input process output in thesis

How To Make Conceptual Framework (With Examples and Templates)

We all know that a research paper has plenty of concepts involved. However, a great deal of concepts makes your study confusing.

A conceptual framework ensures that the concepts of your study are organized and presented comprehensively. Let this article guide you on how to make the conceptual framework of your study.

Related: How to Write a Concept Paper for Academic Research

Table of Contents

At a glance: free conceptual framework templates.

Too busy to create a conceptual framework from scratch? No problem. We’ve created templates for each conceptual framework so you can start on the right foot. All you need to do is enter the details of the variables. Feel free to modify the design according to your needs. Please read the main article below to learn more about the conceptual framework.

Conceptual Framework Template #1: Independent-Dependent Variable Model

Conceptual framework template #2: input-process-output (ipo) model, conceptual framework template #3: concept map, what is a conceptual framework.

A conceptual framework shows the relationship between the variables of your study.  It includes a visual diagram or a model that summarizes the concepts of your study and a narrative explanation of the model presented.

Why Should Research Be Given a Conceptual Framework?

Imagine your study as a long journey with the research result as the destination. You don’t want to get lost in your journey because of the complicated concepts. This is why you need to have a guide. The conceptual framework keeps you on track by presenting and simplifying the relationship between the variables. This is usually done through the use of illustrations that are supported by a written interpretation.

Also, people who will read your research must have a clear guide to the variables in your study and where the research is heading. By looking at the conceptual framework, the readers can get the gist of the research concepts without reading the entire study. 

Related: How to Write Significance of the Study (with Examples)

What Is the Difference Between Conceptual Framework and Theoretical Framework?

Both of them show concepts and ideas of your study. The theoretical framework presents the theories, rules, and principles that serve as the basis of the research. Thus, the theoretical framework presents broad concepts related to your study. On the other hand, the conceptual framework shows a specific approach derived from the theoretical framework. It provides particular variables and shows how these variables are related.

Let’s say your research is about the Effects of Social Media on the Political Literacy of College Students. You may include some theories related to political literacy, such as this paper, in your theoretical framework. Based on this paper, political participation and awareness determine political literacy.

For the conceptual framework, you may state that the specific form of political participation and awareness you will use for the study is the engagement of college students on political issues on social media. Then, through a diagram and narrative explanation, you can show that using social media affects the political literacy of college students.

What Are the Different Types of Conceptual Frameworks?

The conceptual framework has different types based on how the research concepts are organized 1 .

1. Taxonomy

In this type of conceptual framework, the phenomena of your study are grouped into categories without presenting the relationship among them. The point of this conceptual framework is to distinguish the categories from one another.

2. Visual Presentation

In this conceptual framework, the relationship between the phenomena and variables of your study is presented. Using this conceptual framework implies that your research provides empirical evidence to prove the relationship between variables. This is the type of conceptual framework that is usually used in research studies.

3. Mathematical Description

In this conceptual framework, the relationship between phenomena and variables of your study is described using mathematical formulas. Also, the extent of the relationship between these variables is presented with specific quantities.

How To Make Conceptual Framework: 4 Steps

1. identify the important variables of your study.

There are two essential variables that you must identify in your study: the independent and the dependent variables.

An independent variable is a variable that you can manipulate. It can affect the dependent variable. Meanwhile, the dependent variable is the resulting variable that you are measuring.

You may refer to your research question to determine your research’s independent and dependent variables.

Suppose your research question is: “Is There a Significant Relationship Between the Quantity of Organic Fertilizer Used and the Plant’s Growth Rate?” The independent variable of this study is the quantity of organic fertilizer used, while the dependent variable is the plant’s growth rate.

2. Think About How the Variables Are Related

Usually, the variables of a study have a direct relationship. If a change in one of your variables leads to a corresponding change in another, they might have this kind of relationship.

However, note that having a direct relationship between variables does not mean they already have a cause-and-effect relationship 2 . It takes statistical analysis to prove causation between variables.

Using our example earlier, the quantity of organic fertilizer may directly relate to the plant’s growth rate. However, we are not sure that the quantity of organic fertilizer is the sole reason for the plant’s growth rate changes.

3. Analyze and Determine Other Influencing Variables

Consider analyzing if other variables can affect the relationship between your independent and dependent variables 3 .

4. Create a Visual Diagram or a Model

Now that you’ve identified the variables and their relationship, you may create a visual diagram summarizing them.

Usually, shapes such as rectangles, circles, and arrows are used for the model. You may create a visual diagram or model for your conceptual framework in different ways. The three most common models are the independent-dependent variable model, the input-process-output (IPO) model, and concept maps.

a. Using the Independent-Dependent Variable Model

You may create this model by writing the independent and dependent variables inside rectangles. Then, insert a line segment between them, connecting the rectangles. This line segment indicates the direct relationship between these variables. 

Below is a visual diagram based on our example about the relationship between organic fertilizer and a plant’s growth rate. 

b. Using the Input-Process-Output (IPO) Model

If you want to emphasize your research process, the input-process-output model is the appropriate visual diagram for your conceptual framework.

To create your visual diagram using the IPO model, follow these steps:

• Determine the inputs of your study . Inputs are the variables you will use to arrive at your research result. Usually, your independent variables are also the inputs of your research. Let’s say your research is about the Level of Satisfaction of College Students Using Google Classroom as an Online Learning Platform. You may include in your inputs the profile of your respondents and the curriculum used in the online learning platform.
• Outline your research process. Using our example above, the research process should be like this: Data collection of student profiles → Administering questionnaires → Tabulation of students’ responses → Statistical data analysis.
• State the research output . Indicate what you are expecting after you conduct the research. In our example above, the research output is the assessed level of satisfaction of college students with the use of Google Classroom as an online learning platform.
• Create the model using the research’s determined input, process, and output.

Presented below is the IPO model for our example above.

c. Using Concept Maps

If you think the two models presented previously are insufficient to summarize your study’s concepts, you may use a concept map for your visual diagram.

A concept map is a helpful visual diagram if multiple variables affect one another. Let’s say your research is about Coping with the Remote Learning System: Anxiety Levels of College Students. Presented below is the concept map for the research’s conceptual framework:

5. Explain Your Conceptual Framework in Narrative Form

Provide a brief explanation of your conceptual framework. State the essential variables, their relationship, and the research outcome.

