methods of task analysis in special education

What Is Task Analysis in Special Education?

Have you ever had difficulty doing a task that others thought was straightforward? Perhaps you had problems tying your shoes or writing simple sentences—some children in special education deal with these challenges regularly. However, task analysis is a helpful tool for teachers and other adults to help students. Students can succeed and develop their talents by breaking down challenging tasks into smaller, more manageable steps. In this blog post, we’ll examine the benefits of task analysis in special education and provide some sound ideas for implementing it in the classroom. So grab a seat and get ready to learn what task analysis is in special education and how task analysis could help all students reach their full potential!

What is Task Analysis in Special Education?

I’ll go into more detail about task analysis in education and how it’s applied to special education .

As a teaching strategy, task analysis entails dissecting difficult activities into simpler, more doable pieces. As it enables children who struggle with executive functioning , attention, and other learning challenges to learn and complete activities successfully, it is a widely utilized instructional method in special education.

When a teacher or therapist uses task analysis, they determine the task’s ultimate objective and then examine each step necessary to achieve that result. To better understand and identify problematic behaviors and their functions, they might conduct a Functional Behavior Assessment . For the student to use as a reference while working on the assignment, they can make a written or visual list of these steps. This list might assist the student in keeping track of their progress and self-evaluate their work.

For several reasons, task analysis is advantageous for special education pupils. First, it assists pupils in breaking down difficult activities into smaller, easier-to-follow steps, which lessens emotions of frustration and overwhelm. Students can more readily comprehend and finish the assignment by concentrating on one step at a time. Task analysis also encourages independence and self-confidence, allowing pupils to complete more tasks independently.

Task analysis can be utilized in various educational contexts, including academic tasks like writing a paragraph or solving a math problem, social skills like making eye contact or asking for help, and self-care chores like taking care of oneself (dressing or preparing a meal). In many cases, teachers may use task boxes for special education to facilitate this learning.

Overall, task analysis is a useful tool for special education instructors and caregivers to assist students to develop their skills and succeed in all facets of life. It aligns with the principles of Universal Design for Learning , which emphasize the customization of teaching to individual learning needs.

Importance of Task Analysis in Education

Task analysis is an essential tool for teachers and students since it enables pupils to divide difficult activities into smaller, easier-to-manage parts. Several factors make task analysis crucial in education, including the following:

• Reduces Overwhelming and Frustration: Complex tasks frequently feel overwhelming and stressful for kids with learning disabilities. These tasks are broken down into smaller, more manageable parts using task analysis, which lessens these sentiments and enables pupils to concentrate on one step at a time.
• Enhances Understanding: By breaking down a task into its parts, pupils can better comprehend what is expected. An improvement in confidence and motivation might result from this understanding.
• Enhances Independence: Students’ self-esteem is raised, and independence is encouraged when they can perform activities alone. Students can develop the abilities they need to succeed by using task analysis. According to the American Psychological Association , fostering independence is key to promoting self-confidence and personal growth in students.
• Gives Students a Clear Plan: Students have a clear plan to follow when given a written or visual list of the steps necessary to finish a task. They can use this plan to self-monitor their work and remind them of their progress.
• Task analysis is adaptable and can be changed to fit the needs of each student. To help students more effectively accomplish their goals, educators might modify the steps based on their strengths and shortcomings.

Task analysis is an evidence-based method that has been proven successful in assisting children with learning issues to succeed in addition to these advantages. By utilizing this tool in the classroom, teachers may give their pupils the assistance and direction they require to reach their greatest potential.

How Do You Write a Task Analysis for Special Education?

Several important steps should be considered when drafting a task analysis for special education. Task Analysis steps are as follows:

• Identify the Task: Decide the task you wish to investigate. Depending on the student’s needs, this could be an academic task, a social skill, or a self-care task.
• Break down the work into smaller, easier-to-manage steps once the work has been determined. Consider the steps necessary to finish the work successfully. For instance, the instructions for tying a shoe might say to “take the laces and make an X,” “cross one lace over the other,” “tuck the lace underneath the other,” and other such things.
• After determining the stages, arrange them in the sequence they must be carried out. Make sure that each step is required and builds on the one before it by considering the logical order of the steps.
• Make it Visual: Use images to make the task analysis easier for the student to understand. This can entail listing the processes in writing or using images or a flowchart, or another visual aid to depict the steps.
• Practice with the student while watching them, using the task analysis as a guide. Follow their development and offer advice as required. Consider simplifying a step or offering more assistance if the student struggles.

These stages will help you build a task analysis tailored to the student’s needs and offer a clear strategy for success. Always be patient and adaptable, and modify the task analysis as necessary to meet the needs of each learner.

Click on the link to view an example of writing a task analysis. [Task Analysis in Special Education ppt]

Task Analysis Examples

Here are a few instances of task analysis in education and examples of action in the classroom:

Writing in Paragraph: Writing can be difficult for many pupils, especially those in special education. Task analysis can divide The writing process into simpler, more manageable parts. Choose a topic, brainstorm ideas, make an outline, write a draft, rewrite and edit, and proofread, for instance, could be the processes in writing a paragraph.

Solving a Math Problem: Some children find math to be a challenging subject. By dividing the problem-solving process into manageable parts, task analysis can assist in making it more approachable. To solve a math problem, for instance, you might follow these steps: read the problem, figure out what you’re solving for, pick a method, solve the problem, and then verify your result.

Developing Social Skills: Task analysis is also beneficial for developing social skills. To develop eye contact, for instance, a student might “stand or sit facing the individual,” “look at their eyes,” “remain to gaze for a few seconds,” “look away briefly,” and “repeat.”

Self-Care Tasks: Special education students could also require assistance with self-care activities like dressing or meal preparation. These jobs can be easier to manage if they are divided into smaller phases through task analysis. For instance, “take off pajamas,” “put on underwear,” “put on pants,” “put on a shirt,” “put on socks,” and “put on shoes” could be the steps to getting dressed.

These are just a few applications of task analysis in the classroom. Task analysis assists in making difficult tasks more approachable and achievable for children with special needs by breaking them down into smaller pieces.

Teach the Task to Autistic Students: Task Analysis Autism Sped Classroom

Task analysis is useful for helping autistic individuals in special education classes. Several instances of task analysis being utilized to assist autistic students are provided below:

• Daily Routines: Routines might be difficult for students with autism. These processes can be divided into smaller, easier-to-manage segments using task analysis. For instance, getting ready for school could involve the following steps: waking up, brushing your teeth, washing your face, dressing, eating breakfast, and packing a backpack.
• Social Skills: Students with autism may also suffer from social skills. Task analysis can simplify these abilities, making them simpler to learn and apply. Making eye contact, smiling, saying hello, asking questions, and paying attention to the answer are some examples of conversation starters.
• Classroom Assignments: Task analysis can help students with autism complete assignments in the classroom, such as worksheets or projects. To finish a worksheet, for instance, you might follow these steps: “Read the directions,” “Look at the example,” “Do the first problem,” “Check the solution,” and “Complete the rest of the problems.”
• Lifestyle Skills: Students with autism could also require assistance with everyday tasks like cooking or laundry. These jobs can be simplified by task analysis into more manageable chunks. For instance, “take out the bread,” “take out the meat,” “take out the cheese,” “place the bread together,” and “cut the sandwich in half” could be the stages of assembling a sandwich.

Task analysis is a flexible approach that may be applied in various ways to support autistic individuals in special education classrooms. Students with autism can develop their talents and succeed in a way that suits their particular requirements by breaking complex tasks into smaller, more manageable steps. I hope you learned and enjoyed our discussion on What Is Task Analysis in Special Education.

Jennifer Hanson is a dedicated and seasoned writer specializing in the field of special education. With a passion for advocating for the rights and needs of children with diverse learning abilities, Jennifer uses her pen to educate, inspire, and empower both educators and parents alike.

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Task Analysis in Special Education: How to Deconstruct a Task

• September 15, 2022 April 11, 2024

As educators, we often go through the process of deconstructing a task by breaking down a complex skill into smaller steps so that students are able to learn the skill gradually, and easily. This process is known as Task Analysis and is especially crucial when teaching students with special needs.

We typically learn in two ways, explicitly and implicitly. Explicit learning is the intentional experience of acquiring a skill or knowledge, while implicit learning is the process of learning without conscious and deliberate awareness, such as learning how to talk and eat. Our students with special needs benefit more from explicit teaching and learning because they often face challenges acquiring skills implicitly due to the need for contextual understanding, communication skills, and so on. 

For explicit teaching and learning to be effective, it is important to have a thorough understanding of the skill through task analysis.

