essay structure paragraph

11 Rules for Essay Paragraph Structure (with Examples)

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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How do you structure a paragraph in an essay?

If you’re like the majority of my students, you might be getting your basic essay paragraph structure wrong and getting lower grades than you could!

In this article, I outline the 11 key steps to writing a perfect paragraph. But, this isn’t your normal ‘how to write an essay’ article. Rather, I’ll try to give you some insight into exactly what teachers look out for when they’re grading essays and figuring out what grade to give them.

You can navigate each issue below, or scroll down to read them all:

1. Paragraphs must be at least four sentences long 2. But, at most seven sentences long 3. Your paragraph must be Left-Aligned 4. You need a topic sentence 5 . Next, you need an explanation sentence 6. You need to include an example 7. You need to include citations 8. All paragraphs need to be relevant to the marking criteria 9. Only include one key idea per paragraph 10. Keep sentences short 11. Keep quotes short

Paragraph structure is one of the most important elements of getting essay writing right .

As I cover in my Ultimate Guide to Writing an Essay Plan , paragraphs are the heart and soul of your essay.

However, I find most of my students have either:

• forgotten how to write paragraphs properly,
• gotten lazy, or
• never learned it in the first place!

Paragraphs in essay writing are different from paragraphs in other written genres .

In fact, the paragraphs that you are reading now would not help your grades in an essay.

That’s because I’m writing in journalistic style, where paragraph conventions are vastly different.

For those of you coming from journalism or creative writing, you might find you need to re-learn paragraph writing if you want to write well-structured essay paragraphs to get top grades.

Below are eleven reasons your paragraphs are losing marks, and what to do about it!

Essay Paragraph Structure Rules

1. your paragraphs must be at least 4 sentences long.

In journalism and blog writing, a one-sentence paragraph is great. It’s short, to-the-point, and helps guide your reader. For essay paragraph structure, one-sentence paragraphs suck.

A one-sentence essay paragraph sends an instant signal to your teacher that you don’t have much to say on an issue.

A short paragraph signifies that you know something – but not much about it. A one-sentence paragraph lacks detail, depth and insight.

Many students come to me and ask, “what does ‘add depth’ mean?” It’s one of the most common pieces of feedback you’ll see written on the margins of your essay.

Personally, I think ‘add depth’ is bad feedback because it’s a short and vague comment. But, here’s what it means: You’ve not explained your point enough!

If you’re writing one-, two- or three-sentence essay paragraphs, you’re costing yourself marks.

Always aim for at least four sentences per paragraph in your essays.

This doesn’t mean that you should add ‘fluff’ or ‘padding’ sentences.

Make sure you don’t:

a) repeat what you said in different words, or b) write something just because you need another sentence in there.

But, you need to do some research and find something insightful to add to that two-sentence paragraph if you want to ace your essay.

Check out Points 5 and 6 for some advice on what to add to that short paragraph to add ‘depth’ to your paragraph and start moving to the top of the class.

• How to Make an Essay Longer
• How to Make an Essay Shorter

2. Your Paragraphs must not be more than 7 Sentences Long

Okay, so I just told you to aim for at least four sentences per paragraph. So, what’s the longest your paragraph should be?

Seven sentences. That’s a maximum.

So, here’s the rule:

Between four and seven sentences is the sweet spot that you need to aim for in every single paragraph.

Here’s why your paragraphs shouldn’t be longer than seven sentences:

1. It shows you can organize your thoughts. You need to show your teacher that you’ve broken up your key ideas into manageable segments of text (see point 10)

2. It makes your work easier to read.   You need your writing to be easily readable to make it easy for your teacher to give you good grades. Make your essay easy to read and you’ll get higher marks every time.

One of the most important ways you can make your work easier to read is by writing paragraphs that are less than six sentences long.

3. It prevents teacher frustration. Teachers are just like you. When they see a big block of text their eyes glaze over. They get frustrated, lost, their mind wanders … and you lose marks.

To prevent teacher frustration, you need to ensure there’s plenty of white space in your essay. It’s about showing them that the piece is clearly structured into one key idea per ‘chunk’ of text.

Often, you might find that your writing contains tautologies and other turns of phrase that can be shortened for clarity.

3. Your Paragraph must be Left-Aligned

Turn off ‘Justified’ text and: Never. Turn. It. On. Again.

Justified text is where the words are stretched out to make the paragraph look like a square. It turns the writing into a block. Don’t do it. You will lose marks, I promise you! Win the psychological game with your teacher: left-align your text.

A good essay paragraph is never ‘justified’.

I’m going to repeat this, because it’s important: to prevent your essay from looking like a big block of muddy, hard-to-read text align your text to the left margin only.

You want white space on your page – and lots of it. White space helps your reader scan through your work. It also prevents it from looking like big blocks of text.

You want your reader reading vertically as much as possible: scanning, browsing, and quickly looking through for evidence you’ve engaged with the big ideas.

The justified text doesn’t help you do that. Justified text makes your writing look like a big, lumpy block of text that your reader doesn’t want to read.

What’s wrong with Center-Aligned Text?

While I’m at it, never, ever, center-align your text either. Center-aligned text is impossible to skim-read. Your teacher wants to be able to quickly scan down the left margin to get the headline information in your paragraph.

Not many people center-align text, but it’s worth repeating: never, ever center-align your essays.

Don’t annoy your reader. Left align your text.

4. Your paragraphs must have a Topic Sentence

The first sentence of an essay paragraph is called the topic sentence. This is one of the most important sentences in the correct essay paragraph structure style.

The topic sentence should convey exactly what key idea you’re going to cover in your paragraph.

Too often, students don’t let their reader know what the key idea of the paragraph is until several sentences in.

You must show what the paragraph is about in the first sentence.

You never, ever want to keep your reader in suspense. Essays are not like creative writing. Tell them straight away what the paragraph is about. In fact, if you can, do it in the first half of the first sentence .

I’ll remind you again: make it easy to grade your work. Your teacher is reading through your work trying to determine what grade to give you. They’re probably going to mark 20 assignments in one sitting. They have no interest in storytelling or creativity. They just want to know how much you know! State what the paragraph is about immediately and move on.

Suggested: Best Words to Start a Paragraph

Ideal Essay Paragraph Structure Example: Writing a Topic Sentence If your paragraph is about how climate change is endangering polar bears, say it immediately : “Climate change is endangering polar bears.” should be your first sentence in your paragraph. Take a look at first sentence of each of the four paragraphs above this one. You can see from the first sentence of each paragraph that the paragraphs discuss:

When editing your work, read each paragraph and try to distil what the one key idea is in your paragraph. Ensure that this key idea is mentioned in the first sentence .

(Note: if there’s more than one key idea in the paragraph, you may have a problem. See Point 9 below .)

The topic sentence is the most important sentence for getting your essay paragraph structure right. So, get your topic sentences right and you’re on the right track to a good essay paragraph.

5. You need an Explanation Sentence

All topic sentences need a follow-up explanation. The very first point on this page was that too often students write paragraphs that are too short. To add what is called ‘depth’ to a paragraph, you can come up with two types of follow-up sentences: explanations and examples.

Let’s take explanation sentences first.

Explanation sentences give additional detail. They often provide one of the following services:

Let’s go back to our example of a paragraph on Climate change endangering polar bears. If your topic sentence is “Climate change is endangering polar bears.”, then your follow-up explanation sentence is likely to explain how, why, where, or when. You could say:

Ideal Essay Paragraph Structure Example: Writing Explanation Sentences 1. How: “The warming atmosphere is melting the polar ice caps.” 2. Why: “The polar bears’ habitats are shrinking every single year.” 3. Where: “This is happening in the Antarctic ice caps near Greenland.” 4. When: “Scientists first noticed the ice caps were shrinking in 1978.”

You don’t have to provide all four of these options each time.

But, if you’re struggling to think of what to add to your paragraph to add depth, consider one of these four options for a good quality explanation sentence.

>>>RELATED ARTICLE: SHOULD YOU USE RHETORICAL QUESTIONS IN ESSAYS ?

6. Your need to Include an Example

Examples matter! They add detail. They also help to show that you genuinely understand the issue. They show that you don’t just understand a concept in the abstract; you also understand how things work in real life.

Example sentences have the added benefit of personalising an issue. For example, after saying “Polar bears’ habitats are shrinking”, you could note specific habitats, facts and figures, or even a specific story about a bear who was impacted.

Ideal Essay Paragraph Structure Example: Writing an ‘Example’ Sentence “For example, 770,000 square miles of Arctic Sea Ice has melted in the past four decades, leading Polar Bear populations to dwindle ( National Geographic, 2018 )

In fact, one of the most effective politicians of our times – Barrack Obama – was an expert at this technique. He would often provide examples of people who got sick because they didn’t have healthcare to sell Obamacare.

What effect did this have? It showed the real-world impact of his ideas. It humanised him, and got him elected president – twice!

Be like Obama. Provide examples. Often.

7. All Paragraphs need Citations

Provide a reference to an academic source in every single body paragraph in the essay. The only two paragraphs where you don’t need a reference is the introduction and conclusion .

Let me repeat: Paragraphs need at least one reference to a quality scholarly source .

Let me go even further:

Students who get the best marks provide two references to two different academic sources in every paragraph.

Two references in a paragraph show you’ve read widely, cross-checked your sources, and given the paragraph real thought.

It’s really important that these references link to academic sources, not random websites, blogs or YouTube videos. Check out our Seven Best types of Sources to Cite in Essays post to get advice on what sources to cite. Number 6 w ill surprise you!

Ideal Essay Paragraph Structure Example: In-Text Referencing in Paragraphs Usually, in-text referencing takes the format: (Author, YEAR), but check your school’s referencing formatting requirements carefully. The ‘Author’ section is the author’s last name only. Not their initials. Not their first name. Just their last name . My name is Chris Drew. First name Chris, last name Drew. If you were going to reference an academic article I wrote in 2019, you would reference it like this: (Drew, 2019).

Where do you place those two references?

Place the first reference at the end of the first half of the paragraph. Place the second reference at the end of the second half of the paragraph.

This spreads the references out and makes it look like all the points throughout the paragraph are backed up by your sources. The goal is to make it look like you’ve reference regularly when your teacher scans through your work.

Remember, teachers can look out for signposts that indicate you’ve followed academic conventions and mentioned the right key ideas.

Spreading your referencing through the paragraph helps to make it look like you’ve followed the academic convention of referencing sources regularly.

Here are some examples of how to reference twice in a paragraph:

• If your paragraph was six sentences long, you would place your first reference at the end of the third sentence and your second reference at the end of the sixth sentence.
• If your paragraph was five sentences long, I would recommend placing one at the end of the second sentence and one at the end of the fifth sentence.

You’ve just read one of the key secrets to winning top marks.

8. Every Paragraph must be relevant to the Marking Criteria

Every paragraph must win you marks. When you’re editing your work, check through the piece to see if every paragraph is relevant to the marking criteria.

For the British: In the British university system (I’m including Australia and New Zealand here – I’ve taught at universities in all three countries), you’ll usually have a ‘marking criteria’. It’s usually a list of between two and six key learning outcomes your teacher needs to use to come up with your score. Sometimes it’s called a:

• Marking criteria
• Marking rubric
• (Key) learning outcome
• Indicative content

Check your assignment guidance to see if this is present. If so, use this list of learning outcomes to guide what you write. If your paragraphs are irrelevant to these key points, delete the paragraph .

Paragraphs that don’t link to the marking criteria are pointless. They won’t win you marks.

For the Americans: If you don’t have a marking criteria / rubric / outcomes list, you’ll need to stick closely to the essay question or topic. This goes out to those of you in the North American system. North America (including USA and Canada here) is often less structured and the professor might just give you a topic to base your essay on.

If all you’ve got is the essay question / topic, go through each paragraph and make sure each paragraph is relevant to the topic.

For example, if your essay question / topic is on “The Effects of Climate Change on Polar Bears”,

• Don’t talk about anything that doesn’t have some connection to climate change and polar bears;
• Don’t talk about the environmental impact of oil spills in the Gulf of Carpentaria;
• Don’t talk about black bear habitats in British Columbia.
• Do talk about the effects of climate change on polar bears (and relevant related topics) in every single paragraph .

You may think ‘stay relevant’ is obvious advice, but at least 20% of all essays I mark go off on tangents and waste words.

Stay on topic in Every. Single. Paragraph. If you want to learn more about how to stay on topic, check out our essay planning guide .

9. Only have one Key Idea per Paragraph

One key idea for each paragraph. One key idea for each paragraph. One key idea for each paragraph.

Don’t forget!

Too often, a student starts a paragraph talking about one thing and ends it talking about something totally different. Don’t be that student.

To ensure you’re focussing on one key idea in your paragraph, make sure you know what that key idea is. It should be mentioned in your topic sentence (see Point 3 ). Every other sentence in the paragraph adds depth to that one key idea.

If you’ve got sentences in your paragraph that are not relevant to the key idea in the paragraph, they don’t fit. They belong in another paragraph.

Go through all your paragraphs when editing your work and check to see if you’ve veered away from your paragraph’s key idea. If so, you might have two or even three key ideas in the one paragraph.

You’re going to have to get those additional key ideas, rip them out, and give them paragraphs of their own.

If you have more than one key idea in a paragraph you will lose marks. I promise you that.

The paragraphs will be too hard to read, your reader will get bogged down reading rather than scanning, and you’ll have lost grades.

10. Keep Sentences Short

If a sentence is too long it gets confusing. When the sentence is confusing, your reader will stop reading your work. They will stop reading the paragraph and move to the next one. They’ll have given up on your paragraph.

Short, snappy sentences are best.