Using the same example about the relationship between organic fertilizer and the growth rate of the plant, we can come up with the following explanation to accompany the conceptual framework:

Figure 1 shows the Conceptual Framework of the study. The quantity of the organic fertilizer used is the independent variable, while the plant’s growth is the research’s dependent variable. These two variables are directly related based on the research’s empirical evidence.

Conceptual Framework in Quantitative Research

You can create your conceptual framework by following the steps discussed in the previous section. Note, however, that quantitative research has statistical analysis. Thus, you may use arrows to indicate a cause-and-effect relationship in your model. An arrow implies that your independent variable caused the changes in your dependent variable.

Usually, for quantitative research, the Input-Process-Output model is used as a visual diagram. Here is an example of a conceptual framework in quantitative research:

Research Topic : Level of Effectiveness of Corn (Zea mays) Silk Ethanol Extract as an Antioxidant

Conceptual Framework in Qualitative Research

Again, you can follow the same step-by-step guide discussed previously to create a conceptual framework for qualitative research. However, note that you should avoid using one-way arrows as they may indicate causation . Qualitative research cannot prove causation since it uses only descriptive and narrative analysis to relate variables.

Here is an example of a conceptual framework in qualitative research:

Research Topic : Lived Experiences of Medical Health Workers During Community Quarantine

Conceptual Framework Examples

Presented below are some examples of conceptual frameworks.

Research Topic : Hypoglycemic Ability of Gabi (Colocasia esculenta) Leaf Extract in the Blood Glucose Level of Swiss Mice (Mus musculus)

Figure 1 presents the Conceptual Framework of the study. The quantity of gabi leaf extract is the independent variable, while the Swiss mice’s blood glucose level is the study’s dependent variable. This study establishes a direct relationship between these variables through empirical evidence and statistical analysis . 

Research Topic : Level of Effectiveness of Using Social Media in the Political Literacy of College Students

Figure 1 shows the Conceptual Framework of the study. The input is the profile of the college students according to sex, year level, and the social media platform being used. The research process includes administering the questionnaires, tabulating students’ responses, and statistical data analysis and interpretation. The output is the effectiveness of using social media in the political literacy of college students.

Research Topic: Factors Affecting the Satisfaction Level of Community Inhabitants

Figure 1 presents a visual illustration of the factors that affect the satisfaction level of community inhabitants. As presented, environmental, societal, and economic factors influence the satisfaction level of community inhabitants. Each factor has its indicators which are considered in this study.

Tips and Warnings

• Please keep it simple. Avoid using fancy illustrations or designs when creating your conceptual framework. 
• Allot a lot of space for feedback. This is to show that your research variables or methodology might be revised based on the input from the research panel. Below is an example of a conceptual framework with a spot allotted for feedback.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. how can i create a conceptual framework in microsoft word.

First, click the Insert tab and select Shapes . You’ll see a wide range of shapes to choose from. Usually, rectangles, circles, and arrows are the shapes used for the conceptual framework. 

Next, draw your selected shape in the document.

Insert the name of the variable inside the shape. You can do this by pointing your cursor to the shape, right-clicking your mouse, selecting Add Text , and typing in the text.

Repeat the same process for the remaining variables of your study. If you need arrows to connect the different variables, you can insert one by going to the Insert tab, then Shape, and finally, Lines or Block Arrows, depending on your preferred arrow style.

2. How to explain my conceptual framework in defense?

If you have used the Independent-Dependent Variable Model in creating your conceptual framework, start by telling your research’s variables. Afterward, explain the relationship between these variables. Example: “Using statistical/descriptive analysis of the data we have collected, we are going to show how the <state your independent variable> exhibits a significant relationship to <state your dependent variable>.”

On the other hand, if you have used an Input-Process-Output Model, start by explaining the inputs of your research. Then, tell them about your research process. You may refer to the Research Methodology in Chapter 3 to accurately present your research process. Lastly, explain what your research outcome is.

Meanwhile, if you have used a concept map, ensure you understand the idea behind the illustration. Discuss how the concepts are related and highlight the research outcome.

3. In what stage of research is the conceptual framework written?

The research study’s conceptual framework is in Chapter 2, following the Review of Related Literature.

4. What is the difference between a Conceptual Framework and Literature Review?

The Conceptual Framework is a summary of the concepts of your study where the relationship of the variables is presented. On the other hand, Literature Review is a collection of published studies and literature related to your study. 

Suppose your research concerns the Hypoglycemic Ability of Gabi (Colocasia esculenta) Leaf Extract on Swiss Mice (Mus musculus). In your conceptual framework, you will create a visual diagram and a narrative explanation presenting the quantity of gabi leaf extract and the mice’s blood glucose level as your research variables. On the other hand, for the literature review, you may include this study and explain how this is related to your research topic.

5. When do I use a two-way arrow for my conceptual framework?

You will use a two-way arrow in your conceptual framework if the variables of your study are interdependent. If variable A affects variable B and variable B also affects variable A, you may use a two-way arrow to show that A and B affect each other.

Suppose your research concerns the Relationship Between Students’ Satisfaction Levels and Online Learning Platforms. Since students’ satisfaction level determines the online learning platform the school uses and vice versa, these variables have a direct relationship. Thus, you may use two-way arrows to indicate that the variables directly affect each other.

• Conceptual Framework – Meaning, Importance and How to Write it. (2020). Retrieved 27 April 2021, from https://afribary.com/knowledge/conceptual-framework/
• Correlation vs Causation. Retrieved 27 April 2021, from https://www.jmp.com/en_ph/statistics-knowledge-portal/what-is-correlation/correlation-vs-causation.html
• Swaen, B., & George, T. (2022, August 22). What is a conceptual framework? Tips & Examples. Retrieved December 5, 2022, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/conceptual-framework/

Written by Jewel Kyle Fabula

in Career and Education , Juander How

Jewel Kyle Fabula

Jewel Kyle Fabula is a Bachelor of Science in Economics student at the University of the Philippines Diliman. His passion for learning mathematics developed as he competed in some mathematics competitions during his Junior High School years. He loves cats, playing video games, and listening to music.