Task Analysis involves a series of thought processes:

1. Goal Selection: Know exactly what it is that you want to teach

Be clear and specific about the goal or the skill that you want to teach. Avoid having too many sub-goals. 

• Negative example: Play a complete song.
• Positive example: Press keys on the piano by following the alphabets shown on a flashcard or music score.

2. Identify any prerequisite skills, if any 

In our earlier example of teaching the sequence of piano keys, some of the prerequisite skills will include:

• Literacy skills of alphabets and/or colours
• Matching skills of alphabets and/or colours
• Visual referencing skills in top-down and/or left-right motion
• Motor skill of only using one finger to press the key, or to imitate an action

Prerequisite skills are important because these skills help to make the learning more feasible and increase the possibility of successfully performing the new skill. 

3. Write a list of all the steps needed to complete the skill you want to teach

A skill can be completed in a single step, or in a series of sequential steps. It is thus helpful that we list down all the steps needed to complete the skill we want to teach. With this, the Task Analysis becomes more detailed and effective. Let’s take the above goal and list down the steps needed. 

Goal: Press keys on the piano by following the alphabets shown on a flashcard or music score.

The keys steps needed to complete this task are:

• Look up at the flashed alphabet.
• Process and retain the information in the learner’s working memory.
• Look down at the piano keys.
• Find the corresponding key by scanning past non-target keys.
• Identify and stop at the target key.
• Aim and press with one finger. 

4. Identify which steps your child can do and which he/she cannot yet do

The next step will be to know the current skill level of your learner by identifying which steps the learner can do, and which the learner cannot. Assume the learner has the following challenges:

• Not consistent in visual referencing skill of looking up and down repeatedly.
• Unable to focus and scan more than 4 keys at one time.
• Often mistakes Letter G for C and vice versa. 

This means that this learner will have challenges in completing Steps 3, 4, and 5 in the above Task Analysis. 

5. Isolate any gap skills, if needed, and teach them first

The steps in which the learner cannot do or has challenges in are known as gap skills . After identifying the gap skills, take time to isolate the skills, teach them, and bridge them. This process takes time. For example, looking at the gap skills in the above example: 

• Visual Referencing Skill: 

This is an abstract skill that takes time to build. It is unlikely that the learner can learn and master this in a couple of weeks. Therefore, to bridge this, the teacher should intentionally provide opportunities for top-down visual referencing across activities and settings, such as taking a toy from a shelf above and keeping them back on top, or sorting activities whereby one item is on top, and one is at the bottom. 

• Working Memory Stamina

This is also another skill that takes time to build. Teaching it across settings and activities will be more effective and efficient. 

This is a skill that can be taught together with the target skill. Since the learner mistakes G for C and vice versa, and is unable to scan more than 4 keys at any one time, reduce the sequencing to CDEF or FGAB such that there is only either C or G in the target sequence. Once the learner is more confident, isolate C and G so that the learner learns to differentiate the two before the full sequence is introduced again. 

Once the gap skills are bridged, the likelihood of the learner performing the target skill will increase vastly.

6. Determine the strategy to be used when completing the target skill, with or without gap skills

At this stage, the learner might still have some gap skills to work on, but the teacher decides to move on to teaching the actual target skill. There are generally three strategies to use:

• Backward Chaining

As the name suggests, Backward Chaining involves the teacher helping the student complete all the steps in the front, leaving only the last step for the learner to do. This also means that the teacher focuses on the last step in the teaching process. The teacher then slowly moves to teach the step before the last until the learner is able to complete all the steps.

• Forward Chaining

This is the opposite of Backward Chaining. The teacher starts teaching from the first step and then moves on chronologically. 

• Total Chaining

This strategy involves the learner in all the steps and the teacher teaches all the steps to the learner with prompts. The learner is learning all the steps. 

It is common to have tried all three strategies before the teacher is able to decide which one works best, so do not be afraid to evaluate and change your mind halfway!

7. Develop a systematic teaching plan, implement, assess and evaluate the progress

After you decide on your teaching strategy, you can then plan and start the actual teaching. Do remember to assess and evaluate the learner’s progress regularly so as to make the learning effective!

Task Analysis may be a long and daunting process at the beginning. However, the more you do it, the better you get at it. In fact, we are practising the steps of Task Analysis as we write this article for you! Practice more and you will soon see how useful it is. 

Interested in more tips on teaching to children with special needs? You can read about the importance and features of a good classroom set-up here !

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Applied behavior analysis: the role of task analysis and chaining.

By:   Dr. Cathy Pratt, BCBA-D, Director, Indiana Resource Center for Autism and Lisa Steward, MA, BCBA, Director, Indiana Behavior Analysis Academy

A task analysis is used to break complex tasks into a sequence of smaller steps or actions. For some individuals on the autism spectrum, even simple tasks can present complex challenges. Having an understanding of all the steps involved for a particular task can assist in identifying any steps that may need extra instruction and will help teach the task in a logical progression. A task analysis is developed using one of four methods. First, competent individuals who have demonstrated expertise can be observed and steps documented. A second method is to consult experts or professional organizations with this expertise in validating the steps of a required task. The third method involves those who are teaching the skill to perform the task themselves and document steps. This may lead to a greater understanding of all steps involved. The final approach is simply trial and error in which an initial task analysis is generated and then refined through field tests (Cooper, Heron, Howard, 2020).

As task analyses are developed, it is important to remember the skill level of the person, the age, communication and processing abilities, and prior experiences in performing the task. When considering these factors, task analyses may need to be individualized. For those on the autism spectrum, also remember their tendency toward literal interpretation of language. For example, students who have been told to put the peanut butter on the bread when making a peanut butter and jelly sandwich have literally just placed the entire jar on the bread. It is important that all steps are operationally defined. Below are two examples of task analyses.

Putting a Coat On

• Pick up the coat by the collar (the inside of the coat should be facing you)
• Place your right arm in the right sleeve hole
• Push your arm through until you can see your hand at the other end
• Reach behind with your left hand
• Place your arm in the left sleeve hole
• Move your arm through until you see your hand at the other end
• Pull the coat together in the front
• Zip the coat

Washing Hands  

• Turn on right faucet
• Turn on left faucet
• Place hands under water
• Dispense soap
• Rub palms to count of 5
• Rub back of left hand to count of 5
• Rub back of right hand to count of 5
• Turn off water
• Take paper towel
• Dry hands to count of 5
• Throw paper towel away

Skills taught using a task analysis (TA) include daily living skills such as brushing teeth, bathing, dressing, making a meal, and performing a variety of household chores. Task analysis can also be used in teaching students to perform tasks at school such as eating in the cafeteria, morning routines, completing and turning in assignments, and other tasks. Task analysis is also useful in desensitization programs such as tolerating haircuts, having teeth cleaned, and tolerating buzzers or loud environments. Remember that tasks we perceive as simple may be complex for those on the spectrum.

Again, the number of steps involved and the wording used will differ dependent on the individual. Determining the steps to a TA as well as the starting point for an individual often requires collecting baseline data, and/or examining the individual’s ability to complete any or all of the required steps. Assessing the individual’s level of mastery can occur in one of two ways. Single-opportunity data involves collecting information on each step correctly performed in the task analysis. Once a mistake is made, data collection stops and no further steps are examined. In multiple opportunity data collection, progress is documented on each step regardless of whether the performance was correct or not. This provides insight into those steps the student can perform and where additional training or support is needed. Remember that once implementation begins, the TA may need to be revised to address any additional needs.

Once a task analysis is developed, chaining procedures are used to teach the task. Forward chaining involves teaching the sequence beginning with the first step. Typically, the learner does not move onto the second step until the first step is mastered. In backward chaining, the sequence is taught beginning with the last step. And again, the previous step is not taught until the final step is learned. One final strategy is total task teaching. Using this strategy, the entire skill is taught and support is provided or accommodations made for steps that are problematic. Each of these strategies has benefits. In forward chaining, the individual learns the logical sequence of a task from beginning to end. In backward chaining, the individual immediately understands the benefit of performing the task. In total task training, the individual is able to learn the entire routine without interruptions. In addition, they are able to independently complete any steps that have been previously mastered.

Regardless of the strategy chosen, data has to be collected to document successful completion of the entire routine and progress on individual steps. How an individual progresses through the steps of the task analysis and what strategies are used have to be determined via data collection.

Cooper, J.O., Heron, T.E, and Heward, W.L. (2020). Applied behavior analysis (3rd Edition). Pearson Education, Inc.

Pratt, C. & Steward, L. (2020). Applied behavior analysis: The role of task analysis and chaining. https://www.iidc.indiana.edu/irca/articles/applied-behavior-analysis.html .

