assignment on learning theories

3 Learning Theories: Understanding How People Learn

Introduction.

Learning theories describe the conditions and processes through which learning occurs, providing teachers with models to develop instruction sessions that lead to better learning. These theories explain the processes that people engage in as they make sense of information, and how they integrate that information into their mental models so that it becomes new knowledge. Learning theories also examine what motivates people to learn, and what circumstances enable or hinder learning.

Sometimes people are skeptical of having to learn theory, believing those theories will not be relevant in the real world, but learning theories are widely applicable. The models and processes that they describe tend to apply across different populations and settings, and provide us with guidelines to develop exercises, assignments, and lesson plans that align with how our students learn best. Learning theories can also be engaging. People who enjoy teaching often find the theories interesting and will be excited when they start to see connections between the theory and the learning they see happening in their own classrooms.

General Learning Theories

With a basic understanding of learning theories, we can create lessons that enhance the learning process. This understanding helps us explain our instructional choices, or the “why” behind what and how we teach. As certain learning theories resonate with us and we consciously construct lessons based on those theories, we begin to develop a personal philosophy of teaching that will guide our instructional design going forward. This chapter provides a bridge from theory to practice by providing specific examples of how the theories can be applied in the library classroom. These theories provide a foundation to guide the instructional design and reflective practices presented in the rest of this textbook.

As you read, you might consider keeping track of the key points of each theory and thinking about how these theories could be applied to your practice. Figure 3.1 provides you with an example of a graphic organizer, one of the instructional materials that will be discussed in Chapter 11, that you could use to take notes as you read this chapter. In addition to the examples in practice that are provided in this chapter, you might add some of your own.

Figure 3.1: Graphic Organizer for Major Learning Theories

A table with four columns. The columns are labeled theory, major theorists, key concepts, and examples in practice. There are three blank rows where students can take notes.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is based largely on the work of John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner. Behaviorists were concerned with establishing psychology as a science and focused their studies on behaviors that could be empirically observed, such as actions that could be measured and tested, rather than on internal states such as emotions (McLeod, 2015). According to behaviorists, learning is dependent on a person’s interactions with their external environment. As people experience consequences from their interactions with the environment, they modify their behaviors in reaction to those consequences. For instance, if a person hurts their hand when touching a hot stove, they will learn not to touch the stove again, and if they are praised for studying for a test, they will be likely to study in the future

According to behavioral theorists, we can change people’s behavior by manipulating the environment in order to encourage certain behaviors and discourage others, a process called conditioning (Popp, 1996). Perhaps the most famous example of conditioning is Pavlov’s dog. In his classic experiment, Pavlov demonstrated that a dog could be conditioned to associate the sound of a bell with food, so that eventually the dog would salivate whenever it heard the bell, regardless of whether it received food. Watson adapted stimulus conditioning to humans (Jensen, 2018). He gave an 11-month-old baby a rat, and the baby seemed to enjoy playing with it. Over time, Watson caused a loud, unpleasant sound each time he brought out the rat. Eventually, the baby associated the rat with the noise and cried when he saw the rat. Although Watson’s experiment is now considered ethically questionable, it did establish that people’s behavior could be modified through control of environmental stimuli.

Skinner (1938) examined how conditioning could shape behavior in longer-term and more complex ways by introducing the concept of reinforcement. According to Skinner, when people receive positive reinforcement, such as praise and rewards for certain behaviors, those behaviors are strengthened, while negative reinforcement will deter behaviors. According to Skinner, by carefully controlling the environment and establishing a system of reinforcements, teachers, parents, and others can encourage and develop desired behaviors (Jensen, 2018). A simple example of behaviorism in the classroom is a point system in which students are awarded points for good behavior and deducted points for unwanted behavior. Eventually, accumulated points might be traded in for rewards like small gifts or homework passes. This approach assumes that motivation is external, in that students will engage in certain behaviors in order to gain the rewards.

Because it emphasizes the external environment, behaviorism largely ignores or discounts the role of internal influences such as prior knowledge and emotion (Popp, 1996). To an extent, behaviorists view learners as blank slates and emphasize the role of the teacher in the classroom. In this teacher-centered approach, instructors hold the knowledge, decide what will be learned, and establish the rewards for learning. Since their experience and prior knowledge are not considered relevant, learners are passive participants simply expected to absorb the knowledge transmitted by the teacher. While the idea of learners as blank slates has fallen out of favor, many of the conditioning aspects of behaviorism remain popular. As almost any student can attest, behavioral methods of reinforcement, such as the point system described above, are still common, especially in younger grades. Recent trends toward gaming in the classroom, where certain behaviors are rewarded with points and leveling up, are based in a behaviorist approach to learning. See Activity 3.1 for a brief activity on behaviorism.

Activity 3.1: Reflecting on Behaviorism

Think of some of your own learning experiences, whether they were in a traditional classroom, through professional development training, or related to personal interests, such as dance or photography lessons. Try to identify a few examples of behaviorism from those experiences and reflect on the following questions:

How did your instructors use behavioral practice in their classrooms?
Did you find those practices motivating? Why or why not?
If you can think of examples of behaviorism from several different learning experiences, were they more appropriate in some situations than others? How so?
Have you ever used, or can you imagine using, behaviorism in your own teaching practice? How so?

Humanism recognizes the basic dignity and worth of each individual and believes people should be able to exercise some control over their environment. Although humanism as an educational philosophy has its roots in the Italian Renaissance, the more modern theorists associated with this approach include John Dewey, Carl Rogers, Maria Montessori, Paolo Freire, and Abraham Maslow. Humanist learning theory is a whole-person approach to education that centers on the individual learners and their needs, and that considers affective as well as cognitive aspects of learning. At its essence, “humanism in education traditionally has referred to a broad, diffuse outlook emphasizing human freedom, dignity, autonomy, and individualism” (Lucas, 1996). Within this broader context, humanism is also characterized by the following tenets (Madsen & Wilson, 2012; Sharp, 2012):

Students are whole people, and learning must attend to their emotional as well as their cognitive state.
Teachers should be empathetic.
Learners are self-directed and internally motivated.
The outcome of learning is self-actualization.

Humanism centers the individual person as the subject and recognizes learners as whole beings with emotional and affective states that accompany their cognitive development. Recognizing the role of students’ emotions means understanding how those emotions impact learning. Student anxiety, say around a test or a research paper, can interfere with the cognitive processes necessary to be successful. Empathetic teachers recognize and try to understand students’ emotional states, taking steps to alleviate negative emotions that might detract from learning by creating a supportive learning environment.

In a library context, Mellon (1986) identified the phenomenon of library anxiety, or the negative emotions that some people experience when doing research or interacting with library tools and services. This anxiety can distract learners and make it difficult to engage in the processes necessary to search for, evaluate, and synthesize the information they need to complete their task. Similarly, in her Information Search Process, Kuhlthau (1990) describes the affective states as well as the cognitive processes students engage in when doing research, acknowledging that their emotions fluctuate among anxiety, optimism, and, ultimately, satisfaction or disappointment.

A humanist approach to education recognizes these affective states and seeks to limit their negative impact. For instance, we can acknowledge that feelings of anxiety are common so learners recognize that they are not alone. We can also explain how the skills students learn are relevant to their lives in and outside of the classroom.

Because humanists see people as autonomous beings, they believe that learning should be self-directed, meaning students should have some choice in what and how they learn. Humanistic education is often connected with student-centered pedagogical approaches such as differentiated curricula, self-paced learning, and discovery learning (Lucas, 1996). Self-directed learning can take many forms, but it generally means that the instructor acts as a guide, and learners are given the freedom to take responsibility for their own learning. Teachers will provide the materials and opportunities for learning, but students will engage with the learning on their own terms. In a library classroom, we can give students choices about the topics they will research or offer learners different types of activities to practice skills and demonstrate what they have learned.

Humanists also believe that learning is part of a process of self-actualization. They maintain that learning should be internally motivated and driven by students’ interests and goals, rather than externally motivated and focused on a material end goal such as achievement on tests, or employment (Sharp, 2012). The expectation is that when students are allowed to follow their interests and be creative, and when learning takes place within a supportive environment, students will engage in learning for its own sake. This emphasis on self-actualization is largely based on Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of needs. Maslow identified five levels of needs: basic physiological needs such as food, water, and shelter; safety and security needs; belongingness and love needs, including friends and intimate relationships; esteem needs, including feelings of accomplishment; and self-actualization, when people achieve their full potential. Importantly, these needs are hierarchical, meaning a person cannot achieve the higher needs such as esteem and self-actualization until more basic needs such as food and safety are met. The role of the humanist teacher is to facilitate the student’s self-actualization by helping to ensure needs such as safety and esteem are met through empathetic teaching and a supportive classroom.

In his book, Pedagogy of the Oppressed , Freire (2000) brings together many of the student-centered elements of humanistic education, with a strong emphasis on social justice aspects of learning and teaching. In contrast to behaviorist approaches, Freire emphasizes the importance of students’ life experience to their learning. He criticizes what he describes as the “banking model” of education, in which students are viewed as passive and empty vessels into which teachers simply deposit bits of knowledge that students are expected to regurgitate on exams or papers without any meaningful interaction. Freire insists that learning must be relevant to the student’s life and the student should be an active participant in order for learning to be meaningful. Freire also emphasized the emancipatory role of education, arguing that the purpose of education was for learners to gain agency to challenge oppressive systems and improve their lives, and praxis, in which learners put abstract and theoretical knowledge into practice in the real world.

While a student-centered approach and choice can be introduced in any classroom, observers note that in an age of curriculum frameworks and standardized tests, where teachers are often constrained by the material, the ability to provide students with choice and allow for exploration is limited (Sharp, 2012; Zucca-Scott, 2010). Librarians often face similar constraints. School librarians also must meet state and district curriculum standards. Academic librarians generally depend on faculty invitations to conduct instruction and need to adapt their sessions to fit the content, time frame, and learning objectives of the faculty member. Nevertheless, we can always find ways to integrate some self-direction. For instance, rather than using planned examples to demonstrate searches, we might have students suggest topics to search. If we plan hands-on practice activities, we could allow learners to explore their own interests as they engage in the activity, rather than limiting them to preselected topics.

Cognitivism

Cognitivism, or cognitive psychology, was pioneered in the mid-twentieth century by scientists including George Miller, Ulric Neisser, and Noam Chomsky. Whereas behaviorists focus on the external environment and observable behavior, cognitive psychologists are interested in mental processes (Codington-Lacerte, 2018). They assert that behavior and learning entail more than just response to environmental stimuli and require rational thought and active participation in the learning process (Clark, 2018). To cognitivists, learning can be described as “acquiring knowledge and skills and having them readily available from memory so you can make sense of future problems and opportunities” (Brown et al., 2014, p. 2).

Cognitivists view the brain as an information processor somewhat like a computer that functions on algorithms that it develops in order to process information and make decisions. According to cognitive psychology, people acquire and store knowledge, referred to as schema, in their long-term memory. In addition to storing knowledge, people organize their knowledge into categories, and create connections across categories or schema that help them retrieve relevant pieces of information when needed (Clark, 2018). When individuals encounter new information, they process it against their existing knowledge or schema in order to make new connections. Cognitivists are interested in the specific functions that allow the brain to store, recall, and use information, as well as in mental processes such as pattern recognition and categorization, and the circumstances that influence people’s attention (Codington-Lacerte, 2018).

Because cognitivists view memory and recall as the key to learning, they are interested in the processes and conditions that enhance memory and recall. According to cognitive psychology research, traditional methods of study, including rereading texts and drilling practice, or the repetition of terms and concepts, are not effective for committing information to memory (Brown et al., 2014). Rather, cognitivists assert that activities that require learners to recall information from memory, sometimes referred to as “retrieval practice,” lead to better memory and ultimately better learning. For example, they suggest that language learners use flash cards to practice vocabulary words, rather than writing the words out over and over or reading and rereading a list of words, because the flash cards force the learner to recall information from memory.

While testing has fallen out of favor with many educators and education theorists, cognitivists find tests can be beneficial as both a retrieval practice and a diagnostic tool. They view tests not only as a way to measure what has been learned but as a way to practice retrieval of important concepts, and as a way to identify gaps or weaknesses in knowledge so that learners know where to concentrate their efforts (Brown et al., 2014). Cognitivists encourage “spaced practice,” or recalling previously learned information at regular intervals, and “interleaving,” or learning related concepts together to establish connections among them. Their research has found that retrieval is more effective when the brain is forced to recall information after some time has passed, and when the recall involves two or more related subjects or concepts. Finally, cognitivists also promote problem-based learning, maintaining that “trying to solve a problem before being taught the solution leads to better learning, even when errors are made in the attempt” (Brown et al., 2014, p.4).

These processes that enhance memory and recall, and thus learning, have some implications for instructors in creating an optimal environment for learning. Gagné (1985) proposed nine conditions for learning, referred to as the external conditions of learning, or the nine events of instruction:

Gain attention. Engage students’ attention by tying learning to relevant events in their lives and asking stimulating questions.
Inform the learner of the objective. Begin by sharing the learning goals with the students, thus setting expectations and providing a map of the learning.
Stimulate recall of prior learning. Encourage students to remember previously learned relevant skills and knowledge before introducing new information.
Present the stimulus. Share new information. This step depends on the content of the lesson. For instance, a lesson on Boolean operators might begin with a Venn diagram and examples of the uses of and , or , and not .
Provide learner guidance. Facilitate learning by demonstration and explanation.
Elicit performance. Allow time for students to practice skills and demonstrate their abilities. Ideally, students would be given low-stakes opportunities for practice, so they feel comfortable if they do not succeed immediately.
Provide feedback. Offer students input on what they are doing well and where they can improve.
Assess performance. Employ measures such as assignments, activities, and projects to gauge whether learning has occurred.
Enhance retention and transfer. Give students opportunities to practice skills in new contexts, which improves retention and helps students see how the skills are applied to different areas.