Shorter sentences are easier to read and they make more sense. Too often, students think they have to use big, long, academic words to get the best marks. Wrong. Aim for clarity in every sentence in the paragraph. Your teacher will thank you for it.

The students who get the best marks write clear, short sentences.

When editing your draft, go through your essay and see if you can shorten your longest five sentences.

(To learn more about how to write the best quality sentences, see our page on Seven ways to Write Amazing Sentences .)

11. Keep Quotes Short

Eighty percent of university teachers hate quotes. That’s not an official figure. It’s my guestimate based on my many interactions in faculty lounges. Twenty percent don’t mind them, but chances are your teacher is one of the eight out of ten who hate quotes.

Teachers tend to be turned off by quotes because it makes it look like you don’t know how to say something on your own words.

Now that I’ve warned you, here’s how to use quotes properly:

Ideal Essay Paragraph Structure Example: How To Use Quotes in University-Level Essay Paragraphs 1. Your quote should be less than one sentence long. 2. Your quote should be less than one sentence long. 3. You should never start a sentence with a quote. 4. You should never end a paragraph with a quote. 5 . You should never use more than five quotes per essay. 6. Your quote should never be longer than one line in a paragraph.

The minute your teacher sees that your quote takes up a large chunk of your paragraph, you’ll have lost marks.

Your teacher will circle the quote, write a snarky comment in the margin, and not even bother to give you points for the key idea in the paragraph.

Avoid quotes, but if you really want to use them, follow those five rules above.

I’ve also provided additional pages outlining Seven tips on how to use Quotes if you want to delve deeper into how, when and where to use quotes in essays. Be warned: quoting in essays is harder than you thought.

Follow the advice above and you’ll be well on your way to getting top marks at university.

Writing essay paragraphs that are well structured takes time and practice. Don’t be too hard on yourself and keep on trying!

Below is a summary of our 11 key mistakes for structuring essay paragraphs and tips on how to avoid them.

I’ve also provided an easy-to-share infographic below that you can share on your favorite social networking site. Please share it if this article has helped you out!

11 Biggest Essay Paragraph Structure Mistakes you’re probably Making

1.  Your paragraphs are too short 2.  Your paragraphs are too long 3.  Your paragraph alignment is ‘Justified’ 4.  Your paragraphs are missing a topic sentence 5 .  Your paragraphs are missing an explanation sentence 6.  Your paragraphs are missing an example 7.  Your paragraphs are missing references 8.  Your paragraphs are not relevant to the marking criteria 9.  You’re trying to fit too many ideas into the one paragraph 10.  Your sentences are too long 11.  Your quotes are too long

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 101 Class Group Name Ideas (for School Students)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 19 Top Cognitive Psychology Theories (Explained)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 119 Bloom’s Taxonomy Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ All 6 Levels of Understanding (on Bloom’s Taxonomy)

4 thoughts on “11 Rules for Essay Paragraph Structure (with Examples)”

Hello there. I noticed that throughout this article on Essay Writing, you keep on saying that the teacher won’t have time to go through the entire essay. Don’t you think this is a bit discouraging that with all the hard work and time put into your writing, to know that the teacher will not read through the entire paper?

Hi Clarence,

Thanks so much for your comment! I love to hear from readers on their thoughts.

Yes, I agree that it’s incredibly disheartening.

But, I also think students would appreciate hearing the truth.

Behind closed doors many / most university teachers are very open about the fact they ‘only have time to skim-read papers’. They regularly bring this up during heated faculty meetings about contract negotiations! I.e. in one university I worked at, we were allocated 45 minutes per 10,000 words – that’s just over 4 minutes per 1,000 word essay, and that’d include writing the feedback, too!

If students know the truth, they can better write their essays in a way that will get across the key points even from a ‘skim-read’.

I hope to write candidly on this website – i.e. some of this info will never be written on university blogs because universities want to hide these unfortunate truths from students.

Thanks so much for stopping by!

Regards, Chris

This is wonderful and helpful, all I say is thank you very much. Because I learned a lot from this site, own by chris thank you Sir.

Thank you. This helped a lot.

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Essay Papers Writing Online

Ultimate guide to writing a five paragraph essay.

Are you struggling with writing essays? Do you find yourself lost in a sea of ideas, unable to structure your thoughts cohesively? The five paragraph essay is a tried-and-true method that can guide you through the writing process with ease. By mastering this format, you can unlock the key to successful and organized writing.

In this article, we will break down the five paragraph essay into easy steps that anyone can follow. From crafting a strong thesis statement to effectively supporting your arguments, we will cover all the essential components of a well-written essay. Whether you are a beginner or a seasoned writer, these tips will help you hone your skills and express your ideas clearly.

Step-by-Step Guide to Mastering the Five Paragraph Essay

Writing a successful five paragraph essay can seem like a daunting task, but with the right approach and strategies, it can become much more manageable. Follow these steps to master the art of writing a powerful five paragraph essay:

• Understand the structure: The five paragraph essay consists of an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Each paragraph serves a specific purpose in conveying your message effectively.
• Brainstorm and plan: Before you start writing, take the time to brainstorm ideas and create an outline. This will help you organize your thoughts and ensure that your essay flows smoothly.
• Write the introduction: Start your essay with a strong hook to grab the reader’s attention. Your introduction should also include a thesis statement, which is the main argument of your essay.
• Develop the body paragraphs: Each body paragraph should focus on a single point that supports your thesis. Use evidence, examples, and analysis to strengthen your argument and make your points clear.
• Conclude effectively: In your conclusion, summarize your main points and restate your thesis in a new way. Leave the reader with a thought-provoking statement or a call to action.

By following these steps and practicing regularly, you can become proficient in writing five paragraph essays that are clear, coherent, and impactful. Remember to revise and edit your work for grammar, punctuation, and clarity to ensure that your essay is polished and professional.

Understanding the Structure of a Five Paragraph Essay

When writing a five paragraph essay, it is important to understand the basic structure that makes up this type of essay. The five paragraph essay consists of an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

Introduction: The introduction is the first paragraph of the essay and sets the tone for the rest of the piece. It should include a hook to grab the reader’s attention, a thesis statement that presents the main idea of the essay, and a brief overview of what will be discussed in the body paragraphs.

Body Paragraphs: The body paragraphs make up the core of the essay and each paragraph should focus on a single point that supports the thesis statement. These paragraphs should include a topic sentence that introduces the main idea, supporting details or evidence, and explanations or analysis of how the evidence supports the thesis.

Conclusion: The conclusion is the final paragraph of the essay and it should summarize the main points discussed in the body paragraphs. It should restate the thesis in different words, and provide a closing thought or reflection on the topic.

By understanding the structure of a five paragraph essay, writers can effectively organize their thoughts and present their ideas in a clear and coherent manner.

Choosing a Strong Thesis Statement

One of the most critical elements of a successful five-paragraph essay is a strong thesis statement. Your thesis statement should clearly and concisely present the main argument or point you will be making in your essay. It serves as the foundation for the entire essay, guiding the reader on what to expect and helping you stay focused throughout your writing.

When choosing a thesis statement, it’s important to make sure it is specific, debatable, and relevant to your topic. Avoid vague statements or generalizations, as they will weaken your argument and fail to provide a clear direction for your essay. Instead, choose a thesis statement that is narrow enough to be effectively supported within the confines of a five-paragraph essay, but broad enough to allow for meaningful discussion.

By choosing a strong thesis statement, you set yourself up for a successful essay that is well-organized, coherent, and persuasive. Take the time to carefully craft your thesis statement, as it will serve as the guiding force behind your entire essay.

Developing Supporting Arguments in Body Paragraphs

When crafting the body paragraphs of your five paragraph essay, it is crucial to develop strong and coherent supporting arguments that back up your thesis statement. Each body paragraph should focus on a single supporting argument that contributes to the overall discussion of your topic.

To effectively develop your supporting arguments, consider using a table to organize your ideas. Start by listing your main argument in the left column, and then provide evidence, examples, and analysis in the right column. This structured approach can help you ensure that each supporting argument is fully developed and logically presented.

Additionally, be sure to use transitional phrases to smoothly connect your supporting arguments within and between paragraphs. Words like “furthermore,” “in addition,” and “on the other hand” can help readers follow your train of thought and understand the progression of your ideas.

Remember, the body paragraphs are where you provide the meat of your argument, so take the time to develop each supporting argument thoroughly and clearly. By presenting compelling evidence and analysis, you can effectively persuade your readers and strengthen the overall impact of your essay.

Polishing Your Writing: Editing and Proofreading Tips

Editing and proofreading are crucial steps in the writing process that can make a significant difference in the clarity and effectiveness of your essay. Here are some tips to help you polish your writing:

1. Take a break before editing: After you finish writing your essay, take a break before starting the editing process. This will help you approach your work with fresh eyes and catch mistakes more easily.

2. Read your essay aloud: Reading your essay aloud can help you identify awkward phrasing, grammar errors, and inconsistencies. This technique can also help you evaluate the flow and coherence of your writing.

3. Use a spelling and grammar checker: Utilize spelling and grammar checkers available in word processing software to catch common errors. However, be mindful that these tools may not catch all mistakes, so it’s essential to manually review your essay as well.

4. Check for coherence and organization: Make sure your ideas flow logically and cohesively throughout your essay. Ensure that each paragraph connects smoothly to the next, and that your arguments are supported by relevant evidence.

5. Look for consistency: Check for consistency in your writing style, tone, and formatting. Ensure that you maintain a consistent voice and perspective throughout your essay to keep your argument coherent.

6. Seek feedback from others: Consider asking a peer, teacher, or tutor to review your essay and provide feedback. External perspectives can help you identify blind spots and areas for improvement in your writing.

7. Proofread carefully: Finally, proofread your essay carefully to catch any remaining errors in spelling, grammar, punctuation, and formatting. Pay attention to details and make any necessary revisions before submitting your final draft.

By following these editing and proofreading tips, you can refine your writing and ensure that your essay is polished and ready for submission.

Tips for Successful Writing: Practice and Feedback

Writing is a skill that improves with practice. The more you write, the better you will become. Set aside time each day to practice writing essays, paragraph by paragraph. This consistent practice will help you develop your writing skills and grow more confident in expressing your ideas.

Seek feedback from your teachers, peers, or mentors. Constructive criticism can help you identify areas for improvement and provide valuable insights into your writing. Take their suggestions into consideration and use them to refine your writing style and structure.

• Set writing goals for yourself and track your progress. Whether it’s completing a certain number of essays in a week or improving your introductions, having specific goals will keep you motivated and focused on your writing development.
• Read widely to expand your vocabulary and expose yourself to different writing styles. The more you read, the more you will learn about effective writing techniques and ways to engage your readers.
• Revise and edit your essays carefully. Pay attention to sentence structure, grammar, punctuation, and spelling. A well-polished essay will demonstrate your attention to detail and dedication to producing high-quality work.

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How to Structure Paragraphs in an Essay

Last Updated: February 28, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Christopher Taylor, PhD and by wikiHow staff writer, Danielle Blinka, MA, MPA . Christopher Taylor is an Adjunct Assistant Professor of English at Austin Community College in Texas. He received his PhD in English Literature and Medieval Studies from the University of Texas at Austin in 2014. There are 9 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 185,186 times.

Writing an essay can be challenging, especially if you're not sure how to structure your paragraphs. If you’re struggling to organize your essay, you’re in luck! Putting your paragraphs in order may become easier after you understand their purpose. Additionally, knowing what to include in your introduction, body, and conclusion paragraphs will help you more easily get your writing assignment finished.

Standard 5-Paragraph Essay Structure

A typical short essay has 5 paragraphs. Begin with a 1-paragraph introduction that gives an overview of the subject and introduces a specific topic or problem. Include at least 3 body paragraphs that support or explain your main point with evidence. End with a concluding paragraph that briefly summarizes your essay.

Essay Template and Sample Essay

Putting Your Paragraphs in Order

• A basic introduction will be about 3-4 sentences long.

• Body paragraphs will make up the bulk of your essay. At a minimum, a body paragraph needs to be 4 sentences long. However, a good body paragraph in a short essay will be at least 6-8 sentences long.

• A good conclusion for a short essay will be 3-4 sentences long.

• For example, let’s say you’re writing an essay about recycling. Your first point might be about the value of local recycling programs, while your second point might be about the importance of encouraging recycling at work or school. A good transition between these two points might be “furthermore” or “additionally.”
• If your third point is about how upcycling might be the best way to reuse old items, a good transition word might be “however” or “on the other hand.” This is because upcycling involves reusing items rather than recycling them, so it's a little bit different. You want your reader to recognize that you're talking about something that slightly contrasts with your original two points.

Structuring Your Introduction

• Provide a quote: “According to Neil LaBute, ‘We live in a disposable society.’”
• Include statistics: “The EPA reports that only 34 percent of waste created by Americans is recycled every year.”
• Give a rhetorical question: “If you could change your habits to save the planet, would you do it?”

• Here’s an example: “Recycling offers a way to reduce waste and reuse old items, but many people don’t bother recycling their old goods. Unless people change their ways, landfills will continue to grow as more generations discard their trash.”

• Here’s how a basic thesis about recycling might look: "To reduce the amount of trash in landfills, people must participate in local recycling programs, start recycling at school or work, and upcycle old items whenever they can."
• If you’re writing an argument or persuasive essay, your thesis might look like this: “Although recycling may take more effort, recycling and upcycling are both valuable ways to prevent expanding landfills.”

Crafting Good Body Paragraphs

• A good body paragraph in a short essay typically has 6-8 sentences. If you’re not sure how many sentences your paragraphs should include, talk to your instructor.
• Write a new paragraph for each of your main ideas. Packing too much information into one paragraph can make it confusing.

