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5 Benefits of Learning Through the Case Study Method

• 28 Nov 2023

While several factors make HBS Online unique —including a global Community and real-world outcomes —active learning through the case study method rises to the top.

In a 2023 City Square Associates survey, 74 percent of HBS Online learners who also took a course from another provider said HBS Online’s case method and real-world examples were better by comparison.

Here’s a primer on the case method, five benefits you could gain, and how to experience it for yourself.

Access your free e-book today.

What Is the Harvard Business School Case Study Method?

The case study method , or case method , is a learning technique in which you’re presented with a real-world business challenge and asked how you’d solve it. After working through it yourself and with peers, you’re told how the scenario played out.

HBS pioneered the case method in 1922. Shortly before, in 1921, the first case was written.

“How do you go into an ambiguous situation and get to the bottom of it?” says HBS Professor Jan Rivkin, former senior associate dean and chair of HBS's master of business administration (MBA) program, in a video about the case method . “That skill—the skill of figuring out a course of inquiry to choose a course of action—that skill is as relevant today as it was in 1921.”

Originally developed for the in-person MBA classroom, HBS Online adapted the case method into an engaging, interactive online learning experience in 2014.

In HBS Online courses , you learn about each case from the business professional who experienced it. After reviewing their videos, you’re prompted to take their perspective and explain how you’d handle their situation.

You then get to read peers’ responses, “star” them, and comment to further the discussion. Afterward, you learn how the professional handled it and their key takeaways.

Learn more about HBS Online's approach to the case method in the video below, and subscribe to our YouTube channel for more.

HBS Online’s adaptation of the case method incorporates the famed HBS “cold call,” in which you’re called on at random to make a decision without time to prepare.

“Learning came to life!” said Sheneka Balogun , chief administration officer and chief of staff at LeMoyne-Owen College, of her experience taking the Credential of Readiness (CORe) program . “The videos from the professors, the interactive cold calls where you were randomly selected to participate, and the case studies that enhanced and often captured the essence of objectives and learning goals were all embedded in each module. This made learning fun, engaging, and student-friendly.”

If you’re considering taking a course that leverages the case study method, here are five benefits you could experience.

5 Benefits of Learning Through Case Studies

1. take new perspectives.

The case method prompts you to consider a scenario from another person’s perspective. To work through the situation and come up with a solution, you must consider their circumstances, limitations, risk tolerance, stakeholders, resources, and potential consequences to assess how to respond.

Taking on new perspectives not only can help you navigate your own challenges but also others’. Putting yourself in someone else’s situation to understand their motivations and needs can go a long way when collaborating with stakeholders.

2. Hone Your Decision-Making Skills

Another skill you can build is the ability to make decisions effectively . The case study method forces you to use limited information to decide how to handle a problem—just like in the real world.

Throughout your career, you’ll need to make difficult decisions with incomplete or imperfect information—and sometimes, you won’t feel qualified to do so. Learning through the case method allows you to practice this skill in a low-stakes environment. When facing a real challenge, you’ll be better prepared to think quickly, collaborate with others, and present and defend your solution.

3. Become More Open-Minded

As you collaborate with peers on responses, it becomes clear that not everyone solves problems the same way. Exposing yourself to various approaches and perspectives can help you become a more open-minded professional.

When you’re part of a diverse group of learners from around the world, your experiences, cultures, and backgrounds contribute to a range of opinions on each case.

On the HBS Online course platform, you’re prompted to view and comment on others’ responses, and discussion is encouraged. This practice of considering others’ perspectives can make you more receptive in your career.

“You’d be surprised at how much you can learn from your peers,” said Ratnaditya Jonnalagadda , a software engineer who took CORe.

In addition to interacting with peers in the course platform, Jonnalagadda was part of the HBS Online Community , where he networked with other professionals and continued discussions sparked by course content.

“You get to understand your peers better, and students share examples of businesses implementing a concept from a module you just learned,” Jonnalagadda said. “It’s a very good way to cement the concepts in one's mind.”

4. Enhance Your Curiosity

One byproduct of taking on different perspectives is that it enables you to picture yourself in various roles, industries, and business functions.

“Each case offers an opportunity for students to see what resonates with them, what excites them, what bores them, which role they could imagine inhabiting in their careers,” says former HBS Dean Nitin Nohria in the Harvard Business Review . “Cases stimulate curiosity about the range of opportunities in the world and the many ways that students can make a difference as leaders.”

Through the case method, you can “try on” roles you may not have considered and feel more prepared to change or advance your career .

5. Build Your Self-Confidence

Finally, learning through the case study method can build your confidence. Each time you assume a business leader’s perspective, aim to solve a new challenge, and express and defend your opinions and decisions to peers, you prepare to do the same in your career.

According to a 2022 City Square Associates survey , 84 percent of HBS Online learners report feeling more confident making business decisions after taking a course.

“Self-confidence is difficult to teach or coach, but the case study method seems to instill it in people,” Nohria says in the Harvard Business Review . “There may well be other ways of learning these meta-skills, such as the repeated experience gained through practice or guidance from a gifted coach. However, under the direction of a masterful teacher, the case method can engage students and help them develop powerful meta-skills like no other form of teaching.”

How to Experience the Case Study Method

If the case method seems like a good fit for your learning style, experience it for yourself by taking an HBS Online course. Offerings span eight subject areas, including:

• Business essentials
• Leadership and management
• Entrepreneurship and innovation
• Digital transformation
• Finance and accounting
• Business in society

No matter which course or credential program you choose, you’ll examine case studies from real business professionals, work through their challenges alongside peers, and gain valuable insights to apply to your career.

Are you interested in discovering how HBS Online can help advance your career? Explore our course catalog and download our free guide —complete with interactive workbook sections—to determine if online learning is right for you and which course to take.

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Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

• Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
• Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
• Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
• Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
• Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
• Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

• The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
• The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
• The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
• The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

• Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
• Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
• Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

• In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
• Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
• Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
• Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
• Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

• Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
• Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
• Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
• Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
• Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

• Nitin Nohria

Seven meta-skills that stick even if the cases fade from memory.

It’s been 100 years since Harvard Business School began using the case study method. Beyond teaching specific subject matter, the case study method excels in instilling meta-skills in students. This article explains the importance of seven such skills: preparation, discernment, bias recognition, judgement, collaboration, curiosity, and self-confidence.

During my decade as dean of Harvard Business School, I spent hundreds of hours talking with our alumni. To enliven these conversations, I relied on a favorite question: “What was the most important thing you learned from your time in our MBA program?”

• Nitin Nohria is the George F. Baker Jr. and Distinguished Service University Professor. He served as the 10th dean of Harvard Business School, from 2010 to 2020.

Partner Center

What is the Case Study Method?

Simply put, the case method is a discussion of real-life situations that business executives have faced.

On average, you'll attend three to four different classes a day, for a total of about six hours of class time (schedules vary). To prepare, you'll work through problems with your peers.

How the Case Method Creates Value

Often, executives are surprised to discover that the objective of the case study is not to reach consensus, but to understand how different people use the same information to arrive at diverse conclusions. When you begin to understand the context, you can appreciate the reasons why those decisions were made. You can prepare for case discussions in several ways.

Case Discussion Preparation Details

In self-reflection.

The time you spend here is deeply introspective. You're not only working with case materials and assignments, but also taking on the role of the case protagonist—the person who's supposed to make those tough decisions. How would you react in those situations? We put people in a variety of contexts, and they start by addressing that specific problem.

In a small group setting

The discussion group is a critical component of the HBS experience. You're working in close quarters with a group of seven or eight very accomplished peers in diverse functions, industries, and geographies. Because they bring unique experience to play you begin to see that there are many different ways to wrestle with a problem—and that’s very enriching.