Browse all articles written by Jewel Kyle Fabula

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Input-Process-Output Model

Dave Braunschweig

The input–process–output (IPO) model  is a widely used approach in systems analysis and software engineering for describing the structure of an information processing program or another process. Many introductory programming and systems analysis texts introduce this as the most basic structure for describing a process. [1]

A computer program or any other sort of process using the input-process-output model receives inputs from a user or other source, does some computations on the inputs, and returns the results of the computations. The system divides the work into three categories: [2]

• A requirement from the environment (input)
• A computation based on the requirement (process)
• A provision for the environment (output)

For example, a program might be written to convert Fahrenheit temperatures into Celsius temperatures. Following the IPO model, the program must:

• Ask the user for the Fahrenheit temperature (input)
• Perform a calculation to convert the Fahrenheit temperature into the corresponding Celsius temperature (process)
• Display the Celsius temperature (output)
• Wikiversity: Computer Programming
• Flowgorithm – Flowchart Programming Language
• Wikipedia: IPO model ↵

Programming Fundamentals Copyright © 2018 by Dave Braunschweig is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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IResearchNet

Input-Process-Output Model

Much of the work in organizations is accomplished through teams. It is therefore crucial to determine the factors that lead to effective as well as ineffective team processes and to better specify how, why, and when they contribute. Substantial research has been conducted on the variables that influence team effectiveness, yielding several models of team functioning. Although these models differ in a number of aspects, they share the commonality of being grounded in an input-process-output (IPO) framework. Inputs are the conditions that exist prior to group activity, whereas processes are the interactions among group members. Outputs are the results of group activity that are valued by the team or the organization.

The input-process-output model has historically been the dominant approach to understanding and explaining team performance and continues to exert a strong influence on group research today. The framework is based on classic systems theory, which states that the general structure of a system is as important in determining how effectively it will function as its individual components. Similarly, the IPO model has a causal structure, in that outputs are a function of various group processes, which are in turn influenced by numerous input variables. In its simplest form, the model is depicted as the following:

Input —> Process —> Output

Inputs reflect the resources that groups have at their disposal and are generally divided into three categories: individual-level factors, group-level factors, and environmental factors. Individual-level factors are what group members bring to the group, such as motivation, personality, abilities, experiences, and demographic attributes. Examples of group-level factors are work structure, team norms, and group size. Environmental factors capture the broader context in which groups operate, such as reward structure, stress level, task characteristics, and organizational culture.

Processes are the mediating mechanisms that convert inputs to outputs. A key aspect of the definition is that processes represent interactions that take place among team members. Many different taxonomies of teamwork behaviors have been proposed, but common examples include coordination, communication, conflict management, and motivation.

In comparison with inputs and outputs, group processes are often more difficult to measure, because a thorough understanding of what groups are doing and how they complete their work may require observing members while they actually perform a task. This may lead to a more accurate reflection of the true group processes, as opposed to relying on members to self-report their processes retrospectively. In addition, group processes evolve over time, which means that they cannot be adequately represented through a single observation. These difficult methodological issues have caused many studies to ignore processes and focus only on inputs and outputs. Empirical group research has therefore been criticized as treating processes as a “black box” (loosely specified and unmeasured), despite how prominently featured they are in the IPO model. Recently, however, a number of researchers have given renewed emphasis to the importance of capturing team member interactions, emphasizing the need to measure processes longitudinally and with more sophisticated measures.

Indicators of team effectiveness have generally been clustered into two general categories: group performance and member reactions. Group performance refers to the degree to which the group achieves the standard set by the users of its output. Examples include quality, quantity, timeliness, efficiency, and costs. In contrast, member reactions involve perceptions of satisfaction with group functioning, team viability, and personal development. For example, although the group may have been able to produce a high-quality product, mutual antagonism may be so high that members would prefer not to work with one another on future projects. In addition, some groups contribute to member well-being and growth, whereas others block individual development and hinder personal needs from being met.

Both categories of outcomes are clearly important, but performance outcomes are especially valued in the teams literature. This is because they can be measured more objectively (because they do not rely on team member self-reports) and make a strong case that inputs and processes affect the bottom line of group effectiveness.

Steiner’s Formula

Consistent with the IPO framework, Ivan Steiner derived the following formula to explain why teams starting off with a great deal of promise often end up being less than successful:

Actual productivity = potential productivity – process loss

Although potential productivity is the highest level of performance attainable, a group’s actual productivity often falls short of its potential because of the existence of process loss. Process loss refers to the suboptimal ways that groups operate, resulting in time and energy spent away from task performance. Examples of process losses include group conflict, communication breakdown, coordination difficulty, and social loafing (group members shirking responsibility and failing to exert adequate individual effort). Consistent with the assumptions of the IPO model, Steiner’s formula highlights the importance of group processes and reflects the notion that it is the processes and not the inputs (analogous to group potential) that create the group’s outputs. In other words, teams are a function of the interaction of team members and not simply the sum of individuals who perform tasks independently.

Limitations of the IPO Model

The major criticism that has been levied against the IPO model is the assumption that group functioning is static and follows a linear progression from inputs through outputs. To incorporate the reality of dynamic change, feedback loops were added to the original IPO model, emanating primarily from outputs and feeding back to inputs or processes. However, the single-cycle, linear IPO path has been emphasized in most of the empirical research. Nevertheless, in both theory and measurement, current team researchers are increasingly invoking the notion of cyclical causal feedback, as well as nonlinear or conditional relationships.

Although the IPO framework is the dominant way of thinking about group performance in the teams literature, relatively few empirical studies have been devoted to the validity of the model itself. In addition, research directly testing the input-process-output links has frequently been conducted in laboratory settings, an approach that restricts the number of relevant variables that would realistically occur in an organization. However, although the IPO model assumes that process fully mediates the association between inputs and outputs, some research has suggested that a purely mediated model may be too limited. Therefore, alternative models have suggested that inputs may directly affect both processes and outputs.

Without question, the IPO model reflects the dominant way of thinking about group performance in the groups literature. As such, it has played an important role in guiding research design and encouraging researchers to sample from the input, process, and output categories in variable selection. Recent research is increasingly moving beyond a strictly linear progression and incorporating the reality of dynamic change. In addition, alternatives to the traditional IPO model have been suggested in which processes are not purely mediated.