• If you begin your essay by writing an outline, include your topic sentence for each paragraph in your outline.
• You might write, “Local recycling programs are a valuable way to reduce waste, but only if people use them.”

• Your evidence might come from books, journal articles, websites, or other authoritative sources .
• The word evidence might make you think of data or experts. However, some essays will include only your ideas, depending on the assignment. In this case, you might be allowed to take evidence from your observations and experiences, but only if your assignment specifically allows this type of evidence.
• You could write, “According to Mayor Anderson’s office, only 23 percent of local households participate in the city’s recycling program.”

• In some cases, you may offer more than one piece of evidence in the same paragraph. Make sure you provide a 1 to 2 sentence explanation for each piece of evidence.
• For instance, “Residents who are using the recycling program aren’t contributing as much trash to local landfills, so they’re helping keep the community clean. On the other hand, most households don’t recycle, so the program isn’t as effective as it could be.”

• For instance, you could write, “Clearly, local recycling programs can make a big difference, but they aren’t the only way to reduce waste.”

Arranging Your Conclusion

• You could write, “By participating in local recycling programs, recycling at work, and upcycling old items, people can reduce their environmental footprint.”

• As an example, “Statistics show that few people are participating in available recycling programs, but they are an effective way to reduce waste. By recycling and upcycling, people can reduce their trash consumption by as much as 70%.”

• Give your readers a call to action. For example, “To save the planet, everyone needs to recycle."
• Offer a solution to the problem you presented. For instance, "With more education about recycling, more people will participate in their local programs."
• Point to the next question that needs to be answered. You might write, "To get more people to recycle, researchers need to determine the reasons why they don't."
• Provide a valuable insight about your topic. As an example, "If everyone recycled, landfills might become a thing of the past."

Community Q&A

• Ask a friend to read your essay and provide you with feedback. Ask if they understand your points and if any ideas need more development. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Writing gets easier with practice, so don’t give up! Everyone was a beginner at some point, and it’s normal to struggle with writing. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

• If you copy someone else’s writing or ideas, it’s called plagiarism. Don’t ever plagiarize, as this is a serious offense. Not only will you get in trouble if you plagiarize, you probably won’t receive credit for the assignment. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/introductions/
• ↑ https://www.student.unsw.edu.au/writing-your-essay
• ↑ https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/conclusions/
• ↑ https://www.plainlanguage.gov/guidelines/organize/use-transition-words/
• ↑ https://www.esu.edu/writing-studio/guides/hook.cfm
• ↑ https://wts.indiana.edu/writing-guides/how-to-write-a-thesis-statement.html
• ↑ https://libguides.newcastle.edu.au/writing-paragraphs/structure
• ↑ https://lsa.umich.edu/sweetland/undergraduates/writing-guides/how-do-i-write-an-intro--conclusion----body-paragraph.html
• ↑ https://www.umgc.edu/current-students/learning-resources/writing-center/writing-resources/parts-of-an-essay/essay-conclusions

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Writing academically: Paragraph structure

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“An appropriate use of paragraphs is an essential part of writing coherent and well-structured essays.” Don Shiach,   How to write essays

• A topic sentence – what is the overall point that the paragraph is making?
• Evidence that supports your point – this is usually your cited material.
• Explanation of why the point is important and how it helps with your overall argument.
• A link (if necessary) to the next paragraph (or to the previous one if coming at the beginning of the paragraph) or back to the essay question.

This is a good order to use when you are new to writing academic essays - but as you get more accomplished you can adapt it as necessary. The important thing is to make sure all of these elements are present within the paragraph.

The sections below explain more about each of these elements.

The topic sentence (Point)

This should appear early in the paragraph and is often, but not always, the first sentence.  It should clearly state the main point that you are making in the paragraph. When you are planning essays, writing down a list of your topic sentences is an excellent way to check that your argument flows well from one point to the next.

This is the evidence that backs up your topic sentence. Why do you believe what you have written in your topic sentence? The evidence is usually paraphrased or quoted material from your reading . Depending on the nature of the assignment, it could also include:

• Your own data (in a research project for example).
• Personal experiences from practice (especially for Social Care, Health Sciences and Education).
• Personal experiences from learning (in a reflective essay for example).

Any evidence from external sources should, of course, be referenced.

Explanation (analysis)

This is the part of your paragraph where you explain to your reader why the evidence supports the point and why that point is relevant to your overall argument. It is where you answer the question 'So what?'. Tell the reader how the information in the paragraph helps you answer the question and how it leads to your conclusion. Your analysis should attempt to persuade the reader that your conclusion is the correct one.

These are the parts of your paragraphs that will get you the higher marks in any marking scheme.

Links are optional but it will help your argument flow if you include them. They are sentences that help the reader understand how the parts of your argument are connected . Most commonly they come at the end of the paragraph but they can be equally effective at the beginning of the next one. Sometimes a link is split between the end of one paragraph and the beginning of the next (see the example paragraph below).

Paragraph structure video

Length of a paragraph

Academic paragraphs are usually between 200 and 300 words long (they vary more than this but it is a useful guide). The important thing is that they should be long enough to contain all the above material. Only move onto a new paragraph if you are making a new point. 

Many students make their paragraphs too short (because they are not including enough or any analysis) or too long (they are made up of several different points).

Example of an academic paragraph

Using storytelling in educational settings can enable educators to connect with their students because of inborn tendencies for humans to listen to stories.   Written languages have only existed for between 6,000 and 7,000 years (Daniels & Bright, 1995) before then, and continually ever since in many cultures, important lessons for life were passed on using the oral tradition of storytelling. These varied from simple informative tales, to help us learn how to find food or avoid danger, to more magical and miraculous stories designed to help us see how we can resolve conflict and find our place in society (Zipes, 2012). Oral storytelling traditions are still fundamental to native American culture and Rebecca Bishop, a native American public relations officer (quoted in Sorensen, 2012) believes that the physical act of storytelling is a special thing; children will automatically stop what they are doing and listen when a story is told. Professional communicators report that this continues to adulthood (Simmons, 2006; Stevenson, 2008).   This means that storytelling can be a powerful tool for connecting with students of all ages in a way that a list of bullet points in a PowerPoint presentation cannot. The emotional connection and innate, almost hardwired, need to listen when someone tells a story means that educators can teach memorable lessons in a uniquely engaging manner that is   common to all cultures. 

This cross-cultural element of storytelling can be seen when reading or listening to wisdom tales from around the world...

Key:   Topic sentence    Evidence (includes some analysis)    Analysis   Link (crosses into next paragraph)

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Use effective paragraph structure to explain and support your thesis statement.

Effective paragraphs are important in all types of writing. Your paragraphs guide your reader through the paper by helping to explain, substantiate, and support your thesis statement or argument. Each paragraph should discuss one major point or idea. An effective paragraph has three parts: claim, evidence, and analysis.

This is also sometimes called a topic sentence. This will be your way of announcing the main focus of your paragraph; it should tell the reader what your paragraph will be about.

It may be helpful to think of your claims as mini arguments that support the paper’s main argument or thesis. Just as in the thesis statement, your topic sentences should be debatable. In other words, they should be arguable claims that you will support with your evidence.

If you get stuck developing these claims, try to think of reasons why your thesis is true. Each claim should be a reason why the reader should believe your paper’s main idea. For example, perhaps you’re writing an essay about whether people should drink soy milk instead of cow’s milk. Your reasons for this might include health benefits, environmental benefits, cost-effectiveness, and safety, so you would focus one paragraph on each of these topics.

One of the most common mistakes is to present a topic sentence that is actually an observation of facts or a description of events rather than an active argument. When you make a claim based on a fact or event in your topic sentence, you aren’t presenting an arguable claim that you can back up with your evidence in that paragraph.

Here are some sample claims for the "health benefits of soy" paragraph:

• Claim based on a fact or event (weak): Soy milk contains healthy isoflavones and nutrients.
• Claim based on an active argument (stronger): The isoflavones and nutrients in soy milk help to protect the body from disease and promote good health, so soy is a better choice.
• The first example is weak because it presents facts that cannot be disputed; the second example is stronger because it uses those facts to make an argument. As you can see, the second example not only tells the reader that soy contains healthy isoflavones and nutrients, but it also argues that these facts make soy milk a better choice.

To evaluate whether your paper contains effective claims in each paragraph, read only the first sentence of each paragraph. You should be able to follow the development of the paper’s thesis by reading only the claim sentences. These should tell you the main points that you are making throughout the paper. Your claims will also prepare the reader for the second section of your paragraph.

This is how you support, or back up, your claims. The evidence will help to "prove" each claim to the reader.

In a paper that incorporates research from secondary sources, your evidence may include information from articles, books, electronic sources, or any of the research you gathered. The evidence may take the form of a direct quotation, paraphrased material, statistical data, or any other information from one of your sources that helps to support your claim.

Try to incorporate information from several sources into each paragraph. Avoid just "retelling" the information from a single author or article. Aim to represent a variety of opinions and views. This way, you’re not just telling the reader what one expert says, but you’re explaining how your claim is supported by research from several experts in your field. 

Here are some examples of weak and strong evidence sections:

Evidence that includes information from one source (weak evidence): 

According to Collins, soy milk has more protein than cow’s milk, and doesn’t contain the saturated fat or cholesterol (1). Soybeans are "complete protein" because they contain all eight amino acids (Collins 1). Collins points out that "as little as 25 mg of soy protein a day may decrease levels of LDL cholesterol and Triglycerides" (1) and this may reduce the chance of heart disease. Since soy is a "low-glycemic index" food, it may help people trying to lose weight "feel more satisfied and less hungry until your next meal, which is beneficial for weight management and control" (1).

Evidence that includes information from a variety of sources (stronger evidence): 

Scientists believe that soy milk has the potential to balance cholesterol levels in humans: "A diet with significant soy protein reduces Total Cholesterol, LDL cholesterol (the 'bad' cholesterol) and triglycerides" (Tsang 1). Since soy milk is one of the easiest ways to incorporate soy into the diet, this is a good choice for people seeking to lower their LDL and triglycerides. Soy milk also may reduce the potential for heart disease. Countries that traditionally consume more soy protein have a much lower incidence of heart disease and many types of cancer (Berkeley 4). The benefits of soy aren’t just limited to the heart, however. Soy milk and cheese made from soy milk may help with weight loss since they contain less saturated fat than regular dairy products, although they contain about the same amounts of fat as reduced-fat milk and cheese (Collins 1). Some researchers even believe that soy may help to stimulate the metabolism (Duke 4).

Note that the second example seems more "balanced," because the author demonstrates knowledge of the subject and incorporates several expert opinions to back up the claim.

Sometimes your assignment will not require you to conduct research into secondary sources, and you may need to use your own ideas or experiences as evidence to back up your claims. Try to be very specific. If you include detailed examples and explanations, your evidence will be more interesting and more persuasive to the reader, and you will seem like more of an authority on your topic:

Evidence that isn’t specific (weak evidence):

My mother’s cholesterol was bad, and the doctor said that soy might help with this. Our family started eating more soy and soy milk, and her levels eventually got much better. During this time, all of us also lost quite a bit of weight.

Evidence that is specific (stronger evidence):

Two years ago, my mother’s LDL ("bad") cholesterol level was 242, and her HDL ("good") cholesterol was 37, so she was considered "high risk." Since she was hesitant to take cholesterol-lowering medications, her internist suggested that she try to incorporate more soy into her diet. He believed that it was worthwhile to try this before placing her on medications. In order to support her, our entire family started drinking soy milk and walking in the evenings. After six months, her LDL dropped to 198 and her HDL rose to 45, which was a dramatic improvement. Our family all lost quite a bit of weight, as well: my mother lost fifteen pounds and my father lost more than twenty. Her doctor tells her that if she continues this lifestyle change, she will significantly reduce her chance of heart problems in the future.    

The second example not only contains more information, but it presents it in a believable and interesting way. By including specific details, the author appears to be an "expert," so the evidence is more persuasive.

Your analysis or concluding observation is your way of "wrapping up" the information presented in your paragraph. It should explain why the evidence supports your claim and why this supports the main thesis in your paper.

It’s important to end with your own analysis of the information rather than with evidence. This keeps you "in control" of the paper; if you end with evidence, you’re emphasizing ideas from your sources rather than your own. The reader relies on you to analyze the evidence in the paragraph and explain why it matters to the claim and to the rest of the paper. 

Here are some examples of weak and strong analysis/concluding observation sections:

Analysis that is really evidence (weak): Experts at Duke University’s School of Medicine agree that soy milk is a healthy choice.

Analysis that doesn’t relate evidence to claim and thesis statement (weak): Soy milk therefore prevents disease.

Analysis that explains why evidence supports the claim and why this is important to the paper’s thesis (strong): The disease-fighting and health-promoting components of soy milk have the potential to change people’s health and to improve their lives by affecting both cholesterol and weight. This makes soy milk an important factor in heart health, so people should consider switching to soy milk.

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A clear, arguable thesis will tell your readers where you are going to end up, but it can also help you figure out how to get them there. Put your thesis at the top of a blank page and then make a list of the points you will need to make to argue that thesis effectively.

For example, consider this example from the thesis handout : While Sandel argues persuasively that our instinct to “remake”(54) ourselves into something ever more perfect is a problem, his belief that we can always draw a line between what is medically necessary and what makes us simply “better than well”(51) is less convincing.

To argue this thesis, the author needs to do the following:

• Show what is persuasive about Sandel’s claims about the problems with striving for perfection.
• Show what is not convincing about Sandel’s claim that we can clearly distinguish between medically necessary enhancements and other enhancements.