In the classroom

The faculty guides you in examining and resolving the issues—but the beauty here is that they don't provide you with the answers. You're interacting in the classroom with other executives—debating the issue, presenting new viewpoints, countering positions, and building on one another's ideas. And that leads to the next stage of learning.

Beyond the classroom

Once you leave the classroom, the learning continues and amplifies as you get to know people in different settings—over meals, at social gatherings, in the fitness center, or as you are walking to class. You begin to distill the takeaways that you want to bring back and apply in your organization to ensure that the decisions you make will create more value for your firm.

How Cases Unfold In the Classroom

Pioneered by HBS faculty, the case method puts you in the role of the chief decision maker as you explore the challenges facing leading companies across the globe. Learning to think fast on your feet with limited information sharpens your analytical skills and empowers you to make critical decisions in real time.

To get the most out of each case, it's important to read and reflect, and then meet with your discussion group to share your insights. You and your peers will explore the underlying issues, compare alternatives, and suggest various ways of resolving the problem.

How to Prepare for Case Discussions

There's more than one way to prepare for a case discussion, but these general guidelines can help you develop a method that works for you.

Preparation Guidelines

Read the professor's assignment or discussion questions.

The assignment and discussion questions help you focus on the key aspects of the case. Ask yourself: What are the most important issues being raised?

Read the first few paragraphs and then skim the case

Each case begins with a text description followed by exhibits. Ask yourself: What is the case generally about, and what information do I need to analyze?

Reread the case, underline text, and make margin notes

Put yourself in the shoes of the case protagonist, and own that person's problems. Ask yourself: What basic problem is this executive trying to resolve?

Note the key problems on a pad of paper and go through the case again

Sort out relevant considerations and do the quantitative or qualitative analysis. Ask yourself: What recommendations should I make based on my case data analysis?

Case Study Best Practices

The key to being an active listener and participant in case discussions—and to getting the most out of the learning experience—is thorough individual preparation.

We've set aside formal time for you to discuss the case with your group. These sessions will help you to become more confident about sharing your views in the classroom discussion.

Participate

Actively express your views and challenge others. Don't be afraid to share related "war stories" that will heighten the relevance and enrich the discussion.

If the content doesn't seem to relate to your business, don't tune out. You can learn a lot about marketing insurance from a case on marketing razor blades!

Actively apply what you're learning to your own specific management situations, both past and future. This will magnify the relevance to your business.

People with diverse backgrounds, experiences, skills, and styles will take away different things. Be sure to note what resonates with you, not your peers.

Being exposed to so many different approaches to a given situation will put you in a better position to enhance your management style.

Frequently Asked Questions

What can i expect on the first day, what happens in class if nobody talks, does everyone take part in "role-playing".

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Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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• Case Studies

Case Study Basics

What is a case study *.

A case study is a snapshot of an organization or an industry wrestling with a dilemma, written to serve a set of pedagogical objectives. Whether raw or cooked , what distinguishes a pedagogical case study from other writing is that it centers on one or more dilemmas. Rather than take in information passively, a case study invites readers to engage the material in the case to solve the problems presented. Whatever the case structure, the best classroom cases all have these attributes: (1)The case discusses issues that allow for a number of different courses of action – the issues discussed are not “no-brainers,” (2) the case makes the management issues as compelling as possible by providing rich background and detail, and (3) the case invites the creative use of analytical management tools.

Case studies are immensely useful as teaching tools and sources of research ideas. They build a reservoir of subject knowledge and help students develop analytical skills. For the faculty, cases provide unparalleled insights into the continually evolving world of management and may inspire further theoretical inquiry.

There are many case formats. A traditional case study presents a management issue or issues calling for resolution and action. It generally breaks off at a decision point with the manager weighing a number of different options. It puts the student in the decision-maker’s shoes and allows the student to understand the stakes involved. In other instances, a case study is more of a forensic exercise. The operations and history of a company or an industry will be presented without reference to a specific dilemma. The instructor will then ask students to comment on how the organization operates, to look for the key success factors, critical relationships, and underlying sources of value. A written case will pre-package appropriate material for students, while an online case may provide a wider variety of topics in a less linear manner.

Choosing Participants for a Case Study

Many organizations cooperate in case studies out of a desire to contribute to management education. They understand the need for management school professors and students to keep current with practice.

Organizations also cooperate in order to gain exposure in management school classrooms. The increased visibility and knowledge about an organization’s operations and culture can lead to subsidiary benefits such as improved recruiting.

Finally, organizations participate because reading a case about their operations and decision making written by a neutral observer can generate useful insights. A case study preserves a moment in time and chronicles an otherwise hidden history. Managers who visit the classroom to view the case discussion generally find the experience invigorating.

The Final Product

Cases are usually written as narratives that take the reader through the events leading to the decision point, including relevant information on the historical, competitive, legal, technical, and political environment facing the organization. A written case study generally runs from 5,000 to 10,000 words of text supplemented with numerous pages of data exhibits. An online raw case may have less original text, but will require students to extract information from multiple original documents, videos of company leaders discussing the challenges, photographs, and links to articles and websites.

The first time a case is taught represents something of a test run. As students react to the material, plan to revise the case to include additional information or to delete data that does not appear useful. If the organization’s managers attend the class, their responses to student comments and questions may suggest some case revisions as well.

The sponsoring professor will generally write a “teaching note” to give other instructors advice on how to structure classroom discussion and useful bits of analysis that can be included to explicate the issues highlighted in the case study.

Finally, one case may inspire another. Either during the case writing process or after a case is done, a second “B” case might be useful to write that outlines what the organization did or that outlines new challenges faced by the organization after the timeframe of the initial case study.

* Portions of this note are adapted from E. Raymond Corey, “Writing Cases and Teaching Notes,” Harvard Business School case 399-077, with updates to reflect Yale School of Management practices for traditional and raw cases.

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Towards an integrated case method in management education—developing an ecosystem-based research and learning journey for flipped classrooms.

1. Introduction to the Case Method in Management Education

2. results of integrating case research and case teaching as a grounded learning approach, 3. discussion of the design for case-based learning concepts, 3.1. design of a case-based learning journey.

• Case research competence, i.e., the basic application expertise of qualitative research instruments by the learners needs to be built. Thus, a research method training should prepare students with these essentials and this should take place at the beginning of the course. Additionally, the course design should provide enough time in class for discovery-driven research, and discussions about results and alternative solutions for a specific case problem.
• Case company involvement throughout the course requires sufficient time for students to visit company representatives, conduct expert interviews, and analyze the various data points as a basis for the case writing assignment. At the end of the course, the developed case should be tested in class and presented to the case company.

3.2. Design of a Flipped Classroom for Case-Based Learning

4. the way forward: thee case method in ecosystems of higher education institutions, 5. conclusion: shifting the research and teaching paradigm, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Büchler, J.-P.; Brüggelambert, G.; de Haan-Cao, H.H.; Sherlock, R.; Savanevičienė, A. Towards an Integrated Case Method in Management Education—Developing an Ecosystem-Based Research and Learning Journey for Flipped Classrooms. Adm. Sci. 2021 , 11 , 113. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci11040113

Büchler J-P, Brüggelambert G, de Haan-Cao HH, Sherlock R, Savanevičienė A. Towards an Integrated Case Method in Management Education—Developing an Ecosystem-Based Research and Learning Journey for Flipped Classrooms. Administrative Sciences . 2021; 11(4):113. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci11040113

Büchler, Jan-Philipp, Gregor Brüggelambert, Haijing Helen de Haan-Cao, Roger Sherlock, and Asta Savanevičienė. 2021. "Towards an Integrated Case Method in Management Education—Developing an Ecosystem-Based Research and Learning Journey for Flipped Classrooms" Administrative Sciences 11, no. 4: 113. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci11040113

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Case Study Method

This article covers meaning & overview of Case Study Method from HRM perspective.