Cognitivism remains a popular approach to learning. However, one criticism of cognitive psychology is that, unlike humanism, it does not account for the role of emotions in learning (Codington-Lacerte, 2018). Further, some critics believe that cognitivism overemphasizes memorization and recall of facts to the detriment of higher-order skills such as creativity and problem solving. However, cognitivists argue that the ability to recall facts and concepts is essential to higher-order thinking, and therefore the two are not mutually exclusive but actually interdependent (Brown et al., 2014). Finally, cognitivism is considered teacher-centered, rather than learner-centered, since it emphasizes the role of the instructor in organizing learning activities and establishing the conditions of learning (Clark, 2018). Activity 3.2 is a brief exercise on cognitivism.

Activity 3.2: Reflecting on Cognitivism

Cognitive scientists recommend retrieval practice, including spaced practice and interleaving, over drilling.

Questions for Reflection and Discussion:

What kind of study practices do you tend to use? Do your practices vary depending on the content or material you are studying? How so?
Can you think of ways to integrate retrieval practices into your work for this class?
Spaced practice involves returning to previously learned concepts at later times, but information professionals often teach one-shot sessions. Can you think of ways to integrate spaced practice into a one-shot session?

Constructivism

Constructivism posits that individuals create knowledge and meaning through their interactions with the world. Like cognitivism, and as opposed to behaviorism, constructivism acknowledges the role of prior knowledge in learning, believing that individuals interpret what they experience within the framework of what they already know (Kretchmar, 2019a). Social constructs, such as commonly held beliefs, and shared expectations around behavior and values provide a framework for knowledge, but people “do not just receive this knowledge as if they were empty vessels waiting to be filled. Individuals and groups interact with each other, contributing to the common trove of information and beliefs, reaching consensus with others on what they consider is the true nature of identity, knowledge, and reality” (Mercadal, 2018). Cognitivism and constructivism overlap in a number of ways. Both approaches build on the theories of Jean Piaget, who is sometimes referred to as a cognitive constructivist. However, while cognitivism is considered teacher-centered, constructivism centers the learner by recognizing their role in engaging with content and constructing meaning. Constructivist teachers act as guides or coaches, facilitating learning by developing supportive activities and environments, and building on what students already know (Kretchmar, 2019b).

Piaget discusses the concepts of assimilation, accommodation, and disequilibrium to describe how people create knowledge. In his early work as a biologist, Piaget noticed how organisms would adapt to their environment in order to survive. Through such adaptation, the organism achieved equilibrium. Extending these observations to cognitive science, he posited that human beings also seek equilibrium (Kretchmar, 2019a).

When they encounter new situations, or new information, human beings must find a way to deal with the new information. Similar to the processes described in the section on cognitivism, people will examine their existing knowledge, or schema, to see if the new information fits into what they already know. If it does, they are able to assimilate the information relatively easily. However, if the new information does not fit into what people already know, they experience disequilibrium or cognitive conflict, and must adapt by accommodating the new information. For example, once children learn what a dog is, they might call any four-legged creature they see a dog. This is assimilation, as the children are fitting new information into their existing knowledge. However, as children learn the differences between, say, a dog and cat, they can adjust their schema to accommodate this new knowledge (Heick, 2019).

Disequilibrium and accommodation can be uncomfortable. People might be confused or anxious when they encounter information that does not fit their existing schema, and they might struggle to accommodate that new information, but disequilibrium is crucial to learning (Kretchmar, 2019a). During assimilation, people might be adding new bits of information to their knowledge store, but they are not changing their understanding of the world. During accommodation, as people change their schema, construct new knowledge, and draw new connections among existing areas of knowledge, actual learning occurs, and accommodation requires disequilibrium.

Acknowledging the role of disequilibrium is important for both instructors and students. People naturally want to avoid discomfort, but that can also mean avoiding real learning. As instructors, we can facilitate accommodation by acknowledging that the process might be challenging, and by creating conditions that allow students to feel safe exploring new information. We can reassure learners that feelings of discomfort or anxiety are normal and provide them with low-stakes opportunities to engage with new information.

Social Constructivism

Social constructivism builds on the traditions of constructivism and cognitivism; whereas those theories focus on how individuals process information and construct meaning, social constructivists also consider how people’s interactions with others impact their understanding of the world. Social constructivists recognize that different people can have different reactions and develop different understandings from the same events and circumstances, and are interested in how factors such as identity, family, community, and culture help shape those understandings (Mercadal, 2018).While cognitivists and constructivists view other people as mostly incidental to an individual’s learning, social constructivists see community as central. Social constructivism can be defined as “the belief that the meanings attached to experience are socially assembled, depending on the culture in which the child is reared and on the child’s caretakers” (Schaffer, 2006). Like constructivism, social constructivism centers on the learners’ experiences and engagement, and sees the role of the instructor as a facilitator or guide. Two of the major theorists associated with social constructivism are Pierre Bourdieu and Lev Vygotsky.

Vygotsky built on the work of Piaget and believed knowledge is constructed, but felt that prior theories overemphasized the role of the individual in that construction of knowledge. Instead, he “was most interested in the role of other people in the development and learning processes of children,” including how children learn in cooperation with adults and older or more experienced peers who can guide them with more complex concepts (Kretchmar, 2019b). Vygotsky was also interested in how language and learning are related. He postulated that the ways in which people communicate their thoughts and understandings, even when talking themselves through a concept or problem, are a crucial element of learning (Kretchmar, 2019b). For Vygotsky, interaction and dialogue among students, teachers, and peers are key to how learners develop an understanding of the world and of the socially constructed meanings of their communities.

Bourdieu examined the way in which social structures influence people’s values, knowledge, and beliefs, and how these structures often become so ingrained as to be invisible. People within a society become so enculturated into the systems and beliefs of that society that they often accept them as “normal” and do not see them as imposed structures (Roth, 2018). As a result, individuals might not question or challenge those structures, even when they are unfair or oppressive. In addition to examining how community and culture help shape knowledge, Bourdieu was interested in how issues of class impact learning. He observed that over time, schools developed to reflect the cultures of wealthier families, which enabled their children to succeed because they inherently understood the culture of the classroom and the system of education. We continue to see such issues today, and as discussed more in Chapter 5 and Chapter 6, part of our critical practice is to ensure that our classrooms and instructional strategies are inclusive of and responsive to all students.

Activity 3.3 explores how we can use theory to guide our practice.

Activity 3.3: Using Learning Theory to Plan Lessons

While learning theories can be interesting on their own, our goal as instructors is to apply them to classroom practice. Imagine that you are a high school librarian working with a class that has just been assigned a research paper. Your goal for this session is for students to brainstorm keywords and synonyms for their topics, and to learn how to string those words together using the Boolean operators and , or , and not . You want to be sure the students understand the function of the Boolean operators and can remember how to use them for future searches.

Choose one of the learning theories outlined in this chapter and design a brief lesson to teach Boolean operators from the perspective of that theory. Concentrate less on what you would teach but rather on how you would teach it in keeping with the chosen theory:

How would you introduce the topic?
What sort of learning activities would you use?
What would you be doing during the lesson? What would you expect students to do?
How might any of your answers to these questions change if you were to use a different theory as your guide?

Developmental Stages

The learning theories outlined above discuss various cognitive processes involved in learning, as well as some of the motivators and conditions that facilitate learning. While these theories attempt to describe how people learn, it is important to note that individuals are not born ready to engage in all of these processes at once, nor do they necessarily all engage in the same processes at the same time. Rather, more complex processes develop over time as people experience the world and as their brain matures. In addition to studying how people learn, some theorists have also proposed theories or frameworks to describe developmental stages, or the various points in human development when different cognitive processes are enabled, and different kinds of learning can occur.

Piaget outlined four hierarchical stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational (Clouse, 2019), illustrated in Table 3.1. In the sensorimotor stage, from birth to about two years, infants react to their environment with inherent reflexes such as sucking, swallowing, and crying. By about age two, they begin problem solving using trial and error. The preoperational stage, also sometimes called the intuitive intelligence stage, lasts from about ages two to seven. During this time, children develop language and mental imagery. They are able to use their imagination, but they view the world only from their own perspective and have trouble understanding other perspectives. Their understanding of the world during this stage is tied to their perceptions. Children are in the operational stage from about ages seven to 12, during which time they begin to think more logically about the world, can understand that objects are not always as they appear, and begin to understand other people’s perspectives. The final stage, formal operationalism, begins around age 12. At this point, individuals can think abstractly and engage in ideas that move beyond the concrete world around them, and they can use deductive reasoning and think through consequences (Clark, 2018; Clouse, 2019).

Table 3.1: Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development

Perry’s (1970) Scheme of Intellectual and Moral Development offers another useful framework for understanding the developmental stages of learning. Perry proposed four stages of learning. In the first stage, dualism, children generally believe that all problems can be solved, and that there are right and wrong answers to each question. At this stage, children generally look to instructors to provide them with correct answers. The second stage is multiplicity, where learners realize that there are conflicting views and controversies on topics. Learners in the multiplicity stage often have trouble assessing the authority and credibility of arguments. They tend to believe that all perspectives are equally valid and rely on their own experiences to form opinions and decide what information to trust. In the next stage, referred to as relativism, learners begin to understand that there are different lenses for understanding and evaluating information. They learn that different disciplines have their own methods of research and analysis, and they can begin to apply these perspectives as they evaluate sources and evidence. At this point, learners can understand that not all answers or perspectives are equal, but that some answers or arguments might be more valid than others. In the final stage, commitment, students integrate selected information into their knowledge base. You might notice connections between Perry and the cognitivists and constructivists described above in the way they each describe people making sense of information by comparing new information to existing knowledge. However, Perry organizes the processes into developmental stages that outline a progression of learning.

Understanding the stages laid out by Piaget and Perry, we can develop lessons that are appropriate to learners at each stage. For example, in presenting a lesson on climate change to preoperational students using Piaget’s framework, an instructor could gather pictures of different animal habitats, or take children on a nature walk to observe the surrounding environment. Instructors could ask these children to describe what they see and reflect on their personal experiences with weather, while older children could be asked to imagine how the changes are impacting other people and organisms, anticipate consequences of the impact of climate change, and perhaps use problem solving to propose steps to improve their environment. Considering Perry’s Scheme, instructors might guide students from multiplicity to relativism by explaining scientific methods for measuring climate, and challenging learners to evaluate and compare different sources of information to determine which presents the strongest evidence.

Piaget and Perry offer developmental models that outline stages broadly aligned with a person’s age. Both models assume a relatively linear chronological development, with children and young adults passing through different stages at roughly the same time. Vygotsky, on the other hand, describes a model that focuses more on the content being mastered rather than the age of the student. According to Vygotsky’s theory, known as Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), as learners acquire new knowledge or develop new skills, they pass through three stages, often illustrated as concentric circles, as in Figure 3.2. The center circle, or first zone, represents tasks that the learner can do on their own. The second zone, or the Zone of Proximal Development, represents an area of knowledge or set of tasks that the learner can accomplish with assistance. The tasks and knowledge in this zone require students to stretch their abilities somewhat beyond their current skill level but are not so challenging as to be completely frustrating. The outermost circle, or third zone, represents tasks that the learner cannot yet do. Vygotsky posits that by working within the ZPD, learners can continue to grow their skills and abilities and increase their knowledge (Flair, 2019).

Figure 3.2: The Zone of Proximal Development

Whereas Piaget and Perry’s theories suggest that learners pass through the same stages at roughly the same time, Vygotsky maintains that the ZPD, or the zone of learning that will appropriately challenge the learner, is different for each student, depending on their background knowledge, experience, and ability (Flair, 2019). The same individual can experience different ZPDs in different subject areas; they might be advanced in math and able to take on material above their grade level but might find languages more challenging. Like with social constructivism, interaction with others is central to ZPD. According to Vygotsky, learning takes place when students interact with others who are more knowledgeable, including peers and instructors, who can provide guidance in the ZPD (Schaffer, 2006).

Math can provide a good example of working within the ZPD. Once students are comfortable with addition, they can probably learn subtraction with some help from a teacher or other peers but are probably not ready to learn long division. Our challenge as instructors is to identify the ZPD for each student so that we are neither boring learners with material that is too easy nor overwhelming them with material that is too hard. Chapter 7 discusses methods for assessing learners’ background knowledge to help determine the appropriate level of learning.

Most of the educational theories and frameworks outlined in this chapter were developed with a focus on children and young adults. While many of the principles can apply to an adult audience, they do not necessarily account for the specific issues, challenges, and motivations of adult learners. Yet, many information professionals will work mostly or even exclusively with adults. Academic librarians and archivists largely work with students who are at least 17 years old and, as the numbers of nontraditional students continue to increase, will find themselves increasingly working with older learners. Likewise, information professionals in corporations and medical and legal settings work almost exclusively with adults. Public librarians see a range of patrons, and many public libraries are increasing educational programming for their adult patrons. This section presents the educational concept of andragogy, which addresses teaching and learning for adults.

Knowles proposed andragogy as “the art and science of helping adults learn” (1988, p. 43). Andragogy is based on a set of assumptions about the ways in which adult learners’ experience, motivations, and needs differ from those of younger students, and suggests that traditional classroom approaches developed with younger students in mind will not necessarily be successful with adult learners. Perhaps one of the biggest differences between child and adult learners, according to Knowles (1988), is that adults are interested in the immediate applicability of what they are learning and are often motivated by their social roles as employees, parents, and so on. As Knowles notes, in traditional classrooms, children are usually taught discrete subjects like math, reading, and history, and their learning is focused on building up knowledge for the future. Young students might not use geometry in their everyday lives, but it forms a foundation for more complex math and for future job or life tasks like measuring materials for home repairs.

Adults, on the other hand, are already immersed in the social roles for which younger students are only preparing, and they want to see how their learning applies to those roles. Thus, Knowles suggests that adults will be interested in a competency-based, rather than a subject-based, approach to learning. Further, as autonomous individuals, adults are likely to be more self-directed in their learning. That is, they will want to, and should be encouraged to, take an active part in the design and planning of lessons, providing input on content and goals. Finally, Knowles also argues that adults’ wider experience and larger store of knowledge should be a resource for learning.