Once you have broken down your thesis into main claims, you can then think about what sub-claims you will need to make in order to support each of those main claims. That step might look like this:

• Evidence that Sandel provides to support this claim
• Discussion of why this evidence is convincing even in light of potential counterarguments
• Discussion of cases when medically necessary enhancement and non-medical enhancement cannot be easily distinguished
• Analysis of what those cases mean for Sandel’s argument
• Consideration of counterarguments (what Sandel might say in response to this section of your argument)

Each argument you will make in an essay will be different, but this strategy will often be a useful first step in figuring out the path of your argument.  

Strategy #2: Use subheadings, even if you remove them later  

Scientific papers generally include standard subheadings to delineate different sections of the paper, including “introduction,” “methods,” and “discussion.” Even when you are not required to use subheadings, it can be helpful to put them into an early draft to help you see what you’ve written and to begin to think about how your ideas fit together. You can do this by typing subheadings above the sections of your draft.

If you’re having trouble figuring out how your ideas fit together, try beginning with informal subheadings like these:

• Introduction  
• Explain the author’s main point  
• Show why this main point doesn’t hold up when we consider this other example  
• Explain the implications of what I’ve shown for our understanding of the author  
• Show how that changes our understanding of the topic

For longer papers, you may decide to include subheadings to guide your reader through your argument. In those cases, you would need to revise your informal subheadings to be more useful for your readers. For example, if you have initially written in something like “explain the author’s main point,” your final subheading might be something like “Sandel’s main argument” or “Sandel’s opposition to genetic enhancement.” In other cases, once you have the key pieces of your argument in place, you will be able to remove the subheadings.  

Strategy #3: Create a reverse outline from your draft  

While you may have learned to outline a paper before writing a draft, this step is often difficult because our ideas develop as we write. In some cases, it can be more helpful to write a draft in which you get all of your ideas out and then do a “reverse outline” of what you’ve already written. This doesn’t have to be formal; you can just make a list of the point in each paragraph of your draft and then ask these questions:

• Are those points in an order that makes sense to you?  
• Are there gaps in your argument?  
• Do the topic sentences of the paragraphs clearly state these main points?  
• Do you have more than one paragraph that focuses on the same point? If so, do you need both paragraphs?  
• Do you have some paragraphs that include too many points? If so, would it make more sense to split them up?  
• Do you make points near the end of the draft that would be more effective earlier in your paper?  
• Are there points missing from this draft?  
• picture_as_pdf Tips for Organizing Your Essay

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On Paragraphs

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What is a paragraph?

A paragraph is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic. Learning to write good paragraphs will help you as a writer stay on track during your drafting and revision stages. Good paragraphing also greatly assists your readers in following a piece of writing. You can have fantastic ideas, but if those ideas aren't presented in an organized fashion, you will lose your readers (and fail to achieve your goals in writing).

The Basic Rule: Keep one idea to one paragraph

The basic rule of thumb with paragraphing is to keep one idea to one paragraph. If you begin to transition into a new idea, it belongs in a new paragraph. There are some simple ways to tell if you are on the same topic or a new one. You can have one idea and several bits of supporting evidence within a single paragraph. You can also have several points in a single paragraph as long as they relate to the overall topic of the paragraph. If the single points start to get long, then perhaps elaborating on each of them and placing them in their own paragraphs is the route to go.

Elements of a paragraph

To be as effective as possible, a paragraph should contain each of the following: Unity, Coherence, A Topic Sentence, and Adequate Development. As you will see, all of these traits overlap. Using and adapting them to your individual purposes will help you construct effective paragraphs.

The entire paragraph should concern itself with a single focus. If it begins with one focus or major point of discussion, it should not end with another or wander within different ideas.

Coherence is the trait that makes the paragraph easily understandable to a reader. You can help create coherence in your paragraphs by creating logical bridges and verbal bridges.

Logical bridges

• The same idea of a topic is carried over from sentence to sentence
• Successive sentences can be constructed in parallel form

Verbal bridges

• Key words can be repeated in several sentences
• Synonymous words can be repeated in several sentences
• Pronouns can refer to nouns in previous sentences
• Transition words can be used to link ideas from different sentences

A topic sentence

A topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a general way what idea or thesis the paragraph is going to deal with. Although not all paragraphs have clear-cut topic sentences, and despite the fact that topic sentences can occur anywhere in the paragraph (as the first sentence, the last sentence, or somewhere in the middle), an easy way to make sure your reader understands the topic of the paragraph is to put your topic sentence near the beginning of the paragraph. (This is a good general rule for less experienced writers, although it is not the only way to do it). Regardless of whether you include an explicit topic sentence or not, you should be able to easily summarize what the paragraph is about.

Adequate development

The topic (which is introduced by the topic sentence) should be discussed fully and adequately. Again, this varies from paragraph to paragraph, depending on the author's purpose, but writers should be wary of paragraphs that only have two or three sentences. It's a pretty good bet that the paragraph is not fully developed if it is that short.

Some methods to make sure your paragraph is well-developed:

• Use examples and illustrations
• Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others)
• Examine testimony (what other people say such as quotes and paraphrases)
• Use an anecdote or story
• Define terms in the paragraph
• Compare and contrast
• Evaluate causes and reasons
• Examine effects and consequences
• Analyze the topic
• Describe the topic
• Offer a chronology of an event (time segments)

How do I know when to start a new paragraph?

You should start a new paragraph when:

• When you begin a new idea or point. New ideas should always start in new paragraphs. If you have an extended idea that spans multiple paragraphs, each new point within that idea should have its own paragraph.
• To contrast information or ideas. Separate paragraphs can serve to contrast sides in a debate, different points in an argument, or any other difference.
• When your readers need a pause. Breaks between paragraphs function as a short "break" for your readers—adding these in will help your writing be more readable. You would create a break if the paragraph becomes too long or the material is complex.
• When you are ending your introduction or starting your conclusion. Your introductory and concluding material should always be in a new paragraph. Many introductions and conclusions have multiple paragraphs depending on their content, length, and the writer's purpose.

Transitions and signposts

Two very important elements of paragraphing are signposts and transitions. Signposts are internal aids to assist readers; they usually consist of several sentences or a paragraph outlining what the article has covered and where the article will be going.

Transitions are usually one or several sentences that "transition" from one idea to the next. Transitions can be used at the end of most paragraphs to help the paragraphs flow one into the next.

Body Paragraph

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Whether you’re crafting an essay , report , or any other form of written communication, the body paragraphs serve as the heart of your composition. They provide the substantive content that supports your main ideas, arguments, or points. Understanding how to construct compelling body paragraphs is essential for conveying your message effectively and persuasively. In this guide, we’ll delve into the definition of body paragraphs, explore the step-by-step process to create them, address common FAQs, and highlight their significance in written communication.

What is a Body Paragraph?

A body paragraph is a section of an essay that develops a single main idea, supported by evidence, examples, and explanations. Each body paragraph typically starts with a topic sentence, followed by supporting details, and concludes with a sentence that reinforces the paragraph’s main point or transitions to the next idea. Effective body paragraphs help to structure and advance the essay’s argument.

Body Paragraph Format

Body paragraphs form the core of an essay, providing the details and evidence that support the thesis statement . A well-structured body paragraph enhances clarity, flow, and persuasiveness in writing . Here’s a guide to constructing effective body paragraphs:

1. Topic Sentence

The topic sentence introduces the main idea of the paragraph. It should be clear, concise, and directly related to the thesis statement.

• Example : “Regular exercise significantly improves mental health.”

2. Explanation

Expand on the topic sentence by providing a brief explanation or elaboration. This helps to clarify the main idea and set up the evidence.

• Example : “Engaging in physical activities releases endorphins, which are natural mood lifters.”

3. Evidence

Present specific evidence to support the main idea. This can include quotes, statistics, examples, or research findings.

• Example : “A study by the Mayo Clinic found that participants who exercised regularly reported a 30% decrease in symptoms of depression and anxiety.”

4. Analysis

Analyze the evidence to show how it supports the topic sentence. Explain the significance and implications of the evidence.

• Example : “This decrease in mental health symptoms highlights the profound impact of physical activity on psychological well-being, suggesting that regular exercise can be an effective non-pharmaceutical treatment for mental health issues.”

5. Transition

Conclude the paragraph by linking back to the thesis or transitioning smoothly to the next paragraph. This helps maintain coherence and flow in the essay.

• Example : “Therefore, incorporating regular exercise into one’s routine can be a crucial step towards improving mental health. Next, we will explore the benefits of exercise on cognitive function.”

Examples of Body Paragraph for Essay

1. the benefits of reading.

Reading regularly enhances cognitive functions. When individuals read, they engage multiple areas of the brain, improving neural connectivity. A study by the University of California found that regular readers exhibit higher levels of brain activity, particularly in areas related to language comprehension and analytical thinking. This increased brain activity suggests that reading not only improves comprehension skills but also enhances critical thinking and problem-solving abilities. Moreover, reading has been linked to a reduced risk of cognitive decline in older adults, further highlighting its long-term benefits. Therefore, incorporating reading into daily routines can significantly boost cognitive health and preserve mental sharpness over time.

2. The Impact of Technology on Education

Technology has revolutionized education by providing greater access to information and resources. With the advent of the internet and digital tools, students can access a vast array of educational materials from anywhere in the world. According to a report by the Pew Research Center, 92% of teachers reported that the internet has a major impact on their ability to access content, resources, and materials for their teaching. This accessibility not only enhances the learning experience but also enables personalized learning, where students can learn at their own pace and according to their interests. Furthermore, educational technologies such as online courses and virtual classrooms have made education more inclusive, reaching students in remote and underserved areas. Consequently, the integration of technology in education has democratized learning, making it more accessible and tailored to individual needs.

3. The Importance of Environmental Conservation

Environmental conservation is crucial for sustaining biodiversity and ensuring the health of our planet. Ecosystems are interdependent, and the loss of one species can have a ripple effect on others. For instance, the decline of bee populations, which are vital pollinators, has significant implications for plant reproduction and agricultural productivity. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 75% of the world’s food crops depend, at least in part, on pollination by bees and other insects. This interdependence underscores the importance of protecting species to maintain ecological balance and food security. Additionally, conserving natural habitats helps mitigate climate change by preserving forests that act as carbon sinks. Therefore, concerted efforts in environmental conservation are essential for the well-being of all life forms on Earth and the stability of our ecosystems.

4. The Advantages of Learning a Second Language

Learning a second language enhances cognitive abilities and cultural understanding. Bilingual individuals often exhibit improved memory, problem-solving skills, and multitasking abilities. Research from Pennsylvania State University indicates that bilingualism can delay the onset of Alzheimer’s disease by up to five years. This cognitive boost is attributed to the mental exercise of switching between languages and processing complex linguistic structures. Moreover, learning a new language fosters cultural empathy and global awareness. It allows individuals to better understand and appreciate cultural differences, promoting tolerance and reducing prejudice. In an increasingly interconnected world, these skills are invaluable, making bilingualism a significant asset both personally and professionally.

5. The Role of Physical Exercise in Health

Physical exercise plays a pivotal role in maintaining overall health and well-being. Regular physical activity helps control weight, reduce the risk of chronic diseases, and improve mental health. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) states that adults who engage in moderate-intensity exercise for at least 150 minutes per week lower their risk of heart disease, stroke, and diabetes. Additionally, exercise promotes the release of endorphins, which are natural mood lifters, reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety. Engaging in physical activities also enhances sleep quality, boosts energy levels, and improves muscle and bone strength. Consequently, incorporating regular exercise into one’s lifestyle is essential for physical and mental health, leading to a better quality of life.

Examples of Body Paragraph for Argumentative Essay

1. the case for universal healthcare.

Universal healthcare is essential for ensuring that all citizens have access to necessary medical services. In countries with universal healthcare, individuals do not have to worry about the financial burden of medical expenses, which can lead to better overall public health outcomes. For instance, a study conducted by the Commonwealth Fund found that countries with universal healthcare systems, such as Canada and the United Kingdom, have higher life expectancy and lower infant mortality rates compared to the United States. This data suggests that when people have access to healthcare without financial barriers, they are more likely to seek preventive care and treatment for illnesses, leading to healthier populations. Moreover, universal healthcare can reduce economic inequality by alleviating the financial strain on low-income families who might otherwise be unable to afford medical care. Therefore, implementing a universal healthcare system is a necessary step towards a healthier, more equitable society.

2. The Need for Renewable Energy

Investing in renewable energy sources is crucial for combating climate change and ensuring sustainable development. Fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions, which are the primary drivers of global warming. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), renewable energy sources like wind, solar, and hydropower produce little to no greenhouse gases during operation. This makes them a much cleaner alternative to traditional energy sources. Additionally, the renewable energy sector has the potential to create millions of jobs worldwide. The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) reports that the renewable energy industry employed over 11 million people globally in 2018, a number that is expected to grow as investment in this sector increases. By transitioning to renewable energy, we can significantly reduce our carbon footprint while also fostering economic growth and job creation. Therefore, prioritizing renewable energy investments is imperative for a sustainable future.

3. The Benefits of Online Education

Online education provides greater accessibility and flexibility for students, making it an invaluable tool in modern education. Traditional classroom settings can be restrictive for individuals who have other commitments such as work or family. A report by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) shows that the number of students enrolled in at least one online course has steadily increased over the past decade, reaching over 6 million in the United States alone. This rise in online education enrollment demonstrates its growing popularity and effectiveness. Furthermore, online education allows for a personalized learning experience where students can learn at their own pace and revisit material as needed. Studies from the U.S. Department of Education suggest that students in online learning conditions performed modestly better, on average, than those receiving face-to-face instruction. Therefore, embracing online education can enhance learning opportunities and outcomes for a diverse range of students.

