were visiting family members in the hospital). These volunteer opportunities can also help you decide fairly early whether a career in medicine is something you're actually interested in pursuing.

Of course, you don't have to volunteer exclusively in healthcare environments—any community service opportunity in which you're helping other people is a good fit. Read more about the benefits of community service , and then check out our list of the best places to volunteer .

Is working in healthcare a good fit for you? Volunteering in the field is a great way to find out.

Get a Great Score on the ACT/SAT

To get into a great medical school, it helps to go to a great college. And to get into a great college, it helps to get a high score on the SAT/ACT .

Plan on taking your first test by the end of your junior year—this gives you time to take your test of choice again if you want to try to raise your scores.

Read these guides for more info on how to get a great SAT/ACT score:

• What counts as a good, bad, or average ACT or SAT score?
• How can you get a perfect score on the ACT or SAT ?
• How long should you study for the ACT or SAT ?

Submit Stellar College Applications

Your senior fall will be all about researching and applying to colleges. You don't necessarily need to go to a school with a dedicated pre-med program, but it'll be better if your college or university has strong science and math programs , since these will be more helpful in preparing you for the MCAT and med school.

If you want to go to a top-tier private school, you'll have to submit applications with the following:

• Impressive SAT/ACT scores
• Strong letters of recommendation
• Polished and thoughtful personal essays

Some great public schools might not require letters of rec or applications essays. Nevertheless, it's wise to start preparing these materials early on in the college application process if you think you'll apply to any colleges that do require them.

If you're still working on college research, I suggest checking out these guides:

• The best pre-med schools for becoming a doctor
• The best college ranking lists and whether you should trust them
• Whether it matters where you go to college
• How to decide where to go to college

Step 2: Get Into a Great College

College is where you really start focusing your studies and preparing for a career in medicine . Here's everything you should do as an undergraduate to prepare yourself for the next major step in becoming a doctor: medical school.

Meet All Pre-Med Requirements

Most medical schools require students to have taken a series of courses as undergraduates. This ensures that they have strong foundational knowledge in math and science and will be well prepared for the more advanced courses they'll have to take as med students.

Here are the core classes that most medical schools require :

• Two semesters of biology with laboratory
• Two semesters of inorganic chemistry with laboratory
• Two semesters of organic chemistry with laboratory
• Two semesters of math (at least one in calculus)
• Two semesters of physics with laboratory
• Two semesters of English and/or writing

This comes to 12 course requirements at minimum, which doesn't give you a ton of wiggle room if you also have to meet requirements for a major without much pre-med overlap (e.g., foreign languages or studio art). Because of this, many pre-med students choose related majors such as biology or chemistry —this makes it much easier to meet both pre-med requirements and the requirements for your major.

If you decide later in college that you'd like to apply to medical school but you know you don't have time to fit in all these requirements, don't panic. It's fairly common for people to wrap up pre-med requirements by taking an extra semester or two in college (some schools call these students "super seniors").

You might also look into full-time post-bac programs if you have more than a few requirements left to fulfill. These options mean extra time and extra expenses, but they're helpful (and sometimes necessary) steps to take before applying to med school.

Keep Your Grades Up

Your transcript will be a very important part of your med school applications, so your academic performance should really be your #1 priority as you work your way through college.

Build Relationships With Professors and Mentors

You'll need a few strong letters of recommendation from respected faculty members when you submit your med school applications—use this fact to motivate you to network with as many people as possible.

Develop relationships with professors and mentors by going to their office hours, actively participating in class, and taking opportunities to work on research projects.

Your nerdy professors will prove to be invaluable resources when you're applying to med school, but only if you have relationships with them!

Get Some Research Experience

Having some research experience under your belt is a big plus for med school applications , especially if you can squeeze in a publication or two. Working in a biology or chemistry lab would probably be most helpful for medical school.

There are a couple ways you can get research experience as an undergraduate:

• Work as a research assistant (paid or unpaid) in an on-campus lab or at an off-campus research institute. Look at campus job postings or approach specific professors in your department about potential lab openings. If you don't have time during the semester to take on extra work, consider summer opportunities.
• Complete an undergraduate thesis, which involves research work. This usually requires a professor to officially take you on as their student. Each school (and each department within a school) will have its own procedures and policies for undergraduate theses, so educate yourself early on (i.e., during freshman year) if you're interested in this track.

Continue With Community Service

Medical schools are going to look at your community service record as an important part of your application. You should make time for volunteer work in college just as you did in high school.

The good news is that it should be easier to find relevant advocacy and community service clubs and organizations in college. Here are a few example activities you might be interested in (although this list is by no means exhaustive):

• Volunteering at a homeless shelter
• Joining a public health advocacy society or organization
• Volunteering at a nursing home or engaging in other forms of elder care (e.g., Meals on Wheels)
• Joining a peer counseling organization

It's better to stick with a few clubs or activities over the long term , as opposed to jumping around between activities year after year. This demonstrates that you're consistent and reliable; it also opens up opportunities for leadership roles, which will prove to be a big plus for your med school applications.

Step 3: Take (and Ace!) the MCAT

The Medical College Admission Test, or MCAT, is used as a predictor of your success in med school, and as such is weighted pretty heavily when compared to other parts of your application.

Most students take the MCAT their junior year—this is arguably the most optimal time to take the test. Why? Because by this point you will have gone through many of your pre-med courses, making studying for the MCAT a lot easier.

MCAT Scoring and Logistics

In total, it takes seven and a half hours to complete the MCAT. The sections on the test include the following:

• Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems
• Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems
• Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior
• Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills

Each section is scored on a range from 118 to 132, with a median score of 125. You'll receive an individual score for each section in addition to an overall score. Total scores range from 472 to 578 , with the average score sitting at about 500.

This scoring system is still relatively new (since 2015), so there isn't much historical data available we can use to predict what a good or "safe" MCAT score will be for med school admissions. Current percentiles indicate that around 50% of test takers score 500, and 74% score 508, or what MCAT-Prep.com calls a "good" MCAT score . As such, the new MCAT encourages admissions officers to look favorably upon students who score around 500 or above .

The MCAT is administered 30 times per year , so you have quite a bit of flexibility when it comes to scheduling the test. Be prepared for some hefty expenses— it costs $325 to register for the test . There are Fee Assistance Programs available for students who might not be able to shoulder these expenses.

After your scores are calculated, they're automatically released to the American Medical College Application Service (AMCAS); you won't have to submit them separately to any schools unless they don't use AMCAS .

If you're adequately prepared the first time you take the MCAT, you could save yourself the cost of an extra registration fee.

Studying for the MCAT

Plan on studying 200-300 hours if you want to do well on the test. Since it's a seven-and-a-half-hour exam, you really don't want to have to take it twice.

There are several different ways you can prep for the MCAT:

• Independent study: This might work for students at schools with strong pre-med support who are also performing well in their classes. Solid foundational knowledge is the most important factor that affects performance on the MCAT, but students would still, of course, need to spend significant time preparing.
• MCAT prep course: Pre-med students commonly take prep courses when they want a solid review schedule to keep them on track. There's a lot of material to cover, and a good course helps ensure that there aren't any major gaps in your content knowledge or strategy. They can be very expensive, unfortunately, with most costing several thousand dollars . Kaplan and The Princeton Review are a couple of the most popular options.
• Online prep: Online resources can offer a great combination of structure and flexibility when you're working to cover a lot of material. Khan Academy provides some free study material if you're looking for a place to start, though it won't suffice if you're putting together a full study plan. Dr. Flowers Test Prep is another, more comprehensive resource for online prep.
• Private tutor: Students whose grades aren't up to par or who have done poorly on the MCAT before might want to consider this option . If you decide to hire a tutor, pick someone with glowing recommendations and years of tutoring experience. They won't come cheap, but they're also less likely to waste your time and money.

You can also buy an official practice test for the MCAT through the Association of American Medical Colleges for $35, in addition to other official study guides and prep materials.

Step 4: Apply and Get Into Medical School

The medical school application process is extremely long . If you want to start med school the fall after you graduate from college, you'll have to start your applications your junior year.

Research Medical Schools

The average student applies to about 13 schools to optimize their chances of getting in —I wouldn't recommend that you put together a list much smaller than that.

The Medical School Admission Requirements (MSAR) website is one of the best tools for looking into important medical school information. For a $28 year-long subscription, you can easily access the following:

• Acceptance rates
• Average MCAT and GPA of applicants and accepted students
• Numbers of out-of-state students
• Application requirements
• Application deadlines

As with any school or program, there are med school ranking lists . Because US medical schools' admissions criteria and curricula are so stringent and rigorous, though, admission to any school in the country should be considered an accomplishment . If you end up in medical school and follow through with a residency at a good hospital, you'll have no trouble finding work as a doctor.

Know the Different Types of Medical Schools

There are two types of physicians in the US:

• Allopathic physicians (MDs)
• Osteopathic physicians (DOs)

Both types are fully licensed physicians and are often very similar in the way that they practice medicine—they just receive degrees from slightly different types of programs.

We're most used to hearing about doctors with MDs, so if you're not familiar with DOs, I encourage you to do more research on these types of programs. DOs receive additional specialty training in certain areas, including using the hands to diagnose/treat illnesses and injuries.

You can read more about osteopathic medicine on the American Osteopathic Association site .

Allopathic or osteopathic: which type of med school is right for you?

Put Together Your Med School Application

There are three parts of the med school application process.

Part 1: Primary Application

You send in your primary application by June the year before your first year of med school. Most med schools use AMCAS, which is like a Common Application for med schools.

This application includes official transcripts, a personal statement, your resume/CV, and your MCAT scores. Start preparing these materials a few months before submission.

Part 2: Secondary Application

This usually happens in July-August on a typical application timeline (i.e., one on which you submit the primary application in June). At this point, a school will either reject your primary application or ask you to complete its secondary application.

The secondary application will differ for each school you apply to. Sometimes, schools just ask you to submit an application fee to continue with the application process. Other times, though, schools send fairly extensive lists of essay prompts (e.g., "Why are you interested in attending this medical school?") for you to answer.

If the medical school is happy with your primary and secondary applications, you'll move on to the next part.

Part 3: Interview

If a school definitely does (or definitely does not ) want to interview you, you'll hear back from them pretty quickly. Some students are left in limbo for a while as schools deliberate over what to do with them.

Interviews are the final decision-making phase. Your interview will either make or break your application. Preparing for interviews is tough because each school (and each interviewer) will have its own priorities and questions.

Overall, you want to come off (1) committed to the medical track, (2) confident in your abilities, (3) eager to learn, (4) warm and empathetic, and (5) grateful for the opportunity to be there.

Step 5: Attend Medical School and Pass Your Boards

After fulfilling all the pre-med requirements and submitting all those applications, you finally arrive here: medical school. You'll spend four years here , but that doesn't mean the experience will be very similar to that of your undergraduate education—there are more decisions to be made, more opportunities for hands-on experiences, and more professional licensing requirements to worry about.

Here's an overview of what these four years of med school will look like:

• Years 1-2: Primarily classroom-based courses
• Year 3: Training in each major medical specialty (also known as rotations)
• Year 4: Primarily elective courses based on preferred specialty

There are some other important steps along the way, such as board exams, that I'll address in this section as well.

Years 1-2: Classroom Work

You won't have much say in what courses you'll take during your first two years of medical school. Your education during this time will be an extension of your pre-med requirements —you'll take many advanced courses that will give you the important biological, anatomical, and chemical foundations you'll need to work as a physician.

These courses will obviously have an important impact on your GPA, which will affect how competitive you are when you're matched for your residency/internship (we'll get to that shortly). As such, it's important to keep your grades up—your future self will thank you!