Knowles (1988, p. 45) organized his approach around four assumptions of adult learners:

Their self-concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward a self-directed human being.
They accumulate a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasingly rich resource for learning.
Their readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of their social roles.
Their time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application, and, accordingly, their orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject-centeredness to one of performance-centeredness.

Later, he elaborated with two additional assumptions, summed up by Merriam et al. (2007):

The most potent motivations are internal rather than external.
Adults need to know why they need to learn something.

Certain understandings follow from Knowles’ assumptions that we can use to guide our practice with adult learners. To begin with, we should recognize and respect adults’ tendency to be self-motivated and self-directed learners. After all, in most states, school attendance is compulsory up to a certain age, and relatively strict curriculum standards are set by each state, meaning that children have little choice about attending school in some form or about what content they learn. At least in theory, adults have a choice about whether to attend college or engage in other kinds of learning opportunities such as workshops and professional development and continuing education courses. Presumably, adults are motivated to pursue these opportunities for a specific reason, whether out of personal curiosity, to advance in their careers, or to gain a new skill. These adult learners will likely have opinions and ideas about what they want to learn and perhaps even how they want to engage with the content, so Knowles suggests we provide adult learners with choices and opportunities for input to help shape the curriculum.

Adult learners also have a larger store of knowledge and experience than their younger counterparts. From a cognitivist or constructivist point of view, adults have a larger schema against which to compare new information and make new connections. As instructors, we should recognize this store of knowledge and find ways to integrate it into the classroom, by providing ample opportunity for reflection and using guiding questions to encourage learners to draw on that knowledge. We can approach adult learners as peers or co-learners, acting more as coaches or facilitators in the learning process than as the more directive teacher associated with a traditional school classroom. This focus on learner-centered approaches and a democratic environment overlaps with humanistic and constructivist approaches to teaching.

Points three, four, and six in Knowles’ list of assumptions underscore the importance of relevance and transparency for adult learners. Knowles suggests that adults have different priorities in learning, perhaps in part because they are learning by choice and are in a better position to direct their own learning. Adult learners also tend to have more demands on their time than younger students; they may have families and jobs that impact the time they have to devote to their studies. Thus, adult learners want to see the applicability of what they are learning and might be resistant to work or information that seems incidental. We should be transparent with our adult students, both about what they will learn and how that learning is important and relevant. Sharing learning goals is an important step toward transparency, as it can help set expectations so that students understand the purpose of the lesson and activities. To illustrate relevance, we can provide concrete examples of how the learning can be applied in practice. One could argue that all students, not just adults, deserve transparency and to see the relevance of lesson goals and learning. Knowles’ point is that adults are more likely to expect, and perhaps appreciate, such transparency.

While some controversy exists over whether andragogy really constitutes a theory per se or is more a set of guiding principles or best practices, the assumptions provide helpful guidance to instructors not just in how they organize content but also in how they frame the lesson and its purposes. Based on these assumptions, we can take certain steps to set an appropriate environment for adult education (Bartle, 2019):

Set a cooperative learning climate.
Create mechanisms for input.
Arrange for a diagnosis of learner needs and interests.
Enable the formulation of learning objectives based on the diagnosed needs and interests.
Design sequential activities for achieving the objectives.
Execute the design by selecting methods, materials, and resources.
Evaluate the quality of the learning experience while rediagnosing needs for further learning.

As noted above, andragogy overlaps with other theories such as humanism and constructivism, and some of the principles of andragogy, like transparency, would benefit all learners. Still, this framework is useful in reminding instructors that adult learners likely have different priorities and motivations, and thus some differences in classroom approach might be warranted.

In addition to how people learn, we should also know something about why people learn. What motivates a student to put the time and effort into learning a skill or topic, and what can we do to cultivate that motivation? Svinicki (2004) offers an intriguing model that amalgamates some of the prevailing theories of motivation in learning. She suggests that motivation is a factor of the perceived value of the learning, along with students’ belief in their own self-efficacy, or their belief in their ability to achieve the goal. As Svinicki explains, “motivation involves a constant balancing of these two factors of value and expectations for success” (2004, p. 146). Most of the learning theories outlined above address motivation implicitly or explicitly. For instance, behaviorists talk in terms of reinforcement, or external motivators, as students strive to avoid negative consequences and achieve the rewards of good work. Humanists, on the other hand, focus on the internal motivation of self-actualization. As instructors, we can create environments to increase our learners’ motivation or their perception of the value of the goal and their self-efficacy:

Emphasize the relevance of the material. As outlined in the section on andragogy, learners are motivated when they see the benefits of learning and understand why the material is important. Instructors should explain how the effort individuals put into learning can help them achieve personal goals, such as getting a good grade on a paper or finding a job.
Make the material appropriately challenging. Reminiscent of the Zone of Proximal Development, material that is too easy will be boring for learners, while material that is too challenging will be overwhelming and frustrating.
Give learners a sense of choice and control. Choice allows learners to have a stake in the class, while control helps them determine the level of risk they will take and thus increase their confidence. We can foster choice and control by allowing learners options in the types of activities and assignments they engage in, or in the topics they research.
Set learners up for success. Clear expectations for the class or the assignment help learners understand what a successful performance or project looks like. By providing meaningful feedback, we can guide learners toward success.
Guide self-assessment. When learners accurately assess their current level of knowledge and skill, they can make reasonable predictions of the likelihood of their success with the current material.

Activity 3.4 offers an opportunity to reflect on motivation in learning.

Activity 3.4: What Motivates You?

Think back on learning experiences such as courses or workshops where you felt more or less motivated as a learner. These experiences could be related to academics, hobbies, sports, or other interests.

In the experiences in which you felt motivated, what steps did the instructor take that helped you feel motivated?
In the experiences where you felt less motivated, what could the instructor have done differently?
In each case, what role did self-efficacy, or your confidence in your own abilities, play?

Growth Mindset

Dweck’s (2016) mindset theory has gained much attention in the field of education over the last few decades and has some implications for student motivation. Although this theory is somewhat different in its conceptualizations than those described in the rest of this chapter, it is included here both because of its popularity and because it provides interesting insight into how instructors can coach learners to understand and build on their potential. Dweck’s theory is less about how people learn and more about how their attitude toward learning and their self-concept can impact their ability and willingness to learn. According to Dweck, people tend to approach learning with a fixed mindset or a growth mindset. Those with more of a fixed mindset tend to believe that ability is innate; either people are born with a certain talent and ability, or they are not. If individuals are not born with natural ability in a certain area, they would waste time working on that area because they will never truly be successful. People with more of a growth mindset, on the other hand, tend to believe that ability is the outcome of hard work and effort. These people see value in working at areas in which they are not immediately successful because they believe they can improve. Even when they are good at something, they are willing to continue to work at it because they believe they can continue to get better (Dweck, 2016).

These mindsets can have a profound impact on how a person approaches learning (Dweck, 2016). People with a fixed mindset will view low grades or poor test performance as a sign of their lack of natural ability and are likely to become discouraged. They might try to avoid that subject altogether or resign themselves to failure because they do not believe that practice or study will help them improve. Instead, they will tend to stick to subjects in which they already perform well. People with a growth mindset take an opposite view. They tend to view low grades or poor performance as a diagnostic tool that helps them see where they need to concentrate their efforts in order to get better. They are willing to put in extra effort because they believe that their hard work will lead to improved performance. They are also willing to take risks because they understand that failure is just part of the process of learning. We can see connections between Dweck’s theory and Piaget’s argument that the discomfort of disequilibrium is necessary to learning.

Understandably, people with a growth mindset are usually more successful learners because they believe in their own ability to learn and grow. Luckily, Dweck maintains that these mindsets themselves are not necessarily immutable. That is, a person with a fixed mindset can be coached to adopt a growth mindset. Learners can begin by recognizing when they are engaging in fixed mindset thinking, for instance when getting anxious about mistakes or telling themselves that they are “no good” at something. Once learners understand that this thinking is counterproductive, they can change their thinking to adopt a more encouraging voice.

Importantly, Dweck notes that encouraging a growth mindset in the classroom does not mean lowering standards for learning. She maintains that instructors should have high standards but also create a supportive and nurturing atmosphere. To begin with, instructors themselves must believe that learning and growth are possible, and not give up on students who are struggling. Instructors can model this belief for students by replacing fixed mindset feedback with growth mindset feedback. For example, Dweck suggests that if learners are struggling, instructors can respond by telling them they have not succeeded yet. The word “yet” implies that they will achieve the necessary learning; they just need to keep working at it. In that way, instructors can reframe mistakes and struggles as opportunities to learn rather than as failures. Instructors should encourage and appreciate effort as well as learning. In other words, rather than focusing only on a student’s achievement, instructors can praise the effort and hard work that led to that achievement. At the same time, Dweck (2015) notes that a growth mindset is not just about effort. In addition to putting in the work, learners must also be willing to try different strategies and be open to feedback on their performance. The goal is to help students view challenges as part of the learning process and to work with them rather than to fear or avoid them.

Learning theories are meant to help instructors understand the processes and circumstances that enable learning and, by extension, offer guidance in developing activities and environments that best support learning. But what to make of the fact that there are so many different theories and that some contradict each other? The truth is that the human brain and its cognitive processes are incredibly complex and not yet fully understood. Learning theorists do their best to describe how people learn based on careful observation and experimentation, but no learning theory is perfect. Indeed, each theory has its critics, and the various theories go in and out of favor over time. Even so, the theories provide us with an empirically based understanding of how learning occurs.

Further, these theories are not mutually exclusive. We do not have to strictly adhere to one theory but can combine elements across theories in ways that resonate with our teaching styles and reflect our best understanding of our students. For instance, a teacher might draw on elements of cognitivism to enhance students’ retention and recall but also develop group activities that promote social constructivism through peer-to-peer communication. Especially with younger children, instructors might draw on behaviorism by using rewards and positive reinforcement to motivate student engagement with the content, but also integrate humanism by empathizing with students and use constructive feedback to encourage a growth mindset. We can use our understanding of developmental stages to create lessons and activities that provide an appropriate level of challenge to help students grow in their understanding. Ultimately, we should view learning theories as guidelines, not rules, and draw on them in ways that reflect our own values and understandings.

Keeping this idea of learning across theories in mind, we can sum up the key takeaways from this chapter:

Learning is the change in knowledge, behavior, or understanding that occurs when people make connections between new information and their existing knowledge. Various theories attempt to describe the factors that enable the learning process.
Learning does not happen in the same way or at the same time for all students. Understanding developmental stages can help instructors align instruction with student readiness. Adult learners may have needs and constraints that differ from younger learners.
The learning process is influenced by internal factors such as the student’s level of motivation and feelings of self-efficacy, and external factors such as the classroom environment and the adults and peers with whom the learner interacts.
Creating a democratic, empathetic, and supportive learning environment
Assisting students in becoming self-directed learners and enhancing their motivation by offering a sense of control and choice in their learning
Acknowledging that learning can be challenging, and helping students develop the mindset and self-efficacy that will support their persistence
Offering regular and meaningful feedback

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15 Learning Theories in Education (A Complete Summary)

So what are educational learning theories and how can we use them in our teaching practice? There are so many out there, how do we know which are still relevant and which will work for our classes?

There are 3 main schemas of learning theories; Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism. In this article you will find a breakdown of each one and an explanation of the 15 most influential learning theories; from Vygotsky to Piaget and Bloom to Maslow and Bruner.

Swimming through treacle!

That’s what it feels like when you are trying to sort through and make sense of the vast amount of learning theories we have at our disposal.

Way back in ancient Greece, the philosopher, Plato , first pondered the question “How does an individual learn something new if the subject itself is new to them” (ok, so I’m paraphrasing, my ancient Greek isn’t very good!).

Since Plato, many theorists have emerged, all with their different take on how students learn. Learning theories are a set of principles that explain how best a student can acquire, retain and recall new information.

In this complete summary, we will look at the work of the following learning theorists.

Despite the fact there are so many educational theorists, there are three labels that they all fall under. Behaviorism , Cognitivism and Constructivism .

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is based on the idea that knowledge is independent and on the exterior of the learner. In a behaviorist’s mind, the learner is a blank slate that should be provided with the information to be learnt.

Through this interaction, new associations are made and thus learning occurs. Learning is achieved when the provided stimulus changes behavior. A non-educational example of this is the work done by Pavlov .

Through his famous “salivating dog” experiment, Pavlov showed that a stimulus (in this case ringing a bell every time he fed the dog) caused the dog to eventually start salivating when he heard a bell ring.

The dog associated the bell ring with being provided with food so any time a bell was rung the dog started salivating, it had learnt that the noise was a precursor to being fed.

I use a similar approach to classroom management.

I adapt my body language .

I have taught my students that if I stand in a specific place in the classroom with my arms folded, they know that I’m getting frustrated with the level of noise and they start to quieten down or if I sit cross-legged on my desk, I’m about to say something important, supportive and they should listen because it affects them directly.

Behaviorism involves repeated actions, verbal reinforcement and incentives to take part. It is great for establishing rules, especially for behavior management.

Cognitivism

In contrast to behaviorism, cognitivism focuses on the idea that students process information they receive rather than just responding to a stimulus, as with behaviorism.

There is still a behavior change evident, but this is in response to thinking and processing information.

Cognitive theories were developed in the early 1900s in Germany from Gestalt psychology by Wolfgang Kohler. In English, Gestalt roughly translates to the organization of something as a whole, that is viewed as more than the sum of its individual parts.

Cognitivism has given rise to many evidence based education theories, including cognitive load theory , schema theory and dual coding theory as well as being the basis for retrieval practice.

In cognitivism theory, learning occurs when the student reorganizes information, either by finding new explanations or adapting old ones.