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One Step at a Time: Using Task Analyses to Teach Skills

• Published: 03 February 2017
• Volume 45 , pages 855–862, ( 2017 )

Cite this article

• Melinda R. Snodgrass 1 ,
• Hedda Meadan 2 ,
• Michaelene M. Ostrosky 2 &
• W. Catherine Cheung 2  

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Task analyses are useful when teaching children how to complete tasks by breaking the tasks into small steps, particularly when children struggle to learn a skill during typical classroom instruction. We describe how to create a task analysis by identifying the steps a child needs to independently perform the task, how to assess what steps a child is able to do without adult support, and then decide how to teach the steps the child still needs to learn. Using task analyses can be the key to helping a young child become more independent.

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Snodgrass, M.R., Meadan, H., Ostrosky, M.M. et al. One Step at a Time: Using Task Analyses to Teach Skills. Early Childhood Educ J 45 , 855–862 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-017-0838-x

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Returning to the Effective Interventions in Applied Behavior Analysis series , I wanted to talk a little about the use of task analysis and why it’s important.  For more information on how we use task analyses, check out this post on using shaping and this one on using chaining .

Everyone in special education has probably heard about task analysis.  It’s a decidedly unexciting topic in some ways, but it so critical to systematic instruction that we have to address it.  In addition, there is a lot of misinformation flying around out there so hopefully this will address just what you need to know about them.  

We are told to use them frequently in the classroom to break skills down into smaller components.  So, we set up steps, like we do for some of our mini-schedules like the one below for washing hands .  Sometimes task analyses have visuals to support them and sometimes they are just written out for the staff.

What is a task analysis?

So if you aren’t familiar with the jargon, what does task analysis mean? The National Professional Development Center found task analysis to be an evidence-based practice, which interests me because I don’t think that behavioral task analysis is actually an intervention.  I see the task analysis process as part of other interventions.  A task analysis is simply a set of steps that need to be completed to reach a specific goals.  There are basically two different ways to break down a skill.  You can break it down by the steps in a sequence to complete the task.  The hand washing task analysis does that.  In this type of task analysis you have to complete one step to be ready for the next.  For instance, you have to turn on the water to get your hands wet.  This type of task analysis is typically used with chaining which will be the topic of our next post.

You can also have a task analysis that breaks skills down into smaller chunks, like increasing time.  A task analysis for remaining in a group might do that like the examples at the bottom of the picture above.   In this type of task analysis, each step replaces the one that comes before it.  So, when you sit for 5 minutes, that includes all the steps that come before.  This type of task analysis is usually used with shaping, which I will talk about in 2 weeks.

Why Do I Need a Task Analysis?

So if a task analysis is just breaking skills down into smaller skills, you probably do it all the time. Conducting a task analysis isn’t a very time-consuming process.

But, why is using a specific task analysis that is established for a student important?  Below are 3 reasons to answer that question.

1.  Consistency

In order to assure that everyone is teaching a skill in the same way, breaking it down into the same steps is critical.  I am willing to bet that if you ask parents, paraprofessionals or even your significant other how they brush their teeth, you will find some variation in the order of the steps.  Your significant other doesn’t put the cap back on the toothpaste.  You keep the water running while you brush your teeth while your paraprofessional turns it off to conserve water until she is ready to rinse.  My point is that we all have individual differences in the steps of completing simple, everyday tasks.  Now, imagine that you are a student who is having difficulty learning to brush his teeth.  If you show me one way and prompt me through the steps, and then the parapro shows me another way and prompts me through her steps, and my mom shows me a third way, I’m going to be pretty confused.  It’s the beginning of the year and we all need a laugh, so here’s a great video example of why it’s important.  Archie and Michael can’t even agree on how to put on shoes and socks.  Imagine if they both tried to teach one of our students to put theirs on (no, I would not recommend doing this)–how confused would that student be?

Take Away Point: Writing down a task analysis assures that everyone follows the same steps and teaches the student the same way.  Then your instruction is much less confusing and more efficient. 2. Tailor It To The Student

Students need task analyses that are tailored to their needs.  I love starting with standard ones, so I don’t have to reinvent the wheel, but then adjusting them to meet the needs of this student.  Here’s why the individualization is so important.  If your steps are too large for the student, he or she may not make it to the next step and will stall out.  For instance, if you are teaching Molly to stay in a group activity for 20 minutes and your task analysis jumps from 5 minutes (that she can currently stay) to 10 minutes, she might never be successful at jumping to 10 minutes and won’t progress.  She might do better if we went to 7 minutes next and then 9 minutes.  On the other hand, for Max, if we were teaching the same skill and we had him stay in the group for 5 minutes, then 7 minutes and then 9 minutes it might take a very long time when he could have made the jump straight to 10 minutes.  Each student is different and we have to figure out how to individualize their steps based on their past data.  Is it taking too long to master a step? Step it down to a smaller step.  Is he mastering steps really quickly?  Make the steps bigger.

3. It is the Basis for Systematic Instruction

Breaking skills down is a critical component of discrete trial programming as well as teaching life skills and other chaining and shaping applications.  Discrete trial programs are made up of smaller steps that lead to a larger goal.  Learn 1 letter, then 2, then 3?  That’s a shaping task analysis.  Our research shows us that it’s important to break skills down for students with autism in order to eliminate extraneous variables that might mess up their learning.  Teaching systematically is the key to success with any student and especially any student in special education.  It’s also key for some of our students to be able to show progress.  While it’s not exciting to say that a student has mastered 4 of the 8 steps of tying his shoes, it better than being able to say AGAIN that he can’t tie his shoes–assuming he had no steps mastered earlier in the year. It’s slow progress, but it’s progress.

So, how do you use task analyses in your classroom and why do you think they are important?  Are there questions you have about task analyses or teaching strategies that use them? Please share them in the comments and I will try to address them.  In the meantime, I’ll be back next Thursday to talk about ways to make your instruction using task analyses more efficient.

• Read more about: Curriculum & Instructional Activities , Effective Interventions in ABA

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Techniques for Teaching Complex Skills to Children with Special Needs

By: The RethinkEd Team

•  •    Special Education , Tips, Tools, & Tech

Have you ever written a shopping list for the upcoming weeks groceries and then forgot to bring it with you to the store? If so, you will know how difficult it is to remember everything that was on the list.  The same is true when we have to remember significant amounts of information for an exam or a test.

For children with special needs; remembering all of the steps to a skill such as washing their hands or following a daily schedule can be a similar challenge.

The good news is that there is an evidence-based tool called a “task analysis” that we can use to break any complex tasks into a sequence of smaller steps or actions to help our children learn and become more independent.

What is a Task Analysis?

Task analyses can take on many forms depending on how your child learns.

The examples below show written lists for how to complete tooth brushing:

If you are working with children who can read and understand directions, you can use a task analysis that has a lot of detail, such as this example for doing laundry.

If your child is unable to read, task analyses can be made using just picture cards or actual photographs to illustrate the steps of a skill. These examples following a morning routine, riding in the car and using a stapler:

How do I create a Task Analysis?

Here are the steps to take to create a task analysis to help your child:

• Physically complete all of the steps of the skill yourself
• Do the skill again and write down each step as you do it
• Compile all the steps into a sequence using words, pictures or both that your child will be able to understand and use to help them learn

There is no set number of steps to a skill.  Some children will require the skill broken down into many small steps to be able to be successful, others may require less steps. You can decide how many steps will be needed for your child to learn.

How do I know if my child is learning?

You can observe your child to see if they are making progress, however having a little bit of data will show you exactly how fast your child is progressing and which steps are being mastered, as well as which steps may need more learning attention.  To take data, you would note if the child completed each step correctly (independently) or incorrectly (needed help).   Here is an example for a simple data collection sheet for getting dressed:

Resources of Task Analysis for Special Needs Children

For more resources and information about using a task analysis:

The tools every district needs to design, deliver and monitor evidence-based practices in special education. (2015). Retrieved March 10, 2017, from RethinkFirst https://www.rethinkfirst.com/

Developing Life Skills: How to Teach A Skill. (n.d.). Retrieved March 10, 2017, from TACA , https://tacanow.org/family-resources/life-skills/ 

Printable Picture Cards. (n.d.). Retrieved March 10, 2017, from Do2Learn , https://do2learn.com/picturecards/printcards/index.htm

Says, R., Says, C., Says, J., & Says, D. W. (2015, August 27). What You Need to Know About Task Analysis and Why You Should Use It. Retrieved March 10, 2017, from Autism Classroom Resources , https://autismclassroomresources.com/what-you-need-to-know-about-task-analysis-and-why-you-should-use-it/

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• DOI: 10.1177/016264347900200305
• Corpus ID: 62070218

Task Analysis in Special Education: Definition and Clarification

• Ronald W. Schworm
• Published 1 March 1979
• Journal of Special Education Technology

Tables from this paper

3 Citations

Strategies for task analysis in special education, task analysis and the characteristics of tasks, a cumulative author index of the journal of special education technology: 1(1), 1978–9(4), 1989, 12 references, task analysis in curriculum design: a hierarchically sequenced introductory mathematics curriculum., ability training and task analysis in diagnostic/prescriptive teaching, practical task analysis for special educators, task analysis of a complex assembly task by the retarded blind, developmental task analysis and psychoeducational programming., wholes and parts in teaching, beyond behavioral objectives: individualizing learning, training mentally retarded adolescents to brush their teeth., developing programs for severely handicapped students: teacher training and classroom instruction, task analysis: a consideration for teachers of skills, related papers.