At the end of your second year, you'll take the United States Medical Licensing Examination , or the USMLE-1. This test assesses your medical competency to see whether you should continue with your education and medical licensure (another name for the USMLE exams is "Boards").

At most med schools, you need to pass this exam in order to progress to your third year of school.

Year 3: Rotations

In your third year, you'll start working with patients in a medical setting (under a supervisor) within different medical specialties. This helps you gain hands-on experience as a physician, but, perhaps more importantly, you'll learn more about what sort of specialty you may be interested in.

After the bulk of your rotations experiences in your third year, you'll have to decide what sort of medicine you'd like to pursue . This decision will dictate what kinds of elective courses you'll take in your fourth and final year of med school, as well as how long you'll spend in your residency (we give more information on this in the Residency section below).

Med school rotations are a bit more productive than the one the hamster's doing on this wheel.

Year 4: Pursuing Your Specialty

As you now know, your fourth year of med school is dedicated mainly to taking elective courses to prepare you for your preferred specialty and continuing gaining hands-on experience. You'll also take the USMLE Level 2 (which is similar to the first examination, except that it simply tests more advanced knowledge); this exam includes a clinical knowledge part and a clinical skills portion.

Step 6: Complete Your Residency

Residencies, also known as internships, are supervised positions at teaching hospitals. You will be matched to an available residency position through the National Resident Matching Program (NRMP).

You'll be able to note your preferences, but you won't have ultimate decision-making power over your matches. Once the NRMP sets you up, you sort of have to take what you're given.

You will spend at least three years in your residency program but may spend more time there depending on your specialty. In your first year, you'll be known as an intern and will be at the bottom of the totem pole—but not for long.

During your residency, you'll also need to pass your final licensing exam (USMLE-3). The third and final licensing exam is taken during the first year of your residency. It tests your ability to utilize your medical knowledge and provide care in an unsupervised setting, which is what you will have to do as a licensed physician.

You'll get a salary as a resident, but it won't be much. The average resident earns about $48,000 a year , which should cover living expenses and your minimum medical school loan payments.

Here are some example specialties and their respective residency requirements:

• Anesthesiology: 4 years
• Dermatology: 4 years
• Emergency Medicine: 3-4 years
• General Surgery: 5 years
• Internal Medicine: 3 years
• Neurology: 4 years
• Obstetrics and Gynecology: 4 years
• Pathology: 4 years
• Pediatrics: 3 years
• Psychiatry: 4 years
• Radiology: 4-5 years

Step 7: Take and Pass Your Final Boards

Once you've finished your residency and passed all your boards, you can officially practice independently as a licensed physician! It probably won't take you long to find work. You might want to practice in a hospital, clinic, or private practice.

You'll have to keep up with Continuing Medical Education in order to practice as a physician, no matter your specialty; this ensures that you stay educated and up-to-date on the latest research and best medical practices.

Your education doesn't end here—you'll be working to keep up with new information and best practices for the rest of your medical career.

Summary: The 7 Critical Steps to Becoming a Doctor

This is a ton of information to take in at once, especially if you're at the beginning of this process or if you're still unsure about entering the medical field.

To recap, here are the seven major steps you must take to become a doctor :

• Do well in high school
• Get into a great college
• Take the MCAT (and get a good score)
• Apply and get into medical school
• Attend medical school and pass your boards to become a licensed doctor
• Choose your specialty and complete your residency
• Take and pass your final boards to practice independently

You should also keep in mind two important takeaways:

• You don't have to decide at the beginning of college that you want to become a doctor (although it does make it easier to fulfill pre-med requirements). The path to becoming a physician isn't completely rigid, especially if you're interested in other biological and physical science careers.
• You don't have to think about all these steps at the same time. Once you're in medical school, your peers will be thinking about (and worrying about) the same things—there's no way you'll forget any important steps!

Becoming a doctor is definitely not for everyone—getting into medical school is really tough, and you still have a lot of training to complete even after you graduate. But if you decide you want to enter the medical profession, you now have the info you need to start off on the right foot!

What's Next?

If you want more info on what to do to prepare for med school while you're in high school , you're in the right place. Check out these great medical programs for high school students and our list of the best books every pre-med student should read .

Starting to research different college or med school options? Start off with this complete list of BA/MD and BS/MD programs in the United States . You might also be interested in our step-by-step guide on how to get into a BS/MD program .

Thinking of having a different medical career? Learn how to become a dentist or a veterinarian with our in-depth guides.

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• v.190(21); 2018 May 28

Whom should we really call a “doctor”?

This is in response to the News article by Roger Collier. 1 These days many health professionals use the title “doctor.” Indeed, The Canadian Press Stylebook now decrees that the title of doctor should be reserved for physicians. Physicians, surgeons, dentists, chiropodists, university professors and, in some countries, pharmacists describe themselves as doctors. This raises the question — are they? To answer this question, one has to examine that title from both linguistic and historical standpoints.

The word doctor is derived from the Latin verb “docere,” meaning to teach, or a scholar. Only by special arrangement do any of the preceding professionals teach. Only university professors with a doctoral degree normally teach at a university. Historically speaking, the title doctor was invented in the Middle Ages to describe eminent scholars. These doctorates date back to the 1300s. Such people were accorded a lot of respect and prestige.

The PhD, or Doctor of Philosophy, is the highest graduate degree awarded by our universities.

Health professionals receive undergraduate degrees in medicine. These are professional degrees, and not really doctorates. The MD degree is not a part of graduate faculties at North American universities.

It has now become fashionable to award so-called Doctor of Law degrees to undergraduate law school graduates in the form of a Juris Doctor or JD degree, including at the University of Windsor. These, too, are merely undergraduate degrees.

Because of the respect and prestige, medical schools, particularly in Scotland, started to address their graduates as doctors in the 17th century. The argument was that graduates of such schools obtain a bachelor’s degree before joining medical school. There are problems with such logic, namely, a degree past a bachelor’s degree could potentially be a master’s degree, but not a doctoral degree.

A doctoral degree (PhD) is a degree that one earns after a master’s degree. A PhD entitles a person to use the title doctor. These are the social and physical scientists who conduct and evaluate published research. A PhD degree is normally obtained after six to eight years of hard work past the bachelor’s degree.

When we are asked in a physician’s or a dentist’s office what kind of doctor we are, we respond, “the real one.” We are the ones who teach the others.

We hope that this contribution helps in clearing up the confusion in the community about the title doctor.

The Canadian Press should change its policy and stylebook to reflect these facts and this history.

This contribution should not be construed as an attack on any professional or group of professionals. The main purpose here is to educate the public.

Competing interests: None declared.

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9 things you should consider before embarking on a PhD

June 23, 2021 | 15 min read

By Andy Greenspon

The ideal research program you envision is not what it appears to be

Editor's Note:  When Andy Greenspon wrote this article, he was a first-year student in Applied Physics at Harvard. Now he has completed his PhD. — Alison Bert, June 23, 2021

If you are planning to apply for a PhD program, you're probably getting advice from dozens of students, professors, administrators your parents and the Internet. Sometimes it's hard to know which advice to focus on and what will make the biggest difference in the long-run. So before you go back to daydreaming about the day you accept that Nobel Prize, here are nine things you should give serious thought to. One or more of these tips may save you from anguish and help you make better decisions as you embark on that path to a PhD.

1. Actively seek out information about PhD programs.

Depending on your undergraduate institution, there may be more or less support to guide you in selecting a PhD program – but there is generally much less than when you applied to college.

On the website of my physics department, I found a page written by one of my professors, which listed graduate school options in physics and engineering along with resources to consult. As far as I know, my career center did not send out much information about PhD programs. Only after applying to programs did I find out that my undergraduate website had a link providing general information applicable to most PhD programs. This is the kind of information that is available all over the Internet.

So don't wait for your career center or department to lay out a plan for you. Actively seek it out from your career center counselors, your professors, the Internet — and especially from alumni from your department who are in or graduated from your desired PhD program. First-hand experiences will almost always trump the knowledge you get second-hand.

2. A PhD program is not simply a continuation of your undergraduate program.

Many students don't internalize this idea until they have jumped head-first into a PhD program. The goal is not to complete an assigned set of courses as in an undergraduate program, but to develop significant and original research in your area of expertise. You will have required courses to take, especially if you do not have a master's degree yet, but these are designed merely to compliment your research and provide a broad and deep knowledge base to support you in your research endeavors.

At the end of your PhD program, you will be judged on your research, not on how well you did in your courses. Grades are not critical as long as you maintain the minimum GPA requirement, and you should not spend too much time on courses at the expense of research projects. Graduate courses tend to be designed to allow you to take away what you will find useful to your research more than to drill a rigid set of facts and techniques into your brain.

3. Take a break between your undergraduate education and a PhD program.

You are beginning your senior year of college, and your classmates are asking you if you are applying to graduate school. You think to yourself, "Well, I like studying this topic and the associated research, and I am going to need a PhD if I want to be a professor or do independent research, so I might as well get it done as soon as possible." But are you certain about the type of research you want to do? Do you know where you want to live for the next five years? Are you prepared to stay in an academic environment for nine years straight?

Many people burn out or end up trudging through their PhD program without a thought about what lies outside of or beyond it. A break of a year or two or even more may be necessary to gain perspective. If all you know is an academic environment, how can you compare it to anything else? Many people take a job for five or more years before going back to get their PhD. It is true though that the longer you stay out of school, the harder it is to go back to an academic environment with lower pay and a lack of set work hours. A one-year break will give you six months or so after graduation before PhD applications are due. A two-year gap might be ideal to provide time to identify your priorities in life and explore different areas of research without having school work or a thesis competing for your attention.

Getting research experience outside of a degree program can help focus your interests and give you a leg up on the competition when you finally decide to apply. It can also help you determine whether you will enjoy full-time research or if you might prefer an alternative career path that still incorporates science, for example, in policy, consulting or business — or a hybrid research job that combines scientific and non-scientific skills.

I will be forever grateful that I chose to do research in a non-academic environment for a year between my undergraduate and PhD programs. It gave me the chance to get a feel for doing nothing but research for a full year. Working at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory in the Space Division, I was the manager of an optics lab, performing spectroscopic experiments on rocks and minerals placed in a vacuum chamber. While my boss determined the overall experimental design, I was able to make my own suggestions for experiments and use my own discretion in how to perform them. I presented this research at two national conferences as well — a first for me. I was also able to learn about other research being performed there, determine which projects excited me the most, and thus narrow down my criteria for a PhD program.

4. Your current area of study does not dictate what you have to study in graduate school.

You might be studying the function and regulation of membrane proteins or doing a computational analysis of the conductivity of different battery designs, but that doesn't mean your PhD project must revolve around similar projects. The transition between college or another research job to a PhD program is one of the main transitions in your life when it is perfectly acceptable to completely change research areas.

If you are doing computation, you may want to switch to lab-based work or vice versa. If you are working in biology but have always had an interest in photonics research, now is the time to try it out. You may find that you love the alternative research and devote your PhD to it, you might hate it and fall back on your previous area of study — or you may even discover a unique topic that incorporates both subjects.

One of the best aspects of the PhD program is that you can make the research your own. Remember, the answer to the question "Why are you doing this research?" should not be "Well, because it's what I've been working on for the past few years already."While my undergraduate research was in atomic physics, I easily transitioned into applied physics and materials science for my PhD program and was able to apply much of what I learned as an undergraduate to my current research. If you are moving from the sciences to a non-STEM field such as social sciences or humanities, this advice can still apply, though the transition is a bit more difficult and more of a permanent commitment.

5. Make sure the PhD program has a variety of research options, and learn about as many research groups as possible in your first year.

Even if you believe you are committed to one research area, you may find that five years of such work is not quite what you expected. As such, you should find a PhD program where the professors are not all working in the same narrowly focused research area. Make sure there are at least three professors working on an array of topics you could imagine yourself working on.