This is viewed as a change in knowledge and is stored in the memory rather than just being viewed as a change in behavior. Cognitive learning theories are mainly attributed to Jean Piaget .

Examples of how teachers can include cognitivism in their classroom include linking concepts together, linking concepts to real-world examples, discussions and problem-solving.

Constructivism

Students need to have a prior base of knowledge for constructivist approaches to be effective. Bruner’s spiral curriculum (see below) is a great example of constructivism in action.

As students are constructing their own knowledge base, outcomes cannot always be anticipated, therefore, the teacher should check and challenge misconceptions that may have arisen. When consistent outcomes are required, a constructivist approach may not be the ideal theory to use.

Examples of constructivism in the classroom include problem-based learning, research and creative projects and group collaborations.

learning theories summary, behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism.

1. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Piaget is an interesting character in Psychology. His theory of learning differs from many others in some important ways:

First, he focuses exclusively on children; Second, he talks about development (not learning per se) and Third, it’s a stage theory, not a linear progression theory. OK, so what’s he on about?

Well, there are some basic ideas to get your head around and some stages to understand too. The basic ideas are:

Schemas : The building blocks of knowledge.
Adaptation processes : These allow the transition from one stage to another. He called these: Equilibrium, Assimilation and Accommodation.
Stages of Cognitive development : Sensorimotor; Preoperational; Concrete Operational; Formal Operational.

So here’s how it goes. Children develop Schemas of knowledge about the world. These are clusters of connected ideas about things in the real world that allow the child to respond accordingly.

When the child has developed a working Schema that can explain what they perceive in the world, that Schema is in a state of Equilibrium .

When the child uses the schema to deal with a new thing or situation, that Schema is in Assimilation and Accommodation happens when the existing Schema isn’t up to the job of explaining what’s going on and needs to be changed.

Once it’s changed, it returns to Equilibrium and life goes on. Learning is, therefore, a constant cycle of Assimilation; Accommodation; Equilibrium; Assimilation and so on…

All that goes through the 4 Stages of Cognitive Development , which are defined by age:

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

The Sensorimotor Stage runs from birth to 2 years and the child spends their time learning basic Schemas and Object Permanence (the idea that something still exists when you can’t see it).

The Preoperational Stage runs from 2 years to 7 years and the child develops more Schemas and the ability to think Symbolically (the idea that one thing can stand for another; words for example, or objects). At this point, children still struggle with Theory of Mind (Empathy) and can’t really get their head around the viewpoints of others.

The Concrete Operational Stage runs from 7 years to 11 years and this is the Stage when children start to work things out in their head rather than physically in the real world. They also develop the ability to Conserve (understand that something stays the same quantity even if it looks different).

The Formal Operational Stage runs from 11 years into adulthood and this is where abstract thought develops, as does logic and cool stuff like hypothesis testing.

According to Piaget, the whole process is active and requires the rediscovery and reconstructing of knowledge across the entire process of Stages.

Understanding the Stage a child is in informs what they should be presented with based on what they can and cannot do at the Stage they’re in.

Piaget’s work on cognitivism has given rise to some brilliant work from people like John Sweller who developed the fantastic Cognitive Load Theory and John Flavell’s work on metacognition

2. Vygotsky’s Theory of Learning

Vygotsky takes a different approach to Piaget’s idea that development precedes learning.

Instead, he reckons that social learning is an integral part of cognitive development and it is culture, not developmental Stage that underlies cognitive development. Because of that, he argues that learning varies across cultures rather than being a universal process driven by the kind of structures and processes put forward by Piaget.

Zone of Proximal Development

He makes a big deal of the idea of the Zone of Proximal Development in which children and those they are learning from co-construct knowledge. Therefore, the social environment in which children learn has a massive impact on how they think and what they think about.

They also differ in how they view language. For Piaget, thought drives language but for Vygotsky, language and thought become intertwined at about 3 years and become a sort of internal dialogue for understanding the world.

And where do they get that from? Their social environment of course, which contains all the cognitive/linguistic skills and tools to understand the world.

Vygotsky talks about Elementary Mental Functions , by which he means the basic cognitive processes of Attention, Sensation, Perception and Memory.

By using those basic tools in interactions with their sociocultural environment, children sort of improve them using whatever their culture provides to do so. In the case of Memory, for example, Western cultures tend towards note-taking, mind-maps or mnemonics whereas other cultures may use different Memory tools like storytelling.

In this way, a cultural variation of learning can be described quite nicely.

What are crucial in this learning theory are the ideas of Scaffolding, the Zone of Proximal Development ( ZPD ) and the More Knowledgeable Other ( MKO ). Here’s how all that works:

More Knowledgeable Other

The MKO can be (but doesn’t have to be) a person who literally knows more than the child. Working collaboratively, the child and the MKO operate in the ZPD, which is the bit of learning that the child can’t do on their own.

As the child develops, the ZPD gets bigger because they can do more on their own and the process of enlarging the ZPD is called Scaffolding .

Vygotsky Scaffolding

Knowing where that scaffold should be set is massively important and it’s the MKO’s job to do that so that the child can work independently AND learn collaboratively.

For Vygotsky, language is at the heart of all this because a) it’s the primary means by which the MKO and the child communicate ideas and b) internalizing it is enormously powerful in cementing understanding about the world.

That internalization of speech becomes Private Speech (the child’s “inner voice”) and is distinct from Social Speech , which occurs between people.

Over time, Social Speech becomes Private Speech and Hey Presto! That’s Learning because the child is now collaborating with themselves!

The bottom line here is that the richer the sociocultural environment, the more tools will be available to the child in the ZPD and the more Social Speech they will internalize as Private Speech. It doesn’t take a genius to work out, therefore, that the learning environment and interactions are everything.

Scaffolding is also an integral part of Rosenshine’s Principles of Instruction .

3. Bloom’s Domains of Learning

In 1956, American educational psychologist, Benjamin Bloom, first proposed three domains of learning; cognitive, affective and psycho-motor . Bloom worked in collaboration with David Krathwohl and Anne Harrow throughout the 1950s-70s on the three domains.

The Cognitive Domain (Bloom’s Taxonomy)

This was the first domain to be proposed in 1956 and it focuses on the idea that objectives that are related to cognition could be divided into subdivisions and ranked in order of cognitive difficulty.

These ranked subdivisions are what we commonly refer to as Bloom’s taxonomy . The original subdivisions are as follows (knowledge is the lowest with evaluation being the most cognitively difficult):

Understanding
Application

However, there was a major revision of the subdivisions in 2000-01 by Bloom’s original partner, David Krathwohl and his colleague, Lorin Anderson (Anderson was a former student of Bloom’s).

The highlights of this revision were switching names of the subdivisions from nouns to verbs, thus making them easier to use when curriculum and lesson planning .

The other main change was the order of the top two subdivisions was reversed. The updated taxonomy is as follows:

The Affective Domain

The affective domain (sometimes referred to as the feeling domain) is concerned with feelings and emotions and also divides objectives into hierarchical subcategories. It was proposed by Krathwohl and Bloom in 1964.

The affective domain is not usually used when planning for math and sciences as feelings and emotion are not relevant for those subjects. However, for educators of arts and language, the inclusion of the affective domain is imperative wherever possible.

The ranked domain subcategories range from “receiving” at the lower end up to “characterization” at the top. The full ranked list is as follows:

Receiving. Being aware of an external stimulus (feel, sense, experience).
Responding. Responding to the external stimulus (satisfaction, enjoyment, contribute)
Valuing. Referring to the student’s belief or appropriation of worth (showing preference or respect).
Organization. The conceptualizing and organizing of values (examine, clarify, integrate.)
Characterization. The ability to practice and act on their values. (Review, conclude, judge).

The Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain refers to those objectives that are specific to reflex actions interpretive movements and discreet physical functions.

A common misconception is that physical objectives that support cognitive learning fit the psycho-motor label, for example; dissecting a heart and then drawing it.

While these are physical (kinesthetic) actions, they are a vector for cognitive learning, not psycho-motor learning.

Psychomotor learning refers to how we use our bodies and senses to interact with the world around us, such as learning how to move our bodies in dance or gymnastics.

Anita Harrow classified different types of learning in the psycho-motor domain from those that are reflex to those that are more complex and require precise control.

Reflex movements. These movements are those that we possess from birth or appear as we go through puberty. They are automatic, that is they do not require us to actively think about them e.g. breathing, opening and closing our pupils or shivering when cold.
Fundamental movements. These are those actions that are the basic movements, running, jumping, walking etc and commonly form part of more complex actions such as playing a sport.
Perceptual abilities. This set of abilities features those that allow us to sense the world around us and coordinate our movements in order to interact with our environment. They include visual, audio and tactile actions.
Physical abilities. These abilities refer to those involved with strength, endurance, dexterity and flexibility etc.
Skilled movements. Objectives set in this area are those that include movements learned for sport (twisting the body in high diving or trampolining), dance or playing a musical instrument (placing fingers on guitar strings to produce the correct note). It is these movements that we sometimes use the layman’s term “muscle memory”.
Non-discursive communication. Meaning communication without writing, non-discursive communication refers to physical actions such as facial expressions, posture and gestures.

4. Gagné’s Conditions of Learning

Robert Mills Gagné was an American educational psychologist who, in 1965 published his book “The Conditions of Learning”. In it, he discusses the analysis of learning objectives and how the different classes of objective require specific teaching methods.

He called these his 5 conditions of learning, all of which fall under the cognitive, affective and psycho-motor domains discussed earlier.

Gagné’s 5 Conditions of Learning

Verbal information (Cognitive domain)
Intellectual skills (Cognitive domain)
Cognitive strategies (Cognitive domain)
Motor skills (Psycho-Motor domain)
Attitudes (Affective domain)

Gagné’s 9 Levels of Learning

To achieve his five conditions of learning, Gagné believed that learning would take place when students progress through nine levels of learning and that any teaching session should include a sequence of events through all nine levels. The idea was that the nine levels of learning activate the five conditions of learning and thus, learning will be achieved.

Gain attention.
Inform students of the objective.
Stimulate recall of prior learning.
Present the content.
Provide learning guidance.
Elicit performance (practice).
Provide feedback.
Assess performance.
Enhance retention and transfer to the job.

Benefits of Gagné’s Theory

Used in conjunction with Bloom’s taxonomy, Gagné’s nine levels of learning provide a framework that teachers can use to plan lessons and topics. Bloom provides the ability to set objectives that are differentiated and Gagné gives a scaffold to build your lesson on.

5. Jerome Bruner

Bruner’s Spiral Curriculum (1960)

Cognitive learning theorist, Jerome Bruner based the spiral curriculum on his idea that “ We begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development” .

In other words, he meant that even very complex topics can be taught to young children if structured and presented in the right way. The spiral curriculum is based on three key ideas.

Students revisit the same topic multiple times throughout their school career. This reinforces the learning each time they return to the subject.
The complexity of the topic increases each time a student revisits it. This allows progression through the subject matter as the child’s cognitive ability develops with age.
When a student returns to a topic, new ideas are linked with ones they have previously learned. The student’s familiarity with the keywords and ideas enables them to grasp the more difficult elements of the topic in a stronger way.

Bruner’s 3 Modes of Representation (1966)

Following the idea of the spiral curriculum, Bruner presented the idea of three modes of representation. These modes of representation refer to the way knowledge is stored in memory. Unlike Piaget’s age-related stages, Bruner’s modes are loosely sequential.

Enactive (age 0-1 years). Representation of knowledge through physical actions.
Iconic (age 1-6 years). Visual representation of knowledge stored via visual images.
Symbolic (age 7+ years). The use of words and symbols to describe experiences.

6. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

learning theories summary, maslow's hierarchy of needs

The basic premise for Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is that students progress through a set of sequential needs from physiological to self-actualization. As they move up through the levels, they feel more comfortable in their learning environment and have the confidence to push further.

It’s important to note that any group of students will have learners at different levels, some may not have the lower levels met at home so making sure these students feel safe and secure is of the utmost importance as they will find it very hard to move to the upper levels.

Maslow’s theory lends itself more to building student/teacher relationships rather than lesson or curriculum structure. You can have the best resources and most tightly planned lessons in the world but if you don’t show enthusiasm, passion and empathy it will be very difficult for your students to feel their needs have been met .

7. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner is an American developmental psychologist and professor of cognition and education at the Harvard graduate school at Harvard University. He studied under Erik Ericson (Below) and Jerome Bruner (above).

He published “Frames of Mind” in 1983, in it, he laid out his theory of “multiple intelligences”.

Gardner perceived intelligence as the ability to solve problems or make products that are useful in one or more cultural settings.

He developed a list of criteria he would use to judge possible contenders for the title “intelligence”. Candidates had to satisfy a range of the conditions on his list and also be able to solve genuine problems of difficulties. Initially, Gardner named seven intelligences.

Gardner’s 7 Intelligences

Linguistic intelligence. The ability to learn and use language in written and spoken forms to express oneself.
Mathematical intelligence. The ability to solve problems logically, to solve mathematical problems and to perform scientific investigations.
Musical intelligence. Having skill in appreciation, composition and performance of musical patterns, including the ability to recognize tone, pitch and rhythm.
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Using mental abilities to coordinate body movements to solve problems.
Spatial intelligence. Being able to recognize and use patterns in a wide or confined space.
Interpersonal intelligence. The capacity to understand the desires, motivations and intentions of other people.
Intrapersonal intelligence. The capacity to understand your own fears, feelings and motivations.

The Importance of Multiple Intelligence in the Classroom

Gardner suggested that the intelligences rarely operate independently and compliment each other as students learn new skills and solve problems. He also commented that the intelligences are amoral, meaning they can be used for constructive or destructive purposes.

Whilst Gardner’s theory hasn’t been hugely accepted in the field of Psychology, it has had a strong positive response in education , especially in the US.