What is Case Study Method?

The case study is a method used as a part of, off-the-job managerial training and development. It includes a detailed written description of a stimulated or real life decision making scenario. Trainees are expected to solve the problems stated in the case using their decision making ability complemented with teamwork skills.

The aim of the case study method is to develop managerial competency, problem solving and decision making skills. The trainer will only act as a facilitator to guide the discussion but will not provide any input in order to encourage the trainees to participate and master their KSAs.

An advantage of the case study method is that it exposes the trainees to a wide range of situations, which they otherwise may not have face and thereby allows them test their skills and develop their strengths. Furthermore this method provokes real life behaviour to help trainees understand and improve their behaviour in a crisis situation. Another advantage is that case studies stimulate innovation and ideas which can be further implemented on the job.

However, many times case studies are considered as unrealistic and therefore irrelevant by trainees. As a consequence trainees may not put enough effort to generate viable solutions. Furthermore, in real life the problems are not laid out in paper as it is in the case study, therefore it does not develop problem identification skills. Lastly, case studies have no right or wrong answer therefore validation of the solution is difficult.

Hence, this concludes the definition of Case Study Method along with its overview.

This article has been researched & authored by the Business Concepts Team which comprises of MBA students, management professionals, and industry experts. It has been reviewed & published by the MBA Skool Team . The content on MBA Skool has been created for educational & academic purpose only.

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• Published: 08 September 2024

Global analysis of social learning’s archetypes in natural resource management: understanding pathways of co-creation of knowledge

• Michelle Bonatti   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8511-5365 1 , 2 ,
• Marcos Lana 3 ,
• Leonardo Medina 1 , 2 ,
• Paul Chevelev 4 ,
• Carla Baldivieso 1 , 2 ,
• Carla Errismann 1 , 2 ,
• Pia Gleich 5 ,
• Tatiana Rodriguez 6 ,
• Luca Eufemia 7 ,
• Teresa da Silva Rosa 8 ,
• Juliano Borba 9 ,
• Custodio Matavel   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3800-7887 10 ,
• Sandro Schlindwein 11 ,
• Ray Ison   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9191-119X 12 ,
• Klaus Eisenack   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9070-4017 2 ,
• Jon Hellin   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2686-8065 13 ,
• Grazia Pacillo 14 ,
• Vincent Vadez   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2014-0281 15 , 16 ,
• Jérôme Bossuet   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0005-1671-482X 15 , 17 ,
• Aleksandra Dolinska &
• Stefan Sieber   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4849-7277 1 , 2  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  1161 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

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• Environmental studies

Although social learning (SL) conceptualization and implementation are flourishing in sustainability sciences, and its non-rigid conceptual fluidity is regarded as an advantage, research must advance the understanding of SL phenomenon patterns based on empirical data, thus contributing to the identification of its forms and triggering mechanisms, particularly those that can address urgent Anthropocene socio-ecological problems. This study aims to discover fundamental patterns along which SL in natural resources management differs by identifying SL archetypes and establishing correlations between the SL process and overall geopolitical conditions. Using a systematic literature review comprising 137 case studies in the five continents, content analysis, and correlations were performed. Results show two main archetypes of social learning (endogenous and exogenous). Their occurrence was linked, to where social learning occurs and how venues/preconditions for social learning are placed. In the Global South, endogenous SL should be better potentialized as a catalyzer of deliberative processes for sustainable natural resources management.

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Introduction.

Attempts to improve sustainable natural resource management (NRM) increasingly highlight the importance of generating conducive contexts for the co-creation of social–ecological strategies based on learning approaches, rather than relying on technocratic models built on hierarchy and linear conceptions of knowledge transfer (Kristjanson et al., 2014 ; Rodela, 2011 ; Pahl-Wostl, 2009 ; Ison and Russell, 2000 ; Armitage et al., 2008 ). Although technological advancements and technical understandings of social–ecological system dynamics are undoubtedly important and widely adopted in the environmental and agricultural sciences to steer sustainable transitions (e.g., climate-smart agriculture and sustainable intensification, among others), technocratic models tend not to transcend technical knowledge (Blok, 2018 ). Instead, they obscure the collective understanding of interdependencies, complexity, uncertainty, and competing truths in sustainable development (SD) agendas (Rist et al., 2007 ). Where technocratic management overshadows human responsibilities for the multiple crises of the Anthropocene, humanistic approaches focusing on collective processes and risk, bring them to light (Blok, 2018 ). Therefore, sustainable NRM requires further research and development that enables and institutionalizes new practice dynamics, interactions, roles, responsibilities, and pathways to co-create novel systems of knowledge and knowing.

Here, knowledge of sustainable NRM is understood as a form of cognitive understandings that guide natural resource management strategies, and as a relational achievement (Ison et al., 2013 ). Replacing accounts of individual discoverers and/or technology, knowledge for sustainable NRM is a result of humans–biophysical world interactions and co-creation processes (Gergen, 2011 ), which should be fostered to accelerate transformative development and democratic decision-making. This perspective has gained momentum since 2000, with a particular interest in learning-based and co-creation approaches in sustainability sciences (Kristjanson et al., 2014 ; Bonatti, 2018 ). However, knowledge co-creation settings can also face challenges, especially in co-creation settings among Global North and Global South actors. In this context, the current difference between “co-creation” and “classic” crowdsourcing initiatives is far from clear, resulting in some skepticism about the co-creation process since it can be used as a form of coloniality (Quijano, 2007 ) and scientific extractivism (Mpoe and Swartz, 2019 ). Co-creation denotes a deeper relationship and commitment by the involved parties, who must work to jointly ideate, design, and produce knowledge and strategies that benefit all based on alternative pedagogies in the form of practical reflexivity and dialogical research (praxis) (Freire, 2020 ; Baron, 2004 ). These alternative pedagogies are associated with social learning (SL) processes (Lotz-Sisitka et al., 2015 ).

Created during the 1960s in the educational sciences (Bandura and Walters, 1977 ), SL has quickly evolved conceptually and been adopted by several different disciplines and sub-disciplines. During the 1980s, SL was intensively used in Organizational Sociology, and in the 2000s, Sustainability Sciences embraced the concept as a fundamental pathway for the co-creation of strategies for sustainable natural resource management (Cundill and Rodela, 2012 ), hence establishing a second school of social learning (Bonatti, 2018 ). SL continues to be conceptualized, understood, and used in many different ways (Wals, 2007 ; Muro and Jeffrey, 2008 ; Reed et al., 2010 ; Collins and Ison, 2009 ; Bonatti et al., 2022 ).