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Using Task Analysis to Teach Daily Living Skills

Educational Consultant

University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Task analysis is used to break down complex skills into manageable, discrete steps. Students learn the individual steps in sequence in order to master the overall skill. Task analysis can be easy to use as it often requires few materials, can be inexpensive and can be used in a variety of settings. Most importantly, it supports students who have difficulty with executive functioning skills like sequencing, working memory and attention.

Start to think beyond academics and imagine the impact that task analysis can have in supporting your students’ daily living skills. Sequence the steps for hygiene activities like handwashing, toothbrushing or toileting. Provide supports for steps involved in household chores like dusting, cleaning the bedroom, clearing the table or picking up toys. Teach complex tasks in the kitchen like making a sandwich, putting away groceries and setting the table.

Planning for Task Analysis

Have a concrete goal in mind by clearly defining the expected behavior . Rather than simply saying that your student will wash their hands, it is helpful to explicitly state that your student will wash their hands with soap for 20 seconds and dry their hands when finished.

Before teaching the skill, ensure that each individual step is identified and put in the correct sequence. It can be helpful to perform the skill yourself, or observe another adult performing the skill, and record each individual step. For example, to develop a task analysis for washing dishes, start with the step of turning on the water. Complete and record each individual step, being careful not to leave out any detail.

As part of the planning process, take time to observe your student completing the target skill . This will give you a clear idea of what level and types of support to provide for each step of the task. It may also highlight any routines that your student has already developed around this activity as well as reveal areas of strength.

Once you have identified each step and observed your student engaging in the activity, think about how best to present the task analysis to your student. Line drawings or photographs like those in decision trees may be helpful to support some students. A written checklist might be appropriate for others. Even video modeling can be meaningful and appropriate for some students. Consider your student’s level of learning to determine the best presentation.

Tips for Implementing Task Analysis

Forward Chaining

Start by teaching and reinforcing the first step in the chain. Then support your student’s completion of the remaining steps by starting with the least amount of prompting necessary to help your student complete the step successfully. Again, an initial observation of your student’s skill can provide some insight into what level of support is appropriate. Once the first step is mastered (i.e., once your student can independently complete the first step), teach and reinforce the second step while continuing to support the steps that follow.

Backward Chaining

Start by teaching and reinforcing the last step in the chain as you provide a model and support for all steps prior to the last. As the last step is mastered, move backward in the sequence by teaching and reinforcing the second-to-last step. Backward chaining lets your student end every teaching session with success and positive reinforcement.

Total Task Presentation

Present all steps of the sequence at one time. Teach and reinforce each step of the process. This allows your student to learn a complete routine and understand the expectations of the full task from the start.

Task analysis is most effective when paired with a positive reinforcement . As your student performs an individual step or completes the total task (as described above), reinforce their behavior. Consider what reinforcers are motivating and meaningful to your student. This could be verbal praise, a high five or a small token. Keep it simple, and be sure that the selected reinforcer is effective for your student.

In addition to reinforcement, use task analysis in combination with other evidence-based practices. Various levels of prompting can support your student’s learning. Video modeling and visual supports, such as social narratives and decision trees , may also be used to clarify expectations and increase understanding of the skill being taught.

Monitor Your Intervention

Consider the Skill Itself

Has it been clearly defined? Is it truly measurable? Without these characteristics, student progress is difficult to accurately monitor. Also revisit your student’s skill level. Are the prerequisite skills truly present? Is the skill aligned with the IEP and achievable as it is written?

Look Closely at the Task Analysis

Is the skill completely task analyzed? Is there a step missing? Be sure that every step of the sequence is a discrete skill, and not a series of steps collapsed into one.

Review Implementation

If other team members are also teaching this skill, be sure that everyone is using the same chaining method for using task analysis. A thorough task analysis will support consistent implementation as well. Ensure that additional supports (video models, social narratives, visual supports, etc.) are being used in the same way each time.

Reconsider the Positive Reinforcement

If your student is showing a lack of progress, interest or engagement, it may be necessary to find a more effective way to reinforce the skill.

Task analysis can effectively be used to teach daily living skills by breaking down tasks into manageable parts. With thoughtful planning, consistent implementation and careful monitoring, you can support your student’s growth in this area.

About the Author

Becky Dees is an Educational Consultant who specializes in Autism Spectrum Disorder. She has worked as an autism clinician, an educational coach, and a special education trainer. Becky currently works with the autism group in research at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Becky received her degree in psychology from UNC‑Chapel Hill.

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Role Of Task Analysis In Special Education

Task analysis is a powerful teaching strategy that has been proven to be highly effective in special education. By breaking down complex skills and tasks into smaller, more manageable steps, task analysis helps students with special needs to learn and master new skills at their own pace. 

This method is not only highly effective but also highly individualized, allowing teachers to tailor their instruction to meet the unique needs of each student. From teaching life skills to improving academic performance, task analysis can be a valuable tool for supporting the development and success of students of all abilities.

In this post, we will explore what is task analysis in special education, its benefits, how to implement it, and some real-world examples to easily comprehend how it has helped students with special needs succeed in the classroom and beyond. 

What is task analysis in special education? 

Task analysis is often used in special education as a tool for teaching functional skills such as cooking, personal hygiene, and money management. The process involves identifying the steps required to complete a task, teaching each step systematically, and providing ongoing support and feedback until the student can perform the task independently. By breaking down tasks into smaller parts, task analysis makes it easier for students with special needs to learn new skills and develop their independence.

Teaching a new task to a student can be a challenging but rewarding experience for both the educator and the student. To ensure success, it is important to follow a systematic approach that involves clearly identifying and breaking down the task, teaching it using appropriate strategies, providing practice and feedback, and gradually integrating the steps into a complete task.

• Identifying the task: This involves clearly defining the task to be taught, including the specific skills required to complete the task and the goals to be achieved. It is important to identify the task in detail, including the materials and equipment needed, the steps involved, and any potential obstacles that may arise.
• Breaking down the task: The complex task is divided into smaller, more manageable parts or steps. Each step is then described in detail, including the actions required, the sequence of steps, and any prompts or cues that may be needed.
• Teaching the task: Each step of the task is taught to the student using direct instruction, modeling, or other teaching strategies. It is important to provide clear and concise instructions and to use a variety of teaching methods that are appropriate for the student’s learning style.
•   Practice and feedback: The student is given opportunities to practice each step until they can perform it correctly and independently. Feedback and support are provided as needed, and the student is encouraged to ask questions and seek clarification if needed.
•   Integrating steps: Once the student has mastered each step, they are gradually integrated into a complete task. The teacher or caregiver may provide additional support and guidance as needed, and the student is encouraged to practice the task until they are able to perform it independently.

Examples of task analysis in special education

Summarized below are some examples that will help gain a deeper understanding of the power of task analysis and how it can be applied in their own educational setting. So buckle up, and let’s dive into the exciting world of task analysis in education!

1. Writing

Task analysis can be a powerful tool for identifying the component skills involved in writing, and breaking them down into smaller, more manageable parts. These skills may include brainstorming , outlining, drafting, revising, and editing. By teaching each skill separately and explicitly, teachers can help students develop a more robust writing skill set. 

For example, students can learn how to generate ideas and organize them into a logical structure using outlining techniques as well as graphic organizers which can help arrange the data for meaningful writing afterward. They can then focus on writing a coherent and well-structured draft, before revising it for clarity, coherence, and cohesion. Finally, they can edit their writing for grammar, punctuation, and spelling errors.

This approach can also help students identify their strengths and weaknesses in writing, and target areas for improvement. Students who struggle with generating ideas, for example, can receive targeted instruction on how to generate ideas and organize them effectively. Similarly, students who struggle with editing can receive targeted instruction on how to identify and correct common errors. By breaking down the writing process into discrete sub-tasks, and providing targeted instruction and feedback on each one, teachers can help students become more confident, competent writers.