In the face of criticism that it is hard to teach things in the frame of a certain intelligence, Gardner replied by stating that the seven intelligences give 7 ways to teach a subject, allowing multiple strategies to be used, thus allowing all students to make progress.

Gardner believes that all seven intelligences are required to live life well and education systems should include all seven not just the more academic first two.

Naturalist Intelligence

Since its original publication, Gardner has since added an eighth intelligence; Naturalist intelligence. This deals with an individual’s ability to perceive, recognize and order features from the environment.

8. Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychological Development

Erik Erikson was a stage theorist who developed Freud’s “Psychosexual Theory” and adapted it into a psychosocial (having both psychological and social aspects) theory encompassing eight stages.

According to Erikson, we experience eight stages of development during our life span. Within each stage, there is a dilemma that we must resolve in order to feel a sense of competence and will allow us to develop as a well-adjusted adult.

Erikson’s 8 Stages

Trust Vs. Mistrust (Age 0 – 1.5). In this first stage, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. If treated poorly children may grow up feeling mistrust towards people.
Autonomy Vs. Shame (Age 1.5 – 3). The “me do it’ stage, children start to make decisions and show preferences of elements in their environment such as what clothes to wear or what toy they prefer. If children are not allowed to explore these preferences they may develop low self-esteem and shame.
Initiative Vs. Guilt (Age 3 – 5) . This stage involves children learning to plan and achieve goals involving others. If parents or teachers allow children to explore this and support their choices they will develop a sense of purpose and strong self-confidence.
Industry Vs. Inferiority (Age 5 – 12). In this stage, children start comparing themselves with their peers. Success at this will result in a sense of accomplishment in their school work, social and family activities and sports.
Identity Vs. Role Confusion (Age 12 – 18). Students in this stage are asking themselves “Who am I” and “What do I want to do in my life”. They will try out multiple roles during this time to find what one “fits” best. A strong sense of identity and an ability to defend their core beliefs in the face of other opinions would be considered success at this stage.
Intimacy Vs. Isolation (Age 18 – 40). As students progress into early adulthood their focus shifts to making and maintaining strong, intimate relationships with others.
Generativity Vs. Stagnation (Age 40 – 65). In middle adulthood, people are concerned with contributing to society either through their work or parenthood. Continued self-improvement for the benefit of other people figures strongly here.
Ego Integrity Vs. Despair (Age 65+). Those in late adulthood reflect on their lives, feeling a sense of satisfaction or failure. Those who feel failure will often obsess with ideas of what they “should have” or “could have” done.

Educational Implications of Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Within an educational frame, Erikson’s work gives us as teachers a framework to base our teaching on. Knowing what questions our students are asking of themselves and the world around them allows us to plan effectively.

Problems arise when our class has children at different stages in it, in this case, we must carefully differentiate our pedagogy to allow supportive learning for all students.

9. Kolb’s Experiential Theory

Kolb’s experi e ntial learning cycle.

David Kolb, an American education theorist proposed his four-stage experiential learning theory in 1984. It is built on the premise that learning is the acquisition of abstract concepts which can then be applied to a range of scenarios.

“Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” – Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development (Vol. 1). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Each stage in the cycle both supports and leads into the next stage. Learning is achieved only if all four stages have been completed, however, a learner may travel around the cycle multiple times, further refining their understanding of the topic.

No one stage is an effective learning strategy on its own, for example, if the reflective observation stage is skipped, the learner could continue to make the same mistakes.

10. The Peter Principle

The Peter Principle was developed by American educational theorist Laurence Peter and was explained in the book “The Peter Principle” that Peter wrote with his colleague, Raymond Hull.

Originally the book was supposed to be a satirical view on how people are promoted in organizations but it became popular as it actually made a valid point.

Whilst not strictly a learning theory, it does have some crossover to the classroom. The Peter Principal deals with four levels of competence. They could give a teacher planning a long term teaching strategy a framework to use when thinking about how students progress.

Unconscious Incompetence. Not knowing how to do a task without knowing you don’t know.
Conscious Incompetence. You still don’t know how to do the task but now you know you don’t know. You are aware of a gap in your knowledge.
Conscious Competence. You can now do the task but it requires a lot of concentration.
Unconscious Competence. You can perform the task with ease. This is achieved by repeated practice.

I’m sure you can see how this would translate to a student’s learning journey.

Further Reading: Peter, L. J., & Hull, R. (1969). The peter principle .

11. Laird’s Sensory Theory

In 1985 Dugan Laird stated in his book Approaches to Training and Development that learning occurs when the senses are stimulated.

He quoted research that found that 75% of an adult’s knowledge was obtained by seeing. 13% was through hearing, the remaining 12% was learned through touch, smell and taste combined.

Based on this research, providing visual prompts for students will enhance their learning. However, making your lessons a multi-sensual experience will enhance learning even further. It’s worth considering this when planning your lessons.

12. Skinner’s Behaviorist Theory

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is based on Thorndike’s “Law of Effect” (1898), in which it is proposed that behaviors that are followed by positive responses are likely to be repeated and those that are followed by negative responses, not repeated.

Skinner refined the Law of Effect by introducing “reinforcement” into the descriptions. Using Skinner’s new description we end up with; those behaviors that are reinforced are repeated (strengthened) and those not reinforced tend to dissipate (are weakened).

Positive Reinforcement

From a classroom management perspective, positive reinforcement is an essential strategy for teaching students how to act and conduct themselves.

Positive reinforcement (e.g. praise) should be given for behaviors that are desirable, for example, verbally answering questions in class . Initially, this should be done for all answers given, regardless of whether they are correct. This will build a culture of answering questions.

As the behavior in question becomes commonplace, the teacher should then both reduce the frequency of the reinforcement and, as in our above example, only give it for correct answers.

Ultimately the teacher will reduce the frequency of the positive reinforcement to only those responses of the highest caliber. This will create a culture of desired excellence in the students.

13. Rogers’ Humanist Theory

Developed by the American psychologist Carl Rogers in the 1980s, facilitative learning is a humanistic approach to learning.

Humanism was developed to contrast cognitivism and behaviorism. Both Rogers and Maslow (see above) based their work in humanism. The key perspectives of humanism are as follows:

People have a natural desire to learn in order to achieve self-actualization (see Maslow’s theory above).
It is not the outcome that is the most important part of education, it is the process of learning itself.
The students themselves should be in control of their learning and it should be achieved through observing and exploring.
The teacher should be an encouraging role model, motivating, guiding and supporting students on their own personal journey.

Facilitative Learning

Rogers’ views the teacher as a facilitator to learning rather than just a conveyor of knowledge. The success of the teacher is in their ability to build positive relationships with students.

Roger’s proposed three attitudinal core characteristics that a teacher should possess for facilitative learning to be successful:

Realness. The teacher should be themselves and use their own personality when teaching. Being “real” with students breeds an ethos of trust between students and a teacher. The teacher should be able to convey their feelings rather than just being a monotonal, monochromatic robot.
Prizing, Accepting and Trusting. A teacher should care about their students and accept their feelings, regardless of whether they assist or detract from learning. Through these characteristics, deeper trust and respect is built.
Empathy. Understanding the student’s perception of learning and their feelings.

The effectiveness of facilitative learning also requires certain traits to be present in the student. They should be motivated , aware of the facilitative conditions they have been provided with and aware that the task they have been given is useful, realistic and relevant.

If all these characteristics are present then, in the words of Rogers himself:

“learning becomes life, and a very vital life at that. The student is on his way, sometimes excitedly, sometimes reluctantly, to becoming a learning, changing being”. – Rogers, Carl R. The Interpersonal Relationship in the Facilitation of Learning. In Humanizing Education: The Person in the Process. Ed. T. Leeper. National Education Association, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, p1-18. 1967.

14. Canter’s Theory of Assertive Discipline

Assertive discipline is a structured system to enable teachers to manage their classrooms. It focuses on the teacher developing a positive behavior management strategy rather than being dictatorial.

Canter’s proposition is that the teacher has the right to decide what is best for their students and that no student should prevent any other from learning.

The teacher should very clear boundaries as to how they expect their students to behave and work, the students should know what these boundaries are and any deviation should be met with an assertive action from the teacher.

This all sounds quite draconian, right?

However, if the teacher gives a firm, clear instruction and those instructions are met, they should be followed by positive reinforcement (see Skinner above). Any deviation from the instruction should be met with negative consequences that the students have prior knowledge of.

The behavior management guru, Bill Rogers, bases his strategies on the assertive teacher model , which I know from personal use, works incredibly well.

15. Dreikur’s Classroom Management Theory

Rudolf Dreikur proposed the theory that mutual respect should be the basis for discipline and that this mutual respect motivates learners to display positive behaviors.

He believed students have an innate desire to feel like an accepted member of a group and to feel like they have value and confidence to contribute to that group. Dreikur called this desire to belong, the “genuine goal of social behavior”.

If students are unable to achieve this goal, they start a series of “goals of misbehavior”. The resulting misbehavior is a misguided attempt at gaining the sense of belonging they are missing.

Dreikur’s 4 Goals of Misbehavior

Gain power and control.
Gain revenge.
Display feelings of inadequacy.

If a student fails to gain social status by gaining attention , they move on to trying to gain power and control, failure at each successive level ultimately ends with feelings of inadequacy.

How to Combat the 4 Goals of Misbehavior.

Gain Attention. Ignore the attention-seeking and use positive reinforcement when positive behavior is shown. Distract the student by offering alternate actions or choices e.g. “Please could you hand out the books”.

Gain Power and Control. Focus on all the good behavior in the class, while ignoring the attempt to gain power, on no account should you engage in a battle for power. Bill Rogers, the behavior expert, calls this the black dot, white square approach.

Gain Revenge. Remember that the student is trying to gain a sense of belonging and this revenge-seeking is a masked attempt to gain it. Away from other students, let the student know that you care about them and their education, that despite their actions you want the best for them.

Display Feelings of Inadequacy. At this stage, the student has given up on themselves. This stage will manifest in the form of “not doing” (not doing homework, not participating etc.). Students at this stage should be shown how to recognize small successes and achievements. Showing an interest in them and their work will always help slowly bring a student out of this stage.

Learning Theories Summary

I know what you’re thinking. “How the hell am I supposed to do all of these” or “which ones should I use” or “I’m more confused than ever!”.

That’s how I felt when I was doing my teacher training. The truth is, great teaching involves a cocktail of most of these at some point (and a few actual cocktails at the weekend to recover!).

If you are just starting out on your journey as a teacher and you are worried that you’ll do it wrong, just remember these basic principles:

Building positive relationships with students is the bedrock of EVERYTHING.
Setting clear boundaries that students are aware of.
Consequences of breaking those boundaries are also known in advance.
Focus on and reward the positive things that happen in your classroom (positive reinforcement).
Treat your students as people with thoughts and feelings of their own that, while may seem irrelevant to you, they are not to them.
It is easier and more effective to change your perspective to theirs than make them change to yours.
Remember, their world is not the one you grew up in.

I hope you found this article useful, I know it reminded me of a good few things that I may have been slacking with. Feel free to share it with your teacher friends, I’m sure they will appreciate it.

Learning Theories FAQ

Behaviorism involves repeated actions, verbal reinforcement and incentives to take part. It is great for establishing rules, especially for behavior management . Behaviorism is based on the idea that knowledge is independent and on the exterior of the learner. In a behaviorist’s mind, the learner is a blank slate that should be provided with the information to be learnt. Through this interaction, new associations are made and thus leaning occurs. Learning is achieved when the provided stimulus changes behavior.

In contrast to behaviorism, cognitivism focuses on the idea that students process information they receive rather than just responding to a stimulus, as with behaviorism. There is still a behavior change evident, but this is in response to thinking and processing information. In cognitive load theory , learning occurs when the student reorganizes information, either by finding new explanations or adapting old ones.

Constructivism is based on the premise that we construct learning new ideas based on our own prior knowledge and experiences. Learning, therefore, is unique to the individual learner. Students adapt their models of understanding either by reflecting on prior theories or resolving misconceptions. Students need to have a prior base of knowledge for constructivist approaches to be effective. Bruner’s spiral curriculum is a great example of constructivism in action.

8 thoughts on “15 Learning Theories in Education (A Complete Summary)”

What a great overview! Thank you

Is there a new paradigm of AI-assisted education? Everybody uses this kind of education both in learning and teaching, yet there is not a universal theory of such that subject.

Wow..indeed a phenomenal explanation of various learning theories Thank you.

Thank you very much for this article. I’m in pre-major classes for my K-5 degree & licensure, and I’m developing my POE. This might be the most helpful resource I have found so far.

Thanks a lot.

This article is very helpful; it summarizes almost all the theories I encountered during my PGDE. In addition, although in summary, it clarifies many unclear terms I came across during my training.

You do such a great job of summarising the theories. Thank you for this! It can be overwhelming as a new teacher to get all these theories and get the cocktail that fits best to own’s teaching style. Also, thank you for simplifying and creating light moments about the theories. The seven principles are practical and applicable in any teaching situation.

You are awesome!

Thank you for this wonderful overview of the theories by these developmental greats. Summarized beautifully for easy reading and a very useful refresher. It is a most helpful reference for my studies.

Extremely well written. Covers all the theorists. Read and absorb Dr. B.

5 educational learning theories and how to apply them

By Michael Feder

Stylized illustration with a statue of Socrates against an abstract background in mint green, cloud blue and sandstone

This article has been vetted by University of Phoenix's editorial advisory committee. Read more about our editorial process.

Reviewed by Pamela M. Roggeman , EdD, Dean, College of Education

What are learning theories in education?

Learning theories are conceptual frameworks that describe how people absorb, process and retain information.

Theories in education didn’t begin in earnest until the early 20th century, but curiosity about how humans learn dates back to the ancient Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. They explored whether knowledge and truth could be found within oneself ( rationalism ) or through external observation ( empiricism ).

By the 19th century, psychologists began to answer this question with scientific studies. The goal was to understand objectively how people learn and then develop teaching approaches accordingly.