References:

• Hackman, J. R. (1987). The design of work teams. In J. Lorsch (Ed.), Handbook of organizational behavior (pp. 315-342). New York: Prentice Hall.
• Ilgen, D. R., Hollenbeck, J. R., Johnson, M., & Jundt, D. (2005). Teams in organizations: From input-process-output models to IMOI models. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 517-543.
• Steiner, I. D. (1972). Group process and productivity. New York: Academic Press.
• Group Dynamics
• Industrial-Organizational Psychology

A Comprehensive Guide to Input-Process-Output Models

Updated: January 31, 2024 by Ken Feldman

Are you looking for a business improvement tool that is intuitive, simple to use, and visual in nature? Do you want to explore your internal business process and make sure you understand all of the inputs, outputs, and potential error states? 

If you are answering yes to these questions, then using input-process-output could be the perfect methodology for you. Let’s find out more. 

Overview: What is input-process-output (I-P-O)? 

Input-process-output (I-P-O) is a structured methodology for capturing and visualizing all of the inputs, outputs, and process steps that are required to transform inputs into outputs. It is often referred to, interchangeably, as an I-P-O model or an I-P-O diagram, both of which make reference to the intended visual nature of the method. 

A simple example is shown below from research in healthcare.

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-Input-Process-Output-diagram-of-the-proposed-system_fig2_323935725

As the methodology is incredibly versatile, it is used across many industries and sectors with (inevitably) some modifications and adaptations. These can include, for example, the addition of feedback loops from output to input, in doing so creating models analogous to closed-loop control theory.

Typically, we would use I-P-O in the “define” stage of a Six Sigma DMAIC project and follow a specific method for generating the model. The steps are:

• Decide upon the process steps that will be in scope of the I-P-O model. Try to ensure the the scope is manageable with, ideally, less than 10 process steps defined.
• List all of the possible outputs, including potential error states.
• List all of the inputs to your process steps, using clear descriptive language.
• Create a visual I-P-O model.
• Check that the inputs are transformed to the outputs via the process steps as shown in the model. 

Often, it can be helpful to have the team that’s generating the I-P-O model complete a Gemba walk. Visiting the actual place of work and viewing the process in action can tease out some of the less obvious inputs and outputs and contributes to continuous improvement of the existing process steps.

2 benefits and 1 drawback of I-P-O 

Used correctly, the I-P-O model offers a simple, practical, and efficient way to analyse and document a transformation process. Let’s explore some benefits and drawbacks of I-P-O.

1. It’s visual and easy to explain

It’s often said that the best business improvement tools are simple to use, intuitive, and visual, and I-P-O ticks all three of these boxes. A sheet of paper, marker pen, and an enthusiastic team willing to contribute will get you a long way. It’s also versatile, suitable for use with the executive management group as well as the wider business improvement team.

2. It’s easy to execute

There is a clear and simple methodology to generate I-P-O models, and this helps you recognise and document all of the possible inputs, outputs, and error states. As it’s visual, it’s easy to update and change as the team explores many potential inputs and outputs.

3. It’s internally focused without regard for external customers or suppliers   

Developing I-P-O models is usually all about internal business processes, and we often hear this called micro-process-mapping. This typically means we do not consider our external suppliers and customers in the analysis. However, don’t worry, we have complimentary models such as SIPOC and COPIS that help us make sense of the bigger (macro) picture.

Why is I-P-O important to understand? 

For such a relatively simple mapping tool, it provides a really powerful insight into our internal business processes. Let’s dig a little deeper.

It helps with defining your key process input variables

Once we’ve documented and visualised our inputs and outputs, we can turn our attention to determining and controlling which inputs provide a significant impact on the output variation — these are known as our key process input variables . 

It’s aligned with Six Sigma and Lean principles 

In a classic Six Sigma and Lean project approach, we strive to reduce process variation and remove defects and waste. With I-P-O, we identify inputs, outputs, and error states from our processes so we can begin to explore and understand the Y(output) = f ((X) input) equation.

It’s the perfect springboard to create full process maps 

Once we have created I-P-O models, we have the perfect starting place for generating complete process maps . This could be moving on to value stream mapping , spaghetti maps, or one of many other types of process maps that are available.

An industry example of I-P-O 

A government agency with multiple departments was embarking upon a business transformation project to improve customer service times and efficiency. As part of the transformation project, a Six Sigma Black Belt who was assigned to the activity was requested to explore and document existing processes and prepare the teams for process improvement.

The Black Belt chose to create I-P-O models due to the ease of use and versatility of the approach. Each of the business departments designated a team to work on the I-P-O models and, alongside the Black Belt, defined the process scope, ensuring this was of manageable size. 

With the teams in place and scope defined the process outputs were brainstormed and captured visually using whiteboards. The corresponding inputs were added, and the I-P-O models checked for completeness.

Generating the I-P-O models highlighted a number of potential output error states that were subsequently investigated as part of the business transformation project and contributed to improved customer service times. As the models were captured visually on whiteboards, they were easily updated during the project and used to inform staff of their contribution towards continuous improvement.

3 best practices when thinking about I-P-O 

Like many process-driven mapping activities, there are some key things for us to consider when creating I-P-O models. Let’s look at three of these.  

1. Remember: It’s a team sport; don’t go it alone 

Even relatively simple processes have multiple inputs and outputs. Often we find that different team members have detailed knowledge of specific process inputs and outputs, and we should make good use of this collective knowledge.

2. Make sure the scope is achievable

Don’t be overly ambitious with the scope and try to include too many process steps for your I-P-O model. If you find yourself listing 10 or more process steps, it’s probably time to stop and re-evaluate.

3. Consider all of the inputs and outputs 

Be diligent, get all the team involved, and make sure there is no bias — we don’t want to just list the things we think should be inputs and outputs in an ideal world. In addition, we should consider and document all of the possible output error states.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) about I-P-O

Is i-p-o related to sipoc .

It can be a logical next step to create a SIPOC model from an I-P-O model. With SIPOC, we consider both suppliers (S) and customers (C) in the analysis, the so-called wider or bigger picture. With I-P-O, we concentrate more on the internal business process.

Where do I start with an I-P-O model? 

Start by defining the processes that are in scope, making sure the scope is manageable. Then consider and document all of the possible outputs from the process steps before moving on to capture the inputs.

Do I need a software program to generate I-P-O models? 