2. Math problem-solving

Task analysis can be useful for deconstructing the complex process of solving math problems into a set of smaller, more manageable steps. These steps may include reading and understanding the problem statement, identifying relevant information, selecting an appropriate strategy, carrying out calculations accurately, and checking the solution for errors. By teaching each step separately, teachers can help students develop a more robust problem-solving skillset.

Students who struggle with selecting an appropriate strategy, for example, can receive targeted instruction on how to use problem-solving heuristics such as working backward or making a diagram. Similarly, students who struggle with carrying out calculations accurately can receive targeted instruction on how to use mathematical operations and formulas effectively. By breaking down the problem-solving process into discrete sub-tasks, and providing targeted instruction and feedback on each one, teachers can help students become more confident and competent math problem solvers.

3. Reading comprehension

Task analysis can be an effective way to help students develop their reading comprehension skills. Reading comprehension involves a complex set of cognitive processes, such as activating background knowledge, identifying the main idea, making inferences, predicting outcomes, and synthesizing information. By breaking down these skills into smaller, more manageable parts, teachers can help students become more proficient readers. 

This method can assist children in becoming more engaged readers and developing critical thinking abilities. Teachers may help children become more confident and proficient readers by breaking down the reading comprehension process into discrete subtasks and offering targeted teaching and feedback on each one.

4. Laboratory experiments

Task analysis may be a useful method for teaching students how to plan and carry out scientific studies. Identifying the research topic, planning the study, choosing and measuring variables, controlling for confounding factors, and evaluating the results are all processes in a laboratory experiment. Teachers may assist children to build their scientific inquiry abilities by dividing these stages down into smaller, more manageable components. 

For example, by examining scientific literature and discussing ideas, students might learn how to identify a research question. The research can then be designed by selecting relevant variables and controls. They can also learn how to effectively measure variables and account for confounding factors. Finally, kids can learn how to assess experiment data and form conclusions. This technique can help students become more involved and proficient scientists, as well as improve their critical thinking and problem-solving abilities. 

5. Language learning

Task analysis can be a useful tool for language teachers to break down language learning into smaller, more manageable parts. Language learning involves a range of skills, including listening, speaking, reading, and writing, as well as grammatical and vocabulary knowledge. By breaking down these skills into discrete sub-tasks, teachers can provide targeted instruction and feedback to help students develop their language proficiency. For example, students can learn how to listen for specific information, understand the main points of a conversation or lecture, and respond appropriately.

 They can also learn how to speak clearly, express their ideas, and ask questions in different situations. In addition, students can learn how to read and comprehend different types of texts, such as news articles, academic papers, and literary works. This can include skills such as understanding the structure of a text, identifying key information, and inferring meaning from context. Teachers can also introduce new vocabulary words and provide opportunities for students to use them in context, such as in a conversation or writing exercise.

What is the purpose of task analysis?

Task analysis is used in a variety of settings, but it is particularly important in special education. The goal of task analysis in special education is to support individuals with disabilities in acquiring new skills, improving existing ones, and becoming more independent.

Task analysis has several benefits. First, it allows educators to assess a student’s strengths and weaknesses, identify areas that need improvement, and develop a plan of action to support their growth and development. By breaking down tasks into smaller, more manageable steps, special education teachers can provide targeted instruction and support to help students acquire new skills, build confidence, and improve their overall functioning.

In addition, task analysis can help students understand and perform complex tasks more effectively. By breaking down tasks into smaller steps, students can see the connections between different parts of the task and understand how they fit together. This can lead to improved memory and problem-solving skills and greater overall independence.

Task analysis also provides a way to track progress over time. By regularly assessing and re-analyzing tasks, educators can see how students are developing and adjust their instruction and support accordingly. This can help ensure that students are making steady progress toward their goals.

What are the advantages of task analysis in special education?

Task analysis in special education offers several advantages that make it an important tool for supporting the development of individuals with disabilities. Some of the key advantages include:

1.   Improved Learning Outcomes: By breaking down complex tasks into smaller, more manageable steps, task analysis can help individuals with disabilities acquire new skills and improve existing ones more effectively. This can lead to improved learning outcomes and greater overall independence. This can help teachers create an effective learning environment. 

2. Targeted Instruction and Support: Task analysis allows educators to assess a student’s strengths and weaknesses and provide targeted instruction and support to help them overcome challenges and reach their full potential.

3. Increased Confidence: By breaking down tasks into smaller, more manageable parts, students can build confidence as they successfully complete each step. This can help build their self-esteem and increase their overall motivation to continue learning.

4. Better Understanding of Tasks: Task analysis helps students understand complex tasks more effectively by breaking them down into smaller, more manageable steps. This can improve their problem-solving skills and overall independence.

5.  Improved Memory: Task analysis can improve memory by breaking down tasks into smaller steps that are easier to remember. This can lead to improved recall and performance over time.

6. Regular Progress Monitoring: Task analysis provides a way to track progress over time, which can help ensure that students are making steady progress toward their goals.

Task analysis in special education benefits not only students but also teachers and the special education community as a whole. This can result in a more positive and productive learning environment, with improved outcomes for all involved. Additionally, task analysis can also foster collaboration between special education teachers and other professionals, such as occupational and physical therapists. By working together to analyze tasks and determine the best ways to support students, these professionals can develop a more comprehensive and effective approach to meeting the needs of individuals with disabilities.

I am Shweta Sharma. I am a final year Masters student of Clinical Psychology and have been working closely in the field of psycho-education and child development. I have served in various organisations and NGOs with the purpose of helping children with disabilities learn and adapt better to both, academic and social challenges. I am keen on writing about learning difficulties, the science behind them and potential strategies to deal with them. My areas of expertise include putting forward the cognitive and behavioural aspects of disabilities for better awareness, as well as efficient intervention. Follow me on LinkedIn

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Mao, Y.; Li, J.; Qi, Z.; Yuan, J.; Xu, X.; Jin, X.; Du, X. Research on Outlier Detection Methods for Dam Monitoring Data Based on Post-Data Classification. Buildings 2024 , 14 , 2758. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14092758

Mao Y, Li J, Qi Z, Yuan J, Xu X, Jin X, Du X. Research on Outlier Detection Methods for Dam Monitoring Data Based on Post-Data Classification. Buildings . 2024; 14(9):2758. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14092758

Mao, Yanpian, Jiachen Li, Zhiyong Qi, Jin Yuan, Xiaorong Xu, Xinxin Jin, and Xuhuang Du. 2024. "Research on Outlier Detection Methods for Dam Monitoring Data Based on Post-Data Classification" Buildings 14, no. 9: 2758. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14092758

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• Open access
• Published: 04 September 2024

Desirable clinical settings in general dentistry: moving towards the improvement of the educational program

• Behzad Houshmand 1 ,
• Maria Shaterjalali 2 ,
• Ehsan Chegeni 3 ,
• Mehdi Ekhlasmand 4 &
• Maryam Safarnavadeh 5  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  966 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

The main task of dental schools is to prepare professional dentists with a high social responsibility. This study provided some practical suggestions from experts regarding desirable clinical settings, in order to establish an infrastructure for practical studies in Endodontics, Periodontics, Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Restorative Dentistry, Pediatric Dentistry, Oral and Maxillofacial Medicine, Prosthodontics, Oral Health, and Social Dentistry.

This research was conducted using a modified Delphi technique in two rounds. The first round involved qualitative content analysis. Participants in interviews were selected purposeful and maximum diversity across the country. To determine the validity and reliability of the data, the four axes proposed by Lichon and Guba were utilized. The second round involved a researcher-made questionnaire, which consisted of 55 questions. This questionnaire was distributed to all dental schools across the country. The validity of the questionnaire were evaluated and by experts and then reviewed. The reliability of the tool was determined to be 0.96 using the alpha coefficient method.

The final codes from the interviews of the first round were divided into two categories: settings and educational programs. The final results of research were placed into 2 section: educational settings and instructors, and educational infrastructures. 70% participants agreed to use the college’s clinical morning sessions. More than 80% agreed to start up a main clinic with the proposed structure and professors. The use of the hospitalization area also had an agreement of more than 80%. Additionally, community areas such as health service centers, welfare centers, special patient centers, factories, schools, etc. obtained an agreement of over 70%.

Conclusions

The results of this study are presented in the form of suggestions for improving the general dentistry program in relation to educational setting, educators, and educational infrastructures. The common agreement among participants regarding educational settings and their diversity, educational programs, and desired instructors reviewed in the research shows the necessity of reviewing and changing their educational programs in Endodontics, Periodontics, Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Restorative Dentistry, Pediatric Dentistry, Oral and Maxillofacial Medicine, Prosthodontics, Oral Health, and Social Dentistry.