In the 20th century, the debate among educational theorists centered on behaviorist theory versus cognitive psychology. In other words, do people learn by responding to external stimuli or by using their brains to construct knowledge from external data?

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Why are learning theories important in education?

Learning theories help teachers and others who work in education better understand how people acquire knowledge. The theories can help curriculum designers develop more effective educational materials, and they can help teachers apply those materials more successfully in the classroom. After all, when those in charge of learning have this information in hand, they can help their students learn more effectively.

That applies to more than classroom lessons too. Applying educational theories can help engage learners as they collaborate with one another, and it can promote lifelong learning as people understand how they best learn.

That’s why educator preparation programs spend so much time having teacher candidates study human development and multiple learning theories. Foundational knowledge of how humans learn — specifically how a child learns and develops cognitively — is essential for educators who want to become effective instructors in the classroom.

Pamela Roggeman, EdD, dean of University of Phoenix’s College of Education , explains her take on the role learning theory plays in preparing teachers: “Just as no two people are the same, no two students learn in the exact same way or at the same rate. Effective educators need to be able to pivot and craft instruction that meets the needs of the individual student to address the needs of the whole child.

“Sound knowledge of multiple learning theories is a first step toward this and another reason why great teachers work their entire careers to master both the art and the science of teaching.”

Although most teaching roles don’t require adhering to a particular learning theory, educators likely already follow one or another theory, even if they aren’t consciously aware of it. Following learning theories can help teachers guide their students to success because they allow educators to offer alternative effective teaching strategies.

So, whether you’re an aspiring or experienced teacher, a student or a student's parent or guardian, knowing more about each theory can make you more effective in fostering learning.

5 types of learning theories in education

Educators typically familiarize themselves with five primary learning theories. Each prioritizes different concepts. These learning theories are:

Behaviorism

Cognitivism, constructivism, connectivism.

Behaviorism has roots in the work of John Watson, who is often regarded as the father of behavioral psychology.

Explanation: Behaviorism is concerned only with observable stimulus-response behaviors , as they can be studied in a systematic and observable manner.

Application: Learning is based on a system of routines that “drill” information into a student’s memory bank and elicit positive feedback from teachers and the educational institution itself. (Students who do an excellent job receive positive reinforcement and are signaled out for recognition.)

Most teachers who use behaviorist principles focus on delivering prompt feedback to encourage student learning. They also implement reward systems that reinforce good behavior. Finally, many teachers establish consistency by starting their classes with routine activities, like problems on the board.

Cognitive learning theory — or cognitivism — stems from the work of Jean Piaget (the founder of cognitive psychology) and focuses on the internal processes surrounding information and memory. It involves schema, the basic unit of knowledge, and schemata that build up over time.

Explanation: Learning relies on external factors (like information or data) and the internal thought process.

Application: Developed in the 1950s, this theory moves away from behaviorism to focus on the mind’s role in learning.

Teachers who engage in cognitive learning might ask students about their experiences with the lesson and emphasize connections between past ideas and new ones. Incorporating student experiences, perspectives and knowledge can foster engagement with the material and help students feel respected.

Constructivism promotes active, internal learning processes that use new information to build upon a foundation of previously acquired knowledge.

Explanation: The learner builds upon their previous experience and understanding to “construct” a new understanding.

Application: In constructivism, Roggeman says, students take an active approach to learning. Rather than being “filled up” with knowledge, they construct meaning by interacting with the world around them, as with experiments or studies.

Some of the best ways teachers can use constructivism in the classroom include promoting student autonomy by encouraging students to be active in their learning. Hands-on experimentation with interactive materials can also empower them to learn better, especially in science classes, because it can promote engagement and connectiveness in student learning. Open-ended questions are another tool for constructivist learning, since they can help foster classroom conversation and dialogue, which encourages students to think critically and form questions and solutions in real time.

Humanism emphasizes the importance of personal growth, self-actualization and whole-person development. Humanist learning theory emphasizes the unique needs and capabilities of each student and underscores the efficacy of a personalized education.

Explanation: This approach focuses on the unique capabilities of each learner rather than the method or materials.

Application: With the understanding that people are inherently good, humanism focuses on creating an environment conducive to self-actualization. In doing so, learners’ needs are met and learners themselves are then free to determine their own goals while the teacher assists them in meeting those learning goals.

In the classroom, a humanistic approach might look like a teacher providing students with choices about what to study in order to promote autonomy and intrinsic motivation. It also emphasizes positive teacher-student relationships, making it important for teachers to form connections with each student. Humanistic educators might use discussions, group work and self-evaluation to encourage critical thinking and this sort of connection.

Connectivism is a newer learning theory. It posits that knowledge and learning reside in diverse sources and experiences. That includes understanding how to navigate and source further information via digital means.

Explanation: Informed by the digital age, connectivism departs from constructivism by identifying and remediating gaps in knowledge.

Application: Strongly influenced by technology, connectivism focuses on a learner’s ability to source and update accurate information frequently. Knowing how and where to find the best information is as important as the information itself.

In the classroom, students are likely to learn good digital literacy habits to help navigate online resources to answer their questions. They may also use digital tools to collaborate.

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Other types of learning theories in education .

Like students themselves, learning theories in education are diverse. Although the five learning theories we have described are some of the most prominent, there are others to discover, such as:

Transformative learning theory: One of the most prominent adult learning theories , transformative learning theory posits that new information can essentially change our worldviews when our life experience and knowledge are paired with critical reflection.
Social learning theory: This theory incorporates some of the tacit tenets of peer pressure. Specifically, students observe other students and model their behavior accordingly. Sometimes it’s to emulate peers; other times it’s to distinguish themselves from peers. Harnessing the power of social learning theory involves getting students’ attention, focusing on how students can retain information, identifying when it’s appropriate to reproduce a previous behavior, and determining students’ motivation.
Experiential learning theory: There are plenty of clichés and parables about teaching someone something by doing it, although it wasn’t until the early 1980s that it became an official learning theory . This approach emphasizes learning about and experiencing something so that students can apply knowledge in real-world situations.

How educational theories influence learning

Educational theories influence learning in a variety of ways. Learning theory examples can affect teachers' approach to instruction and classroom management. Finding the right approach (even if combining two or more learning theories) can make the difference between an effective and inspiring classroom experience and an ineffective one.

Applied learning theories directly influence a classroom experience in a variety of ways, such as:

Providing students with structure and a comfortable, steady environment
Helping educators, administrators, students and parents align on goals and outcomes
Empowering teachers to determine their educational approach based on the needs of their students
Influencing how and what a person learns
Helping outsiders (colleges, testing organizations, etc.) determine what kind of education a student has had or is receiving
Allowing students to have a voice in determining how the class will be managed
Deciding if instruction will be primarily teacher-led or student-led
Determining how much collaboration will happen in a classroom

How to apply learning theories in education

So, how do learning theories apply in the real world? Education is an evolving field with a complicated future . And according to Roggeman, the effects of applied educational theory can be long-lasting. “The learning theories we experienced as a student influence the type of work environment we prefer as adults,” she explains. “For example, if one experienced classrooms based heavily on social learning during the K-12 years, that person, as an adult, may be very comfortable in a highly collaborative work environment. Reflection on one’s educational history might serve as an insightful tool as to one’s own fulfillment in the workplace.”

Educational theories have come a long way since the days of Socrates and even the pioneers of behaviorism and cognitivism. While learning theories will no doubt continue to evolve, teachers and students alike can reap the benefits of this evolution as we continue to develop our understanding of how humans most effectively learn.

Expand your educational knowledge at University of Phoenix

University of Phoenix offers a variety of degree programs and certificates to help educators and aspiring educators optimize their classroom experience. Discover the following:

Online bachelor’s degrees in education: Students can lay the foundation for a career in early childhood education or elementary education with one of these two degree programs and prepare for teacher licensure.
Online master’s degrees in education: Refine your career goals with an advanced degree in education. Options include focusing on adult education, curriculum and instruction, and special education, among others.
Online Doctor of Education : Ready to solve complex problems in education? This terminal degree program takes a deep dive into how to improve performance using critical and innovative thinking.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

A graduate of Johns Hopkins University and its Writing Seminars program and winner of the Stephen A. Dixon Literary Prize, Michael Feder brings an eye for detail and a passion for research to every article he writes. His academic and professional background includes experience in marketing, content development, script writing and SEO. Today, he works as a multimedia specialist at University of Phoenix where he covers a variety of topics ranging from healthcare to IT.

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Learning Theories In Psychology

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Tim Robberts / Getty Images

Behavioral Learning Theories

Cognitive learning theories, constructivist learning theories, social learning theories, experiential learning theories, modern views.

While definitions may vary, learning is often thought of as a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. It is influenced by various biological, cultural, social, and emotional variables.

Several different theories have emerged to explain how people learn. Some of the main theories of learning include:

Behavioral learning theory
Cognitive learning theory
Constructivist learning theory
Social learning theory
Experiential learning theory

This article explores these learning theories, including how each one explains the learning process.

Basic Principles of Social Learning Theory

During the early part of the twentieth century, many psychologists became increasingly interested in turning psychology into a more scientific endeavor. These psychologists, known as behaviorists , argued that psychology needed to study only things that could be measured and quantified to be more scientific.

A few different behavioral theories emerged to explain how and why people behave the way they do. Behavioral theories are centered on the environmental influences on the learning process. Environmental influences include associations, reinforcements, and punishments.

Learning Through Association

Classical conditioning suggests that learning occurs when an association is formed between a previously neutral stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.

In experiments conducted by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov , a natural stimulus (food) was paired with the sound of a bell. The dogs would naturally salivate in response to food, but after multiple associations, the dogs would salivate to the sound of the bell alone.

In classical conditioning:

Learning occurs by forming associations between naturally occurring stimuli and a previously neutral stimulus
The neutral stimulus must occur immediately before the naturally occurring one
Focuses on automatic, naturally occurring behaviors

Learning Through Reinforcement

Operant conditioning is a type of associative learning that involves strengthening or weakening a behavior by using reinforcement or punishment.

Operant conditioning was first described by the behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner. It is sometimes also referred to as Skinnerian conditioning and instrumental conditioning . Skinner believed that classical conditioning simply could not account for all types of learning and was more interested in learning how the consequences of actions influence behaviors.

Like classical conditioning, operant conditioning relies on forming associations. In operant conditioning, however, associations are made between a behavior and the consequences of that behavior.

In operant conditioning:

Learning occurs when behaviors are followed by either reinforcement or punishment
The consequences must quickly follow the behavior
Focuses on voluntary behaviors

When a behavior leads to a desirable consequence, it becomes more likely that the behavior will be repeated in the future. The behavior becomes less likely if the actions lead to a negative outcome.

The cognitive approach to learning focuses on how attention, memory, and information processing contribute to the acquisition of knowledge. One of the best-known cognitive learning theories is Piaget's theory of cognitive development . Piaget described four stages of intellectual development that occur in childhood.

These four stages explain how a child learns about the world and processes information.

Sensorimotor stage : During this period of cognitive development, children learn about the world primarily through their senses.
Preoperational stage : This stage is marked by the emergence of language and learning through pretend play.
Concrete operations stage : During this period, kids begin to utilize logic but still think about the world very concretely.
Formal operations stage : At this point, kids begin to use deductive reasoning and can understand abstract, hypothetical ideas.

The constructivist approach to learning characterizes learners as active participants in the process who play a role in constructing their knowledge. Constructivist theories of learning were influenced by the work of psychologist Lev Vygotsky.

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory stressed the importance of collaboration and social interaction in the learning process.

Two important concepts of constructivist learning theories are the more knowledgeable other and the zone of proximal development:

More knowledgeable other : Vygotsky described the more knowledgeable other as anyone with an understanding or ability level higher than the learner. This can often be a teacher or adult, but it can also refer to peers with more knowledge about a specific concept, task, or process.
Zone of proximal development : Vygotsky described the zone of proximal development as the range of knowledge or ability that a person can display with the help of the more knowledgeable other, but that they are not yet capable of performing independently. Gradually expanding this zone is how people can learn and improve their skills over time.

Psychologist Albert Bandura suggested that much of learning takes place through observation. Children observe the actions of those around them, particularly caregivers and siblings, and then imitate these behaviors.

In social learning:

Learning occurs through observation
Observations can take place at any time
Focuses on the give-and-take interaction between social, cognitive, and environmental influences

In his well-known Bobo doll experiment , Bandura revealed just how easily children could be led to imitate even negative actions. Children who watched a video of an adult beating up a large inflatable doll were likelier to copy those actions when given a chance.

Bandura noted that learning something does not necessarily result in a behavior change. Children frequently learn new things through observation but might not engage in such behaviors until they need or are motivated to utilize the information.

This learning theory focuses on learning via hands-on experience. The theory was formally introduced by psychologist David Kolb but was influenced by the work of other theorists, including Jean Piaget and John Dewey.

According to Kolb, there are four stages in experiential learning . The first two, abstract conceptualization and concrete experience, relate to how people grasp experiences. The final two, active experimentation and reflective observation, refer to how people transform experiences.

Such theories are typically not used in isolation. Instead, modern educators and psychologists draw on information from a variety of theories to develop effective educational strategies and psychological interventions that help people acquire new skills and knowledge.

For example, while behavioral approaches are no longer as dominant as they once were, they still play an important role in educational and therapeutic settings. For example, teachers continue to use behavioral strategies such as positive reinforcement and token economies to help shape the learning process.

The goal of learning more about these learning theories is to help adapt educational and therapeutic interventions to best suit an individual's needs.

All learners are different, so drawing on various approaches, such as incorporating behavioral, constructivist, and experiential strategies can help maximize learning opportunities and improve educational outcomes.

Behavioral, cognitive, constructivist, social, and experiential learning theories are among psychology's best-known and most influential. Such theories have played a part in influencing education, therapy, and parenting approaches.