In many graduate programs, you are supposed to pick a research advisor before even starting. But such arrangements often do not work out, and you may be seeking a new advisor before you know it. That's why many programs give students one or two semesters to explore different research areas before choosing a permanent research advisor.

In your first year, you should explore the research of a diverse set of groups. After touring their labs, talking to the students, or sitting in on group meetings, you may find that this group is the right one for you.

In addition, consider the importance of who your research advisor will be. This will be the person you interact with regularly for five straight years and who will have a crucial influence on your research. Do you like their advising style? Does their personality mesh with yours? Can you get along? Of course, the research your advisor works on is critical, but if you have large disagreements at every meeting or do not get helpful advice on how to proceed with your research, you may not be able to succeed. At the very least, you must be able to handle your advisor's management of the lab and advising style if you are going to be productive in your work. The Harvard program I enrolled in has professors working on research spanning from nanophotonics to energy materials and biophysics, covering my wide range of interests. By spending time in labs and offices informally chatting with graduate students, I found an advisor whose personality and research interests meshed very well with me. Their genuine enthusiasm for this advisor and their excitement when talking about their research was the best input I could have received.

6. Location is more important than you think — but name recognition is not.

The first consideration in choosing a PhD program should be, "Is there research at this university that I am passionate about?" After all, you will have to study this topic in detail for four or more years. But when considering the location of a university, your first thought should not be, "I'm going to be in the lab all the time, so what does it matter if I'm by the beach, in a city, or in the middle of nowhere." Contrary to popular belief, you will have a life outside of the lab, and you will have to be able to live with it for four or more years. Unlike when you were an undergraduate, your social and extracurricular life will revolve less around the university community, so the environment of the surrounding area is important. Do you need a city atmosphere to be productive? Or is your ideal location surrounded by forests and mountains or by a beach? Is being close to your family important? Imagine what it will be like living in the area during the times you are not doing research; consider what activities will you do and how often will you want to visit family.

While many of the PhD programs that accepted me had research that truly excited me, the only place I could envision living for five or more years was Boston, as the city I grew up near and whose environment and culture I love, and to be close to my family.

While location is more important than you think, the reputation and prestige of the university is not. In graduate school, the reputation of the individual department you are joining — and sometimes even the specific research group you work in — are more important. There, you will develop research collaborations and professional connections that will be crucial during your program and beyond. When searching for a job after graduation, other scientists will look at your specific department, the people you have worked with and the research you have done.

At the Asgard Irish Pub in Cambridge, Massachusetts, Andy Greenspon talks with fellow graduate students from Harvard and MIT at an Ask for Evidence workshop organized by Sense About Science. He grew up near Boston and chose to go to graduate school there.

7. Those time management skills you developed in college? Develop them further.

After surviving college, you may think you have mastered the ability to squeeze in your coursework, extracurricular activities and even some sleep. In a PhD program, time management reaches a whole new level. You will not only have lectures to attend and homework to do. You will have to make time for your research, which will include spending extended periods of time in the lab, analyzing data, and scheduling time with other students to collaborate on research.

Also, you will most likely have to teach for a number of semesters, and you will want to attend any seminar that may be related to your research or that just peaks your interest. To top it all off, you will still want to do many of those extracurricular activities you did as an undergraduate. While in the abstract, it may seem simple enough to put this all into your calendar and stay organized, you will find quickly enough that the one hour you scheduled for a task might take two or three hours, putting you behind on everything else for the rest of the day or forcing you to cut other planned events. Be prepared for schedules to go awry, and be willing to sacrifice certain activities. For some, this might be sleep; for others, it might be an extracurricular activity or a few seminars they were hoping to attend. In short, don't panic when things don't go according to plan; anticipate possible delays and be ready to adapt.

8. Expect to learn research skills on the fly – or take advantage of the training your department or career center offers.

This may be the first time you will have to write fellowship or grant proposals, write scientific papers, attend conferences, present your research to others, or even peer-review scientific manuscripts. From my experience, very few college students or even PhD students receive formal training on how to perform any of these tasks. Usually people follow by example. But this is not always easy and can be quite aggravating sometimes. So seek out talks or interactive programs offered by your department or career center. The effort will be well worth it when you realize you've become quite adept at quickly and clearly explaining your research to others and at outlining scientific papers and grant proposals. Alternatively, ask a more experienced graduate student or your advisor for advice on these topics. In addition, be prepared for a learning curve when learning all the procedures and processes of the group you end up working in. There may be many new protocols to master, whether they involve synthesizing chemicals, growing bacterial cells, or aligning mirrors on an optical table. In addition, the group may use programming languages or data analysis software you are unfamiliar with. Don't get discouraged but plan to spend extra effort getting used to these procedures and systems. After working with them regularly, they will soon become second nature. When I first started my job at Johns Hopkins, I felt overwhelmed by all the intricacies of the experiment and definitely made a few mistakes, including breaking a number of optical elements. But by the end of my year there, I had written an updated protocol manual for the modifications I had made to the experimental procedures and was the "master" passing on my knowledge to the next person taking the job.

9. There are no real breaks.

In a stereotypical "9-to-5" job, when the workday is over or the weekend arrives, you can generally forget about your work. And a vacation provides an even longer respite. But in a PhD program, your schedule becomes "whenever you find time to get your work done." You might be in the lab during regular work hours or you might be working until 10 p.m. or later to finish an experiment. And the only time you might have available to analyze data might be at 1 a.m. Expect to work during part of the weekend, too. Graduate students do go on vacations but might still have to do some data analysis or a literature search while away.

As a PhD student, it might be hard to stop thinking about the next step in an experiment or that data sitting on your computer or that paper you were meaning to start. While I imagine some students can bifurcate their mind between graduate school life and everything else, that's quite hard for many of us to do. No matter what, my research lies somewhere in the back of my head. In short, your schedule is much more flexible as a PhD student, but as a result, you never truly take a break from your work.

While this may seem like a downer, remember that you should have passion for the research you work on (most of the time), so you should be excited to think up new experiments or different ways to consider that data you have collected. Even when I'm lying in bed about to fall asleep, I am sometimes ruminating about aspects of my experiment I could modify or what information I could do a literature search on to gain new insights. A PhD program is quite the commitment and rarely lives up to expectations – but it is well worth the time and effort you will spend for something that truly excites you.

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Andy greenspon.

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Applying to the Biological Engineering PhD program

Thank you for your interest in MIT BE – we want to receive your application! This page explains the application process and provides information specific to our program that you may use to strengthen your application. Our evaluation process begins with your electronic application folder and proceeds through an on-site interview.

We believe that our diverse, welcoming, and collaborative community fosters the most effective environment for training students to conduct world-class research. To maintain and further strengthen our culture, we depend on continuing to receive applications representing a broad range of academic and personal backgrounds. From 2019-2022, we invited applicants from 64 different undergraduate institutions holding and expecting bachelors degrees in many different disciplines to interview for admission. Of applicants invited to interview from 2019-2022, about 52% self-identified as female, and more than 18% self-identified as underrepresented minorities (as defined by MIT). Many students join the program immediately after completing their undergraduate studies, while others have already received advanced degrees or acquired post-baccalaureate professional experience.

The guidance below is intended to help prospective students understand the aspects of academic preparation and experience that poise applicants for success in our program and how to present this information effectively in their application materials. This guidance is not intended to describe any “ideal” application profile or minimum standards for admission (no quantitative standards exist). Every complete application received is reviewed holistically by BE faculty.

Application to MIT BE is competitive, with fewer than 10% of applicants receiving an offer to interview each year (we offer admission to the majority of interviewees). Applicants holding international undergraduate degrees may apply, and such applicants received about 3% of the interview offers made from 2019-2022. Interview offers are communicated asynchronously to applicants in January and February each year.

Evaluation of applications for PhD study in BE particularly focuses on:

• Evidence of strong academic preparation and demonstrated interest in both a quantitative discipline and a biological discipline
• Evidence of aptitude for and experience/accomplishment in scientific or engineering research
• Explanation of interest in pursuing a career that leverages PhD-level training in Biological Engineering under the guidance of MIT BE faculty advisors

Academic preparation. Success in the challenging coursework and research components of the MIT BE PhD program requires a strong academic background in both biology and quantitative engineering or science. While many successful applicants hold undergraduate engineering degrees and have completed substantial coursework in biology, there are many different ways to demonstrate the academic preparation needed. Applicants whose principal degree is quantitative, computational, engineering, or in the physical sciences can bolster their training in biology by taking core biology courses like biochemistry, genetics, and cell biology. Applicants whose principal degree is in a life science field can acquire quantitative training in courses beyond calculus, biostatistics, and programming/informatics such as differential equations, linear algebra, and advanced courses in probability, statistics, analysis, and computer science.

Understanding that every applicant’s personal and college experience is unique and that grading practices differ, BE has no minimum grade point average (GPA) requirement. We strongly consider the factors other than GPA described on this page in our admissions process. However, most applicants receiving an interview offer have a GPA in the A range (>3.6 on an A = 4.0 scale), and from 2019-2022 the median GPA of interviewees was 3.94. Many applicants with high GPAs do not receive interview invitations, and applicants with GPAs below the A range may be competitive for admission in our holistic evaluation process given other extraordinary aspects of their academic record, experiences, and achievements detailed in their application materials.

Applicant statement. This application component is a free-form opportunity to introduce yourself in writing to the admissions committee, explain your interest in Biological Engineering at MIT, and contextualize other application components including your academic record, research experience, and letters of recommendation. The admissions committee wants to hear why PhD-level training in Biological Engineering under the mentorship of MIT BE faculty is right for you, which research groups you may be interested in joining, how you have prepared to receive PhD training, and how this training may power your aspirations for the future. The MIT BE Communications Lab CommKit has additional content on writing statements of purpose . While not a particular focus of our evaluation, the statement is an opportunity to directly demonstrate your writing skills and attention to detail.

Letters of recommendation provide crucial evidence of research aptitude in successful applications. The most impactful support letters come from your faculty research supervisor(s) who know you well and have substantial experience advising PhD students. Support letters from other research supervisors, academic advisors, or course instructors may also be included. You can find general guidance (not specific to applications to study in the BE PhD program) on requesting letters of recommendation and on support letter content from the Biological Engineering Communication Lab.

To apply , go to the online application and create a user id and password. You do not need to complete the entire application in one sitting. You may begin the application, save it, and return to it at a later time using your user ID and password.

Applicants are encouraged to submit their applications ahead of the deadline and are responsible for ensuring that all admissions credentials are submitted on time. Your application will not be reviewed until all materials have been received. There is no separate application for financial support; all admitted applicants are offered a full support package.

The BE Department does not require the standardized Graduate Record Examination (GRE) test as part of our application process, but will consider scores if provided by the applicant.

To apply follow these steps.

1. Fill out the online application by 23:59, EST, December 15.

You will be providing the following information:

• Field(s) of interest
• Personal information/addresses
• International student data
• Three or more names and email addresses of letter writers
• Scanned copies of your College Transcripts
• For international students, scanned copies of your IELTS scores
• Academic preparation and research/work experience
• Applicant statement
• Credit card payment of $90 (Information on requesting a fee waiver is here )

2. Arrange for submission of the following (official reports only):

Scanned PDF transcripts and IELTS scores are considered unofficial documents but are sufficient for review purposes. Official documents are required before an admissions decision can be made. Please have any test scores electronically transmitted to MIT Admissions and mail official copies of your transcript(s) to:

MIT Department of Biological Engineering

77 Massachusetts Avenue, Bldg. 16-267

Cambridge, MA 02139

For international students:

IELTS scores should also be electronically sent directly to MIT.