Peer Review reports

Dentistry is one of the important fields of medical science, in which studying is associated with the acquisition of high scientific and professional skills. Due to the large volume of practical units and the wide range of learning skills, providing high-quality services in this field requires special attention. The main goal of dental schools is to prepare professional dentists who have a high sense of social responsibility, are familiar with the culture of the community they serve, and are capable of providing services to the target population [ 1 ]. However, by primarily focusing on traditional education methods and not providing opportunities for students to work in community centers and gain experience with fellow dentists and healthcare workers, the opportunity to care for patients or provide services is limited [ 2 ]. In Iran, the clinical course for students in the general dentistry program includes an integral treatment block with support, educational-administrative, and treatment areas (dental cabin and imaging cabin). It is expected that during training hours, this block will function as an integral treatment center and during non-administrative hours, it will function as a specialized dental center of the faculty [ 3 ]. However, in the current situation, clinical training for learners is conducted in separate specialized departments, and only a small number of faculties use other areas such as university-affiliated clinics, schools, or hospitals as learning environments.

Judian et al.’s study [ 4 ] revealed that from students’ perspectives, the educational environment and its supervision are among the factors that influence the quality of clinical education. Another study [ 5 ] found that the separation of treatment units, the provision of treatment plans by instructors, and the lack of a defined role for students are among the reasons why students lack the ability to make treatment decisions. Moreover, the separate arrangement of courses weakens students’ education.

Mathieson mentions that in the training program of the Arizona School of Dentistry and Oral Health, in the integrated community service partnership (ICSP), half of the clinical rotations are done outside of the school and the other half is planned in the main school [ 1 ]. Smith et al., by implementing a similar program to the Arizona model, showed that 73% of cases involved amalgam, 59% involved composites, 11% involved crowns, 20% involved root canal treatments, 30% involved endodontics, and 68% involved dental extractions in the community clinic [ 6 ].

The program of general dentistry should promote students to achieve all educational goals and aspects of clinical skills, based on community needs. In the universal of dental standards have also been mentioned [ 1 ]. Cardall quoted research regarding the need to revise and redesign the study course and educational programs of dental areas with the aim of improving the performance of dentists. His study showed that, according to students from various faculties in the United States, clinical experiences and patient management are the most important factors in dental education. These factors are less realized in dental school clinics than in community clinical areas [ 7 ].

The need for reviewing and upgrading educational programs and settings has been shown in a number of studies conducted in Iran. One study, related to the response of academic staff members in educational clinics, showed a low average importance given to the subject of student education and attention to all students in conveying material from the student’s perspective [ 8 ]. Another study, focusing on the quality of clinical education from the student’s perspective in four areas - professor’s knowledge and performance, clinical facilities, the behavior of faculty and staff, and overall student satisfaction - revealed a low overall satisfaction in the departments of endodontics, removable prosthesis, and fixed prosthesis, while the department of pediatric dentistry and periodontics had the highest level of satisfaction [ 9 ]. In yet another study, which evaluated the quality of clinical education from the students’ perspective, educational goals and programs were ranked third, teaching and learning ranked second, and the endodontics department received the lowest score for the educational environment, while surgery had the highest score [ 10 ]. Another study, focusing on students’ views on their learning environment, found that the lowest score was related to the appropriateness of educational activities with educational goals [ 11 ]. In a study evaluating the evaluation methods of clinical courses from students’ perspective, the methods were rated as average [ 12 ]. Additionally, a study showed a negative correlation between students’ satisfaction levels with clinical departments and their grade point average, particularly in restorative, endodontics, pediatric, and community-oriented departments [ 13 ]. The existence of a negative gap between the current and desired situation in clinical education will pose an obstacle for their future careers.

The aim of this study is to provide practical suggestions from view of experts in general dentistry for desired clinical settings, instructors, and the creation of educational infrastructure for practical courses in Endodontics, Periodontics, Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Restorative Dentistry, Pediatric Dentistry, Oral and Maxillofacial Medicine, Prosthodontics, Oral Health, and Social Dentistry.

Study design and settings

This research was conducted using a modified Delphi methods in two rounds [ 14 , 15 ]. The first round involved qualitative content analysis, while the second round involved sending an electronic file of the questionnaire. The research was conducted in dental schools throughout the country (Iran) in 2020 to 2022.

Study participants and sampling

The participants of the first round include dean and education deputies of dentistry school and manager of departments with at least one year of executive experience, academic staff members with executive experience, preferably from 8 specialized departments: endodontics, restorative, prosthetics, pediatrics, oral and maxillofacial surgery, periodontics, oral and maxillofacial medicine, and oral health and social dentistry, as well as first-year postgraduate residents. Participants were purposefully selected. To achieve maximum diversity [ 16 ] in ideas and opinions, our contributors were selected from dental schools across the country. The participants of the second round included the participants from the first round, as well as managers and faculty members of the studied fields in all dental schools across the country, according to the census method.

Data collection tools and technique

Round one of delphi.

Data collection was conducted through focus groups, face-to-face interviews, and telephone interviews. Initially, participants were contacted and provided with explanations about the research and its objectives in order to obtain their consent to participate in the study. Agreements were then made regarding the time and location of the interviews. Two focus group discussions, one with heads and one with residents, were conducted face-to-face. Additionally, 12 interviews were conducted over the telephone to gather additional information. Informed consent was obtained at the beginning of each session, with explanations given about the preservation of personal information and the permission to record the interview process. The interviews lasted between 45 and 100 min and were tailored to the interviewee’s field. They began with a general question, “Please tell us the strengths and weaknesses of the current situation in the clinical settings of practical courses in endodontics, periodontics, oral and maxillofacial surgery, restorative dentistry, pediatric dentistry, oral and maxillofacial medicine, prosthetics, oral health, and social dentistry?” Follow-up questions were also asked. All interviews were recorded and transcribed, with each session and participant assigned a code. The sampling continued until theoretical saturation was reached [ 17 , 18 ]. An inductive approach was used for qualitative content analysis [ 19 , 20 ]. After data generation, the analysis process began. The text of each interview was fully implemented and read multiple times until data saturation occurred and semantic units were extracted. Next, the semantic units were summarized and compressed to obtain compressed semantic units that retained the same meaning but were shorter in terms of word count. These compressed semantic units were then converted into codes with labels of the same meaning. The codes from each interview were cross-compared, and similarities and differences were identified. They were then categorized into sub-theme groups. These sub-themes were constantly compared and revised throughout the process, with some being merged or separated based on common or different characteristics to form new sub-themes. In the final stage, sub-themes with common properties were merged and given a common theme name [ 21 ]. A total of 392 codes were obtained from the interviews in this research. After merging similar codes and removing duplicates, a final count of 293 codes was obtained. To ensure the validity and strength of the data, the four axes of credibility, transferability, dependability, and conformability suggested by Lincoln and Guba were utilized [ 22 ].

Round two of delphi

After using the results of the first stage and reviewing the literature, the second round of the Delphi questionnaire was designed. This questionnaire had two parts: demographic information and questions. The questions section included 55 questions in 4 main categories, including conditions of educational settings, variety of educational settings, educational programs, and instructors. The section on the conditions of educational settings had 8 general questions including 20 items. The diversity section of the educational settings had 15 general questions related to the settings of courses examined in the research. The section on educational programs had 23 questions to determine the effectiveness and impact of the stated items in acquiring the expected competencies of students to work in the real environment and improve their performance. The teachers’ section had 9 general questions and included 56 items regarding the members of the teaching team, incentives, and criteria for being in the teaching team for the training of the students of the general dentistry course with a suitable scale. With the aim of confirming validity, the questionnaire was evaluated by experts in the field in terms of the relationship between the items and the research topic and the complete coverage of the research concepts. After review, it was approved. The reliability of the instrument was 0.96 using the alpha coefficient method with an emphasis on internal consistency.

Then the questionnaires were sent to the email addresses of the participants. In order to attract participation, reminders were sent to the respondents in two stages. Also, paper questionnaires were provided to some participants. A total of 130 participants from all over the country responded. In order to check the agreement, the data analysis of the questionnaires was done with the help of SPSS 23 software. Agreement or non-agreement on the items was based on obtaining a frequency of 70% or more in the responses. In such a way that obtaining 70% agreement for positive answers led to the acceptance of the said item as a desirable situation, and with 70% agreement in negative answers, that item was discarded.

A guideline was developed based on the results obtained in the first and second rounds of Delphi. The guide was then reviewed by experts in the field and finalized after implementing suggestions. In this guide, getting 70% or more agreement on the acceptance of educational settings, educational programs, and instructors is considered a strong proposal, and 40–69% agreement is considered a useful proposal.