4. The Importance of Animal Testing in Medical Research

Animal testing remains a necessary practice for advancing medical research and ensuring the safety of new treatments. Many medical breakthroughs, including vaccines and life-saving treatments, have been developed through research conducted on animals. For instance, the polio vaccine, which has nearly eradicated the disease globally, was developed through extensive animal testing. Without such testing, it would have been impossible to ensure the vaccine’s effectiveness and safety. Moreover, regulatory agencies like the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) require animal testing to evaluate the safety of new drugs before they can be approved for human trials. This process helps protect human participants from potential adverse effects. While it is crucial to continue seeking alternative methods, current scientific capabilities still rely on animal testing to a significant extent. Therefore, until reliable and effective alternatives are found, animal testing remains an essential component of medical research.

5. The Impact of Social Media on Society

Social media has a profound impact on society, influencing everything from communication to mental health. Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram have revolutionized the way people interact, share information, and stay connected. However, research indicates that excessive use of social media can lead to negative mental health outcomes. A study published in the Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology found that individuals who limited their social media use to 30 minutes per day reported significant reductions in feelings of loneliness and depression. This suggests that while social media can facilitate connection, overuse can exacerbate feelings of isolation and anxiety. Additionally, the spread of misinformation on social media platforms poses a significant threat to public discourse and democratic processes. Therefore, it is essential to promote responsible use of social media and implement measures to combat misinformation to mitigate its negative impacts on society.

Examples of Body Paragraph for Informative Essay

1. the history of the internet.

The internet has a rich history that dates back to the early days of computer networking. The concept of a global network began in the 1960s with the creation of ARPANET, funded by the United States Department of Defense. ARPANET, which stands for Advanced Research Projects Agency Network, was the first network to implement the TCP/IP protocol suite, which became the foundation of the modern internet. In the 1980s, the development of personal computers and the World Wide Web, invented by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989, revolutionized how information was shared and accessed. The introduction of web browsers, like Mosaic and Netscape, in the early 1990s made the internet more user-friendly and accessible to the general public. This period marked the beginning of the internet’s rapid expansion and integration into everyday life, leading to the interconnected digital world we experience today.

2. The Benefits of a Balanced Diet

A balanced diet is essential for maintaining good health and well-being. Consuming a variety of foods ensures that the body receives the necessary nutrients it needs to function properly. For example, fruits and vegetables are rich in vitamins and minerals, which support immune function and reduce the risk of chronic diseases. Protein-rich foods, such as lean meats, beans, and nuts, are crucial for muscle repair and growth, while whole grains provide sustained energy and help regulate blood sugar levels. According to the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, a balanced diet that includes a wide range of nutrients can improve overall health and reduce the risk of conditions like heart disease, diabetes, and obesity. Furthermore, staying hydrated by drinking plenty of water is also a key component of a balanced diet, as it aids digestion and helps maintain body temperature. Therefore, incorporating a variety of nutrient-rich foods into one’s diet is fundamental to achieving and maintaining optimal health.

3. The Role of Technology in Modern Education

Technology plays a pivotal role in modern education, transforming the way students learn and teachers instruct. With the advent of digital tools and online resources, educational opportunities have expanded significantly. For instance, interactive software and applications make learning more engaging and personalized, catering to individual student needs. According to a report by the National Education Association (NEA), technology in the classroom has been shown to improve student motivation and academic performance. Moreover, online learning platforms, such as Coursera and Khan Academy, provide access to a vast array of courses and educational materials, enabling lifelong learning beyond the traditional classroom setting. These resources allow students to learn at their own pace and revisit difficult concepts as needed. Consequently, the integration of technology in education not only enhances learning experiences but also prepares students for a digital future.

4. The Importance of Environmental Conservation

Environmental conservation is crucial for preserving the planet’s biodiversity and natural resources. Human activities, such as deforestation, pollution, and overfishing, have led to significant environmental degradation. For example, the destruction of rainforests not only results in the loss of countless species but also contributes to climate change by reducing the Earth’s capacity to absorb carbon dioxide. The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) reports that approximately 27% of the Amazon rainforest has been destroyed in the past 50 years, posing a severe threat to global biodiversity. Conservation efforts, such as protecting natural habitats, promoting sustainable practices, and reducing carbon emissions, are essential to mitigate these impacts. By implementing and supporting conservation initiatives, we can help ensure that natural ecosystems remain intact for future generations. Therefore, environmental conservation is a responsibility that must be shared by individuals, communities, and governments worldwide.

5. The Advantages of Learning a Second Language

Learning a second language offers numerous cognitive, social, and professional benefits. Research indicates that bilingual individuals often have better cognitive flexibility, which is the ability to switch between tasks and think about multiple concepts simultaneously. A study published in the journal Psychological Science found that bilingualism can enhance executive function, which includes skills such as problem-solving, memory, and attention control. In addition to cognitive advantages, knowing a second language can improve cultural awareness and communication skills. This is particularly valuable in today’s globalized world, where cross-cultural interactions are common. Professionally, bilingualism can open up job opportunities and enhance career prospects in various fields, such as international business, translation, and diplomacy. Therefore, investing time and effort in learning a second language can yield significant personal and professional rewards.

Examples of Body Paragraph for Research Paper

1. the effects of climate change on polar bear populations.

Climate change has significantly impacted polar bear populations, primarily through the loss of their sea ice habitat. Polar bears rely on sea ice as a platform for hunting seals, their primary food source. According to a study by the National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC), the Arctic sea ice extent has declined by approximately 13% per decade since the late 1970s. This reduction in sea ice forces polar bears to travel greater distances and expend more energy to find food, leading to malnutrition and decreased survival rates, especially among cubs. Moreover, a report by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) indicates that the shrinking ice habitat also increases the likelihood of human-polar bear conflicts as bears venture closer to human settlements in search of food. These findings underscore the urgent need for comprehensive climate policies to mitigate the effects of global warming and protect polar bear populations.

2. The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare

Artificial intelligence (AI) has revolutionized healthcare by enhancing diagnostic accuracy and improving patient outcomes. AI algorithms can analyze vast amounts of medical data, identifying patterns that may not be evident to human clinicians. For instance, a study published in Nature Medicine demonstrated that an AI system could diagnose skin cancer with greater accuracy than dermatologists, achieving a sensitivity rate of 95% compared to 86.6% for human experts. This capability allows for earlier detection and treatment of diseases, potentially saving lives. Additionally, AI-driven predictive analytics can help in managing chronic conditions by forecasting disease progression and suggesting personalized treatment plans. According to a report by Accenture, AI applications in healthcare could save the U.S. healthcare economy up to $150 billion annually by 2026 through efficiencies and improved outcomes. These advancements highlight the transformative potential of AI in making healthcare more efficient, accurate, and accessible.

3. The Impact of Social Media on Political Polarization

Social media has played a significant role in exacerbating political polarization by creating echo chambers and facilitating the spread of misinformation. Algorithms on platforms like Facebook and Twitter often promote content that aligns with users’ existing beliefs, reinforcing their viewpoints and isolating them from opposing perspectives. A study by the Pew Research Center found that 62% of Americans get their news from social media, where they are more likely to encounter sensationalized and biased information. This selective exposure can deepen ideological divides and reduce the likelihood of constructive political discourse. Moreover, research published in Science revealed that false news stories on social media spread six times faster than true stories, further fueling division and mistrust. These findings indicate that social media not only mirrors but also amplifies societal divisions, necessitating interventions to promote media literacy and responsible content sharing.

4. The Benefits of Bilingual Education Programs

Bilingual education programs offer significant cognitive and academic benefits to students. Studies have shown that bilingual individuals possess enhanced executive function, which includes skills such as problem-solving, multitasking, and memory. For example, research conducted by the American Psychological Association (APA) indicates that bilingual children outperform monolingual peers in tasks that require switching attention and inhibiting distractions. These cognitive advantages translate into academic success, with bilingual students often achieving higher scores in standardized tests. Additionally, a longitudinal study by the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) found that students enrolled in dual-language programs were more likely to graduate high school and attend college compared to their monolingual counterparts. These outcomes suggest that bilingual education not only supports cognitive development but also enhances long-term educational achievement. Therefore, expanding access to bilingual programs can provide substantial benefits to students and society as a whole.

5. The Economic Impact of Renewable Energy Adoption

Adopting renewable energy sources has significant positive impacts on the economy, including job creation and energy security. The transition to renewable energy requires a substantial workforce to manufacture, install, and maintain technologies such as solar panels and wind turbines. According to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), the renewable energy sector employed over 11 million people globally in 2018, with job numbers expected to rise as investment in this sector increases. This job creation can stimulate economic growth, particularly in regions struggling with unemployment. Furthermore, renewable energy reduces dependence on imported fuels, enhancing national energy security and price stability. A report by the U.S. Department of Energy highlights that increased use of domestic renewable energy sources can protect the economy from fluctuations in global fossil fuel markets. Thus, the economic benefits of renewable energy adoption extend beyond environmental considerations, offering substantial advantages for employment and national security.

Examples of Body Paragraph for Students

1. the importance of time management for students.

Effective time management is crucial for students to achieve academic success and maintain a healthy work-life balance. Properly managing time allows students to prioritize tasks, ensuring that important assignments and study sessions are completed efficiently. For instance, a study by the University of California, Berkeley found that students who practiced time management techniques, such as using planners and setting specific goals, achieved higher grades and reported lower stress levels. By breaking down larger tasks into smaller, manageable steps, students can avoid last-minute cramming and reduce anxiety. Moreover, time management skills are not only beneficial for academic purposes but also for extracurricular activities and personal life. Students who balance their schedules effectively can participate in sports, hobbies, and social events, contributing to their overall well-being and personal development. Therefore, mastering time management is essential for students to succeed academically and enjoy a balanced lifestyle.

2. The Benefits of Extracurricular Activities

Participating in extracurricular activities offers numerous benefits that enhance students’ educational experiences and personal growth. Engaging in activities such as sports, clubs, and arts programs helps students develop essential skills that are not typically taught in the classroom. For example, involvement in team sports teaches valuable lessons in teamwork, leadership, and perseverance. According to a report by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), students who participate in extracurricular activities are more likely to have higher academic achievement and better attendance records. These activities also provide opportunities for students to explore their interests and talents, which can influence their future career choices and aspirations. Additionally, extracurricular involvement fosters a sense of belonging and community, helping students build friendships and support networks. Thus, engaging in extracurricular activities is instrumental in promoting well-rounded development and enriching the overall educational experience for students.

3. The Impact of Nutrition on Academic Performance

Proper nutrition plays a vital role in students’ academic performance and overall health. Consuming a balanced diet that includes a variety of nutrients helps maintain energy levels, improve concentration, and enhance cognitive function. A study published in the Journal of School Health found that students who ate a nutritious breakfast performed better on standardized tests and had higher attendance rates compared to those who skipped breakfast. Healthy eating habits also contribute to better mood regulation and reduced stress, which are important for academic success. For instance, foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids, such as fish and flaxseeds, have been shown to support brain health and improve memory. Schools that implement nutrition education programs and provide healthy meal options can significantly impact students’ learning outcomes. Therefore, promoting proper nutrition is essential for students to achieve their full academic potential and maintain overall well-being.

4. The Advantages of Using Technology in the Classroom

Integrating technology into the classroom offers numerous advantages that enhance the learning experience for students. Digital tools and resources make learning more interactive and engaging, catering to different learning styles and needs. For instance, educational apps and online platforms allow students to practice skills at their own pace and receive immediate feedback. According to a report by the U.S. Department of Education, schools that utilize technology effectively see improvements in student motivation and achievement. Technology also facilitates access to a wealth of information and educational materials, enabling students to conduct research and expand their knowledge beyond the textbook. Furthermore, incorporating technology prepares students for the digital world, equipping them with essential skills for future careers. Thus, the use of technology in education not only enhances academic performance but also prepares students for success in a technologically advanced society.

5. The Importance of Reading for Pleasure

Reading for pleasure is an important habit that benefits students academically and personally. Engaging in recreational reading improves literacy skills, vocabulary, and comprehension. A study by the National Literacy Trust found that students who read for enjoyment are more likely to perform better academically, particularly in language and literacy subjects. Additionally, reading for pleasure enhances creativity and imagination, allowing students to explore new ideas and perspectives. For example, reading fiction can increase empathy by helping students understand and relate to characters’ experiences and emotions. Beyond academic benefits, reading provides a relaxing escape from the pressures of school and daily life, promoting mental well-being. Therefore, encouraging students to read for pleasure is essential for their overall development and success.

More Examples & Samples of Body Paragraph in PDF

1. developing body paragraphs example.

2. Strong Body Paragraphs Example

3. Body Paragraph Structure and Development

4. Basic Body Paragraphs Example

5. How to Write Body Paragraphs Example

6. Purpose of a Body Paragraph Example

Parts of a Body Paragraph

A well-constructed body paragraph is essential for a coherent and persuasive essay. Each body paragraph should support the main thesis of the essay and contribute to the overall argument or analysis. Here are the key parts of a body paragraph:

The topic sentence introduces the main idea of the paragraph. It should be clear, concise, and directly related to the thesis statement of the essay.

• Example : “Effective time management is crucial for students to achieve academic success.”

The explanation elaborates on the topic sentence, providing context or a brief overview of the main idea. It sets up the evidence and analysis that will follow.

• Example : “Properly managing time allows students to prioritize tasks, ensuring that important assignments and study sessions are completed efficiently.”

Evidence provides specific support for the main idea. This can include quotes, statistics, examples, or research findings. Evidence makes the argument more credible and persuasive.

• Example : “A study by the University of California, Berkeley found that students who practiced time management techniques, such as using planners and setting specific goals, achieved higher grades and reported lower stress levels.”

The analysis explains how the evidence supports the topic sentence. It connects the evidence to the main idea and shows the significance or implications of the evidence.