Hugar SM, Kukreja P, Assudani HG, Gokhale N. Evaluation of the relevance of Piaget's cognitive principles among parented and orphan children in Belagavi City, Karnataka, India: A comparative study . I nt J Clin Pediatr Dent. 2017;10(4):346-350. doi:10.5005/jp-journals-10005-1463

Eun B. The zone of proximal development as an overarching concept: A framework for synthesizing Vygotsky’s theories . Educational Philosophy and Theory . 2017;51(1):18-30. doi:10.1080/00131857.2017.1421941

Kolb DA. Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development . New Jersey: Prentice-Hall; 1984.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Your Guide to Learning Theories (and Why They’re Important)

Kat Boogaard

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You likely already know that people learn differently.

Maybe you learn best when you get to brainstorm and bounce ideas around with a group of people, while your colleague prefers to attend a seminar and not be an active participant. Or perhaps you like plenty of demonstrations and examples, while your deskmate prefers written instruction.

Learning isn’t a one-size-fits-all sort of thing, and that’s exactly where learning theories come into play. These theories explain how we process information, and understanding them will help you deliver information to people in a highly-targeted and effective way.

What are learning theories?

Let’s start with a quick learning theories definition. Learning theories are different sets of principles that explain how individual brains process learning.

Why are learning theories important? Well, because as our introduction highlighted, learning is somewhat individualized. The way that you receive, process, and retain information might not be the same way your team member does.

That’s why learning theories in education are so important. You’ll frequently hear these different theories of learning mentioned in the context of a teacher working with a classroom of students — as opposed to professional or workplace training.

However, learning theories apply outside of formal education, and understanding them enables you to deliver information to your direct reports or team members in a way that makes the most sense for them.

5 learning theories you should know about

There’s no such thing as a good learning style and a bad learning style or a good educational model and a bad educational model. They’re just different.

So, that brings us to your next question. What different theories of learning are out there? Well, there are a lot. But you’ll see these five crop up most frequently:

Behaviorism
Cognitivism
Constructivism
Humanism
Connectivism

Are you wincing at those academic-sounding terms? We get it. Fortunately, we’re going to break each one of these learning theories down in detail. Let’s get to it.

1. Behaviorism

Also called: Behaviorist learning theory

The behaviorism learning theory was largely influenced by psychologist B.F. Skinner . This theory suggests that we learn behaviors through external forces rather than internal forces. Things like repeated actions, rewards, and punishments are ultimately what shape our learning.

Think about it in a classroom setting. A teacher might use positive reinforcement by awarding gold stars to students who resist interrupting. The students will learn not to interrupt as they continue to be rewarded with that positive feedback.

One of the most well-known examples of behaviorism in psychology is Pavlov’s Dog . Psychologist, Ivan Pavlov, assumed that dogs would salivate when food was placed in front of them. But, he discovered that the dogs actually began to salivate when they heard the footsteps of the person who was bringing them food.

That connects to another main concept of this learning theory: rote learning. This theory asserts that people learn best through pure repetition and memorization.

How to apply this learning theory in the workplace

One of the most straightforward ways to apply this learning theory in your workplace is to motivate your employees with incentives — such as bonuses, gift cards, flexible work schedules, time off, and more.

How to apply this learning theory in elearning

Feedback is another crucial element of the behaviorist learning theory, as it reinforces desirable behaviors and works to eliminate negative behaviors. By breaking your online learning courses into smaller lessons, you provide more regular opportunities to test knowledge, offer feedback, and monitor progress toward learning goals.

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2. Cognitivism

Also called: Cognitive learning theory

The cognitive learning theory focuses on thought or cognition. It’s based on the ideas of psychologist Jean Piaget — particularly what he called schemas, which are ways we organize information and knowledge. Piaget referred to schemas as the building blocks of intelligent behavior.

It’s a bit of a dense theory to understand, but here’s the gist — we aren’t passive when we’re learning. Instead, our brain is actively working to take in information and process it. When we reorganize that information, find new explanations, or tailor old explanations, that’s stored in our memory and influences future learning (and ultimately, behavioral change).

Problem-solving is a great example of cognitivism in action. For example, maybe you see a big dip in your website traffic. You ponder that issue, recall that it happened at this same time next year, and then figure out that it’s due to the seasonality of your business. That’s a simple look at how cognitivism works.

You’ll often hear Bloom’s Taxonomy mentioned with the cognitive learning theory. It’s a framework that classifies different levels of cognition. Basically, cognition is split into sub-categories that are ranked according to their cognitive difficulty. Today, as the Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching explains , those categories include:

Create: Produce something new
Evaluate: Justify that new work
Analyze: Draw connections
Apply: Use that information in new situations
Understand: Explain your idea
Remember: Recall facts

To allow for cognitivism at work, you need to ensure a high degree of psychological safety on your team. This gives people room to suggest new ideas and form conclusions without fear of failure or reprimands.

Gamification and game-based learning is a great way to get people to think creatively and draw connections, as it enables them to absorb course material in a different way. Look for a learning management system (LMS) like GoSkills that allows for games within your course modules.

gamification status levels - goskills lms

3. Constructivism

Also called: Constructivist learning theory

Think about the root word of this learning theory: construct. That’s a great starting point for this educational theory, which asserts that knowledge is constructed. It builds on itself, as you use previous experiences and information to shape how you perceive and use new knowledge. That means learning is highly individualized.

However, constructivism is built on the ideas of psychologist Lev Vygotsky , who also believed that learning is a collaborative process and that people (specifically, children) learn through interactions with someone who knows more than them (such as a tutor).

To use this theory, you’ll need strong, knowledgeable leaders that can guide and support their teams. Mentorship can also be a valuable piece of this learning theory, as it gives employees the opportunity to learn from others who are more established in their careers.

Even though many online learning opportunities are self-paced, you should still provide plenty of opportunities for interaction with others through social learning and knowledge sharing. GoSkills offers both of these features for teams.

4. Humanism

Also called: Humanistic learning theory

This learning theory all comes back to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs , which shares five tiers of human needs in a specific order:

Physiological needs: Food, water, warmth, etc.
Safety needs: A sense of security
Belongingness and love needs: Relationships and friendships
Esteem needs: A sense of pride and accomplishment
Self-actualization: The feeling of achieving our full potential

The needs that are at the base of the hierarchy (such as physiological or safety needs) must be met before we can start to satisfy the needs that are closer to the top of the pyramid.

The humanistic learning theory says that learning is a way for us to fulfill our full potential. As learners, self-actualization is our ultimate goal. So, this theory focuses on the whole person and not just cognitive needs or specific learning targets.

While it sounds simple, you need to ensure that employees’ most basic needs are met before you can expect them to do their jobs well or learn new information . This can include things like:

Comfortable working environments
Job security and stability
Adequate benefit plans
Support from HR and other leaders

When those are in place, employees are better equipped to learn in pursuit of self-actualization.

Again, it’s important to ensure that people’s basic needs are satisfied. Rather than doling out remote elearning opportunities and expecting people to adapt to them, ensure that you’re taking the time to check in with your employees on a more personal level.

5. Connectivism

Also called: Connectivism learning theory

Given our increasing access to technology, learning looks a lot different than it did even a few years ago. That’s where connectivism comes into play. It’s one of the newest learning theories that suggest we start to look at learning differently — particularly with our use of technology.

This theory aims to be more relevant to our modern society than some of the older theories. It was established by researchers and educators George Siemens and Stephen Downes. As Florida International University explains, they identified eight principles of connectivism :

Learning and knowledge rests in diversity of opinions.
Learning is a process of connecting.
Learning may reside in non-human appliances.
Capacity to know more is more critical than what is currently known.
Nurturing and maintaining connections is needed for continual learning.
Ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and concepts is a core skill.
Accurate, up-to-date knowledge is the aim of all connectivist learning.
Decision-making is a learning process.

Because connectivism is based on our use of technology, it’s important that you equip employees and team members with the right tools and software to do their jobs.

Additionally, you’ll need to provide adequate training so that they feel empowered to use those technology tools appropriately.

Remember that accurate, up-to-date information is a core principle of connectivism. This means you can’t create a library of online learning resources and then let it sit.

Make sure you evaluate your courses and learning materials regularly to ensure you’re always giving employees and learners the most recent and relevant information. Look for an LMS (like GoSkills ) that has easy management of your course catalog.

Understanding learning theories will help you deliver information effectively

When you teach something, you don’t want that information to go in one ear and out the other. You want people to absorb it, consider it, and ideally, retain it.

That’s hard to do if you use a blanket approach. When you understand learning theories and how they impact our ability to learn, you can teach people in a way that’s far more impactful.

We’ll admit that learning theories can be a bit dense and academic to grasp, but that’s exactly why we created this guide. Use it to familiarize yourself with each learning theory, as well as how that theory applies in the workplace and in elearning.

After that? You’re well on your way to educating your employees in a way that actually resonates with them.

Looking for an LMS that helps you deliver information effectively? Get started with GoSkills today .

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Kat is a writer specializing in career, self-development, and productivity topics. When she escapes her computer, she enjoys reading, hiking, golfing, and dishing out tips for prospective freelancers on her website.

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Comparing Learning Theories – A Comprehensive Guide
Behaviorism Learning Theory
Constructivism Learning Theory
Cognitivism Learning Theory
Connectivsm Learning Theory
Andragogy Learning Theory
Instructional Design Models

Comparing Learning Theories – A Comprehensive Guide

Comparing learning theories is not easy. Learning is a complex process, and educators and students alike often explore various learning theories to understand how people learn and how to facilitate compelling learning experiences.

One of the biggest challenges in comparing learning theories is that most focus on a specific aspect of the learning process. Be it the learner’s motivation, the measurable outcomes, the internal neural processes or the interaction with others.

Considering this, comparing learning theories can show important tendencies and guiding principles. This blog post will provide an informative guide and compare some prominent learning theories: Behaviorism, Constructivism, Cognitivism, Connectivism, and Andragogy.

Learning Theories Comparison

Behaviorism.

Behaviourism, pioneered by scholars like Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, and Burrhus Skinner, focuses on observable behaviours. It asserts that learning results from stimulus-response associations. This theory employs reinforcement, conditioning, and repetition to influence behaviour. Teachers applying behaviourism create specific scenarios designed to prompt desired responses from learners.

Focuses on observable behaviours.
Learning is the result of stimulus-response associations.
Techniques include reinforcement, conditioning, and repetition.

Constructivism

Constructivism emphasizes the active role of the learner in the learning process. Scholars like Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, and Jerome Bruner are vital figures in this theory. According to constructivism, learners actively construct knowledge based on their existing experiences. This theory encourages problem-solving, critical thinking, and collaboration as primary learning techniques.

Emphasizes the role of the learner in constructing knowledge.
Learning is an active process of creating meaning through experiences.
Techniques involve problem-solving, critical thinking, and collaboration.

Cognitivism

Cognitivism explores the internal mental processes that underlie learning. Scholars like Jerome Bruner and Albert Bandura have contributed to this theory. According to cognitivism, learning is driven by processes such as memory, attention, and problem-solving. Techniques involve strategies aimed at enhancing memory and cognitive development.

Explores internal mental processes.
Learning is driven by memory, attention, and problem-solving.
Techniques include strategies to enhance memory and cognitive development.

Connectivism

Connectivism recognizes the significant role of technology and networks in the modern learning landscape. Scholars like George Siemens and Stephen Downes champion this theory. In the connectivist view, learning occurs through connections and interactions with others. Leveraging digital tools and online resources is fundamental to connectivity, making it highly relevant in our digital age.

Acknowledges the importance of technology and networks in learning.
Learning occurs through connections and interactions with others.
Techniques involve leveraging digital tools and online resources.

Andragogy, primarily associated with Malcolm Knowles, focuses on adult learning principles. It highlights that adults are self-directed and motivated learners. In this theory, teachers create learner-centered environments catering to individual needs. Andragogy acknowledges the unique characteristics of adult learners, including self-concept, prior experience, and readiness to learn.

Focuses on adult learning principles.
Adults are self-directed and motivated learners.
Techniques include creating learner-centered environments and catering to individual needs.

This table provides a simplified comparison, but each theory offers a rich framework for understanding learning. To delve deeper into these theories and their practical applications.

Behaviorism , Constructivism , Cognitivism , Connectivism and Andragogy .

Comparing Practical Applications

Understanding and comparing learning theories is one thing; applying them is another. Let’s explore how these theories manifest in real-world educational settings:

Behaviourism : In classrooms, teachers employ positive reinforcement, like praise or rewards, to encourage desired behaviours. For instance, a teacher may offer a small reward to a student for completing a task promptly.
Constructivism : Constructivist educators create active, engaging learning experiences. Students work collaboratively on projects, allowing them to construct their understanding through hands-on activities and problem-solving.
Cognitivism : In e-learning, cognitivism is at play when designers incorporate strategies to manage cognitive load. They ensure that course content is structured to facilitate memory and attention, making it easier for learners to understand complex subjects.
Connectivism : In online courses, instructors encourage learners to engage with a broader learning community through discussion boards, webinars, or social media. Learners benefit from connecting with others who share their interests.
Andragogy : When designing corporate training programs, instructional designers consider the self-directed nature of adult learners. They provide resources and opportunities for learners to explore topics relevant to their job roles.

In this comprehensive guide about comparing learning theories, we’ve explored the foundations of fundamental learning theories: Behaviorism, Constructivism, Cognitivism, Connectivism, and Andragogy. These theories are vital in shaping how we approach education, whether in traditional classrooms or modern digital environments. By understanding the principles behind each theory, educators and instructional designers can create more effective and engaging learning experiences that cater to the diverse needs of learners.

Learning theories provide a solid framework for educators and instructional designers, allowing them to adapt their teaching methods and materials to promote optimal learning outcomes. As we navigate the evolving education landscape, these theories remain invaluable tools for enhancing the teaching and learning process.

We encourage you to delve deeper into these theories, exploring their practical applications and learning how to tailor your instructional approaches to meet the needs of your unique audience. Learning is a fascinating journey, and understanding these theories is crucial to becoming a more effective educator.