Definitely not. You can start with paper, pen, and a pack of sticky notes. However, there are a number of free templates available for download that can help you and your team as you start to populate the I-P-O model.

A final thought on I-P-O

Ease of use and versatility are just two of the major plus points of developing I-P-O models for your internal business processes. Add in their highly visual nature, and this means you can easily engage your team on a journey to continuous improvement.

About the Author

Ken Feldman

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Context, Input, Process, and Product Evaluation Model in medical education: A systematic review

Monireh toosi.

PhD Candidate, Department of Reproductive Health and Midwifery, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Maryam Modarres

1 Department of Reproductive Health and Midwifery, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Member of Nursing and Midwifery Care Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Mitra Amini

2 Clinical Education Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran

Mehrnaz Geranmayeh

3 Department of Reproductive Health and Midwifery, Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

BACKGROUND:

Evaluation is one of the most important tools for determining the quality of any educational program, which can lead to reformation, revision, or termination of programs. Quality in higher education requires assessment and judgment of goals and strategies, executive policies, operational processes, products, and outcomes. The Context, Input, Process, and Product (CIPP) model is a comprehensive perspective that attempts to provide information in order to make the best decisions related to CIPP. Due to the importance of this topic, the present study examined the application of the CIPP model in the evaluation of medical education programs through a systematic review.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

In this systematic review, Persian databases including ISC, SID, Mag Iran, CivilicaL, and Noormags and English databases including PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, ProQuest Dissertations, Embase, CINAHL, ERIC, and Google Scholar were searched using relevant keywords, such as evaluation, program evaluations, outcome and process assessment, educational assessment, and educational measurements. The search was done with no time limits and 41 papers were obtained until May 22, 2020. This systematic review was performed by following the data extraction steps and assessing the quality of the studies and findings. Critical Appraisal Skills Programs and Mixed-Methods Appraisal Tool checklists were used to check the quality of the papers.

This systematic review was conducted on 41 studies, 40 of which were research papers and one was a review paper. From the perspective of the CIPP model of evaluation, most papers showed quite a good level of evaluation of educational programs although some studies reported poor levels of evaluation. Moreover, factors such as modern teaching methods, faculty members, financial credits, educational content, facilities and equipment, managerial and supervisory process, graduates’ skills, produced knowledge, and teaching and learning activities were reported as the factors that could influence the evaluation of educational programs.

CONCLUSION:

Due to the important role of evaluation in improvement of the quality of educational programs, policymakers in education should pay special attention to the evaluation of educational programs and removal of their barriers and problems. To promote the quality of educational programs, policymakers and officials are recommended to make use of the CIPP model of evaluation as a systemic approach that can be used to evaluate all stages of an educational program from development to implementation.

Introduction

Today, improving the quality of higher education is the most important and fundamental tool for the sustainable and comprehensive growth and development of a country.[ 1 ] The system of higher education is effective and useful when its activities are implemented based on appropriate and acceptable standards, and achieving such a quality in the higher education entails using appropriate research and evaluation.[ 1 ] Because the quality of an educational program is a multidimensional and complex concept, it is very difficult to judge a program. Hence, evaluation as a means of judging and documenting quality is of paramount importance.[ 2 ] Evaluation also makes it possible to assess the development and implementation of programs as well as the achievement of educational goals and aspirations. By evaluating an educational program, it is possible to understand the degree of compatibility and harmony of that program with the needs of individuals and the target community and to determine the effective factors in the development of the program.[ 3 ] Principled evaluation, while ameliorating the strengths and minimizing the weaknesses, can be the foundation for many educational decisions and plans and can provide the required tools for improving universities’ academic levels.[ 4 ] Evaluation makes education transform from a static state to a dynamic one. One of the most important factors influencing effective evaluation is certainly the existence of an effective tool and model that can properly evaluate educational programs.[ 5 ] There are several ways to evaluate educational programs. One of these models is the CIPP evaluation model, which is the acronym of Context, Input, Process, and Product and evaluates educational programs in these four areas.[ 6 ] Evaluation of the context aims to provide a logical ground for setting educational goals. It also attempts to identify problems, needs, and opportunities in a context or educational situation. The purpose of input evaluation is to facilitate the implementation of the program designed in the context stage. In addition, it focuses on human and financial resources, policies, educational strategies, barriers, and limitations of the education system. Process evaluation refers to identification or prediction of performance problems during educational activities and determining the desirability of the implementation process. In the process stage, the implementation of the program and the effect of the educational program on learners are discussed. Output evaluation is done in order to judge the appropriateness and efficiency of educational activities. In fact, the results of the program are compared to the goals of the program, and the match between the expectations and the actual results is determined.[ 7 ] The most important goal of evaluation based on the CIPP model is to improve the performance of the program. Stufflebeam and Zhang referred to the CIPP evaluation model as a cyclical process that focuses more on the process than on the product, and the most important goal of the evaluation, he maintained, is to improve the curriculum or the educational program.[ 8 ] In addition, studies have indicated that the CIPP evaluation model covers all stages of revising an educational program, which is consistent with the complex nature of medical education programs. This model provides constructive information required to improve educational programs and to make informed decisions.[ 8 ] The CIPP model does not only emphasize answering clear questions, but it also focuses on the general and systematic determination of the competencies of an educational program.

To the best knowledge of the researchers, most studies in medical sciences have been done to prove the achievement of predetermined goals in an educational program, while the CIPP model aims to help improve the quality of an educational program rather than documenting the achievement of goals.[ 9 ] This research policy of the CIPP model and the necessity to examine the researchers’ approach toward using it in the evaluation of educational programs prompted the researchers to use a systematic review to study the scope and manner of research on the application of the CIPP evaluation model in medical sciences.

Materials and Methods

In this systematic review, 14 international and national databases were systematically searched from April 22, 2020, to May 22, 2020. The research population included all domestic and foreign papers that used the CIPP evaluation model to evaluate educational programs in medical sciences. Because the number of papers in this domain was limited, the search was not limited temporally. All steps of evaluating the papers for inclusion in the study were done separately by two independent researchers. In case of discrepancy between the two researchers, a third expert was asked to evaluate the papers and the final decision was made based on the agreement among the three evaluators.