Here, SL is defined as a process based on collaborative groups and networks that: (a) integrate different sources of knowledge; (b) undertake iterative and transformative actions as a result of critical learnings that transcend the individual and become situated within wider social units (Reed et al., 2010 ); and (c) generate an epistemological point of view that defines knowledge not as an object that can be transferred between people but as the result of an emergent, relational dynamic of social interactions (Ison et al., 2013 ). Social learning (the second school) is a process crucial for natural resource management and is found in different kinds of institutions and communities, although with diverse forms and functions. This implies that questions concerning the different functions of SL, how it contributes to sustainable transformations, and questions concerning conditions and structures that foster its emergence cannot be answered in a general way (Ison et al., 2013 ). Furthermore, the rapid growth and diversification of SL approaches have generated, in some cases, divergence about the meanings, outcomes, and limitations of SL for NRM. Since purposeful empirical social learning research is still comparatively new (Cundill et al., 2014 ; Kristjanson et al., 2014 ), emerging at a time of significant inter and transdisciplinary interest in societal change toward a more sustainable future (Cundill et al., 2014 ), research should forge a stronger and deeper understanding of SL processes, along with potential models for societal transformation and sustainable NRM. While some remarkable advances in social learning classifications (Rodela, 2011 ; Cundill and Rodela, 2012 ; Slater and Robinson, 2020 ) and metaphors (Ison et al., 2013 ) have been established, the actual design and organization of empirical cases that aim to trigger social learning remain largely underexplored. Therefore, although the conceptualization of social learning is rapidly evolving in sustainability science, and its non-rigid conceptual fluidity is regarded as an advantage (Ison et al., 2013 ), it is critical that research advances the understanding of social learning phenomenon patterns based on empirical evidence (Kristjanson et al., 2014 ). Further developments in this regard could contribute to the identification of different social learning forms, particularly those most effective in addressing urgent social–ecological problems in the Anthropocene.

To close this gap, this research advances theory in this area by identifying overall geopolitical contexts that differentiate social learning and identifying their archetypes. Archetypes are models based on patterns of behaviors or phenomena (Oberlack et al., 2019 ; Eisenack et al., 2019 ). Thus, archetypes of social learning refer to the fundamental paths/patterns through which people involved in NRM learn from each other in a social context. By investigating archetypes of social learning, this study can advance the understanding of social learning approaches and definitions of ‘what is’ social learning (Rodela, 2011 ; Cundill and Rodela, 2012 ; Ison et al., 2013 ; Reed et al., 2010 ), focusing particularly on the following research questions: What are the archetypical pathways of social learning in NRM? How do they occur in different social and geopolitical contexts? The primary aim is not only to understand the observed social learning phenomena through extensive empirical data but also to establish correlations between social learning, geopolitical location, and general socio-economic conditions. This is crucial for advancing the study of social learning and is particularly significant in showcasing potential alternative models of social learning that may emerge from various contexts.

This study, therefore, adopts a working hypothesis based on previous SL studies to guide the analysis. Chavez-Miguel et al. ( 2022 ), Bonatti et al. ( 2022 ), and Souza et al. ( 2020 ) show initial evidence regarding the potential emergence of different kinds of social learning based on initiatives led by communities living in adverse socioeconomic conditions in the Global South. Their research focuses, respectively, on Escuelas Campesinas (in Colombia), the Bucket Revolution, and the community of Lomba do Pinheiro (both in Brazil). These case studies offered initial evidence about a kind of social learning that is triggered through collective action at community levels that emerged autonomously possibly indicating different patterns of relational dynamics among social actors occurring in the Global South.

Although the Global South is not a static concept, it is understood that the concepts of Global North and Global South (or the North–South divide in a global context) are used to describe a grouping of countries sharing similar socioeconomic and political characteristics (Dados and Connell, 2012 ). The Global South is a term generally used to identify countries in the regions of Latin America, Africa, parts of Asia, and Oceania. Most, though not all, of the countries in the Global South, are characterized by low-income, dense populations, poor infrastructure, colonial past, minorities’ exclusion, and marginalization processes (Mahler, 2017 , 2018 ). Although this distinction has limitations given the changing global dynamics (Gray and Gills, 2016 ) and the potential to overlook specific contexts related to class, gender, and race that contribute to global inequalities (Dados and Connell, 2012 ), it represents the latest development and critical approach to the previous definition called developing or developing countries.

The previous studies, findings (Chavez-Miguel et al., 2022 ; Bonatti et al., 2022 ; Souza et al., 2020 ) are the central source of information for the development and investigation of the hypothesis of this study, and this type of social learning can be called Endogenous SL. A definition of this type of SL is only found in the work of Carlile ( 2013 ), where it is defined as a process rooted in the political, economic and social frameworks of the locality or region. This process would embody a form of social learning that convened stakeholders that represented not just a socially differentiated community of actors but a set of actors that acknowledged the traditions and local authorities of the region as well as an understanding of the local organizations (Carlile, 2013 ). Therefore, for the purpose of the analysis carried out here, Endogenous SL is initially understood as the process through which interacting individuals within a society or group learn from one another, rather than from external sources or formal instruction (Cunningham and Cunningham, 2008 ). This type of learning is “endogenous” because it originates from within the system or community itself (Wals and van der Leij, 2007 ). It involves the exchange of knowledge, behaviors, and skills through observation, practices, and communication among peers (Reed et al., 2010 ) sharing a territory (Berkes, 2009 ). This concept can be related to Endogenous Development which focuses on leveraging local resources, knowledge, and capacities to foster sustainable development from within a community or region (Vázquez-Barquero, 2002 ). It prioritizes the participation and empowerment of local populations, ensuring that development initiatives are culturally appropriate and rooted in local traditions and/or practices (Escobar, 1995 ; Ray, 1999 ).

A second type of SL called Exogenous, for which a formal definition does not exist (or cannot be found) in the literature, has also been identified, which could be included among the current social learning concepts. In this type of social learning, individuals or groups learn from experiences, information, and influences that originate outside their immediate social context or community (Reed et al., 2010 ) based on interactions with external social actors such as representatives of organizations. As a result, this study elaborates on actual and potential differences between endogenous and exogenous SL patterns to be confirmed on the basis of further empirical evidence.

The differentiation of two initial archetypes is crucial to provide a parameter for identifying the potential emergence of different types of social learning, based on initiatives led by communities living in the different geopolitical contexts. Although this study recognizes the limitations of using North–South relations (Gray and Gills, 2016 ; Dados and Connell, 2012 ), the adoption of this geopolitical differentiation was essential because different patterns of relational dynamics may occur in different socio-economic contexts, which could have implications for the emergence of different kinds of social learning to be identified at the global level.

To understand the observed social learning phenomena through extensive empirical data and to establish correlations between social learning and power structures and socio-economic conditions, four interconnected steps were applied: (1) development of the analytical framework (2) case study selection; (3) case study classification; and (4) clustering and definition of archetypes. Steps 2 and 3 are based on a systematic literature review, defined as systematic methods to identify, select, and critically appraise relevant research, collecting and analyzing data from the studies that are included in the review (Petticrew and Roberts, 2008 ).

Step 1—Development of the analytical framework

To answer the research questions, this study applied an archetype analysis, which can identify/represent recurring interaction patterns (Moallemi et al., 2022 ). Archetype analysis avoids the traps of overgeneralization and ideography by identifying recurring but non-universal patterns that hold for well-defined subsets of cases (Eisenack et al., 2019 ). This kind of analysis in sustainability research offers the opportunity to assess recurrent causes and effects of human–nature interactions as an integrated set of processes rather than isolated factors while considering the specific spatiotemporal contexts in which they evolve. Therefore, this study seeks to discover social learning generalizations about key interlinkages and patterns relevant to sustainable natural resource research by using archetype analysis as a core methodological approach (Kates et al., 2001 ). These patterns are useful for understanding functional similarities and differences from a broader perspective, thus informing decisions that must be made across diverse knowledge co-creation contexts (Miller et al., 2014 ; Sietz et al., 2019 ), linking empirical evidence with broader learning processes. Importantly, recognizing similarities can enhance learning and inform the scaling-up of sustainability improvements.

The analytical framework synthesizes some insights from a collection of seminal studies (Cundill and Rodela, 2012 ; Scholz et al., 2014 ; Slater and Robinson, 2020 ), which delineate essential characteristics and attributes of social learning in terms of materials (Slater and Robinson, 2020 ), processes (Cundill and Rodela, 2012 ), involved actors, methodologies, resources, and resulting outcomes such as new knowledge, reflective thinking, and newly forged relationships (Table 2 ). These fundamental elements were methodically integrated and organized through the lens of archetype analysis (Fig. 1 ), leading to the development of a comprehensive conceptual model that articulates the social learning phenomena within natural resource management (NRM). This model is structured around three principal dimensions—outputs, inputs, and geopolitical context—each aligning with the archetype analysis’s structural components: design, outcome, and diagnostic criteria.