Ethical consideration and approval

The present research has been approved by the National Center for Medical Education Research of the Ministry of Health and Medical Education (NASR) with ethical code IR.NASRME.REC.1400.207. The anonymity and confidentially of the participants were preserved in every phase. The participants were made fully aware of the nature and purpose of the research, an informed consent form was obtained, and the interviews were recorded.

The number of participants was 33 individuals. The participants in the focus group were 11 managers and professors. Individual interviews were conducted with 12 participants, and there were 10 individuals in the focus group of first-year residents. The executive positions of the participants included 1 head of the faculty, 2 faculty educational assistants, 8 department managers, 3 department educational assistants, and 1 person responsible for the Educational Development Office (EDO). The scientific rank of the participants included 11 titular professors, 6 associate professors, and 6 assistant professors. Postgraduate residents were from 7 different dental schools, who were studying in 5 fields of specialty investigated in the research. The results of this round were divided into two categories: educational areas and programs, and instructors. The fields and educational programs included 6 main themes. The first theme was the morning clinic, and the special evening clinic of the faculty had 2 sub-themes: the time of implementation and the method of implementation of the program. The second theme was the main clinic with the sub-themes of general program design, the structure of the main clinic, and the educational program of the main clinic. The third theme of fields was hospitals with 2 sub-themes: challenges and opportunities, and the development of the learning situation. The next theme was the community clinics, which had 2 sub-themes. In the sub-theme of health centers and clinics of the treatment deputy, 2 additional sub-themes of the execution program time and development of the learning situation were placed. The next sub-theme of other fields included schools, welfare, associations for special patients, homes for the elderly, factories, barracks, etc., which included 2 sub-themes: the program execution time and the development of learning situations. The multi-day camps were the fifth theme, which included 2 sub-themes: program implementation time and program implementation method. The dental office was the last theme of the field and educational programs. The category of instructors included 3 main themes. The first theme was academic and non-academic instructors with 6 sub-themes: academic staff and educational duties, the role of faculty lecturers in the main clinic, non-academic specialists and the main clinic, academic faculty lecturers and instructors in the hospital setting, faculty instructors and education in the community, and faculty members and incentives. The next theme was postgraduate residents, and the third theme was general dentists with sub-themes that contained the role of general dentists in main clinic education, the role of general dentists in the education of the community, the selection criteria for general dentists, and the material and non-material incentives of general dentists.

The number of participants in the second round of Delphi was 130 managers and faculty members of dental schools from all over the country. The academic rank of the respondents was 72.2% assistant professor, 15.1% associate professor, and 12.7% professor. 24% (24%) of the respondents had less than 5 years of work experience, 38% had 5–10 years of experience, and 38% had more than 10 years of experience. In terms of executive experience, 15.4% of the respondents had less than one year, 45.2% had an executive experience of 1–5 years, and 39.4% had an experience of more than 5 years. The final results of the second round of Delphi were described in the form of an operational guideline by providing suggestions at two strong and useful levels, in two areas: educational setting and instructors, and educational infrastructures for the integral treatment course (internship) for 8 specialized departments, including endodontics, restorative, prosthetics, children, oral surgery and Maxillofacial, periodontics, oral and maxillofacial medicine, and oral health and social dentistry of the general dentistry course. The results are shown in Tables  1 and 2 .

To visualize the distribution of clinical settings from Table  1 ; Fig.  1 presents the data in a categorical format. The figure reveals that medical clinics are the most frequent setting (highest number), while dental offices are the least frequent (lowest number).

categorical filed information clinical setting

Building on the data in Table  1 ; Fig.  2 utilizes cluster bar charts to represent the average frequency (as a percentage) of agreement levels across different clinical settings. The chart reveals that main clinics and community clinics have the highest percentage of agreements categorized as “strong suggestion,” while dental offices have the lowest percentage.

Cluster bar mean of frequency percentage by clinical setting and agreement level

Figure  3 utilizes a boxplot to illustrate the distribution of frequency percentages across clinical settings, based on the data in Table  1 . The black line in the boxplot represents the median, and the dashed line indicates the mean percentage for each setting. Interestingly, medical clinics and hospital inpatient settings have higher median and mean values compared to other settings. The boxplot also allows us to analyze the variability within each setting. The interquartile range (IQR), represented by the length of the box, shows that medical clinics have the most dispersed data (widest box), indicating a wider range of frequency values. Conversely, dental offices have the least dispersed data (smallest box), suggesting a more consistent frequency distribution.

Boxplot of frequency percentage by clinical setting

Figure  4 leverages a bar chart to represent the distribution of agreement levels across training programs, based on the data in Table  2 . within a specific training program, the figure reveals that curriculum improvement and curriculum management programs have similar overall frequencies (represented by the height of the bars) and these frequencies are higher than the Educational Content Improvement program.

count - training programs bar chart by agreement level

Building on the data from Table  2 ; Fig.  5 presents a boxplot analysis of frequency percentages across different training programs. The analysis reveals that the “current improvement” program has the highest median frequency compared to other programs. This suggests that a larger portion of participants reported higher frequencies within this program. The interquartile range (IQR), shown by the length of the boxes, indicates that the “current improvement” program has more spread in its data (wider box). This means there’s a wider range of frequency values reported within this program. In contrast, the “educational content improvement” program has a smaller box, suggesting a more consistent distribution of frequencies.

Boxplot of frequency percentage by training programs

Identifying the problems and obstacles in running programs and making desirable changes in the educational programs of the general dentistry course will lead to improvements in the training of specialists and, as a result, the improvement of the quality of education and the health of community. In this research, we made suggestions to improve the settings, instructors, and infrastructure of the clinical training programs of final year students of the general dentistry course.

Regarding the use of the faculty’s morning clinic for clinical students, integrated programming, at least at the level of harmonization, in rotations in endodontics, restorative, prosthetics, pediatrics, oral and maxillofacial surgery, periodontics, oral and maxillofacial medicine, and oral health and community dentistry (and other rotations if possible) is agreed upon and strongly recommended. Additionally, the use of evening clinics or clinics affiliated with the faculty was one of the useful suggestions for training students in final year. The results of the research show the importance of implementing clinical education programs in faculty clinics, at least at the level of communication between the professors of the fields and their consultation about the subjects in the curriculum planning committee under the supervision of clinical professors (Field et al.). Furthermore, a study regarding the new framework for the educational program of the general dental course cited providing continuity in the programs based on the continuum of medical education as dental education standards [ 23 ]. Perez’s study also states the importance of the faculty clinic to the community in periodontal surgery services, periodontics, implant services, and fixed and mobile prosthesis, due to the greater number of patients visited in this educational setting [ 24 ].

Rashidi et al.’s study [ 25 ] also found that, from students’ perspectives, the context dimension of the educational environment was evaluated relatively favorably, while the input, process, and output dimensions were evaluated unfavorably. This highlights the need for strategies to review and improve educational areas [ 26 ].

Examining the description of the professional duties of the graduates of the general dentistry course reveals their role as the first line of oral health and treatment, and as a result, the necessity of clinical education of students in general setting. In this study, the establishment and equipping of the main clinic setting with the aim of general training is proposed as a strong proposal. The proposed structure for the main clinic setting includes admission and triage departments, admission of emergency patients, a general department with a sufficient number of units suitable for incoming students and visitors to the faculty clinic, and a pediatric department. The recommended members of the teaching team for learners in the main clinic setting are endodontics, restorative, oral and maxillofacial surgery, periodontics, prosthodontics, oral and maxillofacial medicine, and pediatric specialists. The educational process proposed in the main clinic setting, with rotations related to the practical courses of the general dentistry course, including endodontics, restorative, periodontics, oral and maxillofacial surgery, and oral and maxillofacial medicine, is a strong suggestion. Rotations for pediatric dentistry, oral and maxillofacial medicine, prosthetics, and oral health and social dentistry were also proposed as useful suggestions. Additionally, the management of the patient by the generalist from the beginning of the visit to the main clinic, along with the presentation of the treatment plan and follow-up of the patient by the generalist under the supervision of the professor in charge of the main clinic, was a strong suggestion.

One of the advantages of setting up a main clinic setting is to provide training in real workplace. Also, the closeness to specialized departments of faculty clinics, supervision of clinical professors, and patient referral conditions lead to more complete teaching and learning for students. Mashabi, in his study, also shows a more beneficial performance of students who use both community-based and college-based education programs. Students also reported an increase in clinical skills, performing complex procedures in a shorter time, and more confidence in this training program [ 26 ]. The study of Lichtenstein et al., showed that students consider the reception service as a learning environment that improves their communication skills [ 27 ].