• Example : “By breaking down larger tasks into smaller, manageable steps, students can avoid last-minute cramming and reduce anxiety, leading to better academic performance.”

5. Transition or Concluding Sentence

The transition or concluding sentence links back to the thesis or sets up the next paragraph. It ensures coherence and flow in the essay.

• Example : “Therefore, mastering time management is essential for students to succeed academically and enjoy a balanced lifestyle.”

How to Start a Body Paragraph

Starting a body paragraph effectively is essential for maintaining coherence and ensuring that each paragraph contributes meaningfully to the essay. Here are key steps and tips for starting a body paragraph:

1. Craft a Strong Topic Sentence

The topic sentence is the most important part of the body paragraph. It introduces the main idea of the paragraph and ties it to the thesis statement.

• Example : “Implementing renewable energy sources is essential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.”

2. Connect to the Thesis Statement

Ensure that the topic sentence clearly relates to and supports the essay’s thesis statement. This connection helps maintain the overall coherence of the essay.

• Example : “Given the urgent need to address climate change, implementing renewable energy sources is essential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.”

3. Use Transition Words or Phrases

If the paragraph follows another body paragraph, use transition words or phrases to create a smooth flow of ideas. This helps guide the reader through the argument or analysis.

• Example : “Moreover, implementing renewable energy sources is essential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.”

4. Introduce the Main Idea Clearly

State the main idea in a way that is easy to understand and sets up the explanation and evidence that will follow.

• Example : “Implementing renewable energy sources is essential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, as it offers a sustainable alternative to fossil fuels.”

How to End a Body Paragraph

Ending a body paragraph effectively is crucial for maintaining the flow and coherence of your essay. A strong concluding sentence can reinforce your main point, connect to the thesis, and provide a smooth transition to the next paragraph. Here are key steps and tips for ending a body paragraph:

1. Summarize the Main Point

Briefly restate the main idea of the paragraph without repeating it verbatim. This reinforces the point you’ve made.

• Example : “Therefore, renewable energy sources are essential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.”

2. Connect to the Thesis

Ensure that the concluding sentence links back to the thesis statement, reinforcing how the paragraph supports the overall argument.

• Example : “This reduction in emissions is a critical step in combating climate change, aligning with the global effort to create a more sustainable future.”

3. Provide a Transition

Use a transitional phrase or sentence to smoothly lead into the next paragraph. This helps maintain coherence and guides the reader through your essay.

• Example : “As we explore further, the economic benefits of renewable energy adoption also become apparent.”

4. Avoid Introducing New Information

Do not introduce new arguments or evidence in the concluding sentence. The focus should be on wrapping up the current paragraph and preparing for the next one.

How to Write a Body Paragraph

1. Start with a Topic Sentence

• Purpose : Introduce the main idea of the paragraph.
• Example : “One of the most significant advantages of renewable energy is its positive impact on the environment.”

2. Provide an Explanation

• Purpose : Clarify the topic sentence and provide context.
• Example : “Renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, produce little to no greenhouse gas emissions during their operation.”

3. Present Evidence

• Purpose : Support the main idea with relevant data, quotes, or examples.
• Example : “According to a 2020 report by the International Energy Agency, solar power capacity grew by 22% worldwide, reducing CO2 emissions by approximately 1.2 billion tons annually.”

4. Include Analysis

• Purpose : Explain how the evidence supports the main idea.
• Example : “This significant reduction in emissions highlights how transitioning to renewable energy sources can mitigate climate change, a pressing global issue.”

5. Conclude with a Closing Sentence

• Purpose : Summarize the paragraph’s main point and transition to the next paragraph.
• Example : “Therefore, the shift to renewable energy is not only beneficial for reducing environmental harm but also essential for sustainable development.”

How long should a body paragraph be?

A body paragraph typically ranges from 5-8 sentences or 150-200 words, balancing detail and clarity without overwhelming the reader.

What is the purpose of a topic sentence?

A topic sentence introduces the main idea of the paragraph and sets the tone for the content that follows.

How can I ensure coherence in my body paragraph?

Use transitional words and phrases, maintain a logical flow of ideas, and ensure all sentences relate to the main idea.

What types of evidence can I use?

Use facts, statistics, quotes, examples, and anecdotes from credible sources to support your main idea effectively.

Why is analysis important in a body paragraph?

Analysis explains how your evidence supports your main idea, demonstrating critical thinking and deepening the reader’s understanding.

How do I transition between body paragraphs?

Use transitional sentences or phrases that connect the ideas of consecutive paragraphs, maintaining a smooth flow throughout your essay.

What should a closing sentence do?

A closing sentence should summarize the paragraph’s main point and provide a transition to the next paragraph.

Can I use personal experiences as evidence?

Yes, personal anecdotes can be powerful evidence, especially in narrative or persuasive essays, if they are relevant and support your point.

How many body paragraphs should an essay have?

The number of body paragraphs depends on the essay’s length and complexity, but typically ranges from 3-5 for standard essays.

What common mistakes should I avoid in body paragraphs?

Avoid vague topic sentences, lack of evidence, poor transitions, and irrelevant details that do not support the main idea.

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How to Write an Essay in MLA Format | For Students

Starting from when I entered high school, the importance of submitting assignments in a particular format became a top priority. I quickly realized the significance of adhering to these guidelines, as they remained essential throughout my academic journey. You never know when the need for proper formatting will arise. At first, it may seem overwhelming, but in this simple guide, I'll show you how to write an essay in MLA format [For Students].

When is MLA format used?

MLA format is created by the Modern Language Association which is a standardized way to format academic papers and cite sources. It’s mainly used for subjects in the humanities, like literature, philosophy, and the arts. Unlike APA or Chicago formats, which are used for social sciences and history, MLA puts a strong emphasis on the authorship of sources.

Most students will need to use MLA format at some point, especially in humanities courses. It’s essential for essays, research papers, and other assignments in these subjects.

General Guidelines/ Rules of MLA Formatting

The first step to learning how to write an essay in MLA format for students is to get familiar with the general guidelines. It's all about following the rules to get your paper formatted in the MLA style:

Margins and Font:

Set 1-inch margins on all sides.

Choose a readable font such as Times New Roman, 12-point size.

Double-space the entire document, including block quotes (quotes longer than four lines), notes, and the works cited page.

Paragraph Indentation:

Indent the first line of each paragraph by 0.5 inches (press Tab key once).

Punctuation:

Utilize standard punctuation marks and maintain consistency with punctuation, italics, and quotation marks throughout your paper.

Quotations:

Use double quotation marks (" ") for direct quotes.

For quotes longer than four lines, format as a block quote: start on a new line, indent 0.5 inches from the left margin (without quotation marks), and keep double-spacing.

Here is an essay MLA format template for your reference:

How to Set up MLA Format Essay [Step-by-Step]

So we have seen the general guidelines in the above example and also saw an essay MLA format example/sample showing what our final MLA format will look like. However, going through guidelines is not enough when you're learning how to write an essay in MLA format in Word or PDF format. You need a professional writing software that not only provides the tools but also allows you to use them easily.

Therefore, I will be using WPS Writer as my partner in writing an essay in MLA format, and I would recommend students to download WPS Writer from their website so that you can easily follow this guide. And yes, it is completely free. So let's begin formatting an essay to MLA format in WPS Writer:

1. Page Margins

So the first step is to ensure that our page margins are set to 1 inch on every side. Setting the margins first would help you avoid any formatting errors if you do this at a later stage. To set page margins in WPS Writer:

Step 1: Open WPS Writer and visit the “Page Layout” tab in the toolbar.

Step 2: Find the Page Margin options on the far left of the Page Layout ribbon.

Step 3: Set all the margin fields—top, bottom, left, and right—to 1 inch.

2. Line Spacing

Next, we need to ensure that the line spacing is set to double spacing . This helps improve readability and ensures your paper meets MLA formatting standards. To set double line spacing in WPS Writer:

Step 1: In WPS Writer, go to the “Home” tab in the toolbar.

Step 2: Find and click the “Line Spacing” option in the Home ribbon.

Step 3: In the Line Spacing drop-down, click on More.

Step 4: The Paragraph window will pop up. Visit the Spacing section and in the Line Spacing field, select “Double”.

Step 5: After that, click on OK to exit the Paragraph window.

Note: We can also use the keyboard shortcut CTRL + 2 to quickly change the line spacing to double.

3. Header- In the Upper-Left Corner

After setting the page settings, let's move on to the content of the essay, starting with the header in the following order:

Student's Name

Professor's Name

Course and Course Code

Due Date in the format DD Month, Year

Step 1: Follow the order to enter the header into your essay.

Step 2: To make the Header left aligned, visit the Home tab and then click on the “Align Text Left” icon.

Step 3: After entering the header, make sure the Font is set to "Times New Roman" in the Fonts field in the Home ribbon.

Step 4: After the font, the font size should also be set to "12." Therefore, make the change in the "Font Size" field in the Home ribbon.

4. Last Name & Page Numbers- In the Upper-Right Corner

MLA Format requires a running header that includes your last name along with the page number on the top right corner of every page. Let's see how we can create our running header for the MLA Format:

Step 1: Double-click on the Header area to open the Header/Footer in WPS Writer.

Step 2: Now type your last name and set its alignment to right by clicking on the “Align Text Right” icon in the Home ribbon.

Step 3: To add the page number, click on the "Page Number" option in the Header/Footer ribbon and select the "Header right" option to insert a page number in the right corner.

Once the running header has been added, it is important to set the font size of the running header to 12 and the font to "Times New Roman".

Step 4: Simply select your running header and click on the Home tab.

Step 5: In the Home tab, change the Font to "Times New Roman" in the Fonts field.

Step 6: To change the font size, in the Home ribbon, enter "12" in the Font size field.

The last setting for the running header is to set the header margin to "0.5 inches":

Step 7: Head over to the Header/Footer tab.

Step 8: In the Header/Footer ribbon, enter "0.5 in" in the “Header Height” field to set the header margin to 0.5 inches.

5. Title of Essay- On the Line Below the Date

After the header and running header, let's begin our essay with the title of our essay. Remember the rules:

The title should be center aligned.

The title should not be bolded, italicized, or placed in quotation marks unless it includes the title of a source (e.g., a book or movie title).

Step 1: Insert the title right below the header and visit the Home tab.

Step 2: In the Home ribbon, click on the “Center” icon to center align the title.

6. Headings and Subheadings- Into Sections

Headings and subheadings are important as they give reference to the reader. There are no hard and fast rules for their formatting, except that they need to be center aligned. You can set the font style to bold to help the reader distinguish them.

Step 1: Enter your heading below the title of the essay and visit the Home tab.

Step 2: In the Home ribbon, click on “Center” to align the heading to the center.

Step 3: To change the font style to bold, in the Home ribbon, click on the “Bold” icon right below the font field.

7. In-text Citation

In MLA format, in-text citations use parenthetical references to indicate quotes or ideas from another author. Here's a step-by-step guide on how to do in-text citations:

Step 1: When you quote or paraphrase from a source, use the author's last name and the page number where the information is found.

Step 2:  After the quote or paraphrase, place the citation in parentheses. The citation should include the author's last name followed by the page number without a comma between them.

Step 3: The parenthetical citation should be placed before the period at the end of the sentence.

8. Works Cited Page

Finally, you will need to cite all the sources you took assistance from in writing your paper. Follow the following steps to understand how to cite your work in MLA format.

Step 1: Use a page break to start a fresh new page with the title "Works Cited." The heading "Works Cited" will follow similar heading guidelines as before.

Step 2: Double-space all entries and do not add extra spaces between entries.

Step 3: Use a hanging indent for each entry. The first line of each citation is flush with the left margin, and subsequent lines are indented by 0.5 inches simply using the “Tab” key..

Step 4: List entries in alphabetical order by the author's last name. If a work has no author, alphabetize it by the first significant word in the title.

Step 5: Format your sources as mentioned below for respective source medium:

Books Format: Author's Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Publisher, Year of Publication.

Articles in Journals Format: Author's Last Name, First Name. "Title of Article." Title of Journal, vol. number, no. number, Year, pages.

Websites Format: Author's Last Name, First Name (if available). "Title of Webpage." Title of Website, Publisher, Date of Publication, URL.

Bonus Tips: How to Convert Word to PDF without losing Format

Once you finish writing your essay, the next challenge is converting it from Microsoft Word to PDF without losing formatting. This can be frustrating because sometimes the formatting doesn't stay the same.

To avoid this issue, use WPS Office . It offers strong PDF features and keeps APA and MLA formatting intact. On the other hand, Microsoft Word 365, though widely used, may occasionally struggle to keep formatting consistent when converting to PDF. It's important to choose tools that prioritize preserving the look and structure of your academic work.

Here is how you can use WPS PDF to convert your essay documents to PDF without compromising on the quality:

Step 1: On WPS Writer, click on the Menu button on the top left corner of the screen.

Step 2: Now simply click on the “Export to PDF” option in the Menu.

Step 3: The Export to PDF window will open. Here, you can alter a few settings such as the output path. After going through the settings, simply click on Export to PDF to save the essay document as a PDF.

FAQs about writing an essay in MLA format

1. how to cite an image in mla.

To cite an image in MLA style, you need to format the citation based on where the image was viewed. For online images, the citation should follow this structure:

MLA format:

Creator’s last name, First name. “Image Title” or Description of the image. Website Name in italics, Day Month Year, URL.

MLA Works Cited entry:

Smith, Jamie. “Vintage Cars.” Travel With Us, 15 Mar. 2023, www.travelwithus.com/vintage-cars.

MLA in-text citation:

(Smith) Note: If you discover an image through a search engine such as Google, ensure that you credit and link to the website that hosts the image, rather than the search engine.