Infographic – Comparing Learning Theories

Comparing Learning Theories. Comprehensive Table of Behaviorism, Constructivism, Cognitivism, Connectivism, and Andragogy.

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Teacher Training: Assignment 1 - Learning Theories - Primary (SCITT)

Assignment 1 - Learning Theories - Primary (SCITT)
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Professional Studies and Research - Assignment 3 - Primary (NETT)
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Professional Studies and Research - Secondary SCITT (Billericay)
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Welcome to yourAssignment 1 - Learning Theories - Primary reading list! Here you will find the resources to support you throughout your module.

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What is Behaviourism?

Carnegie Mellon: Principles of Teaching and Learning

Source list of all Learning Theorists

Cognitive Learning

Tony Bates Review of Learning Theories

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Development of Learning Theories

Theories of Teaching and Learning: What do they mean for educators?

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Learning Theories

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EDUC205: Learning Theory and Portfolio Development

11/08/2019 to 04/16/2020 • Modified 02/01/2024 Request Info

Course Description

This course provides an introduction to learning theories with an emphasis on experiential learning and learner profiles, including management and communication profiles. *Please note, this course is not part of a program leading to eligibility of a Virginia state teaching license (or license in any other state). Individuals seeking to obtain a state teaching license should contact [email protected] for recommended course options.

For information regarding prerequisites for this course, please refer to the Academic Course Catalog .

Many different learning theories have been formulated over the last two centuries, having great implications in the world of education. Today, teachers are expected to differentiate and personalize instruction to meet the varying needs of all types of learners; therefore, an understanding of human learning is essential for all educators. Additionally, by establishing a practice portfolio at the beginning of the education program, it will become evident what experiences must be further developed; thus providing the opportunity to intentionally bolster the resume and teaching portfolio.

Course Assignment

Textbook readings and lecture presentations

Course Requirements Checklist

After reading the Course Syllabus and Student Expectations , the student will complete the related checklist found in the Course Overview.

Discussions (2)

Discussions are collaborative learning experiences. Therefore, the candidate is required to create a thread in response to the provided prompt for each discussion. Each thread must be a minimum of 300 words and demonstrate course-related knowledge. Each thread must contain two citations in current APA format. In addition to the thread, the candidate is required to reply to two classmates’ threads. Each reply must be a minimum of 150 words and contain at least one citation in current APA format. (CLO: C, E, F)

Discussion: Learning Theories Presentation

Discussions are collaborative learning experiences. Therefore, the candidate will create and share a presentation on the learning theory with which they most identify by selecting one of the following options:

Create a 3–5-minute Adobe Spark presentation.
Create a narrated PowerPoint presentation with at least 15 slides.
Create a narrated Microsoft Sway presentation with at least 15 cards.

The presentation must include the theory’s key contributor(s), a description of the theory, and how the theory can be integrated into classroom activities. The candidate will post the presentation in the Discussion: Learning Theories Presentation assignment. The candidate is then required to reply to two classmates’ presentations. Each reply must be a minimum of 150 words. (CLO: B, E, F)

Video Case Study Assignments (4)

The candidate will view a video that features the application of a learning theory in a real-life classroom. After viewing, the candidate will analyze and apply the learning theory by responding to 1-2 prompts; each at least three sentences in length. (CLO: D, E, F)

Practice Portfolio Project Assignments (3)

Cover Letter Assignment

The candidate will prepare a one-page cover letter to submit to the instructor for feedback. This must also be uploaded as an artifact to the Practice Portfolio in Microsoft Sway. (CLO: A)

Resumé Assignment

The candidate will prepare a 1–3-page resumé to submit to the instructor for feedback. This must also be uploaded as an artifact to the Practice Portfolio in Microsoft Sway. (CLO: A)

Update and Share Assignment

The candidate will establish a practice digital portfolio using Microsoft Sway and submit as a hyperlink to Canvas to begin the process of storing essential artifacts such as photographs, resume, and cover letter. (CLO: A)

Technology and Motivation Infographic Assignment

The candidate will create an infographic to promote the benefits of technology integration in early elementary aged classrooms. The infographic must include a title, at least three benefits, one citation, and at least one image. Creativity is encouraged. (CLO: B, F)

Learning Theories Paper Assignment

The candidate will write a 5–7-page paper discussing the learning theory with which they most identify. The candidate will explain how lessons and activities in the classroom can be differentiated to incorporate the selected theory. At least five scholarly sources published within the last five years must be cited in current APA format. (CLO: B, C, E, F)

Improving Inquiry Skills Reflection Assignment

The candidate will reflect on tools that can be used to improve inquiry skills and learn from teaching. (CLO: G)

Quiz: Practice Portfolio Project: Initial Setup Confirmation

After establishing a Practice Portfolio using Microsoft Sway, the candidate will confirm the creation of this portfolio by taking a brief quiz. (CLO: A)

Quizzes (4)

Each quiz will cover the Textbook material for the assigned module: week. Each quiz will be open-book/open-notes, contain 20 multiple-choice questions, and have a 1-hour time limit. The candidate is allowed 2 attempts to complete each quiz. The highest score will be recorded. (CLO: B, E, F)

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Learning Theories: Understanding How People Learn
Employ measures such as assignments, activities, and projects to gauge whether learning has occurred. ... Activity 3.3: Using Learning Theory to Plan Lessons. While learning theories can be interesting on their own, our goal as instructors is to apply them to classroom practice. Imagine that you are a high school librarian working with a class ...
15 Learning Theories in Education (A Complete Summary)
35 of the BEST Educational Apps for Teachers (Updated 2024) 20 Huge Benefits of Using Technology in the Classroom. A complete summary of the 15 most influential learning theories. Includes Vygotsky, Piaget, Bloom, Gagne, Maslow, Bruner, Kolb and many more.
Assignment 1 Learning Theories
Assignment 1 Learning Theories. Tanya L. Lett Northcentral University. Constructivism is an education theory that posits that learning is an active act of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring knowledge. Individuals construct knowledge based on experiences. The student is perceived as a "blank slate" who brings past experiences and ...
5 educational learning theories and how to apply them
Learning theories are conceptual frameworks that describe how people absorb, process and retain information. Theories in education didn't begin in earnest until the early 20th century, but curiosity about how humans learn dates back to the ancient Greek philosophers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. They explored whether knowledge and truth ...
PDF Theories of Learning and Teaching What Do They Mean for Educators?
Lave and Wenger (1991) illustrated their theory with examples of different apprenticeships (midwives, tai-lors,U.S.Navy quartermasters,butchers,and nondrinking alcoholics). Initially, people join these communities and watch, as the theorists suggest, from the sidelines (they call this peripheral participation).
Applying Learning Theories
There are also emerging theories that help address specific populations of students, such as Connectivism for online learners, and Andragogy for adult learners. The theories you adopt will depend on several factors, including the course type, assessment types, course goals, student learning objectives, types of learners, and learning environment.
Learning Theories
Cognitivism is a vastly different learning theory from behaviorism. It acknowledges that "information is actively processed inside the mind of the person and the behaviour modification takes place by searching for the relationships that exist between the various bits of information. " (Bates, 2016). Instead of the regurgitation of knowledge ...
Types of Learning Theories In Psychology
Some of the main theories of learning include: Behavioral learning theory. Cognitive learning theory. Constructivist learning theory. Social learning theory. Experiential learning theory. This article explores these learning theories, including how each one explains the learning process. 1:42.
Your Guide to Learning Theories (and Why They're Important)
Also called: Humanistic learning theory. This learning theory all comes back to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, which shares five tiers of human needs in a specific order: Physiological needs: Food, water, warmth, etc. Safety needs: A sense of security. Belongingness and love needs: Relationships and friendships.
Comparing Learning Theories
Conclusion. In this comprehensive guide about comparing learning theories, we've explored the foundations of fundamental learning theories: Behaviorism, Constructivism, Cognitivism, Connectivism, and Andragogy. These theories are vital in shaping how we approach education, whether in traditional classrooms or modern digital environments.
(PDF) Learning Theories
Abstract and Figures. Learning theories are conceptual frameworks that describe how information is absorbed, processed, and retained during learning. Learning theories are those that combine ...
PDF Assessment for learning: theoretical perspectives and leading pedagogy
sociocultural theory, which assumes that learning is socially con-structed between children and adults and between children and their peers. The role of the adult is to scaffold the child's learning. Therefore accurate assessment is necessary so that learning tasks can be pitched at the correct level within the child's capabilities. 'Minute
Learning Theories: Theories of Learning in Education
Learning theories facilitate clear communication between teachers and students (including nonverbal communication like body language, as we saw in the section on Behaviorism), along with parents, families, and school administrators. As learning outcomes improve, students will also build confidence and self-esteem.
Assessment, Teaching and Theories of Learning
Constructivism is a widely accepted learning theory in the teaching-learning field (James, 2006). According to constructivist learning theories, instruction should focus on problem-solving skills ...
Learning Theories: Definition, Examples, Application
Cognitivism. Cognitivism, as suggested by the name, is one of the educational theories and the learning theory that focus on cognitive processes of the mind such as thinking, memory, recall, and problem-solving. Similar to behaviorism, cognitivism is about learning via association; however, the emphasis is placed on internal processing rather ...
Learning Theories: Understanding the 4 Major Ones for the Classroom
Learning theories and Learning-theory research provide important insights into what makes students effective and efficient learners. While expanding our knowledge of broad theories as a central focus continues to diminish, present-day researchers typically embrace one or more of four foundational learning-theory domains.
Assignment 1
Contemporary Theories of Learning by Illeris, K. This tenth anniversary edition of Knud Illeris's classic 2008 text is an updated and definitive collection of today's most influential learning theorists, now containing additional chapters from John Hattie and Gregory Donoghue, Sharan Merriam, Gert Biesta and Carolyn Jackson.
(PDF) Assignment of Learning &Learning Theories
learning occurs. The principles of the theories can be used as. guidelines to help select instructional tools, techn iques and strategies. that promote learning. There are three main learning ...
EDUC205: Learning Theory and Portfolio Development
Learning Theories Paper Assignment. The candidate will write a 5-7-page paper discussing the learning theory with which they most identify. The candidate will explain how lessons and activities ...
Assignments and Learning Theories
The 'Assignments and Learning Theories' resource is structured into three levels of application. They include: micro, meso and macro where the first level refers to the forms of learning that are related to individual learners. In other words, this level is about individuals' learning and the related learning theories are classified at ...
(DOC) Learning Theories Assignment
Introduction Learning is a change in behavior or having the capacity to capacity to change in a certain manner after practicing of after gaining an experience (Gibbony,2006).Behavioral, cognitive and humanistic theories are some are some of the learning theories in relation to education. A teacher can use one or a combination of the theoretical ...
Unit4Assignment Learning Theory
Assignment Unit 4: Learning Theories. One of the most important contributions to psychology has been learning theories. These theories help us in comprehending our own selves, such as how people learn to act and socialize, and how these skills grow. B. Skinner, Ivan Pavlov, and Albert Bandura are three psychologists who had a significant contribution and impact on these subjects by developing ...
module 7 assignment.docx
Learning Theories: Module 7 Assignment Abstract Learning occurs in all different walks of life. Psychologists such as B.F Skinner, Jean Piaget, Ivan Pavlov, John B Watson, Edward Thorndike, Edward Tolman and Clark Hull were psychologists who formed different theories of learning. The purpose of this research is to discuss the different learning theories by comparing and contrasting them.
EDU20014 Assignment 3 Case Study .docx
EDU20014: Social and Emotional Learning Assignment 3: Case Study Due Date: February 9 th 2024 EDU20014 Assignment 3: Case Study Choose two theories, theoretical frameworks and/ or models from the list below. How would you use these to respond to the behaviors listed in the case study? (approximately 500 words). After reviewing the case study which involves Macy a 9-year-old in year 3, who ...

3 Learning Theories: Understanding How People Learn

General Learning Theories

Behaviorism

Cognitivism

Constructivism

Social Constructivism

Developmental Stages

Growth Mindset

Suggested Readings

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15 Learning Theories in Education (A Complete Summary)

Behaviorism

Cognitivism

Constructivism

1. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

2. Vygotsky’s Theory of Learning

Zone of Proximal Development

More Knowledgeable Other

Vygotsky Scaffolding

3. Bloom’s Domains of Learning

The Cognitive Domain (Bloom’s Taxonomy)

The Affective Domain

The Psychomotor Domain

4. Gagné’s Conditions of Learning

Gagné’s 5 Conditions of Learning

Gagné’s 9 Levels of Learning

Benefits of Gagné’s Theory

5. Jerome Bruner

Bruner’s Spiral Curriculum (1960)

Bruner’s 3 Modes of Representation (1966)

6. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

7. Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

Gardner’s 7 Intelligences

The Importance of Multiple Intelligence in the Classroom

Naturalist Intelligence

8. Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychological Development

Erikson’s 8 Stages

Educational Implications of Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

9. Kolb’s Experiential Theory

10. The Peter Principle

11. Laird’s Sensory Theory

12. Skinner’s Behaviorist Theory

Operant Conditioning

Positive Reinforcement

13. Rogers’ Humanist Theory

Facilitative Learning

14. Canter’s Theory of Assertive Discipline

15. Dreikur’s Classroom Management Theory

Dreikur’s 4 Goals of Misbehavior

How to Combat the 4 Goals of Misbehavior.

Learning Theories Summary

Learning Theories FAQ

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5 educational learning theories and how to apply them

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What are learning theories in education?

Why are learning theories important in education?

5 types of learning theories in education

Behaviorism

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How educational theories influence learning

How to apply learning theories in education

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Learning Theories In Psychology

Behavioral Learning Theories

Basic Principles of Social Learning Theory

Learning Through Association

Learning Through Reinforcement

Your Guide to Learning Theories (and Why They’re Important)

What are learning theories?

5 learning theories you should know about

1. Behaviorism

How to apply this learning theory in the workplace