• To register for a test, visit the IETLS website.
• IELTS does not require a code. Please write “Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology”. No address is required as scores are reported electronically.
• If you are an international student, you should take the IELTS test by November 15. The Department of Biological Engineering does not waive this requirement.

The IELTS is waived for applicants who are citizens of Australia, Canada, India, Ireland, New Zealand, Nigeria, Singapore, or the United Kingdom, or for applicants who have or will earn a BS degree at a US university.

How to use the PhD title and all the little doctorate “rules”… use ph.d etc the correct way.

There are many conventions in the academic world that can make it difficult to navigate the philosophiae doctor title. The PhD title is awarded to those who have completed a doctoral degree but, not many people know how to use it once they have it.

It’s best to use PhD not Ph.D in most cases!

This article will go through everything you need to know about using the PhD title and when you can start using it.

The “rules” are relatively simple and can be broken as they are not officially set in stone – other than when you can officially call yourself a doctor.

There is no one correct answer but it may be misleading if you use the PhD title incorrectly. Here are the recommendations for effective communication for a PhD graduate.

It very much depends on the setting. Here are some examples of how I would use both the titles awarded to me after my PhD degree.

How do you Write PhD correctly after a name? Is it ph d or phd and ph.d? Abbreviation explained

It can be confusing to know exactly how to write PhD after your name as a person with a doctoral degree. Which bits are capitalised for a person with a doctoral degree? Is there a ‘.’ In the middle?

When writing a name with a PhD after it, the correct way to do so is to use “PhD” or “Ph.D. or Ph D”

Depending on the preference of the individual, either form can be used.

However, if the individual has a business card that states their degree in full, then the more formal “Doctor of Philosophy” should be used.

It is important to note that using “PhD” without any periods is incorrect; this abbreviation should only be used in informal contexts such as emails or text messages. I tend to use PhD in my YouTube videos and some people have pointed out that this is incorrect…

Following the individual’s preferred format will ensure that their name and credentials are properly represented.

Should you use Dr as well as PhD?

Some people like to use Dr and PhD in their official titles. There are a couple of important points that you need to know about markers and academic titles.

• A person can have more than one marker in their name. For example my full title is Dr Andrew Stapleton, PhD, MChem.
• The doctor title at the front can be used as a variant to the PhD at the end.

It can be a little bit ambiguous if I was to use Dr Andrew Stapleton, PhD as there are two markers. This could mean that I have two PhD’s, it could mean that I have a PhD and a medical doctorate, or it could just be that I want to use both the doctor and the PhD tags for the one degree.

However, in my experience, I still like to use both the title of doctor at the front and the PhD tag at the end of my name for official purposes.

Academics would rarely use the PhD suffix in everyday communication. They would much rather just use the doctor title.

What is the proper title for a PhD with a doctorate degree?

The proper title for a PhD is Doctor of Philosophy. However, some teachers and professors like to be referred to without their official title.

If you are not sure about how your professor, lecturer, or friend with a PhD wishes to be officially addressed you can ask them.

Most of the time, I like to refer to my colleagues with their doctor title for official purposes, but I do not include the type of doctoral degree at the end of their name. That is much better suited to a business card.

Your lecture may wish to be referred to as:

• Dr [last name]
• Dr [first name]

Asking them in the early stages of your relationship is the best way to work out which one they prefer.

If in doubt, always go for the more formal name and nomenclature.

When can you start to use your PhD title after your doctorate? As a PhD student? After your phd thesis?

When you have earned your PhD, you, as a person with a doctoral degree, can start using your title immediately. Although, it can be a little bit confusing as to when you have actually passed your PhD. Is it when you have submitted your dissertation for the advanced degree? Is it when you have received the comments back?

The University of Adelaide says that you can use it from your conferral date:

Students can be conferred on one of five dates during the year and for PhD students the conferral date will be the first available following the completion of all the academic requirements of your degree, including final thesis lodgement and the disbursement of any outstanding financial obligations to the University.

I started using my PhD title as soon as my confirmation letter arrived at my house. It was the first letter from the University that referred to me as Dr Stapleton. I was incredibly excited.

Generally, it is acceptable to use the title “Dr.” both professionally and socially but socially, people very rarely use it – at least in Australia. But you should never use it if you are a PhD student, PhD candidate or enrolled in a PhD program without a previous PhD qualification. 

I do use it in professional settings but it always makes me feel a little bit awkward.

However, there may be some restrictions for certain settings . For example, if have a research degree resulting in a doctor title and you are working in a medical setting – some institutions do not like you to use Dr as it can confuse patients into thinking that you have a medical degree. 

Instead, they ask that you use the PhD tag at the end of your name rather than the doctoral title for official and professional communications.

What is the correct way to write PhD?

When writing about someone’s PhD, the correct way is to write the term in full and capitalize each letter.

This should be done for all academic degrees, not just PhDs.

For example, it would be “Doctor of Philosophy” or “PhD” instead of “Ph.D.”, “Dr.”, or “DPhil”.

Additionally, it is common to mention the field of study in which the degree was earned if known, such as “Doctor of Philosophy in Mathematics”. It is also good practice to include the institution that granted the degree if it is a recognized one.

When writing about someone’s PhD, use proper capitalization and include relevant information like field of study and institution if known to ensure accuracy.

How do you put a PhD in a title?

Putting a PhD in a title is not as complicated as it may sound.

Generally speaking, the proper way to list a PhD in an academic or professional setting is by writing “Dr.” before the name, followed by the person’s full name and the appropriate abbreviations for their degree.

For example, if John Smith has earned a doctorate in psychology, his credentials would be listed as “Dr. John Smith, Ph.D.”

In some cases, such as when addressing someone formally in speech or on a business card, it may also be acceptable to list their credentials as “John Smith, Ph.D.”

Depending on context and personal preference, some people may also choose to list their higher degrees after their names by writing out the entire degree instead of just its abbreviation.

For example, John Smith could choose to write his full title as “John Smith, Doctor of Psychology”

However, I have not seen this in real academic life.

Should the font size of Ph.D. be the same as someone’s name?

The question of whether the font size of a Ph.D. should be the same as someone’s name is an interesting one.

On one hand, it could be argued that the Ph.D. deserves to be highlighted and therefore should be given a larger font size than someone’s name to denote its importance.

On the other, it could be argued that this would not be necessary or appropriate, and that treating everyone equally regardless of their title or degree is more important.

It depends on context and usage – if both names appear in the same document then they should likely have the same font size; however, if one appears in a formal setting such as a diploma or certificate, then it may make sense to give it a larger font size than someone’s name to emphasize its importance and significance.

Ph.Ds (or PhDs) are an important academic achievement and should be respected accordingly but without going overboard by giving them overly large fonts sizes which can take away from rather than add to their importance.

Wrapping up – doctoral title rules

This article has been over everything you need to know that using the PhD title properly and effectively, since the person has worked hard to earn a degree very few people have.

The doctor title can be used in place of the PhD and for incredibly formal communications, such as a business email or card, you can use both.

However, sometimes using both can cause confusion as to whether or not there is a reason first using both the doctor and PhD tags. Nonetheless, many people still use both.

Frequently Asked Questions about using PhD or Ph.d

1. what does phd stand for.

A PhD stands for Doctor of Philosophy , which is a doctoral degree that represents the highest level of academic achievement in a specific field of study.

2. Is Ph.d the same as PhD?

Yes, Ph.d is the abbreviation for Doctor of Philosophy , and both terms are used interchangeably to refer to the same academic degree .

3. Can I use the title ‘Doctor’ with a PhD?

Individuals who hold a PhD have the right to use the title “Doctor” in front of their name as they are a person with a doctoral degree .

4. What is the correct way to write PhD?

The correct way to write PhD is with no spaces and with both letters capitalized, following the standard abbreviation for Doctor of Philosophy .

5. How do I abbreviate Doctor of Philosophy?

You can abbreviate Doctor of Philosophy as PhD , which is the most commonly used abbreviation for this type of doctoral degree .

6. Can I use both the title ‘Dr.’ and ‘PhD’ together?

Yes, you can use both the title ‘Dr.’ and ‘PhD’ together to denote your academic achievement as a holder of a doctorate degree .

7. What is a dissertation in relation to a PhD?

A dissertation is a scholarly document that Ph.D candidates are required to submit as part of their research degree in a specific field.

8. Who is considered a PhD candidate?

A PhD candidate is a student enrolled in a PhD program working towards the completion of their doctoral studies.

9. Is a PhD also referred to as a Doctorate?

Yes, a PhD is also commonly referred to as a Doctorate , signifying the attainment of the highest

Dr Andrew Stapleton has a Masters and PhD in Chemistry from the UK and Australia. He has many years of research experience and has worked as a Postdoctoral Fellow and Associate at a number of Universities. Although having secured funding for his own research, he left academia to help others with his YouTube channel all about the inner workings of academia and how to make it work for you.

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How can one differentiate between Dr. (PhD) and Dr. (MD or DO)?

Reading the question posted here left me with a more general question:

Given the professional title and name: Dr. (First Name)(Last Name), is there some way to differentiate between the holder of a philosophical doctorate and a medical doctor? Wouldn't it be more appropriate for a PhD holder to have the title (First Name)(Last Name), PhD?

14 Answers 14

You can't immediately tell from the title, but then titles are not typically used by an individual to broadcast their occupation - we don't have variants of "Mr" for plumbers, bank managers, or rock stars - despite their very different occupations. Rather, the title is to be used by others when addressing that individual, in order to signify a degree of respect, typically for a particular level of training, qualification and responsibility, or else for a particularly respected position in society. Even the term "mister" is a meaningful sign of respect that historically would not have been as widely applied as it is today - the ratchet of etiquette has gradually eliminated everything below it.

The actual title "Doctor" means "teacher" (from Latin "doceo", "I teach"). This title is more often more relevant to PhDs than MDs, so you probably have your suggested solution backwards. That said, the solution is really neither necessary nor appropriate. Much like "Master" (from Latin "magister", in this case "teacher"), "Doctor" signifies that an individual has not only gained enough competency to practice in a particular field, but has developed enough expertise to instruct others. An individual who is sufficiently qualified to practice but not teach would historically have been known as a "journeyman", roughly equivalent to "professional".

In short "doctor" refers not to a field of expertise, but rather to a level of expertise.

Incidentally, most UK surgeons drop their title of "Dr" and revert to "Mr" after joining the Royal College of Surgeons. I've heard through a friend of at least one surgeon who reacted quite angrily at being addressed as a mere "Dr", which in such circles, due to a collision between traditional titles and modern medical training, could be unkindly translated as "trainee".

• 2 I think the Mr should be spelled out after joining the Royal College of Surgeons ie. Mr.Smith -> Dr.Smith -> Mister Smith –  user288447 Commented Oct 29, 2014 at 16:34
• 7 @user288447, do you have reference? I can't find anything on that. –  DeveloperInDevelopment Commented Oct 29, 2014 at 16:46
• 2 Unfortunately not, it may just have been convention in one hospital that I was in several years ago. –  user288447 Commented Oct 30, 2014 at 10:31

You can't. That's why there are numerous jokes in English-speaking culture about whether someone addressed as "doctor" is a "real" doctor or not. Medical doctors are supposed to be the "real" ones in the jokes.

• 30 Regarding the jokes, I recently heard introducing a speaker (MD) in a conference "and then he became a real doctor when he did his PhD in...". –  Davidmh Commented Oct 29, 2014 at 12:25
• 8 Also: 'not that kind of doctor' –  Cape Code Commented Oct 29, 2014 at 12:53
• 18 According to peoplefinders.com/search/… , there are 2 people named "Doctor Smith" in the US. Do they have PhDs or MDs? I don't know. Their first name is Doctor. –  emory Commented Oct 29, 2014 at 13:46
• 16 @Emory: Following the example of Major Major , they should enroll in a university and see if a computer error will summarily grant them a doctorate. –  Nate Eldredge Commented Oct 29, 2014 at 14:53
• 6 Ironically, it is neither MD's, nor PhD's that are the true, original " Doctors ", but rather DD's. Though try convincing anyone of that today ... –  RBarryYoung Commented Oct 29, 2014 at 19:15

In the United States, in spoken address, both are called "doctor."