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To cite a website in MLA style, you should include the author’s name (if known), the title of the page in quotation marks, the name of the website in italics, the publication date, and the URL without "https://". If the identity of the author is not known, start with the title of the page. If the publication date is unavailable or if there's a possibility of content modifications, include an access date at the end.

Author’s last name, First name. “Title of Page.” Website Name, Day Month Year, URL.

Adams, John. "Explore with us." Random Discoveries, 15 Sept. 2023, www.randomdiscoveries.com/explore-with-us.

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More From Forbes

How not to write your college essay.

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If you are looking for the “secret formula” for writing a “winning” college essay, you have come to the wrong place. The reality is there is no silver bullet or strategy to write your way to an acceptance. There is not one topic or approach that will guarantee a favorable outcome.

At the end of the day, every admission office just wants to know more about you, what you value, and what excites you. They want to hear about your experiences through your own words and in your own voice. As you set out to write your essay, you will no doubt get input (both sought-after and unsolicited) on what to write. But how about what NOT Notcoin to write? There are avoidable blunders that applicants frequently make in drafting their essays. I asked college admission leaders, who have read thousands of submissions, to share their thoughts.

Don’t Go In There

There is wide consensus on this first one, so before you call on your Jedi mind tricks or predictive analytics, listen to the voices of a diverse range of admission deans. Peter Hagan, executive director of admissions at Syracuse University, sums it up best, saying, “I would recommend that students try not to get inside of our heads. He adds, “Too often the focus is on what they think we want.”

Andy Strickler, dean of admission and financial aid at Connecticut College agrees, warning, “Do NOT get caught in the trap of trying to figure out what is going to impress the admission committee. You have NO idea who is going to read your essay and what is going to connect with them. So, don't try to guess that.” Victoria Romero, vice president for enrollment, at Scripps College adds, “Do not write about something you don’t care about.” She says, “I think students try to figure out what an admission officer wants to read, and the reality is the reader begins every next essay with no expectations about the content THEY want to read.” Chrystal Russell, dean of admission at Hampden-Sydney College, agrees, saying, “If you're not interested in writing it, we will not be interested when reading it.” Jay Jacobs, vice provost for enrollment management at the University of Vermont elaborates, advising. “Don’t try to make yourself sound any different than you are.” He says, “The number one goal for admission officers is to better understand the applicant, what they like to do, what they want to do, where they spend the majority of their time, and what makes them tick. If a student stays genuine to that, it will shine through and make an engaging and successful essay.”

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Don’t Be Artificial

The headlines about college admission are dominated by stories about artificial intelligence and the college essay. Let’s set some ground rules–to allow ChatGPT or some other tool to do your work is not only unethical, it is also unintelligent. The only worse mistake you could make is to let another human write your essay for you. Instead of preoccupying yourself with whether or not colleges are using AI detection software (most are not), spend your time focused on how best to express yourself authentically. Rick Clark is the executive director of strategic student success at Georgia Institute of Technology, one of the first institutions to clearly outline their AI policy for applicants. He says, “Much of a college application is devoted to lines, boxes, and numbers. Essays and supplements are the one place to establish connection, personality, and distinction. AI, in its current state, is terrible at all three.” He adds, “My hope is that students will use ChatGPT or other tools for brainstorming and to get started, but then move quickly into crafting an essay that will provide insight and value.”

Don’t Overdo It

Michael Stefanowicz, vice president for enrollment management at Landmark College says, “You can only cover so much detail about yourself in an admission essay, and a lot of students feel pressure to tell their life story or choose their most defining experience to date as an essay topic. Admission professionals know that you’re sharing just one part of your lived experience in the essay.” He adds, “Some of the favorite essays I’ve read have been episodic, reflecting on the way you’ve found meaning in a seemingly ordinary experience, advice you’ve lived out, a mistake you’ve learned from, or a special tradition in your life.” Gary Ross, vice president for admission and financial aid at Colgate University adds, “More than a few applicants each year craft essays that talk about the frustration and struggles they have experienced in identifying a topic for their college application essay. Presenting your college application essay as a smorgasbord of topics that ultimately landed on the cutting room floor does not give us much insight into an applicant.”

Don’t Believe In Magic

Jason Nevinger, senior director of admission at the University of Rochester warns, “Be skeptical of anyone or any company telling you, ‘This is the essay that got me into _____.’ There is no magic topic, approach, sentence structure, or prose that got any student into any institution ever.” Social media is littered with advertisements promising strategic essay help. Don’t waste your time, energy, or money trying to emulate a certain style, topic, or tone. Liz Cheron is chief executive officer for the Coalition for College and former assistant vice president of enrollment & dean of admissions at Northeastern University. She agrees with Nevinger, saying “Don't put pressure on yourself to find the perfect, slam dunk topic. The vast majority of college essays do exactly what they're supposed to do–they are well-written and tell the admission officer more about the student in that student's voice–and that can take many different forms.”

Don’t Over Recycle

Beatrice Atkinson-Myers, associate director of global recruitment at the University of California at Santa Cruz tells students, “Do not use the same response for each university; research and craft your essay to match the program at the university you are interested in studying. Don't waste time telling me things I can read elsewhere in your application. Use your essay to give the admissions officer insights into your motivations, interests, and thinking. Don't make your essay the kitchen sink, focus on one or two examples which demonstrate your depth and creativity.” Her UC colleague, Jim Rawlins, associate vice chancellor of enrollment management at the University of California at San Diego agrees, saying “Answer the question. Not doing so is the surest way we can tell you are simply giving us a snippet of something you actually wrote for a different purpose.”

Don’t Overedit

Emily Roper-Doten, vice president for undergraduate admissions and financial assistance at Clark University warns against “Too many editors!” She says, “Pick a couple of trusted folks to be your sounding board when considering topics and as readers once you have drafts. You don’t want too many voices in your essay to drown you out!” Scripps’ Romero agrees, suggesting, “Ask a good friend, someone you trust and knows you well, to read your essays.” She adds, “The goal is for the admission committee to get to know a little about you and who better to help you create that framework, than a good friend. This may not work for all students because of content but helps them understand it’s important to be themselves.” Whitney Soule, vice provost and dean of admissions at The University of Pennsylvania adds, “Avoid well-meaning editorial interference that might seem to polish your writing but actually takes your own personal ‘shine’ right out of the message.” She says, “As readers, we connect to applicants through their genuine tone and style. Considering editorial advice for flow and message is OK but hold on to the 'you' for what you want to say and how you want to say it.”

Don’t Get Showy

Palmer Muntz, senior regional admissions counselor at the University of Alaska Fairbanks cautions applicants, “Don’t be fancier than you are. You don’t need to put on airs.” He adds, “Yes, proofread your work for grammar and spelling, but be natural. Craft something you’d want to read yourself, which probably means keeping your paragraphs short, using familiar words, and writing in an active voice.” Connecticut College’s Strickler agrees, warning, “Don't try to be someone you are not. If you are not funny, don't try to write a funny essay. If you are not an intellectual, trying to write an intellectual essay is a bad idea.”

Anthony Jones, the vice president of enrollment management at Loyola University New Orleans offers a unique metaphor for thinking about the essay. He says, “In the new world of the hyper-fast college admission process, it's become easy to overlook the essential meaning of the college application. It's meant to reveal Y...O...U, the real you, not some phony digital avatar. Think of the essay as the essence of that voice but in analog. Like the completeness and authenticity captured in a vinyl record, the few lines you're given to explain your view should be a slow walk through unrestrained expression chock full of unapologetic nuances, crevices of emotion, and exactness about how you feel in the moment. Then, and only then, can you give the admissions officer an experience that makes them want to tune in and listen for more.”

Don’t Be A Downer

James Nondorf, vice president and dean of admissions and financial aid at The University of Chicago says, “Don’t be negative about other people, be appreciative of those who have supported you, and be excited about who you are and what you will bring to our campus!” He adds, “While admissions offices want smart students for our classrooms, we also want kind-hearted, caring, and joyous students who will add to our campus communities too.”

Don’t Pattern Match

Alan Ramirez is the dean of admission and financial aid at Sewanee, The University of the South. He explains, “A big concern I have is when students find themselves comparing their writing to other students or past applicants and transform their writing to be more like those individuals as a way to better their chances of offering a more-compelling essay.” He emphasizes that the result is that the “essay is no longer authentic nor the best representation of themselves and the whole point of the essay is lost. Their distinctive voice and viewpoint contribute to the range of voices in the incoming class, enhancing the diversity of perspectives we aim to achieve.” Ramirez simple tells students, “Be yourself, that’s what we want to see, plus there's no one else who can do it better than you!”

Don’t Feel Tied To A Topic

Jessica Ricker is the vice president for enrollment and dean of admissions and financial aid at Skidmore College. She says, “Sometimes students feel they must tell a story of grief or hardship, and then end up reliving that during the essay-writing process in ways that are emotionally detrimental. I encourage students to choose a topic they can reflect upon positively but recommend that if they choose a more challenging experience to write about, they avoid belaboring the details and instead focus on the outcome of that journey.” She adds, "They simply need to name it, frame its impact, and then help us as the reader understand how it has shaped their lens on life and their approach moving forward.”

Landmark College’s Stefanowicz adds, “A lot of students worry about how personal to get in sharing a part of their identity like your race or heritage (recalling last year’s Supreme Court case about race-conscious admissions), a learning difference or other disability, your religious values, LGBTQ identity…the list goes on.” He emphasizes, “This is always your choice, and your essay doesn’t have to be about a defining identity. But I encourage you to be fully yourself as you present yourself to colleges—because the college admission process is about finding a school where your whole self is welcome and you find a setting to flourish!”

Don’t Be Redundant

Hillen Grason Jr., dean of admission at Franklin & Marshall College, advises, “Don't repeat academic or co-curricular information that is easily identifiable within other parts of your application unless the topic is a core tenant of you as an individual.” He adds, “Use your essay, and other parts of your application, wisely. Your essay is the best way to convey who your authentic self is to the schools you apply. If you navigated a situation that led to a dip in your grades or co-curricular involvement, leverage the ‘additional information’ section of the application.

Thomas Marr is a regional manager of admissions for the Americas at The University of St Andrews in Scotland and points out that “Not all international schools use the main college essay as part of their assessment when reviewing student applications.” He says, “At the University of St Andrews, we focus on the supplemental essay and students should avoid the mistake of making the supplemental a repeat of their other essay. The supplemental (called the Personal Statement if using the UCAS application process) is to show the extent of their passion and enthusiasm for the subject/s to which they are applying and we expect about 75% of the content to cover this. They can use the remaining space to mention their interests outside of the classroom. Some students confuse passion for the school with passion for their subject; do not fall into that trap.”

A Few Final Don’ts

Don’t delay. Every college applicant I have ever worked with has wished they had started earlier. You can best avoid the pitfalls above if you give yourself the time and space to write a thoughtful essay and welcome feedback openly but cautiously. Don’t put too much pressure on yourself to be perfect . Do your best, share your voice, and stay true to who you are.

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Read the Court’s Ruling on Jan. 6 Obstruction

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(Slip Opinion) OCTOBER TERM, 2023 Syllabus NOTE: Where it is feasible, a syllabus (headnote) will be released, as is being done in connection with this case, at the time the opinion is issued. The syllabus constitutes no part of the opinion of the Court but has been prepared by the Reporter of Decisions for the convenience of the reader. See United States v. Detroit Timber & Lumber Co., 200 U. S. 321, 337. 1 SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES Syllabus FISCHER v. UNITED STATES CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA CIRCUIT No. 23-5572. Argued April 16, 2024-Decided June 28, 2024 The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 imposes criminal liability on anyone who corruptly "alters, destroys, mutilates, or conceals a record, docu- ment, or other object, or attempts to do so, with the intent to impair the object's integrity or availability for use in an official proceeding." 18 U. S. C. §1512(c)(1). The next subsection extends that prohibition to anyone who “otherwise obstructs, influences, or impedes any official proceeding, or attempts to do so." §1512(c)(2). Petitioner Joseph Fischer was charged with violating §1512(c)(2) for his conduct on Jan- uary 6, 2021. On that day, Congress convened in a joint session to certify the votes in the 2020 Presidential election. While they did so, a crowd of supporters of then-President Donald Trump gathered out- side the Capitol, and some eventually forced their way into the build- ing, breaking windows and assaulting police. App. 189. This breach of the Capitol delayed the certification of the vote. The criminal com- plaint alleges that Fischer was among those who invaded the building. Fischer was charged with various crimes for his actions on January 6, including obstructing an official proceeding in violation of §1512(c)(2). He moved to dismiss that charge, arguing that the provision criminal- izes only attempts to impair the availability or integrity of evidence. The District Court granted his motion in relevant part. A divided panel of the D. C. Circuit reversed and remanded for further proceed- ings. Held: To prove a violation of §1512(c)(2), the Government must establish that the defendant impaired the availability or integrity for use in an official proceeding of records, documents, objects, or other things used in an official proceeding, or attempted to do so. (a) To determine the scope of the residual “otherwise” clause in §1512(c)(2), the Court must decide how it is linked to its “surrounding