Analytical framework.

The geopolitical context dimension delves into the interplay between political and geographic territories, drawing on the conceptualizations by Quijano ( 2007 ) and Dados and Connell ( 2012 ). The input dimension encapsulates the essential tools, participants, processes, and materials that facilitate social learning events (Cundill and Rodela, 2012 ; Slater and Robinson, 2020 ). Conversely, the output dimension captures the tangible and intangible products emanating from the social learning interactions (Scholz et al., 2014 ). Notably, this study opted to exclude the transformation of mental models from our analysis, as outlined by Scholz et al. ( 2014 ), due to their inherently higher subjective nature.

The 10 social learning key characteristics were defined as the 10 specific categories of analysis. In order to analyze comparable factors across heterogeneous cases, this study prioritized the inclusion of more objective categories (such as ‘geopolitical location’, ‘location’, ‘country’, ‘natural resource addressed’ and ‘resource availability’). However, subjective categories (‘relational capital’, ‘methods’, ‘targeted objective’ and ‘level of social learning’) are also included because of the importance of trying to understand the inputs and outputs of a social phenomenon (in this case, the social learning process). Therefore, this study has a certain degree of subjectivity in its analysis. These categories were classified as interdepend or independent to further analyses. The explanation of the interconnections and dependencies among categories was crucial for clarifying the possibility of category exclusions if necessary and enhancing the comprehension of our analytical framework. Analyzing interdependent relations requires an approach that considers the direct interactions, causal relations, and connections variables. In contrast, independent relations can be examined separately, focusing on individual effects.

Classifying and analyzing a consistent quantity of social learning cases based on these categories of analysis enables us to investigate the SL phenomenon in depth and its context, to identify the boundaries between the phenomenon under investigation and the context in which it occurs, as well as to generalize SL recurrent mechanisms, co-relations, and patterns (Cundill et al., 2014 ).

Step 2—Selection of study cases

To understand the current forms of social learning in NRM, this study systematically reviewed a selection of international peer-reviewed literature that directly assesses the status, processes, tools, barriers, outcomes, and opportunities for social learning NRM. Specific keywords were used in our initial search, such as “social learning” and “natural resource management,” in combination with variations of “case of study,” “study case,” “case,” or “case study,” which helped identify the initial 4220 documents (with 4072 of these documents from Web of Science and 158 from Science direct). These keywords were developed based on a rigorous process that drew from previous literature in the field and the collective familiarity of the authors with the topic (period of data collection September 20 to December 20, 2022). Non-empirical (theoretical and conceptual) literature and empirical cases of social learning that occurs without human group in-person collaboration were excluded. In other words, our review focused on empirical studies that included collaboration for on-ground actions, as well as publications including “learning” in the content.

To ensure a high standard of reporting quality of the revision process and its replicability, our study follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, which includes a standard methodology that uses a guideline checklist and a flow diagram (Page et al., 2021 ). The flow diagram, which provides a schematic overview of the review steps, is depicted in Fig. 2 .

PRISMA flowchart of primary study selection.

After removing duplicate records (154), an initial screening of titles took place, excluding a total of 3523 records that were marked as ineligible. Subsequently, the remaining 553 documents were manually screened and further filtered based on the abstracts to include only peer-reviewed publications that: (1) explicitly analyze social learning or learning processes, directly mention social learning processes, or specifically use methods mentioning social learning; (2) relate it to sustainability and natural resources management (i.e., land use, water management, biodiversity, etc.); and (3) are peer-reviewed and published in international scientific journals (Table 1 includes specific criteria to including or excluding the articles). Accordingly, it was selected 130 articles that went through a full-text assessment. The scope of this review is limited to the natural resource management literature. This does not negate the importance of the other bodies of literature on the topic, particularly in the areas of pedagogy, governance, and policy. Rather, the limited scope of this review highlights the challenge of summarizing a large and rapidly growing discourse on social learning in natural resource management.

In order to ensure the reliability and validity of this systematic literature review, a rigorous quality assessment was conducted. This involved a multi-step process to evaluate the included studies and ensure the consistency and comparability of the data.

During the coding phase (Step 3), it became evident that one category of analysis, namely “Conflict,” consistently lacked sufficient and consistent information across the selected studies. Consequently, this category was deemed unsuitable for inclusion in the review. The decision to exclude the “Conflict” category was made in order to maintain the overall quality and reliability of the review by focusing on categories with more robust and consistent data. As illustrated in the analytical framework, conflict is an independent variable. Consequently, the exclusion of this category would not affect the overall analysis.

In addition to the exclusion of categories, meticulous attention was paid to the methodologies employed in the selected studies. It was observed that some articles employed methods related to computer games as a social learning process that were not directly comparable to the primary research focus of this systematic review. In order to maintain methodological consistency, comparability, and relevance to the research question, 21 articles were excluded from the review. Consequently, only a final sample of 109 articles met the inclusion criteria (see Supplementary Material : List of articles). To maintain the individual case study as the unit of analysis, articles discussing more than one case were analyzed on a per-case basis. This resulted in a total number of 137 individual cases of social learning for natural resource management.

Step 3—Classification of the cases according to categories of analysis

A content analysis was conducted on the selected papers through the following ten analytical categories of the analytical framework: 1. geopolitical location; 2. The type of participants; 3. Scope of learning; 4. Outcomes; 5. Relational capital generated; 6. Conflicts generated; 7. SL mediation/methodology applied; 8. Financial resource availability during the SL process; 9. SL level (endogenous or exogenous process); and 10. Natural resources are addressed with the SL process (Table 2 ).

The classification of the articles according to the categories of analysis was conducted by an interdisciplinary team ( n : 10) comprising geographers, politicians, agronomists, an economist, a sociologist, and a pedagogue, which had rounds of inter-rater checks for concordance. Regarding quality assurance of coding, to enable cross-article comparisons, we conducted a quality assessment of each coder to identify those who had missed entries or skipped significant questions/indicators. Individual training was conducted to understand and calibrate the categories of analysis and its variables. As such, all included studies underwent a thorough and independent review by the research team. The analysis and evidence synthesis were conducted using established coding procedures, adhering to recognized methodological guidelines (Haddaway et al., 2015 ). Each selected study was reviewed independently and cross-checked by at least two team members against these indicators. Discrepancies were resolved not merely by discussion, but by referring back to our operational definitions and consulting a third reviewer if necessary. This approach ensured a high standard of consistency and rigor in the assessment process.

Step 4—Clustering and defining archetypes: data treatment, patterns identification, and archetypes generation

Correlations between categories of analysis were processed to identify underlying structural conditions that differentiate and cluster the cases, resulting in potentially different archetypes. A comprehensive archetype analysis characterizes each archetype by three elements: (i) a configuration of attributes; (ii) a theory or hypothesis that explains the relation between the attributes; and (iii) a set of cases where it holds (Sietz et al., 2019 ).

Following this rationality, data treatment follows three steps: (1) finding the significant, positive, and negative correlations using Pearson’s bivariate correlations in the extracted information of the 109 papers/137 cases; (2) decomposing each significant correlation to discover attributes; and (3) constructing and linking the multiple variables analyzed then explaining and analyzing the working hypotheses. For that, we loaded the collected social learning data into a Python file and calculated the Pearson correlations with the aid of the Python library pandas. The network graphs were then created using the Python library networks by scaling each node with the strength of its corresponding correlation with the SL archetype (endogenous or exogenous) and colored depending on whether the correlation is positive or negative. Due to the social subject being analyzed, the correlation classification (weak to strong) follows the principles of correlation coefficients proposed by Akoglu ( 2018 ). The values ranged from strong negative correlations (dark red areas) to strong positive correlations (dark green areas).