Search strategy

Searching for the papers was done with a specific strategy with no time limit from April 22, 2020, to May 22, 2020. The search was carried out in Persian databases including SID, Mag Iran, CivilicaL, Iran Medical Articles Bank, Noormags, and ISC and English databases including Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, ProQuest Dissertations, Embase, CINAHL, and ERIC. Google Scholar search engine was used in both English and Persian. The search was separately performed in each database based on the relevant keywords. An example of the search method in the PubMed database is given in Table 1 .

PubMed search query

A multistage approach was adopted in the selection of studies. To achieve the relevant studies, initially, a wide range of keywords listed in the MeSH, such as evaluation, program evaluations, outcome and process assessment, educational assessment, and educational measurements, were searched. In order to increase the likelihood of finding relevant studies, the terms “medical” and “education” were searched both as separate words and as a combination. It should be noted that there was no other equivalent for the CIPP model in the list of MeSH terms. The studies were reviewed and selected in three stages. In the first step, citation information and abstracts of the papers extracted from the databases were transferred to Endnote. Then, the titles of the selected papers were reviewed and the papers that were repetitive or irrelevant to the main topic of the research were deleted. In the second step, reading the abstracts of the remaining papers, those related to the main purpose of the research were selected. In the third step, the full texts of the papers were analyzed based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria [ Table 2 ].

Inclusion and exclusion criteria for the studies

CIPP=Context, Input, Process, and Product

Finally, 41 studies that were in line with the purpose of the study, were written in English or Persian, and had full texts available to the researchers were selected and qualitatively analyzed [ Figure 1 ].

The process of selection of final articles

Data extraction and synthesis

For the selected papers, two researchers extracted the relevant information independently using a standard data-mining form.

They discussed any mismatches in data mining, which was followed by a complementary analysis done by a third researcher to ensure the precision of the extracted information. This form included the following specifications: first author's name, year, geographical area, research design, and objectives. After completing this form, the results obtained from the analysis of the papers were summarized and reported.

Quality assessment

Critical Appraisal Skills Programs (CASP) checklist, which is a standard tool for evaluating the quality of papers, was used to check the quality of the papers.[ 10 ] The checklist used in the present study included 18 items and each item was given a score of 1 (indicating that the item was noticed in the paper) or 0 (indicating that the item was ignored in the paper). These items were divided into four areas: participant characteristics (five items), attitude assessment tools (three items), study design (five items), and results (five items). The total score of this checklist could range from 0 to 18.[ 11 ] After a thorough study of the full text of each article, the checklist of paper quality was completed by the first researcher and the items were scored. The second researcher followed the same procedure in the re-evaluation process of each paper. In case of disagreement in scoring the items, a final score was obtained in a joint session. Next, based on the scores obtained from this checklist, the reviewed papers were divided into three categories of good, moderate, and poor quality. The cutoff point was determined based on that reported in similar papers and experts’ judgments. Accordingly, the total scores of 75% and above were classified as good quality (scores 13 and above), total scores between 25% and 75% were classified as moderate quality (scores 6–12), and total scores lower than 25% (scores 5 and below) were classified as poor quality.[ 11 ] In order to assess the quality of mixed-methods papers, Mixed-Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) was used in this study.[ 12 , 13 ] Four areas of the qualitative criteria used in the MMAT are as follows: (1) eligibility of participants and appropriateness of sampling procedure; (2) data analysis process including data collection procedure, data format, and data analysis; (3) attention to the effect of setting on data collection; and (4) attention to the impact of the researchers’ ontological and epistemological beliefs. The critical appraisal of mixed-methods also included three areas, namely relevance of mixed-methods design, synthesis of data, and attention to methodology limitations. Each study was given an overall quality score (unclassified, 25%, 50%, 75%, or 100%) based on the MMAT scoring system.[ 12 , 13 ]

In the first step, the titles of the 1275 papers obtained in the initial search of the studies were examined, and duplicate titles were deleted either using Endnote or manually. At this stage, 836 papers with duplicate titles were deleted and 439 papers remained. In the second step, the abstracts were studied by the researcher and an expert colleague. As a result, 395 papers unrelated to the main research topic were removed and 44 papers related to the main objective of the project were selected. In the third step, after reading the full texts of the 44 papers, three studies were deleted and 41 using the CIPP model in medical sciences were selected [ Figure 1 ].

The results showed that the quantitative methodology was used slightly more by researchers compared to other methods [ Table 3 ].

Types of studies

All studies aimed at examining the attitudes of students, instructors, and those involved in the quality of educational programs based on the CIPP evaluation model. In addition, most studies examined students’ perspectives on educational programs. A large number of papers ( n = 29) were descriptive, cross-sectional studies and evaluated educational programs using researcher-made questionnaires. In addition, nine studies used a mixed-methods design where the authors used questionnaires and individual interviews to examine the participants’ attitudes. In two studies, qualitative methodology and individual interviews were used to evaluate educational programs. Finally, one study included a review of other papers that had used the CIPP model [ Table 3 ]. Most studies ( n = 29) on the evaluation of curricula based on the CIPP model were conducted in Iran [ Table 4 ].

The summary of the studies’ results

HSM=Health Services Management, CIPP=Context, Input, Process, and Product, FPDP= Faculty Professional Development Program, BL= Blended Learning program, INNCT= Indonesian National Nursing Competency Test, MSc= Master of Science

Examining the quality of studies based on the indicators of CASP showed that 23 studies had good quality, 13 ones had moderate quality, and only five studies had poor quality. The results of the quality assessment of the studies are displayed in Table 4 . Moreover, most studies were performed on the assessment of the nursing curriculum based on the CIPP model, while the lowest number of studies was conducted on medical records [ Table 5 ].