For personal correspondence, both are addressed as "Dr." as with an invitation addressed to "Dr. and Mrs. Smith." (Or maybe "Dr. and Mr. Smith." If they both hold doctorates, it is "Drs. Smith." For a couple with different family names, use "Dr. Smith and Mr. Brown.")

For professional correspondence, both are addressed by name and degree, as "James Smith, M.D." or "Bob Brown, Ph.D."

Since the distinction is only relevant in professional interactions, there really isn't any ambiguity.

If you are speaking to a medical doctor professionally, you will know it by the setting, and you still say "doctor." If you ask for medical advice at a cocktail party because someone was introduced as "doctor" you deserve anything you get! I've been known to say, "I'm a college teacher type doctor, not a take-off-your-clothes doctor." That usually sends the message and often gets a laugh.

• 2 I am not a medical doctor, but I often work in hospital settings interacting with both patients and medical doctors so the setting is not always informative. –  StrongBad Commented Oct 31, 2014 at 11:36
• 3 I know a microbiologist and a physicist who work in a hospital. Their degrees appear on their ID badges, as do those of medical doctors. –  Bob Brown Commented Oct 31, 2014 at 11:46
• This was edited by "Anonymous" to introduce irrelevant commentary about women taking husbands' names. The commentary on the edit also incorrectly stated that more women than men earn doctorates. In the United States, at least, that is incorrect. From the 2014 SED: "Overall, women earned 46% of all doctorates in 2014." –  Bob Brown Commented Nov 29, 2016 at 14:24

I have seen the difference in the written form of their name;

One is Name Family, PhD. and other one is Name Family MD.

The same applies to the people holding Engineering doctorates such as Name Family, EngD. or holding doctorate in business such as DBA. Also, in different countries there are usually different doctorate titles ( link ) awarded.

But all of these people are called doctors .

• 1 I've seen it for dentists too. Name Family D.D.S –  jonescb Commented Oct 29, 2014 at 16:53
• @jonescb just look at the link provided in the answer, you can see more than twenty doctorate titles for different countries and different majors... –  enthu Commented Oct 29, 2014 at 16:56

A medical practitioner usually holds a MBBS or MD degree or similar and - at a reasonable level of proficiency - membership of a professional body such as the AMA ( American Medical Association) or the RCP ( Royal College of Physicians) or whatever applies in their part of the world.

A holder of an academic doctorate ( PhD, DrPh, EngD etc) has researched a topic or problem within their specific subject in sufficient depth to have generated fresh insights or made a breakthrough or contributed significant new knowledge to the existing corpus.

Both have earned the right to be addressed as 'Dr'.

However, it would appear to me that one or two posters have been watching a few too many episodes of 'The Big Bang Theory' as I think the need to differentiate between the two very rarely applies except in a medical emergency.

• 1 In hospital settings where patients may be interacting with both medical doctors and academics, there is a need to differentiate. –  StrongBad Commented Oct 31, 2014 at 11:37

While both have the title of "doctor," that is identifying the fact that they both have the same education level, a doctorate.

The meaningful difference here is occupation : one might be a professor, the other a physician.

To differentiate between the two you can use the actual doctorate type or the job title:

• My professor is Dr. Jones. (or) Dr. Jones teaches my class.
• My physician is Dr. Smith.
• Indiana Jones, Ph.D.
• Joe Smith, M.D.

Of course a physician could also be a professor (who teaches in medical school?), or an M.D. might be a researcher who does not treat patients as their primary means of income (i.e. they only deal with patients during the course of medical studies). I do not think you can do much about those cases.

In Germany, it is common to denote the subject area the doctor was obtained in, such as Dr. med. for medical doctors, Dr.-Ing. for engineers, or Dr.-rer-nat. (rerum naturalium) for sciences like chemistry.

The usual practical solution is "ask them."

Doctor means you have a doctorate. Simple as that, a medic can have a doctorate in medicine and thus be a doctor, but if you do not have the degree then you are not a doctor, you can be a surgeon or a licensee of medicine but you are just referred to as doctor out of colloquial use of the title based on historical rots and customs.

There is no difference in spoken address ('Doctor'), but one is a Ph.D. and the other is an M.D.

You can tell from the context, but without the context, you can't. If the context is obviously far removed from anything clinical, such as "Dr. xyz has written a book on archaeology of early Los Angeles", then it's obviously the PhD sense. If it's a clinical setting, including emergencies and simply asking for health advice, basically when someone's health is at stake, then it's obviously the MD sense.

Things can get more ambiguous in biomedical research, because I personally know some MDs (without PhD) doing research instead of practicing medicine, including some molecular biology professors. When a research paper that uses clinical samples says something like, "Samples were obtained after resection from Dr. xyz", then it really can be either MD or PhD or both. Some people in our field have both.

Anyway, I don't make too big a deal out of it because we in California are typically on first name basis outside the clinical setting (this includes medical doctors). When we PhDs and candidates (at least in CA) say "doctor", we also usually mean medical doctors, like in, "Our postdoc health insurance is so bad that I'm terrified of seeing a doctor", where "doctor" obviously doesn't refer to ourselves. Some states, including California, have laws forbidding anyone who is not a medical doctor to advertise themselves as Dr. something in order not to confuse patients.

The confusing aspect is that doctor connotes medical treatment to most people, not a doctoral degree. Anyone smart enough to have a PhD knows the difference. I would not want a PhD doing my surgery, nor an MD teaching me philosophy.

It's not an easy question to answer. Ph.D's who are professors are just called "professor," and research assistants with a Ph.D are called "doctor" by secretaries and students. Titles are never mentioned in academic papers.

It's different with doctors: Patients and nurses call them "doctor;" if they are also professors, which they often are, the are called "professor" since professors have a higher status than mere M.D.s, and when they write papers in medical journals they put M.D. after their names. When practitioners without an M.D. refer to themselves as "doctor" they are just called "frauds."

Things are much more interesting in Germany. I was treated there by a woman doctor in a University Hospital who was also a professor of medicine. Her title was Frau Dr. Med, Dr. Professor Mueller. Some Professors have three degrees, meaning that are called Herr (or Frau) Dr. Dr. Dr. Professor.

• I have never heard medical school Professors introduce themselves to patients as Professor. In the UK holders of a Bachelors in Medical Science (BMedSci) call themselves doctor and it is not fraud. –  StrongBad Commented Oct 31, 2014 at 11:41
• Titles are never mentioned in academic papers — ...in some disciplines. In others, they are mentioned quite prominently. –  JeffE Commented Apr 25, 2015 at 3:43

In French (maybe other latin countries too), but I don't know about English, you can make a small difference by adding ès : Albert Einstein, Docteur ès Physique.

Then twice in a row you have specified that he was a scientific doctor (not a medical one) and his field of research.

• 2 Hi Rucikir, welcome to Academia.SE. Your answer does not really answer the question. Basically you are explaining how to say Albert Einstein, PhD in French, which is not what the OP is asking. –  earthling Commented Oct 30, 2014 at 10:47
• Well, I just didn't know if it could be used in English, apparently not, so it was irrelevant. Thanks for pointing it out. Sorry. But I'm not the only one to have done that, other answer about the German way. –  Antonin Décimo Commented Oct 31, 2014 at 23:53

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Is an MD-PhD Right for Me?

New section.

Do you want the opportunity to train in both medicine and research? An MD-PhD allows you to do just that. But what does it mean to become a physician scientist? We asked AAMC experts to explain why you might want to consider this type of training.

As you prepare to apply to medical school, it’s valuable to explore other potential career paths beyond a traditional MD degree. One path to consider is an MD-PhD degree, which provides training in both medicine and research.

But how do you know if it’s the right career path for you? We asked AAMC experts to explain the advantages of training to be a physician scientist through an MD-PhD program.  

Who are physician scientists? Physician scientists are focused on scientific discovery and patient care at the intersection of science and medicine, understanding human health and disease from a scientific and clinical perspective. Physician scientists have the unique ability to identify and study important questions in health care. There are four pathways to become a physician scientist:

• Complete MD training and then conduct extended research through fellowship training.
• Complete MD training and then return to graduate school to earn a PhD degree.
• Complete PhD training and then enter medical school to earn an MD degree.
• Work towards both degrees simultaneously in a dual MD-PhD degree program.

In each pathway, students are exposed to a career in scientific research while also treating patients in a clinical setting.

What are MD-PhD Programs? MD-PhD programs provide training for the dual degree by integrating research and clinical training experiences where students learn to conduct hypothesis driven research in a mentored environment. There are over 100 MD-PhD programs affiliated with U.S. medical schools, and the National Institute of General Medical Sciences partially supports approximately 45 programs, known as Medical Scientist Training Programs (MSTPs). 

These programs provide unique training experiences, including MD-PhD specific courses and professional development workshops, visiting scholar seminars, retreats, opportunities to attend national conferences and join organizations, and mentoring for graduate and residency training. The students and mentors in these programs are a vibrant community, working to advance the trainees’ development as a scientist and physician. 

How long does training take?

The MD-PhD career path is a commitment, as training to complete both MD and PhD degrees takes about 7 or 8 years.

How do I pay for a MD-PhD program?

Most programs offer financial support, including stipends, tuition waivers, and health insurance to help students cover the cost of their scientific and medical training.

Who are MD-PhD students?

Annually, an estimated 600 students matriculate into MD-PhD programs. This is only about 3% of all students who matriculate into medical school. PhD training for MD-PhD students is typically in biomedical sciences, such as molecular, cellular, or human or animal studies in biochemistry, cell biology and microbiology, immunology and genetics, neuroscience, pharmacology, and physiology. However, PhD training may also be in fields outside of the classical biomedical sciences, such as bioengineering, chemical biology, bioinformatics, public health, anthropology, and bioethics. 

What do MD-PhDs do after graduation?

Most MD-PhD graduates train in a residency program and become licensed to practice in a specific field of medicine. From there, they typically go on to careers that blend research and clinical medicine, though their research topic may or may not be closely related to their field of medical practice. Most MD-PhDs work in academic medical centers, such as medical schools or teaching hospitals. MD-PhDs also conduct research in institutes such as the National Institutes of Health or other government or private agencies, or work for pharma or biotech companies.

MD-PhD careers provide unique perspectives on questions about basic scientific discovery, medical intervention, or translational research. During their career, MD-PhDs may remain focused as a basic or clinical scientist, or become an administrative leader within their academic medical center. Their training provides opportunities to be successful in either environment. 

Is an MD-PhD path right for you? To find out more, visit the AAMC website for information on MD-PhD dual degree training . 

• @AAMCpremed

Helpful tools and information regarding medical MD-PhD programs.

Information about applying to MD-PhD programs, emphasizing the application process during COVID-19.

Information about MD-PhD programs, emphasizing the career and application process.

Learn about MD-PhD Programs from program leaders.

Upcoming short presentations will describe features of MD-PhD training, alumni careers, and detailed logistics of the application process.

Emily battled viral encephalitis for years during college, and now as a MD/PhD student, she reminds premeds that it's okay to ask for help.

Cesar couldn't apply to medical school when he first graduated from college due to his undocumented status. Now he's in a MD-PhD program and hopes to practice in the Southwest where there's a high need for Spanish-speaking physicians.