A cartographic representation comparing the occurrence of Endogenous SL and Exogenous SL at the country scale was generated by ratio calculation with the help of the Python libraries Pandas and Plotly. A data analyst and a mathematician led this data analysis with the support of the team previously described.

Study limitations

It is essential to acknowledge the inherent limitations of our systematic review in the context of the field of Social learning in NRM. One prominent limitation arises from the significant heterogeneity in research methodologies (cases) observed across the body of literature we reviewed. In the absence of a universally agreed-upon protocol and the prevalent use of mixed methods by researchers, achieving a high degree of comparability among the studies included in this review was a formidable challenge. To mitigate this limitation, we made concerted efforts to carefully discuss it in interdisciplinary team and contextualize our results within the framework of this heterogeneity. Finally, it important to highlight that archetype analysis is was also chosen considering heterogeneity. As a methodology, archetype analysis is primarily driven by the objective of explaining outcomes in heterogeneous cases that lack universal patterns (Eisenack et al., 2019 ). Ultimately, the review omits certain publications like books, proceedings, dissertations, and non-English regional journals due to its primary emphasis on bibliographic databases. By prioritizing bibliographic databases, various other material types have been left out of the review. Further limitations are related to the overall use of the geopolitical category. It is important to note that the Global North-South divide is a simplification of complex realities. There are significant variations within each category, and some countries may not fit neatly into either group (Milanovic, 2016 ). Additionally, the rise of emerging economies, such as China and India, has challenged the traditional North-South dichotomy (Gray and Gills, 2016 ). Finally, it is acknowledged that other categories of analysis, such as governance systems, can be investigated in future research.

The results show significant correlations, both positive and negative, among the variables of the categories of analysis (SL level related to the others). The results are presented based on the two archetypes (endogenous and exogenous SL) (Figs. 3 and 4 ). Although there are nuances, the results show a trend aligned with the initial working hypothesis.

Exogenous significant, positive, and negative correlations between SL levels related to the other categories of analysis.

Endogenous significant, positive, and negative correlations between SL levels related to the other categories of analysis.

As a general result, the positive correlations, with strong to moderate effect strength among the variables, indicate that the patterns of each archetype of social learning can be characterized as (i) Endogenous social learning associated with learning by doing methods, financial resources scarcity, Global South, knowledge focused on community development, community individuals engagement and (ii) Exogenous social learning, associated to financial resources availability, fixed methods, Global North, general stakeholders engagement, focused on environmental knowledge and political agreements. Of the 137 study cases, discussed across 109 articles, 33 are classified as Endogenous SL, 90 as Exogenous SL, and 14 could not be categorized as belonging solely to one or another archetype.

The 14 cases have non-clear patterns (not patterned). Therefore it was not possible to define it as a pure Archetype itself. However, it was chosen to present it as a result to indicate that other kinds of archetypes might exist. The fact that 14 cases are not clearly categorized indicates that the proposed framework is not able to take account of the whole diversity of the social learning phenomena, implying the exclusion of specific cases. Examples of such cases include sources that were initially reporting Exogenous SL processes and then transitioning or having characteristics of Endogenous SL. As stated by Eisenack et al. ( 2019 ) if one observation does not fit to an archetype, this does not falsify the archetype simply because archetypes are not required to be universal. It only falsifies the applicability of that archetype in that case.

The results showing the strongest correlations for Exogenous SL and Endogenous SL are related to the three categories of analysis of input: “financial resources,” “method applied,” and “types of participants” (Figs. 3 and 4 ). The other categories of analysis can also be associated with Endogenous or Exogenous archetypes. Regarding the “Continent” category, while Europe is the continent where most cases of Exogenous appear, Latin America has the most frequency Endogenous cases. The category “location” does not show significant results related to specific countries. These results suggest that they are the conditions (structure and inputs) under which the different kinds of SL archetypes emerged, generating different outputs. Although these two archetypes are distinguishable, they are not entirely opponent or antagonist archetypes. The existence of these archetypes does not exclude the existence of other archetypes.

For this category of ‘natural resources’, endogenous SL is more closely correlated with ‘multiple resources’, while exogenous SL is more closely correlated with ‘ecosystems’. This may suggest that in some, but not most, cases, the social learning process has addressed multiple resources or systems. In the dataset, the proportion of occurrences of several natural resources is close for endogenous and exogenous (e.g. water, 42% of endogenous cases and 30% of exogenous cases), making the correlation for these items non-significant and signaling that this relationship could be due to chance rather than being a characteristic component of any archetypes.

Exogenous archetypes: correlations and characterization

See Fig. 3 .

Endogenous archetypes: correlations and characterization

See Fig. 4 .

Analysis of the multiple variables and the relation between the attributes

In Fig. 5 , the patterns of each archetype of social learning characterized as structure, input, and outcome are represented in a hierarchical form. Here, we construct and link the multiple variables, explaining and analyzing the working hypotheses about Endogenous and Exogenous SL according to the co-relations found.

Social learning archetypes essential features based on correlations found.

As the left side of Fig. 5 summarizes, in the SL endogenous archetype features where social learning outcomes are focused on increasing critical thinking and environmental knowledge, and strengthening participation. The inputs/conditions for generating these outputs are related to the use of learning-by-doing methods under conditions of scarcity of financial resources, with the aim of community development and participation mainly of individuals in the community. These conditions may have their origins in the geopolitical context of the societies in which these archetypes occur.

On the right side of Fig. 5 , in the SL Exogenous archetype, the social learning outputs are more centered on increased critical thinking and some combinations. The inputs/conditions (center of Fig. 1 ) for producing these outcomes are related to the use of pre-established methods in the condition of availability of financial resources with the participation of general stakeholders.

The correlations between exogenous SL and the Global North, as opposed to endogenous SL and the Global South, are not the strongest, but they clearly indicate a trend. Although most of the attributes of the structures, inputs, and outputs of each SL in NRM differ, the combined outcomes of relational capital (arrangements between a–c) have some common aspects (especially increased environmental knowledge). In the map (Fig. 6 ), the occurrence of Endogenous SL and Exogenous SL at the country scale is shown.

A cartographic representation delineating the occurrence of Endogenous SL and Exogenous SL at the country scale.

The results showed evidence of at least two main archetypes (Endogenous SL and Exogenous SL); confirming the working hypothesis that different patterns of SL are occurring. The inputs for and outputs of SL in NRM (as documented in the literature analyzed) differ strongly between processes with Exogenous SL and Endogenous SL. It can be associated with where social learning takes place (Global North/Europe or Global South/Latin America). Therefore, would the characteristics of Global North or South determine how the venues and preconditions for social learning are placed (more power-imbalanced settings and fewer resources)?

As presented in our hypothesis, a few studies (Chavez-Miguel et al., 2022 ; Bonatti et al., 2022 ; Souza et al., 2020 ) suggest that a different kind of social learning occurs in the territories of the Global South. When looking at communities in the Global South, the focus of social learning is more closely related to community development done by community individuals, where most “learning by doing” methodologies and low-resource SL processes are used. SL Endogenous might be a process close to what Pahl-Wostl ( 2009 ) conceptualized as social learning that proceeds in a stepwise fashion moving from single to double to triple loop learning where informal networks are considered to play a crucial role in learning processes.