Frequency distribution of context, input, process, and product-based evaluation of educational programs in medical sciences

This systematic review examined the scope of research conducted in medical sciences based on the CIPP model. The CIPP model evaluates the context, input, process, and output of educational programs and curricula using a systematic approach and by identifying their weaknesses and strengths, it can help policymakers at the macro level to plan expert actions and decide whether to continue, stop, or revise the educational program, ultimately promoting the satisfaction with the implementation of the program. Various factors can influence the satisfaction with educational programs.[ 55 ] Factors, such as experienced professors, suitable facilities and equipment, educational and research budgets, appropriate educational content, and proper educational environment, which are measured in the CIPP model, can affect the satisfaction with educational programs. Although most studies have evaluated the satisfaction with educational programs as relatively high,[ 18 , 19 , 22 , 26 , 36 , 38 , 47 , 51 ] some other studies have reported moderate or low satisfaction levels.[ 33 , 45 , 46 , 48 , 54 ]

Due to the nature of the CIPP model, educational programs are evaluated in four areas (context, input, process, and output). Context evaluation involves identifying the relevant elements in the educational environment as well as identifying problems, needs, and opportunities in a context or educational situation. Through this evaluation, it is possible to judge the appropriateness of predetermined goals. In context evaluation, factors such as needs, facilities, and problems are examined in a specific and defined environment. At this stage, the education system is evaluated in terms of goals and the target population.[ 7 ] Context has been evaluated in different studies. For instance, Okhovati et al . evaluated the curriculum of health services management in Kerman University of Medical Sciences. Evaluation of context showed that the mean score obtained in the domain of goals had a poor situation, whereas the mean score obtained in providing scientific and specialized services indicated that the situation was relatively satisfactory. The overall mean score of context evaluation of the curriculum was reported as relatively high.[ 37 ] Consistently, Akhlaghi et al . evaluated the Master's curriculum in medical records at Iran University of Medical Sciences and revealed that the context was relatively desirable.[ 36 ] Yazdani and Moradi also reported a desirable evaluation of the context of the undergraduate nursing curriculum at Ahvaz University.[ 38 ] In the same line, Mohebbi and Yarmohammadian studied the undergraduate curriculum of medical records and found that the context was satisfactory.[ 51 ] In another study by Kool et al ., the context of the gynecology curriculum was desirable in achieving the goals.[ 18 ] The results of the study by AbdiShahshahani et al . also showed that the context of the Iranian doctoral curriculum in reproductive health was desirable.[ 17 ] However, the results of a study conducted by Lee on a Humanities Course in College of Medicine showed that there were problems with the context of the curriculum. Although the educational goals were clearly stated in the curriculum, the results of content analysis indicated that the goals of the curriculum were not clear and that the students demanded the goals of the curriculum to be clearly stated.[ 21 ] Moreover, the results of another study performed by Niazi on the selected faculties of Tehran University of Medical Sciences demonstrated that the context was not desirable and that the students believed that they were not adequately informed about the goals and policies of the department[ 33 ] In general, problems related to the contexts of curricula can be due to the lack of periodic review of program goals, incompatibility of goals with the job needs of the target population, incomprehensive goals, vague goals, expectations, capabilities that students must learn, and different structures of educational environments.

In the input dimension, the use of the resources and strategies to achieve the goals of an educational program or system is evaluated. Input includes all individuals and human resources, including students, professors, principals, financial resources, and scientific resources that are connected to an educational program. At this stage of evaluation, the required information is collected on how the resources are used to achieve the goals of the educational program.[ 7 ] The main purpose of input evaluation is to help develop a program that can bring about educational changes to achieve the goals set in the context evaluation stage so that the consequences and outputs of the educational system have high utility and value.[ 7 ] The study by Okhovati et al . showed that there were major weaknesses in the input dimension of the curriculum. It seemed that the management curriculum was not up to date and needed to be reviewed and revised. The facilities and equipment were not satisfactory, as well.[ 37 ] In Yazdani and Moradi's study, the evaluation of input showed that educational resources were available, but theoretical and practical courses were not proportionate, nor were educational facilities and equipment appropriate.[ 38 ]

In Mohebbi and Yarmohammadian's study, input evaluation showed that the educational budget and financial resources were not satisfactory.[ 51 ] Similarly, Alimohammadi et al . evaluated the School of Medicine at Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences and reported that input, students’ abilities, educational content, facilities, and equipment were not desirable.[ 44 ] Input evaluation of Master's program of the neonatal intensive care was also reported to be unsatisfactory by Hemati et al .[ 45 ] Furthermore, Phattharayuttawat aimed at evaluating the curriculum of the master of clinical psychology and indicated that educational resources were available for learning and teaching and were quite appropriate. Although the input was appropriate in terms of students, professors, and educational content, some educational resources, such as clinical wards and availability of patients, were not adequate.[ 22 ]

Nagata et al . studied the nursing doctoral curriculum in Japan and found that in terms of input, the number of professors, facilities, and equipment such as the library and computer systems was not appropriate.[ 34 ] So young Lee stated that in order to improve the input of the curricula, their educational contents had to be improved.[ 35 ]

Process focuses on the way the program is implemented and determines the effect of the educational program on learners. Process evaluation involves evaluation of teaching–learning activities as well as instructors’ behaviors, knowledge, and experiences and examines the management and supervision procedures. In other words, process refers to all activities that take place during the implementation of the program. It also provides an opportunity to simultaneously apply the results of the two previous stages of evaluation to improve the implementation of the educational program.[ 7 ]

Output evaluates and determines the effects of the educational program on graduates, compares the results of the educational program to the goals of the program, and determines the relationship between expectations and actual results. Output refers to all graduates, newly produced knowledge, and achievements of the program. This type of evaluation is performed to judge the desirability of the effectiveness of educational activities.[ 7 ] In a study carried out by Tazakkori based on the CIPP model, it was found that the Iranian nursing doctoral program was devoid of basic defects and flaws in terms of history, philosophy, mission, vision, and aims. In addition, course specifications and contents were in accordance with the philosophy and goals of the program. However, the evaluation results showed that there were major problems in the process and implementation of the program, and that the output was affected by the poor implementation of the process.[ 46 ]

Ehsanpour conducted a research in the School of Nursing and Midwifery of Isfahan University of Medical Sciences in order to evaluate undergraduate midwifery students’ achievement of the minimum requirements of midwifery learning. Based on the results, the students did not have enough experience in rare cases in clinical education.[ 15 ] Pakdaman et al . also examined the achievement of educational goals of periodontics and oral health programs at the University of Tehran based on the CIPP model. They concluded that students were more satisfied with the content, but believed that instructors were not sufficiently motivated and skilled. Overall, the students were not very satisfied with the process and assessed the output of some courses as poor.[ 40 ] Okhovati's et al . study showed that the process was relatively satisfactory in terms of students’ activities, teaching–learning activities, and research activities. However, evaluation of the input of the curriculum showed that the graduates’ specialized skills were not satisfactory.[ 37 ] On the contrary to the results of the abovementioned studies, the findings of the study by Phattharayuttawat et al . showed that in terms of context, the goals of the curriculum were clearly stated and matched social needs. The structure of the curriculum was also well designed. In addition, input evaluation showed that educational resources were available for learning and teaching, but they were not quite adequate. The results also showed that the process and educational performance were very good and the evaluation of the output showed that the graduates had achieved the general and specialized competencies stated in the goals of the program.[ 22 ]