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• Master’s vs PhD | A Complete Guide to the Differences

Master's vs PhD | A Complete Guide to the Differences

Published on November 27, 2020 by Lauren Thomas . Revised on May 10, 2024.

The two most common types of graduate degrees are master’s and doctoral degrees:

• A master’s is a 1–2 year degree that can prepare you for a multitude of careers.
• A PhD, or doctoral degree, takes 3–7 years to complete (depending on the country) and prepares you for a career in academic research.

A master’s is also the necessary first step to a PhD. In the US, the master’s is built into PhD programs, while in most other countries, a separate master’s degree is required before applying for PhDs.

Master’s are far more common than PhDs. In the US, 24 million people have master’s or professional degrees, whereas only 4.5 million have doctorates.

Table of contents

Master’s vs phd at a glance, which is right for you, length of time required, career prospects, costs and salaries, application process, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about master's and phd degrees.

The table below shows the key differences between the two.

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A PhD is right for you if:

• Your goal is to become a professor at a university or some other type of professional researcher.
• You love research and are passionate about discovering the answer to a particular question.
• You are willing to spend years pursuing your research even if you have to put up with a lot of dead ends and roadblocks.

A master’s degree is the better choice if any of the following apply:

• You want to continue studies in your field, but you’re not committed to a career as a professional researcher.
• You want to develop professional skills for a specific career.
• You are willing to pay a higher upfront cost if it means finishing with your degree (and thus being able to work) much faster.
• You want the option to study part-time while working.

The length of time required to complete a PhD or master’s degree varies. Unsurprisingly, PhDs take much longer, usually between 3–7 years. Master’s degrees are usually only 1–2 years.

Length of a master’s

Master’s degrees are usually 2 years, although 1-year master’s degrees also exist, mainly in the UK.

Most of the degree consists of classes and coursework, although many master’s programs include an intensive, semester-long master’s thesis or capstone project in which students bring together all they’ve learned to produce an original piece of work.

Length of a PhD

In the US, a PhD usually takes between 5 and 7 years to complete. The first 2 years are spent on coursework. Students, even those who choose to leave without finishing the program, usually receive a master’s degree at this point.

The next 3–5 years are spent preparing a dissertation —a lengthy piece of writing based on independent research, which aims to make a significant original contribution to one’s field.

Master’s degrees tend to prepare you for a career outside of academia, while PhDs are designed to lead to a career in research.

Careers for master’s graduates

There are two types of master’s degrees: terminal and research-intensive. The career prospects are different for each.

Terminal master’s degrees are intended to prepare students for careers outside of academia. Some degrees, known as professional degrees, specifically prepare students for particular professions; these include the Master of Public Policy (MPP), Master of Business Administration (MBA), Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT), Master of Fine Arts (MFA), and Master of Public Health (MPH) degrees.

Other master’s degrees, usually Master of Arts (MA) or Master of Sciences (MS or MSc) degrees, do not necessarily lead to a specific career, but are intended to be a final degree. Examples include an MS in Communications or MS in Data Analytics.

In research-intensive master’s programs, students take coursework intended to prepare them for writing an original piece of research known as the master’s thesis . Such programs are usually intended to prepare for further study in a doctoral program.

Careers for PhD graduates

As research degrees, PhDs are usually intended to lead to an academic career. A PhD can be thought of like an apprenticeship, where students learn from professional researchers (academics) how to produce their own research.

Most students aspire to become a university professor upon the completion of their degree. However, careers in academia are highly competitive, and the skills learned in a doctoral program often lend themselves well to other types of careers.

Some graduates who find they prefer teaching to producing research go on to be teachers at liberal arts colleges or even secondary schools. Others work in research-intensive careers in the government, private sector, or at think tanks.

Below are a few examples of specific fields and non-academic careers that are common destinations of graduates of those fields.

• Computer Science
• Lab Sciences

Many government jobs, including economists at a country’s central bank, are research-intensive and require a PhD. Think tanks also hire economists to carry out independent research.

In the private sector, economic consulting and technology firms frequently hire PhDs to solve real-world problems that require complex mathematical modeling.

Graduate students from the humanities are sometimes hired by museums, who can make use of their research and writing skills to curate exhibits and run public outreach.

Humanities PhDs are often well-suited to research and grant-writing roles at nonprofits. Since so much of research is funded by grants, PhD students often gain a lot of experience applying for them, which is a useful skill in the nonprofit sector.

There are a wide range of non-academic research jobs for lab scientists with doctorates in subjects like chemistry, biology, ecology and physics.

Many PhD graduates are hired by pharmaceutical companies that need to perform research to create and test their products. Government agencies, such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), also hire lab scientists to work on research projects.

Job prospects after graduation vary widely based on the field. In fields like management, computer science, statistics, and economics, there’s little underemployment—even graduates from less well-known programs can easily find jobs that pay well and use the skills they’ve gained from the PhD.

However, in other fields, particularly in the humanities, many PhD graduates have difficulty in the job market. Unfortunately, there are far more PhD graduates than assistant professor roles, so many instead take on part-time and low-paid roles as adjunct instructors. Even non-academic careers can sometimes be difficult for PhDs to move into, as they may be seen as “overqualified”  or as lacking in relevant professional experience.

Because career options post-PhD vary so much, you should take the time to figure out what the career prospects are in your field. Doctoral programs often have detailed “placement” records online in which they list the career outcomes of their graduates immediately upon leaving the program. If you can’t find these records, contact the program and ask for them—placement information should play an important role in your choice of PhD program.

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Although PhDs take far longer to complete, students often receive a living stipend in exchange for being a teaching or research assistant. Master’s degrees are shorter but less likely to be funded.

Both master’s degrees and PhDs lead to increased salaries upon graduation. While PhDs usually earn a bit more than those with a master’s degree, in some fields, the wages are identical, meaning that no financial benefit is gained from going on to a PhD.

Cost of a master’s

The upfront cost of a master’s degree is usually higher than a doctoral degree due to the lower amount of financial aid available. However, increased salaries also arrive faster than with a doctoral degree, because people graduate much earlier from a master’s program.

Some master’s students do receive stipends for their degrees, usually as compensation for being a teaching or research assistant. In addition, many people complete master’s degrees part time while working full-time, which allows them to fund their living costs as well as tuition.

The cost varies significantly by school and program. Public schools are usually cheaper than private ones. Some master’s degrees, such as MBAs, are notoriously expensive, but also result in much higher wages afterwards that make up for the high cost.

The master’s wage premium , or the extra amount that someone with a master’s degree makes than someone with just a high school diploma, is 23% on average. Many universities provide detailed statistics on the career and salary outcomes of their students. If they do not have this online, you should feel free to contact an administrator of the program and ask.

Cost of a PhD

PhDs, particularly outside the humanities, are usually (though not always) funded, meaning that tuition fees are fully waived and students receive a small living stipend. During the last 3–5 years of a PhD, after finishing their coursework (and sometimes before), students are usually expected to work as graduate instructors or research assistants in exchange for the stipend.

Sometimes students can apply for a fellowship (such as the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Program in the United States) that relieves them of any obligations to be a teaching or research assistant. Doctoral programs in the US tend to be better funded than in the rest of the world.

Sometimes, PhD degrees can be completed part-time, but this is rare. Students are usually expected to devote at least 40 hours a week to their research and work as teaching or research assistants.

The main cost of doctoral programs comes in the form of opportunity cost—all the years that students could be working a regular, full-time job, which usually pays much better than a graduate school stipend.

The average wage premium for PhDs is 26%, which is not much higher than the master’s degree premium.

In the US, the application process is similar for master’s and PhD programs. Both will generally ask for:

• At least one application essay, often called a personal statement or statement of purpose .
• Letters of recommendation .
• A resume or CV .
• Transcripts.
• Writing samples.

Applications for both types of programs also often require a standardized test. PhDs usually require the Graduate Record Examination (GRE), which tries to measure verbal reasoning, quantitative, critical thinking , and analytical writing skills. Many master’s programs require this test as well.

Applying for a master’s

Master’s degrees programs will often ask you to respond to specific essay prompts that may ask you to reflect upon not just your academic background, but also your personal character and future career ambitions.

Northwestern University’s Kellogg Business School requires Master’s of Business Administration (MBA) applicants write two essays, one about a recent time they demonstrated leadership and the second about their personal values.

Who you should ask for your letters of recommendation varies by program. If you are applying to a research-intensive master’s program, then you should choose former professors or research supervisors. For other programs, particularly business school, current work supervisors may be a better choice.

Some professional master’s programs require a specific test. For example, to apply to law school, you must take the Law School Admissions Test, or LSAT. For business school, you must take either the GRE or the Graduate Management Admissions Test (GMAT).

Applying for a PhD

When applying for a PhD, your resume should focus more on your research background—you should especially emphasize any publications you’ve authored or presentations that you’ve given.

Similarly, your statement of purpose should discuss research that you’ve participated in, whether as an assistant or the lead author. You should detail what exactly you did in projects you’ve contributed to, whether that’s conducting a literature review, coding regressions, or writing an entire article.

Your letters of recommendations should be from former professors or supervisors who can speak to your abilities and potential as a researcher. A good rule of thumb is to avoid asking for recommendations from anyone who does not themselves have a PhD.

If you want to know more about college essays , academic writing , and AI tools , make sure to check out some of our other language articles with explanations, examples, and quizzes.

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A master’s is a 1- or 2-year graduate degree that can prepare you for a variety of careers.

All master’s involve graduate-level coursework. Some are research-intensive and intend to prepare students for further study in a PhD; these usually require their students to write a master’s thesis . Others focus on professional training for a specific career.

A PhD, which is short for philosophiae doctor (doctor of philosophy in Latin), is the highest university degree that can be obtained. In a PhD, students spend 3–5 years writing a dissertation , which aims to make a significant, original contribution to current knowledge.

A PhD is intended to prepare students for a career as a researcher, whether that be in academia, the public sector, or the private sector.

This depends on the country. In the United States, you can generally go directly to a PhD  with only a bachelor’s degree, as a master’s program is included as part of the doctoral program.

Elsewhere, you generally need to graduate from a research-intensive master’s degree before continuing to the PhD.

This varies by country. In the United States, PhDs usually take between 5–7 years: 2 years of coursework followed by 3–5 years of independent research work to produce a dissertation.

In the rest of the world, students normally have a master’s degree before beginning the PhD, so they proceed directly to the research stage and complete a PhD in 3–5 years.

A master’s degree usually has a higher upfront cost, but it also allows you to start earning a higher salary more quickly. The exact cost depends on the country and the school: private universities usually cost more than public ones, and European degrees usually cost less than North American ones. There are limited possibilities for financial aid.

PhDs often waive tuition fees and offer a living stipend in exchange for a teaching or research assistantship. However, they take many years to complete, during which time you earn very little.

In the US, the graduate school application process is similar whether you’re applying for a master’s or a PhD . Both require letters of recommendation , a statement of purpose or personal statement , a resume or CV , and transcripts. Programs in the US and Canada usually also require a certain type of standardized test—often the GRE.

Outside the US, PhD programs usually also require applicants to write a research proposal , because students are expected to begin dissertation research in the first year of their PhD.

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5 routes to getting a Doctorate

While most of those studying for a PhD take the PhD by thesis pathway, there are five viable routes to achieving a Doctorate, with both full-time and part-time options available

PhD by thesis

This is the most common means of getting a Doctorate. Over the three or four years of research at university, your PhD supervisor will support you as you aim to produce a thesis based on your research proposal .

A thesis is typically 60,000-90,000 words in length - although this can vary between institutions. For instance, the University of Glasgow's College of Social Sciences expects a thesis to be 70,000 to 100,000 words including references, bibliography and appendices, while the University of Cambridge has set an upper limit of 80,000 words.

Once completed, you'll need to defend your PhD thesis in front of a panel of examiners during your viva voce .