As shown in the map (Fig. 6 ), the results of SL Endogenous show a correlation with the Global South, particularly Latin America. This region has been related to the emergence of numerous grassroots movements rooted in co-creation processes and community rationalities. Prominent examples include La Vía Campesina across Latin America (Desmarais, 2008 ), the landless workers’ movement in Brazil (Wolford, 2010 ), and the Proceso de Comunidades Negras in the Colombian Pacific (Escobar, 2008 ). Moreover, theoretical frameworks, including Freire ( 2020 ) and Fals Borda and Mora-Osejo ( 2004 ), shed light on several community-based initiatives and endogenous development in neglected areas.

In contrast to the community-based, endogenous archetypes of social learning seen in many Latin American contexts, Exogenous social learning processes are more prevalent in the Global North, particularly in Europe. Unlike community-based initiatives that often emphasize the importance of local knowledge, local identities, and their connection to specific territories, exogenous processes may not place a similar emphasis on these aspects. Exogenous social learning then incorporates a high level of advocacy and diverse civil society groups not directly representing the communities in multi-stakeholder networks (Pahl-Wostl et al., 2013 ). However, the focus of these processes is often on political agreements, policy development, and scientific recommendations that guide a societal transition towards sustainability (Schäpke et al., 2017 ). This may overlook the intricacies of local identities and their ties to the land and natural resources.

In the Global South, characterized processes such as structural exclusion and neglection (Mahler, 2018 ; Capdepuy, 2023 ) may exert an influence in terms of a self-designed process of innovative social learning emerging under a scarcity of financial resources, through the engagement of community members focusing on self-determined priorities for local development in the face of multiple crises. Therefore, it may indicate that some Global South communities might have developed endogenous social learning processes based on their self-rationalities and structures (Souza et al., 2020 ) in response to multiple crises and the possibility of handling an intersected process of exclusion (Bonatti et al., 2022 ). These results are in line with the assertion of Cundill et al. ( 2014 ) that social learning processes emerge in diverse contexts. For them, in the Global South, several factors that “go beyond choices related purely to methodological rigor influence the agenda of social learning research” (p.11). Exogenous SL might be established in settings where social actors have suffered less exclusion and marginalization by existing governance systems, possibly with more symmetric power relations. In general, the literature provides a variety of perspectives on various models and tools for social learning related to NRM and governance. In the Global North, for example, SL is often considered crucial for making the management and governance of natural resources more sustainable (Reed et al., 2010 ; Cundill and Rodela, 2012 ) without being directly related to community development. It is also tightly coupled with the history of interactions among those institutional representatives involved in NRM and their relational dynamics within a multi-stakeholder network. As results show, in Exogenous SL, stakeholders/institutional representatives tend to follow the agenda of developing learning focused on natural resource management.

In the case of Endogenous SL, which more commonly emerges in communities with historical legacies of oppression, distrust, and power asymmetries between actors, these factors should play a significant role in determining the kinds of research processes that are considered ethically and socially appropriate (Cundil et al., 2014 ). This may be creating the need for a ‘community engaged’ orientation to research through which scientific inquiry is not seen as ‘separate’ from the world in which it is constituted, but rather as a valid contributor to expanding learning. According to Freire ( 2020 ), a development process should start with an understanding of the participants’ perspectives about their reality. Thus, participants develop a type of diagnosis with a particular focus on how they understand their reality at that moment. At the beginning of the process, the mental models of the participants over their reality are also investigated. They become active, presenting narratives, images, improvisations, characters, and objects that reflect their true understanding of their realities. Through dialog, participants are encouraged to investigate and establish new perceptions about ways to see the proposed problems (Freire, 2020 ; Bonatti et al., 2021 ).

Policies and programs based on SL Exogenous approaches may undervalue or overlook the occurrence and potential of SL Endogenous approaches. It is crucial to understand the logic of SL Endogenous to promote sustainable NRM that clearly supports all involved actors while avoiding the replication of coloniality (Quijano, 2007 ; Escobar, 2012 ). Therefore, SL processes in the Global South can be better facilitated with what Jürgen Habermas describes as ‘communicative action,’ in contrast to ‘strategic action’ and instrumental rationality (Habermas, 1984 ). Sustainable NRM requires space for communicative action designed to share intersubjectively validated explanations of actual situations as well as to achieve the co-articulation of purpose and means required for transforming current norms, rules, and power relations, thus achieving sustainable development (Rist et al., 2007 ). In this context, this study does not intend to decisively determine the best models or archetypes, rather it seek to understand the existing archetypes, identifying the conditions under which they prosper. This study also highlighted SL models that may be invisible to the broader world given their peripheral/neglected territories of origin. It is also critical to emphasize that the idea is not to dichotomize, but rather to indicate that archetypes and learning processes can be complementary, as suggested by existing evidence and remembering that “there are Souths in the geographic North and Norths in the geographic South” (Mahler, 2018 , p. 32),

Finally, interfaces between SL processes here analyzed, endogenous development, and institutional changes (IC) theories might exist in NRM literature. This literature emphasizes commons management processes at different levels of governance and theorizes about participatory and community-based arrangements and practices that imply SL processes for social transformation (Pahl-Wostl and Hare, 2004 ; Romina, 2014 ; Thiel et al., 2015 ). This article also contributes to a better understanding of the mechanism of social transformation and collective action related to NRM especially to analysis of in which circumstances they occurred. Other schools of scientific knowledge conceptualize these related processes differently, but the mechanisms identified here point to clear theoretical interfaces. For example, from an institutional economic perspective, Thiel et al. ( 2015 ) explain that institutional change can be the product of two distinct processes, objective institutional design (OID) and subjective institutional design (SID). This study might contribute to Thiel’s (et al., 2015 ) findings to understand how the collective action process can be differentiated.

There is a dynamic and close relationship between changes in thinking and changes in social behavior, resulting in the development of social institutions and knowledge-creation processes (Wehn and Montalvo, 2018 ). In the literature on NRM, social learning processes and institutional change are linked, as this literature, especially that related to the management of common goods at different levels of governance, often theorizes about participatory arrangements and practices that involve collective learning processes for social transformation. These processes involve the co-creation of knowledge between actors with different interests, rationalities, and knowledge, collaborative and sustainable learning, and the development of social institutions that support socio-ecological sustainability (Bodin and Tengö, 2012 ; Chitata et al., 2021 ; Romina, 2014 ). Furthermore, emerging evidence in the NRM literature highlights the relationship between collective action, a common focus of institutional change studies, and social learning (Assuah and Sinclair, 2019 ; Bodin, 2012, 2017 ). In considering collaboration for social-ecological sustainability, Bodin ( 2017 ) emphasizes collaboration as the foundation of knowledge processes and key to collective action, suggesting that collaboration is a means to (i) enhance the generation of new knowledge through social learning, (ii) better integrate valuable insights from different knowledge systems, and (iii) disseminate knowledge and best practices among a wide range of actors (p. 2).

Further research needs are identified that align with the idea of investigating other categories of analysis such as governance systems, different levels of social learning, or sub-archetypes, which can occur during NRM. Bos et al. ( 2013 ) point out the need for a broader understanding of social learning by applying experimental processes that: (i) define whether all participating actors need to learn the same information about a socio-technical system, and (ii) critically assess the learning needs of different actors at different process points to empower these actors to act as change agents. With further elaboration this can facilitate a better understanding of the relationship between conflicts and social learning.

In terms of limitations, this study acknowledges that many social learning cases may be described using different terms, such as collective learning or transformative learning. The use of the term “sustainable natural resource management” also represents a limitation, considering that several natural resource management cases could be described as adaptive climate change, sustainable development, and NR governance, among others. Furthermore, it is important to note that social learning models from the Global South, such as indigenous or grassroots movements learning systems, may be underrepresented in this study because endogenous SL approaches are unlikely to be reported in scientific articles.