Regarding the existence of rotations in settings outside the faculty, studies have shown that dental education in these cases leads to the promotion of critical thinking, creating professional character, strengthening communication and interpersonal skills, promoting health, executive management and informatics, and patient care from evaluation to diagnosis, presentation of treatment plans, and oral health [ 28 , 29 ].

Another strong suggestion in this research was the use of the hospital as an arena for educational rotations for oral maxillofacial medicine and surgery practical courses. Also, specialists in oral and maxillofacial medicine and specialists in oral and maxillofacial surgery were proposed as members of the training team for students in this setting. Another proposed area on which there was a strong agreement was the use of dental clinics in hospitals to perform simple procedures and community health centers to train students on preventive action, removing simple cavities, and providing health education. Also, patient management in the setting of health centers was suggested to the students with the aim of teaching the role of the family dentist. Perez et al.’s study also showed that the number of patients visited for diagnosis, prevention, procedures, oral surgery, and general services in the community clinic is more than in the college, and the students perform more effectively and completely in connection with the procedures they present under the supervision of a colleague or faculty member [ 24 ].

A study on the attitude of students towards community-based education showed that they believed that some of the limitations of treating patients in other educational departments were compensated and that the faculty groups should provide part of their education in the community setting [ 30 ].

Among the other areas of the community proposed in this research were welfare centers, clinics, special patients’ associations, factory clinics, schools, social security clinics and hospitals, and army clinics and hospitals, barracks, and prisons. These facilities can be adapted to the local conditions of the faculty while maintaining compliance with educational standards. If there is an acceptable number of patients, they should be used for educational rotations for students in their final year. Additionally, schools were proposed as educational arenas for practical oral health and social dentistry courses. Assigning the responsibility of improving oral and dental health to students from the first year of dentistry was strongly suggested in order to understand the needs of the community and improve the health and treatment of the covered population. The use of short-term mobile arenas was strongly suggested if there is equipment and an instructor approved by the faculty. Utilizing these settings, while providing exposure to more patients and working in a real workplace, will familiarize students with the needs of community and enhance their communication skills. Furlini et al., in a study related to the evaluation of dental students’ readiness, mentioned faculty clinic training programs and experiential learning in community settings such as community clinics or mobile dental clinics. In some faculties, this program takes the form of one- to two-day educational projects, while in others, students spend a week or more providing services and care for patients under the supervision of a dentist in the community. In all these models, students not only learn and gain experience regarding health and community health, but also provide services to the covered population, such as homeless people, AIDS patients, individuals with mental and physical disabilities, and the elderly. This helps balance the budget and implement the mission of the dental school [ 31 ]. Another research study also highlights the existence of many educational opportunities in health centers, non-profit community clinics, native health services clinics, army hospital units, refugee centers, prisons, and mobile dental programs [ 1 ].

Asghari et al.’s study found that approximately half of the students believed that providing healthcare services through mobile clinics was essential, and approximately 90% of them believed that community settings are an important part of dental education [ 30 ].

Among the other proposed settings, the dental offices or clinics of general dentists were to have criteria such as confirmation of scientific ability, education with scientific tests, confirmation of practical skills, and professional thinking, etc. According to the participants of this research, the use of these settings can be useful for the students of the final year in teaching communication skills, performing techniques, principles of office management, payments, and preparing tools and facilities. Mathieson et al.’s qualitative study on students’ experience from community clinics also shows benefits such as learning how to deal with anxious or scared patients, getting to know the organizational structure of the clinic and its management policies and procedures, the payment and billing system and related challenges, patients’ communication with socio-economic problems. It was establishing interaction between students, patients, instructors, and staff [ 1 ].

Regarding the creation of educational infrastructure and the improvement of the curriculum, proposals have been made for tasks such as compiling the task description for students in the final year, determining instructors and evaluation methods, forming an educational team with the appropriate number and specializations for clinical group, and providing students with the opportunity to gain experience through clinical rotations with different professors. Additionally, it has been suggested to establish a curriculum planning committee consisting of professors from the clinical course. In a study focused on formulating a new curriculum framework, it has been recommended to update and define basic competence, teaching and evaluation methods, and learning outcomes [ 24 ].

Derisavi et al.’s study on the educational environment also found the lowest scores in the areas of curriculum and the use of active teaching methods by instructors. This highlights the need to implement the proposed solutions [ 32 ].

In connection with the improvement of educational content, some strong suggestions have been presented. These include providing training related to the method of preparing and using dental tools and equipment, holding educational seminars and training related to the application of health economics in dentistry, communication skills, health economics, and familiarity with the methods of preparing dental tools and facilities. In a qualitative study related to the experiences of final year dental students, they mentioned things such as improving personal communication skills, strengthening the ability to communicate with patients, and correctly guiding the patient in the stages of diagnosis and treatment [ 33 ]. Regarding the management of the educational program, the coordination of the education, treatment, and health departments at the level of university and ministry of health, the formulation of solutions related to the legal principles to facilitate the activities of the students in the community, the revision and amendment of the dental insurance laws in traffic accidents. The aim is to give students more access to all educational cases in medical centers and educational cases related to special and cancer patients in dental treatments. It is obvious that in order to implement education in line with the educational program of the course and to achieve the expected competency of the students, it is necessary to provide the specified infrastructure.

Limitations

One of the limitations of this research was the wideness of the statistical population. To solve this problem, in the first stage, we used a telephone interview in addition to a face-to-face interview. The lack of time of the participants due to their busy schedule and executive, educational, and therapeutic responsibilities was one of the other problems for conducting this research. To solve this problem, the second rounds of questionnaires were distributed with the help of email. In order to check the effectiveness of the suggestions, researchers recommend the implementation and evaluation of the strengths and limitations of the designed program.

The results of the research have been presented in the form of suggestions to improve the general dentistry course program in relation to the educational setting, instructors, and educational infrastructure. Various setting includes faculty clinics, the main clinic, hospital inpatient and outpatient areas, community clinics including community health centers, welfare center clinics, special patients’ associations, factories, schools, social security and army hospitals, barracks, and prisons, short-term dental courses, mobile and dental offices with an educational program and trainers. The next part of the educational infrastructure includes curriculum improvement, educational content improvement, and curriculum management. In this section, the proposals related to the creation of infrastructure for improving and upgrading the programs have been expressed. The participants’ opinion agreement in relation to the educational setting and its diversity, the educational programs, and the desired instructors reviewed in this study show the necessity of revision and transformation in the programs being implemented in the course of integral treatment of learners in the courses of endodontic, periodontics, oral and maxillofacial surgery, restorative dentistry, pediatric dentistry, oral and maxillofacial medicine, prosthetics, and oral health and social dentistry. In order to implement the suggestions made with the aim of improving the quality of dental services at the community level, it is necessary to coordinate the relevant departments at the faculty, university, and national level. The implementation of the solutions derived from the findings of this research may vary depending on the conditions of dental schools, including human resources (faculty and staff), facilities and equipment, financial resources, and infrastructure. We suggest that, in order to improve the general dentistry program, school administrators should use the proposed solutions according to their available resources.

Data availability

The datasets used and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

Our special thanks to the committed experts in medical sciences universities.

This research has been financially supported by the National Center for Medical Education Research of the Ministry of Health and Medical Education (NASR).

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Department of Periodontics, School of Dentistry, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical science, Tehran, Iran

Behzad Houshmand

Department of Medical Science, Tonekabon branch, Islamic Azad University, Tonekabon, Iran

Maria Shaterjalali

School of Dentistry, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran

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Department of Periodontics, Member of the Editorial Board of the Oral Health and Oral Epidemiology Journal, School of Dentistry, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran

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BH and MSHJ initiated and designed the study. BH, MSHJ & Ms collected the data. MSHJ and ME analyzed and interpreted the results. MSHJ designed the tables. ME designed the figures. MSHJ wrote the original draft of the manuscript. BH, MSHJ, ME and ECH contributed to the writing and editing of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Maria Shaterjalali .

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The present research has been approved by the National Center for Medical Education Research of the Ministry of Health and Medical Education (NASR) with ethical code IR.NASRME.REC.1400. 207.The anonymity and confidentially of the participants were preserved in every phase. The participants were made fully aware of the nature and purpose of the research, an informed consent form was obtained, and the interviews were recorded.

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Houshmand, B., Shaterjalali, M., Chegeni, E. et al. Desirable clinical settings in general dentistry: moving towards the improvement of the educational program. BMC Med Educ 24 , 966 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05951-9

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Received : 21 January 2024

Accepted : 23 August 2024

Published : 04 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05951-9

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