Doctorate by publication

This route involves submitting previously published work - such as books, book chapters and journal articles, which together form a coherent body of work and show evidence of an original contribution to a particular field of study.

The PhD by publication route is often taken by mid-career academics that haven't had the opportunity to undertake a standard Doctorate degree.

Generally, a minimum of five to eight published pieces are required, but this varies between institutions and depends on their length. The published work will be assessed to the same rigorous standards as a traditional PhD by thesis.

You must also provide a written supporting statement, which typically ranges from 5,000 to 15,000 words.

For instance, the University of Westminster asks for a commentary of 5,000 words (science and technology subjects) or 10,000 words (arts, social sciences and humanities). On the other hand, Queen Margaret University Edinburgh requires 12,000 to 15,000 words on the rationale and theoretical context for the portfolio of published work.

The work will then be presented to an academic committee. A supervisor will assist you with selecting which publications to submit, as well as guidance on the supporting statement.

Some universities accept only their own graduates for a PhD by publication, while others restrict this route to their academic staff. In general, you should have graduated from your first degree at least seven years ago to be eligible.

For example, The University of Manchester has published its own Guidance for the PhD By Published Work , with eligibility only extending to current members of staff.

Professional Doctorate

This type of Doctorate includes a significant taught component and a smaller research project, and is geared primarily towards current professionals in vocational sectors such as:

• engineering and manufacturing
• teaching and education .

Professional Doctorates are often taken on a part-time basis and can last between two and eight years. Like their standard PhD counterparts, they usually begin in October or January.

While you won't typically be looking to get an academic job , your research is expected to contribute to theory as well as professional practice. Projects often revolve around a real-life issue that affects your employer.

Several professional Doctorates, such as the Doctorate in Clinical Psychology (DClinPsy), are accredited by a professional body - for instance, the Health & Care Professions Council (HCPC) and The British Psychological Society (BPS) - and may also lead to a professional qualification .

Common titles for graduates of professional Doctorate degrees include:

• Doctor of Business Administration (DBA)
• Doctor of Education (EdD)
• Doctor of Engineering (EngD)
• Doctor of Medicine (MD).

Unlike many professional Doctorates, the EngD is typically offered as a full-time course and is aimed at young engineering graduates with little or no professional experience.

Integrated PhD

This four-year qualification, also known as the New Route PhD, involves studying a one-year research Masters degree (MRes) before progressing onto a three-year PhD.

Offered by a select number of universities across the UK, integrated PhDs are supported by the government and the British Council through UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) .

Visit Research Council funding for further information on research and funding for different types of PhD.

The integrated PhD involves a combination of taught materials, practical experience and advanced research. This allows you to learn subject-specific methodologies, while building the transferable skills that will enable you to become a leader in your chosen profession.

Institutions can also develop personalised integrated PhD programmes to meet each student's needs. For example, universities may offer you the opportunity to gain a postgraduate certificate (PGCert) in Learning and Teaching in Higher Education - perfect if you're considering a career as a higher education lecturer .

Online/distance learning PhD

As PhDs are based primarily on independent research rather than time spent in lectures and seminars, distance learning has always been a viable route for many Doctoral students.

PhDs by distance learning offered by course providers such as The Open University are therefore a good option to consider if you've got family or work commitments or are an international student - as this gives you the chance to undertake Doctoral research without having to live close to your chosen institution. It's also a suitable mode of study if your subject requires you to be based in a specific location away from the university.

For the most part, you'll be in touch with your supervisor by phone, email or Skype/Zoom. You'll need to bear in mind that even if you opt for this form of research, you'll generally still need to attend university for one or two weeks of each academic year for meetings and to receive research skills training. Your final exam may be undertaken either face-to-face or virtually.

With online PhDs, you can usually register as a full or part-time student. The level of fees you pay varies between institutions - some charge the same as for a standard PhD while others offer a reduced rate.

Check that any funding you plan to apply for is available to distance learning students, as this isn't always the case.

Search for online/distance learning PhDs .

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18 Surprising Things That Happen to Your Body When You Stop Drinking Alcohol

From weight loss to better sleep, the long-term and short-term side effects can be noticeable.

What happens to your body when you stop drinking?

Alcohol withdrawal timeline, how to stop drinking, bottom line.

If you’re thinking about joining the #SoberCurious movement , you’re not alone. There are currently over 750,000 uses of the hashtag on Instagram, and more and more people are considering giving up alcohol as an experiment (think: Dry January but at other points in the year) — or for good. So what happens to your body when you stop drinking alcohol? We asked experts to break down everything you might notice immediately, and the effects that can continue long after you’ve had your last sip.

What does alcohol do to your body?

You’d be hard-pressed to think of something in your body that isn’t impacted by alcohol. According to Matthew Mosquera , MD, the Medical Director of the Alcohol, Drugs, and Addiction Inpatient Program at McLean Hospital in Belmont, Massachusetts and an instructor of psychiatry at Harvard Medical School, alcohol affects three main systems in your body:

Light drinkers tend to be mostly spared from the effects on the liver, but for heavy drinkers, the liver becomes inflamed, which can be dangerous over time,” says Dr. Mosquera. According to The National Institute for Health,  light drinking is defined as seven drinks per week for women, with no more than three in one day, and no more than 14 drinks per week for men, with no more than four in one day .  That said, your liver has to work hard to process and filter alcohol, no matter the quantity. When you’re drinking heavily on a regular basis, it can overwhelm the liver’s capabilities, causing a cascade of health issues, including liver disease, liver cancer, and  acute alcohol-related hepatitis  — all of which can be deadly.

Cardiovascular System

“Alcohol is a monkey wrench in our homeostasis,” says Dr. Mosquera. “Both light and heavy drinking dehydrates you, so your heart compensates by elevating your blood pressure and your heart rate.” In fact,  an analysis of seven studies  in the journal Hypertension , found that  people who had just one drink per day showed elevated blood pressure when compared to non-drinkers.

Cognitive Function

Drinking increases anxiety levels and impairs your memory’s ability to function, adds Dr. Mosquera. But we’re not just talking about one night of “blacking out” and forgetting what happened. The compound effects of drinking on your brain can be serious. One study found that even moderate alcohol consumption can cause changes to the brain’s structure , leading to cognitive decline in areas associated with memory and reasoning. In the study, more excessive drinking translated to more rapid cognitive decline.

While these areas may take the greatest hit from regular drinking, they aren’t the only ones affected. Alcohol’s inflammatory properties don’t just affect the liver — the stomach can also become inflamed, which, along with the dehydration, can affect digestion and lead to constipation . While your liver and stomach can usually rebound if you stop drinking, with inflammation comes an increased cancer risk over time.

Alcohol can also impair your ability to get restorative rest because you’re less likely to enter REM sleep, which has been shown to increase your risk of dementia .

Regular drinking raises estrogen levels and reduces testosterone. For men, this can look like lowered libido and erectile dysfunction, as well as decreased muscle mass. For women, it can increase the risk of breast cancer, impair bone health, and lead to mood changes.

And, emotionally, alcohol can make you not only more anxious, but more irritable, more impulsive and less inhibited — not just after a drink, but compounded over time, says Dr. Mosquera. These effects can also be exacerbated if you have a mental health diagnosis like bipolar disorder, he says.

Ironically, some of the first things you might notice are similar to what happens to your body when you’re drinking. “Anxiety is the most common thing people notice upon stopping,” says Dr. Sharone Abramowitz , MD, a psychiatrist and president of the California Society of Addiction Medicine . She also notes that a craving for alcohol is common once people stop.

Other common side effects:

• rapid heart rate
• restlessness
• sleep problems

The good news? These effects will subside as your body adjusts to the absence of alcohol.

The first few days:

Some positive effects of no alcohol will come on after just a few days of giving up your nightly nightcap. Alcohol inhibits your ability to reach a REM state while asleep, so after a few days without alcohol, you’ll start to notice that you’re dreaming more and getting deeper, more restorative rest. “You’re also more hydrated, so your heart rate will start to go down,” says Dr. Mosquera. “After a few days, you’ll notice an increase in energy and more mental clarity.”

After a week:

After just seven days without alcohol, your immune system starts bouncing back. While you might not notice it, your hormones are starting to improve as well, with libido and sexual function revving back up. While heavy drinkers are the only ones who experience liver effects from alcohol, the improvements can be felt very quickly. “If you’re a heavy drinker, this is where your liver health starts rebounding,” says Dr. Mosquera.

After a month:

Your body’s systems bounce back over time, but after about 30 days, you’ll start seeing a difference. “Your skin has had a month to absorb all the hydration and nutrients and B vitamins that your body hadn’t been getting while you were drinking, so this is when you’ll see noticeable improvements to your skin,” says Dr. Mosquera. There’s also likely to be some weight loss within a month, due to the absence of the calories you were ingesting in alcohol (as long as you haven’t swapped them for equally high-calorie comfort foods).

After 3 months:

Consider this when the cloud will start lifting mentally. “After a few months, the brain will begin to return to health,” says Dr. Abramowitz. Your alcohol-induced anxiety levels have likely stabilized, too. Your sleep cycle is continuing to improve, so you’re getting even more REM sleep and feeling more rested.

After 6 months:

Six months without alcohol is when you can begin to see your immune system optimizing and fighting the good fight again, though depending on the time of year and your environment, you might not immediately notice. If it’s winter, you may notice fewer colds than in the past, but in warmer months, the changes may be more subtle, but that doesn’t mean they aren’t there. Your body is starting to operate more efficiently, too. “Giving your body six months of water absorption will improve your digestion and constipation,” says Dr. Mosquera.

After a year:

“The one-year mark is when your overall risk of different cancers has leveled off,” says Dr. Mosquera. “No level of drinking is safe when it comes to cancer risk, but after a year without alcohol, you’ve experienced a significant risk reduction.” After all this time, you might also appreciate a lot of the emotional effects of a life without alcohol. “Your relationships are likely improved, and your resilience has increased,” says Dr. Mosquera.

On top of that, you’re likely feeling less anxiety and are better able to regulate your emotions when life’s hiccups arise.

Depending on whether you’re a light or heavy drinker, your strategy around cutting back will be different. “For a light drinker, you don’t really need to taper,” says Dr. Mosquera. “Heavy drinkers should make a plan to avoid withdrawal symptoms like seizures.” If you’re drinking more than seven drinks a week for a woman or 14 for a man, especially for extended periods of time, consider talking to a doctor first before stopping cold turkey.

If you’re considering a break from alcohol, it might also be helpful to think about why you drink. “Everyone turns to alcohol for a reason,” says Dr. Mosquera. “Maybe it’s relief from your worries or connection with friends. Try to think about what you’ll replace alcohol with so that you can still get that outlet.” Instead of meeting friends regularly at a bar to connect and wind down, suggest a new workout class you could do together or just meet up for a walk. If drinking is your go-to way to blow off steam after a busy week, schedule a booze-free, self-care activity for Friday afternoons, like indulging in a hobby you enjoy or a pampering session like a massage.

Quitting without a plan can be extra tough because you’ll still want to fill the emotional void that alcohol used to sop up. Make sure you have another strategy lined up that actually works for you (i.e., don’t say you’ll take up yoga if you hate yoga), so you won’t feel tempted to rush back to drinking when life gets stressful. Another potential option: The rise in great-tasting non-alcoholic beverages may make the switch even easier.

Why trust Good Housekeeping

Brittany Burke Robert, the author of this article, has written about health for Oprah Daily, Well+Good, Livestrong, Reebok and other publications and digital brands for over 15 years. She has extensive experience working alongside clinicians and providers to create physical and mental well-being content that's useful, informative, and clinically effective. For this article, she conducted interviews with multiple doctors for their expertise and recommendations and read research on alcohol and its effect on the body. In addition, the editor of this article has spent the last 15 years as a health editor, covering all things health, fitness, nutrition, and wellness and adheres to the highest journalistic standards.