Based on the comprehensive and systematic CIPP model, it is expected that all elements of the education system be consistently interconnected, as it is assumed that education is an ongoing process and the educational system is designed based on these processes. However, the findings of the present study showed that such an interconnection has not been fully established between the components of the educational system in different studies, and there have been discrepancies in some cases. The results of some studies also showed that students did not achieve the intended educational goals. Therefore, revision of educational programs and systems and provision of guidelines were found to be necessary.[ 15 , 22 , 35 , 37 , 40 , 46 ]

What was very noteworthy in the present study was that many studies tended to adopt a quantitative approach to the evaluation of educational programs. However, in order to conduct a comprehensive evaluation, both quantitative and qualitative data must be analyzed. A careful and comprehensive examination of the methods and results of numerous domestic and international evaluation studies, especially those conducted in medical sciences education, demonstrated that most of these studies focused on answering explicit and clear questions rather than on viewing and measuring the overall value and competence of an educational program. While such studies have often been conducted to find the success or failure of educational programs in achieving predetermined goals, the most important goal of CIPP evaluation is to improve the quality of the program and not to prove its quality.[ 9 ] Although the underlying assumption of the CIPP model is that evaluation is a prognostic phenomenon and is done gradually along with the development of a program,[ 56 ] most published papers have sufficed to conduct a cross-sectional study using a questionnaire including the four components of the CIPP model. Therefore, using questionnaires with items on the context, input, process, and output does not necessarily mean using the CIPP evaluation model.[ 9 ] Studies by Makarem et al ., Pakdaman et al ., Hemati et al ., and others have all examined some aspects or views of some program beneficiaries based on a quantitative approach through using questionnaires and are consequently subject to the same criticism because they have adopted a goal-oriented approach and have evaluated the achievement of the final results,[ 40 , 43 , 45 ] while the systematic evaluation process should formatively evaluate all aspects of the program according to the views of all stakeholders and parties involved in the educational program and the results of each stage should be used simultaneously to enhance the program.[ 9 ] In terms of study participants, most studies have evaluated educational programs from the viewpoint of a particular group and have failed to take qualitative approaches and viewpoints of different parties into account. Evaluating educational programs from the perspective of different people involved in the program can help discover different aspects of the program or the weaknesses that have been less addressed. Paying attention to the views of other people involved in the educational program in different societies according to the cultural conditions prevailing in that society can help reform and revise the educational programs, as well. In this way, using a holistic approach to the educational program makes it possible to provide a framework for interventions that can be implemented in educational programs.

Limitations

One of the limitations of this systematic review was the potential for incomplete retrieval of studies due to the restriction of the search to the articles published in English.

This was the first systematic review examining the CIPP model of evaluation in medical education.

The results of this review study emphasized the need for formative evaluation through a systematic CIPP model with a holistic approach during the implementation of educational programs. Using the quantitative and qualitative results of such studies, various aspects of educational programs should be revised to improve their competencies. Until now, various previous studies have been investigated with a focus on the CIPP evaluation model from a practical perspective. These results showed that evaluations using the CIPP model, which could be considered rather difficult, could provide the basis for education improvement. Specifically, omission of evaluation of the unset parts becomes more vulnerable for quantitative evaluations. These materials can contribute to obtaining a diverse range of opinions that cannot be explained by quantitative materials. Furthermore, rather than utilizing a single group such as students as the evaluation material collection source, having a balanced perspective of various interested parties regarding education can improve the reliability and validity of an evaluation, which can then be utilized as a convincing database.

Financial support and sponsorship

This study was financially supported by Tehran University of Medical Sciences.

Conflicts of interest

There are no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgment

This paper was extracted from a PhD dissertation in Reproductive Health (IR.TUMS.FNM.REC.1398.057) approved by Tehran University of Medical Sciences. The authors would like to thank Ms. A. Keivanshekouh at the Research Improvement Center of Shiraz University of Medical Sciences for improving the use of English in the manuscript.

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Input-Output Tables

Input-Output Tables (IOTs) describe the sale and purchase relationships between producers and consumers within an economy. The OECD IOTs database is a very useful empirical tool for economic research and structural analysis at the international level as it highlights inter-industrial relationships covering all sectors of the economy.

Select a language

Input-Output tables (IOTs) can either show flows of final and intermediate goods and services defined according to industry outputs ( industry × industry tables) or according to product outputs ( product × product tables).

The OECD harmonised national Input-Output tables take the industry × industry approach. This allows better integration with collections of statistics compiled according to industrial activity such as R&D expenditure, employment, foreign direct investment and energy consumption. 

The latest set of harmonised national IOTs presents matrices of inter-industrial flows of goods and services produced domestically and imported in current prices for all OECD countries and several non-member economies (including all G20 countries) for the time period 1995-2020.

The IOTs are intimately related to the OECD’s Inter-Country Input-Output (ICIO) tables .

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• Dataset Carbon dioxide emissions embodied in international trade The Trade in Embodied CO2 (TECO2) database presents a set of indicators to reveal patterns of CO2 demand compared to CO2 production (via resident industry or household emissions). The aim is to provide policy makers with new insights into the environmental impacts of global production systems.
• Dataset Inter-Country Input-Output tables Inter-Country Input-Output tables (ICIO) provide an international statistical infrastructure that maps flows of production, consumption, investment within countries and flows of international trade in goods and services between countries, broken down by economic activity and by country, globally and in a consistent manner and for a time period that makes such data fit for analytical purposes.
• Dataset Structural Analysis Database The Structural Analysis (STAN) database is a comprehensive tool for analysing industrial performance at a relatively detailed level of activity across countries. It includes annual measures of output, value added and its components, labour input, investment and capital stock from 1970 onwards, allowing users to construct a wide range of indicators and focus on areas such as productivity growth, competitiveness, and general structural change.

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