Conclusions

In this work, the case studies analyzed contribute to expanding upon Reed et al.’s, and Cundill et al.’s explanations of ‘what’ social learning is by understanding under which conditions social learning emerges and how it can be facilitated in specific contexts. In order to better develop pathways for co-creation in natural resources management, it is crucial to enrich the current literature in SL by providing evidence for alternative, invisible models of social learning that emerge from different contexts. From here, with this first evidence generated, further research should be undertaken to understand the governance systems and pedagogies used in different models and relations between types of social learning and governance systems.

Identifying archetypes of social learning that originated in the Global South could also shed light on how vulnerable social groups themselves address intersectional issues (racism, gender, and so on) alongside their processes of sustainable NRM. Communities facing failings or an absence of, functional governance systems and inadequate or missing public policies may be developing innovative systems of self-constructed knowledge based on collective learning centered on community needs, their significant universe, and the construction of identity as empowerment process. This includes a critical analysis of the state of vulnerability and neglect within which they live, as well as, concurrently, natural resource self-management.

These community-based development cases reveal a variety of SL mechanisms, leading to transformative natural resource management in the context of multiple socio-environmental crises, a typical scenario of the Global South. In the Global South, endogenous social learning should be better tapped as an instrument of development and catalyzer of deliberative processes for sustainable natural resource management. In this era of multiple environmental crises, research based on transdisciplinary networks of researchers should embrace and value different identities and learning models. As it advances, robust situated south learning models must be supported, with intentional efforts made to engage smaller institutions, thus avoiding an over-investment in a limited number of better-known organizations that apply exogenous structures where the endogenous might be more adequate or already operating.

Data availability

This manuscript is based on a systematic literature review. In this approach, all data generated or analyzed during this study are included in the manuscript and its supplementary information file (including references and data-generated Excel table) attached in the submission process.

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MB: Conceptualized the study, developed the methodology, led the writing process, reviewed and edited the manuscript, and supervised the project; ML: Contributed to data analysis and interpretation, reviewed and edited the manuscript; LM: Assisted with data collection and analysis, contributed to writing the original draft; PC: Data analysis, provided technical support and contributed to data visualization; CB: Participated in fieldwork, data collection, and analysis; CE: Assisted with literature review and contributed to writing specific sections; PG: Assisted with literature review; TdSR: Assisted with methodology and literature review; LE: Assisted with methodology development and data validation; TRS: Provided expertise on context and contributed to discussion section; JB: Assisted with data collection and contributed to writing the results section; CM: Assisted with data collection and contributed to writing the results section.; SS: Contributed to the conceptual framework and manuscript review.; RI: Provided theoretical guidance and critical review of the manuscript.; KE: Supervised the research process and contributed to the final manuscript revision.; JH: Contributed to the conceptual framework and manuscript review; GP: Contributed to the conceptual framework and manuscript review; VV: Contributed to the conceptual framework and manuscript review; JB: Contributed to the conceptual framework and manuscript review; AD: Contributed to methodology development and data collection protocols; SS: Provided overall project supervision, secured funding, and contributed to final manuscript review.

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Bonatti, M., Lana, M., Medina, L. et al. Global analysis of social learning’s archetypes in natural resource management: understanding pathways of co-creation of knowledge. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 1161 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03590-5

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Impact of training and development on job performance in higher education: The case of Security Guards in the University of Cape Coast, Ghana.

• Felix Kwame Opoku University of Cape Coast
• Isaac Narcotey University of Cape Coast
• Isaac Tetteh Kwao University of Cape Coast
• Benedict Ofori Antwi University of Cape Coast

The general purpose of this study is to examine the effect of employee training and development on job performance of security guards in the University of Cape Coast. The paper aims at drawing the attention of the public to security challenges on campuses of public universities in Ghana, and the need to provide appropriate training programmes for security guards in the universities. The study adopted a purely quantitative approach, and was underpinned by the reinforcement theory. The descriptive and explanatory survey designs were used for the study. Data were obtained from two hundred and fifty-eight (258) security guards in the University of Cape Coast. The available data were analysed using the Structural Equation Modelling. The study revealed that development programmes for security guards in the university of Cape Coast significantly contributes to their job performance. The study however, revealed that training programmes for security guards in the university have negative relationship with their job performance. The authors advised management of the Security Section in the University of Cape Coast to continue or even improve on the existing employee development interventions so far implemented, and to take strategic steps for revamping their training methods and procedures. This paper fulfils an identified need to pay attention to the security challenges on campuses of public universities in Ghana.

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Environmental impacts of extensive beef production in Colombia by life cycle assessment: a case study

• Research Article
• Published: 07 September 2024

Cite this article

• Sara Arcila 1 ,
• Natalia Correa 1 ,
• Sebastián Pachón 2 ,
• Luis Giraldo A. Valderrama 2 &
• Natalia A. Cano-Londoño   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4828-6442 3 , 4  

The increase in the negative effects of global change promotes the search for alternatives to supply the demand for food worldwide aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to ensure food security. Animal protein, which is a main source of nutrients in the diet of today’s society, especially beef, which is one of the most demanded products nowadays, has been criticized not only for its high water consumption and land occupation for production but also for the emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) from enteric methane generated in the fermentation process within the bovine rumen and deforestation for the adaptation of pastures. This study is mainly motivated by the lack of quantifiable scientific information in Colombia on the environmental impacts of beef production. Therefore, it is intended to estimate some of the impacts of beef production in extensive systems using the life cycle assessment (LCA) method under a particular scenario considering all the production phases (from raw material to fattening, where the cattle are ready to be slaughtered). The study was conducted with data supplied by a farm in Antioquia, Colombia, and the functional unit (FU) was defined as 1 kg of live weight (LW). The scope of this study was gate-to-gate. “The 2019 Refinement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories” (IPCC  2006 ; IPCC 2019 ) was used to calculate methane and nitrous oxide emissions. LCA modeling was developed with Ecoinvent database v3.8 and the Umberto LCA + software. It was found that the most affected category of damage was ecosystem quality, which represents 77% of the total, followed by human health at 17% and resources at 6%. The category impact of agricultural land occupation is the one that represents the most significant contribution to the ecosystem quality endpoint, with a percentage of 87%, due to the soil’s compaction and the loss of the soil’s properties. Additionally, the obtained carbon footprint for the system was 28.9 kg of CO 2 -eq/kg LW.

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Acknowledgements

To the coauthors for their expertise and assistance throughout all aspects of our study and for their help in writing the manuscript.

To research group BIORUM of the Science Faculty of the National University of Colombia.

To research group Fenómenos de Superficie-Michael Polanyi of the Mining Faculty of the National University of Colombia.

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All authors contributed to the study’s conception and design. Sara Arcila, Natalia Correa, and Sebastián Pachón prepared materials, collected data, and analyzed them. Natalia A. Cano-Londoño and Luis Giraldo-Valderrama supervised them. Natalia Correa and Sebastián Pachón wrote the first draft of the manuscript, and all authors commented on previous versions. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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• Enteric methane emissions from manure management and direct/indirect nitrous oxide emissions from manure and soil management were calculated for suckling calves, growing, breeding stock, and fattening phases.

• LCA allows analyzing the environmental impacts of livestock farming in Colombia, which may not have been previously considered.

• This LCA supports environmental decision-making and formulating sustainable livestock policies and projects of best agricultural practices.

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Arcila, S., Correa, N., Pachón, S. et al. Environmental impacts of extensive beef production in Colombia by life cycle assessment: a case study. Environ Sci Pollut Res (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-34463-8

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