Brittany Burke Robert has written about health for Oprah Daily, Well+Good, Livestrong, Reebok, and other publications and digital brands for over 15 years. She has extensive experience working alongside clinicians and providers to create physical and mental well-being content that's useful, informative and clinically effective.

Jihan Myers is an award-winning journalist and editor who has covered women's health for more than 17 years for digital brands and publications including Good Housekeeping, O, The Oprah Magazine, Prevention, and Marie Claire , among others. She has experience covering all things health, fitness, nutrition, and wellness and adheres to the highest journalistic standards.

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What to Know About the Updated COVID Vaccine for Fall, Winter 2024–25

The updated COVID vaccine provides safe, effective protection against current variants for everyone 6 months and older.

Aliza Rosen

Editor’s note: This article was updated on September 3, 2024 to include information on the updated Novavax COVID-19 vaccine, which was authorized by the FDA on August 30, 2024.

Amid an unexpectedly large surge of summer COVID infections in the U.S., and with the fall/winter virus season around the corner, updated COVID vaccines have arrived.

COVID vaccines are one of the best and safest ways to protect against severe illness and hospitalization. Updated COVID vaccines, also referred to as boosters, are chosen to target the variants currently circulating and are recommended for everyone 6 months of age and older.

In this Q&A, Andy Pekosz , PhD, a professor in Molecular Microbiology and Immunology , discusses who the updated vaccine is recommended for, when to get yours, whether it’s safe to get it alongside other seasonal vaccines.

What’s new about this year’s updated COVID vaccines?

As in previous years, there are mRNA vaccines—one from Moderna, one from Pfizer—and a protein-based vaccine, from Novavax. One nuance this year is that the mRNA and protein-based vaccines target different—though closely related—variants.

The updated mRNA COVID vaccines from Moderna and Pfizer are based on the KP.2 strain, one of the FLiRT variants that have been spreading since early spring. These variants and their sub-variants have caused the majority of infections during this summer’s COVID wave. The protein-based Novavax vaccine is based on the  JN.1 variant, which accounted for the majority of COVID infections in the first few months of 2024 and is the parent strain from which KP.2 and other currently circulating variants branch from.

At the end of the day, laboratory experiments show that all of the updated vaccines available this season can recognize circulating COVID variants and therefore should be similarly effective in reducing your chance of becoming severely ill from COVID infection or needing to be hospitalized.

Who should be getting an updated COVID vaccine?

Everyone 6 months and older should get vaccinated against COVID, according to the CDC’s recommendations .

For children ages 6 months to 4 years: Vaccination is recommended, but the number of vaccinations is based on which vaccine they receive, their age, and whether they’ve received a previous COVID vaccine. Parents and guardians should refer to CDC guidance and check with their pediatrician to see what’s recommended for their child.

For people ages 5 years and up: One dose of the updated COVID vaccine is recommended, regardless of whether they’ve been vaccinated previously. If someone has received a COVID vaccine recently, they should wait at least two months before getting the updated one for this season.

According to updated CDC guidelines, individuals who are immunocompromised may receive additional doses with their health care provider’s guidance.

When is the best time to get vaccinated?

This summer’s surge has been larger and lasted longer than many experts anticipated, making it a little trickier than years past to determine the best time to get vaccinated.

People who have not had COVID in the past few months have a couple options:

• Get the updated COVID vaccine as soon as it’s available  (late August, early September) to protect yourself as the wave of summer infections continues.
• Get the updated COVID vaccine around mid-October to boost protection in time for the rise of cases that typically occur around November through January.

People at higher risk of severe illness should consider getting an updated COVID vaccine as soon as possible. Everyone who is eligible should get an updated COVID vaccine by mid-October in order to build immunity ahead of holiday travel and gatherings. Remember, it takes about two weeks to build up immunity following a vaccine, so schedule your vaccination accordingly.

How long does protection last after I'm vaccinated?

Broadly speaking, the COVID vaccine provides strong protection against infection for up to three months and protection against severe disease out to six months. That said, there are a lot of variables that can affect duration and strength of protection, including any new variants that may emerge and how different they are from the vaccine formulation.

If I had COVID recently, when should I get the updated vaccine?

If you’ve had COVID this summer, you’ll have strong infection-based immunity and can wait a few months after your infection before getting the vaccine. According to the CDC, you can wait three months since your symptoms began or, for asymptomatic cases, since you first tested positive.

There’s some evidence to support waiting as long as six months after a COVID infection to receive an updated vaccine. Waiting longer than the CDC’s guidance of three months is not recommended for high-risk groups, but it’s something people can discuss with their doctor.

How should I choose which COVID vaccine to get?

Between the two mRNA vaccines from Moderna and Pfizer, there is no reason to get one over the other. They target the same KP.2 variant, are similarly effective, and elicit similar side effects.

The same goes for deciding between the mRNA vaccines and the Novavax protein-based vaccine: While they target different variants, they both will recognize current variants. People who have had a particularly adverse response to a previous mRNA vaccine might consider the Novavax vaccine as an alternative, as  protein-based vaccines generally don’t induce as strong side effects.

Is the COVID vaccine free?

The COVID vaccine is free under most health insurance plans and Medicare.

If you don’t have insurance to cover the cost of the COVID vaccine, look for vaccination clinics run by your local or state health department. Children under 18 may also be eligible to get a free COVID vaccine through the CDC’s Vaccines for Children Program .

You can find local pharmacies offering COVID vaccines at Vaccines.gov or by contacting your health care provider or local health department .

Are there any side effects to the updated COVID vaccine?

The common side effects are the same as with previous COVID vaccines. Symptoms like soreness at the injection site, achiness or joint pain, fatigue, slight fever, chills, or nausea are normal and not cause for concern. These side effects are a sign that your body is mounting an immune response—exactly what it’s supposed to do following a vaccine. Side effects generally subside within a day or two.

If I haven’t gotten any COVID vaccines yet, can I start with this one?

If you’ve never been vaccinated against COVID, now is a great time to start. People 5 years of age and older are considered up to date on COVID vaccination once they receive one dose of an updated mRNA COVID vaccine.

People 12 years and older who have not previously received a COVID vaccine and choose the Novavax vaccine are considered up to date after receiving two doses of the Novavax vaccine, with the second dose administered three weeks after the first one.

How well does the vaccine protect against the variants currently circulating?

The vaccine is a close match to variants currently circulating and provides good protection against severe disease, hospitalization, and death. While KP.2 is not causing a significant number of infections, the most prevalent variants circulating right now are very closely related to them. The vaccine will never be a perfect match to the circulating variants because it takes 2-4 months to make the vaccine, and during that time the virus continues to change as it infects people.

Is vaccine-induced immunity better than immunity from infection?

Vaccine-induced immunity is better because it’s safer. When you get infected with COVID, symptoms from the infection wreak havoc on your body. Whether or not you’ve been infected or vaccinated previously, the COVID booster is going to strengthen your immune responses to high levels and do so in a safe way.

Can I still get COVID if I’m vaccinated?

People who are vaccinated can still get COVID, but it is much more likely they will experience mild symptoms. Vaccinated people are much less likely to experience severe illness or get so sick that they need to be hospitalized. Data continue to show that those who are hospitalized with COVID are largely people who have not received a COVID vaccine within the past 12 months.

Particularly for people at higher risk of severe COVID, vaccination is an essential tool for reducing COVID complications, hospitalization, and death.

Can you get the flu shot and the COVID vaccine at the same time?

Yes! In fact, studies have shown that people who decide to spread out their vaccines into separate appointments often don’t follow through with getting both. We’ve also seen that the immune response generated by each vaccine does not change based on whether they are administered at the same time or separately.

It’s important to remember that many of the same populations at high risk of experiencing severe illness from COVID are also at high risk of severe influenza. Especially for these vulnerable populations, it’s a good idea to time your vaccines together.

When might we see a combined COVID and flu vaccine?

Some vaccine manufacturers have been working on developing a combined vaccine for COVID and flu, but we’re not there yet. We certainly won’t see a combined vaccine this year. It’s possible one will be ready in time for fall 2025, but we won’t know for sure until more clinical trial results are available.  

Aliza Rosen is a digital content strategist in the Office of External Affairs at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health.

Related Articles:

• Understanding the CDC’s Updated COVID Isolation Guidance
• What to Know About COVID FLiRT Variants
• The Long History of mRNA Vaccines

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Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

What is a phd.

A PhD is a Doctorate of Philosophy, a prestigious qualification which is the highest level of degree that a student can achieve, demonstrating talent, academic excellence and a thirst for knowledge. In a modern knowledge-based economy, highly educated and skilled people such as doctoral graduates, are in great demand. They form the most highly educated and skilled group in the UK and internationally. Many will go on to use their skills within academia or in research-intensive occupations in industry. However, there will be others who will draw on their research background and the skills gained through a doctoral degree in a wide variety of other occupations. Examples of the type of employment opportunities taken up by PhD holders can be found at Vitae: researcher careers .

What will I get from a PhD?

You will get a huge sense of personal achievement. Our doctoral training programme will help you develop transferable skills that will be invaluable in your subsequent career. The research techniques and methodologies you master will enable you to make a direct contribution to the advancement of knowledge in your particular subject area.

Successful candidates are awarded the degree of Doctor of Philosophy and are permitted to use the title ‘Dr’.

How does it work?

The maximum registration for a PhD programme is four years with full-time study, or eight years with part-time study.

All PhD students are initially registered for a Master of Philosophy (MPhil), and the PhD registration is confirmed after the successful completion of an upgrade assessment (at the end of year 1 for full-time students and year 2 for part-time study). You will be registered for a PhD when you pass this upgrade. Your academic progress will be monitored throughout your degree studies, via formal progress reports and regular meetings with your supervisors.

You complete a body of primary, novel research and submit a doctoral thesis of up to 100,000 words, which you then defend via an oral examination (the viva) to the satisfaction of the examiners. Your thesis must meet the expectations specified in the Quality Code .

Entry requirements

Entry requirements vary according to the research topic and/or specific studentships. The normal minimum entrance requirement is an upper second class honours degree or masters degree, relevant to the proposed area of study, from a recognised higher education institution in the UK or other recognised degree-awarding body. The comparability of qualifications from outside the UK with The Open University requirements will be determined through reference to UK ENIC .

The research topic pages (within research areas ) give details of specific entry requirements, and provide contact details to discuss your suitability for the PhD.

English language proficiency

To study with us, you will need to have a good command of English. If your first language is not English, you will need to demonstrate your competence in the English Language in all four elements (reading, writing, listening and speaking). The University requires a minimum IELTS score of 6.5 with no less than 6.0 in any of the four categories (or approved equivalent). If you are an overseas student, you must have your level of proficiency certified through a provider approved by UK Visas and Immigration and provide your certificate and grade with your application.

Application closing dates

Entry may be permitted for direct registration with The Open University at the following points of year: October and February. This ensures that students benefit from development and training in peer groups. For further information on how to apply, see our Application process section. Application deadlines may differ between research topics and studentships; full details of topic application period is detailed in the topic page (within research areas ).

PhD student, Hannah Sargeant. Her research is focussed on water production from Moon rocks as part of the ProSPA instrument that will be flown to the Moon in 2025.

My PhD journey so far has been a wonderful learning experience that made me reflect upon my beliefs and stretch my thinking.

The sweetest thing about the PhD is that you’ve worked hard for it. It is an opportunity to make an original contribution to an academic area I have always found fascinating.

Your questions

For advice about applying for a research degree, or sponsoring a research student, email the Graduate School or call +44 (0)1908 653806.

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