21 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Syllabus words," Yates v. United States, 574 U. S. 528, 536 (plurality opinion), and "give effect, if possible, to every clause and word of [the] statute."" Williams v. Taylor, 529 U. S. 362, 404 (quoting United States v. Menasche, 348 U. S. 528, 538-539). The Court considers both "the spe- cific context" in which (c)(2) appears "and the broader context of the statute as a whole." Robinson v. Shell Oil Co., 519 U. S. 337, 341. (1) Section 1512(c)(1) describes particular types of criminal con- duct in specific terms. The purpose of (c)(2) is, as the parties agree, to cover some set of “matters not specifically contemplated" by (c)(1). Re- public of Iraq v. Beaty, 556 U. S. 848, 860. Perhaps Congress sought to criminalize all obstructive acts in §1512(c), and having named a few examples in (c)(1), devised (c)(2) to prohibit the rest. But (c)(2) could have a narrower scope if Congress designed it to fill inadvertent gaps in the focused language of (c)(1). One way to discern the reach of an “otherwise" clause is to look for guidance from whatever examples come before it. Two general princi- ples are relevant. First, the canon of noscitur a sociis teaches that a word is "given more precise content by the neighboring words with which it is associated." United States v. Williams, 553 U. S. 285, 294. And under the related canon of ejusdem generis, a general or collective term at the end of a list of specific items is typically controlled and defined by reference to those specific items that precede it. Southwest Airlines Co. v. Saxon, 596 U. S. 450, 458. These approaches to statu- tory interpretation track the common sense intuition that Congress would not ordinarily introduce a general term that renders meaning- less the specific text that accompanies it. Under these principles, the "otherwise" provision of §1512(c)(2) is limited by the list of specific criminal violations that precede it in (c)(1). If, as the Government asserts, (c)(2) covers all forms of obstructive con- duct beyond $1512(c)(1)'s focus on evidence impairment, Congress would have had little reason to provide any specific examples at all. And the sweep of subsection (c)(2) would swallow (c)(1), leaving that narrower provision with no work to do. Tethering subsection (c)(2) to the context of (c) (1) recognizes the dis- tinct purpose of each provision. Subsection (c)(1) refers to a defined set of offense conduct-four types of actions that, by their nature, im- pair the integrity or availability of records, documents, or objects for use in an official proceeding. Reading the "otherwise" clause as having been given more precise content by (c)(1), subsection (c)(2) makes it a crime to impair the availability or integrity of records, documents, or objects used in an official proceeding in ways other than those specified in (c)(1). For example, it is possible to violate (c)(2) by creating false evidence rather than altering incriminating evidence. Subsection

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) Syllabus 3 (c)(2) also ensures that liability is still imposed for impairing the avail- ability or integrity of other things used in an official proceeding beyond the "record[s], document[s], or other object[s]" enumerated in (c)(1), such as witness testimony or intangible information. (2) It makes sense to read (c)(2) as limited by (c)(1) in light of the history of the provision. The Enron accounting scandal exposed a loop- hole in §1512. At that time, the statute imposed liability on anyone who, among other things, corruptly persuaded another person to shred documents. But it curiously failed to impose liability on a person who destroyed records himself. The parties agree that Congress enacted §1512(c) as part of the broader Sarbanes-Oxley Act to plug this loop- hole. It would be peculiar to conclude that in closing the Enron gap, Congress created a catch-all provision that reaches beyond the scenar- ios that prompted the legislation. (b) The broader context of §1512 in the criminal code confirms that (c)(2) is limited by the scope of (c)(1). Federal obstruction law consists of numerous provisions that target specific criminal acts and settings, much of which would be unnecessary if (c)(2) criminalized essentially all obstructive conduct. Given the Court's obligation to give meaning where possible to each word and provision in the Code, Taylor, 529 U. S., at 404, the Court's narrower interpretation of subsection (c)(2) is the superior one. An unbounded interpretation of subsection (c)(2) would also render superfluous the careful delineation of different types of obstructive conduct in §1512 itself. That section provides a reticulated list of nearly two dozen means of committing obstruction with penalties ranging from three years to life in prison, or even death. The Govern- ment's reading would lump together under (c)(2) disparate types of conduct for which Congress had assigned proportionate sentences. (c) The Government's theory would also criminalize a broad swath of prosaic conduct, exposing activists and lobbyist to decades in prison. Our usual approach in obstruction cases has been to "resist reading" particular sub-provisions "to create a coverall statute." Yates, 574 U. S., at 549 (plurality opinion). Nothing in the text or statutory his- tory gives the Court a reason to depart from that practice today. And the Government's interpretation would give prosecutors broad discre- tion to seek a 20-year maximum sentence for acts Congress saw fit to punish with far shorter sentences. By reading (c)(2) in light of (c)(1), the Court affords proper respect to “the prerogatives of Congress” in carrying out the quintessentially legislative act of defining crimes and setting the penalties for them. United States v. Aguilar, 515 U. S. 593, 600. 64 F. 4th 329, vacated and remanded.

4 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Syllabus ROBERTS, C. J., delivered the opinion of the Court, in which THOMAS, ALITO, GORSUCH, KAVANAUGH, and JACKSON, JJ., joined. JACKSON, J., filed a concurring opinion. BARRETT, J., filed a dissenting opinion, in which SOTOMAYOR and KAGAN, JJ., joined.

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 1 Opinion of the Court NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the United States Reports. Readers are requested to notify the Reporter of Decisions, Supreme Court of the United States, Washington, D. Č. 20543, [email protected], of any typographical or other formal errors. SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES No. 23-5572 JOSEPH W. FISCHER, PETITIONER v. UNITED STATES ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA CIRCUIT [June 28, 2024] CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS delivered the opinion of the Court. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 imposes criminal liabil- ity on anyone who corruptly "alters, destroys, mutilates, or conceals a record, document, or other object, or attempts to do so, with the intent to impair the object's integrity or availability for use in an official proceeding.” 18 U. S. C. §1512(c)(1). The next subsection extends that prohibition to anyone who “otherwise obstructs, influences, or impedes any official proceeding, or attempts to do so." §1512(c)(2). We consider whether this “otherwise” clause should be read in light of the limited reach of the specific provision that precedes it. I This case concerns the prosecution of petitioner Joseph Fischer for his conduct on January 6, 2021. That day, both Houses of Congress convened in a joint session to certify the votes in the 2020 Presidential election. While they did so, a crowd of supporters of then-President Donald Trump gathered outside the Capitol. As set forth in the criminal complaint against Fischer, some of the crowd eventually

2 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court “forced entry” into the building, “breaking windows," and "assaulting members of the U. S. Capitol Police." App. 189. This breach of the Capitol caused Members of Congress to evacuate the Chambers and delayed the certification pro- cess. The complaint alleges that Fischer was one of those who invaded the building. According to the complaint, about an hour after the Houses recessed, Fischer trespassed into the Capitol and was involved in a physical confrontation with law enforce- ment. Fischer claimed in Facebook posts that he “pushed police back about 25 feet," and that he “was inside the [Cap- itol] talking to police." Id., at 193–194. Body camera foot- age shows Fischer near a scrum between the crowd and po- lice who were trying to eject trespassers from the building. Id., at 195-196. A grand jury returned a seven-count superseding indict- ment against Fischer. Six of those counts allege that Fischer forcibly assaulted a federal officer, entered and re- mained in a restricted building, and engaged in disorderly and disruptive conduct in the Capitol, among other crimes. See id., at 181-185; 18 U.S. C. §§111(a), 231(a)(3), 1752(a)(1), (a)(2); 40 U. S. C. §§5104(e)(2)(D), (G). Those six counts carry maximum penalties ranging from six months' to eight years' imprisonment. In Count Three, the only count now before us, the Gov- ernment charged Fischer with violating 18 U.S. C. §1512(c)(2). Fischer moved to dismiss that count, arguing that the provision criminalizes only attempts to impair the availability or integrity of evidence. The District Court granted his motion in relevant part. It concluded that the scope of Section 1512(c)(2) is limited by subsection (c)(1) and therefore requires the defendant to "have taken some action with respect to a document, record, or other object.' 2022 WL 782413, *4 (DC, Mar. 15, 2022) (quoting United States v. Miller, 589 F. Supp. 3d 60, 78 (DC 2022)). 999

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 3 Opinion of the Court A divided panel of the D. C. Circuit reversed and re- manded for further proceedings. Judge Pan, writing for the court, held that the word “otherwise” in Section 1512(c)(2) means that the provision unambiguously covers "all forms of corrupt obstruction of an official proceeding, other than the conduct that is already covered by §1512(c)(1)." 64 F. 4th 329, 336 (2023). Judge Walker concurred in part and concurred in the judgment because he read the mens rea element of the statute—“corruptly”—as requiring a defend- ant to act with “an intent to procure an unlawful benefit." Id., at 361 (internal quotation marks omitted). Judge Katsas dissented. In his view, the language in sub- section (c)(1) narrows the language that comes after the word "otherwise" in subsection (c)(2). He therefore con- strued Section 1512(c)(2) as applying “only to acts that," like the ones specified in (c)(1), “affect the integrity or avail- ability of evidence” at an official proceeding. Id., at 363. We granted certiorari. 601 U. S. _ (2023). II The controversy before us is about the scope of the resid- ual "otherwise" clause in Section 1512(c)(2). On the one hand, Fischer contends that (c)(2) “applies only to acts that affect the integrity or availability of evidence." Brief for Pe- titioner 8. On the other, the Government argues that (c)(2) “capture[s] all forms of obstructive conduct beyond Section 1512(c)(1)'s focus on evidence impairment.” Brief for United States 13. Resolving such a dispute requires us to determine how the residual clause is linked to its “surrounding words." Yates v. United States, 574 U. S. 528, 536 (2015) (plurality opinion); see, e.g., United States v. Hansen, 599 U. S. 762, 774–775 (2023). In doing so, "we must ‘give effect, if possi- ble, to every clause and word of [the] statute.”” Williams v. Taylor, 529 U. S. 362, 404 (2000) (quoting United States v. Menasche, 348 U. S. 528, 538-539 (1955)). To that end, we

4 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court consider both "the specific context" in which (c)(2) appears "and the broader context of the statute as a whole." Robin- son v. Shell Oil Co., 519 U. S. 337, 341 (1997); see, e.g., Pul- sifer v. United States, 601 U. S. 124, 133 (2024) (choosing between “two grammatically permissible ways” to read a sentencing statute “by reviewing text in context"). A 1 Section 1512 provides: "(c) Whoever corruptly— "(1) alters, destroys, mutilates, or conceals a record, document, or other object, or attempts to do so, with the intent to impair the object's integrity or availability for use in an official proceeding; or "(2) otherwise obstructs, influences, or impedes any official proceeding, or attempts to do so, "shall be fined ... or imprisoned not more than 20 years, or both." Subsection (c)(1) describes particular types of criminal conduct in specific terms. To ensure the statute would not be read as excluding substantially similar activity not men- tioned, (c)(2) says it is also illegal to engage in some broader range of unenumerated conduct. The purpose of the "otherwise” clause is therefore, as the parties agree, to cover some set of "matters not specifically contemplated" by (c)(1). Republic of Iraq v. Beaty, 556 U. S. 848, 860 (2009); see Brief for Petitioner 12; Brief for United States 12-13. The problem is defining what exactly Con- gress left for (c)(2). Perhaps Congress sought to criminalize all obstructive acts in Section 1512(c), and having named a few examples in (c)(1), devised (c)(2) to prohibit the rest in one go. The point of (c)(1) would then be to illustrate just one type of conduct among many (c)(2) prohibits; it would be subsidiary to the overarching prohibition in (c)(2). But

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 10 5 Opinion of the Court (c)(2) could well have a narrower scope if Congress designed it with the focused language of (c)(1) in mind. Subsection (c)(1) would then prohibit particular types of obstructive conduct and (c)(2) would fill any inadvertent gaps that might exist. One way to discern the reach of an "otherwise" clause is to look for guidance from whatever examples come before it. Two general principles are relevant. First, the canon of noscitur a sociis teaches that a word is "given more precise content by the neighboring words with which it is associ- ated." United States v. Williams, 553 U. S. 285, 294 (2008). That “avoid[s] ascribing to one word a meaning so broad that it is inconsistent with” “the company it keeps." Gus- tafson v. Alloyd Co., 513 U. S. 561, 575 (1995). And under the related canon of ejusdem generis, “a ‘general or collec- tive term' at the end of a list of specific items" is typically "controlled and defined by reference to the specific classes ... that precede it." Southwest Airlines Co. v. Saxon, 596 U. S. 450, 458 (2022) (quoting first Ali v. Federal Bureau of Prisons, 552 U. S. 214, 225 (2008); then Circuit City Stores, Inc. v. Adams, 532 U.S. 105, 115 (2001)); accord, Bis- sonnette v. LePage Bakeries Park St., LLC, 601 U. S. 246, 252 (2024). These approaches to statutory interpretation track the common sense intuition that Congress would not ordinarily introduce a general term that renders meaning- less the specific text that accompanies it. To see why, consider a straightforward example. A zoo might post a sign that reads, “do not pet, feed, yell or throw objects at the animals, or otherwise disturb them.” If a vis- itor eats lunch in front of a hungry gorilla, or talks to a friend near its enclosure, has he obeyed the regulation? Surely yes. Although the smell of human food or the sound of voices might well disturb gorillas, the specific examples of impermissible conduct all involve direct interaction with and harassment of the zoo animals. Merely eating or talk- ing is so unlike the examples that the zoo provided that it

6 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court would be implausible to assume those activities were pro- hibited, even if literally covered by the language. The idea is simply that a general phrase can be given a more focused meaning by the terms linked to it. That prin- ciple ensures- es-regardless of how complicated a sentence might appear—that none of its specific parts are made re- dundant by a clause literally broad enough to include them. See Yates, 574 U. S., at 545–546 (plurality opinion). For instance, a football league might adopt a rule that players must not "grab, twist, or pull a facemask, helmet, or other equipment with the intent to injure a player, or otherwise attack, assault, or harm any player.” If a linebacker shouts insults at the quarterback and hurts his feelings, has the linebacker nonetheless followed the rule? Of course he has. The examples of prohibited actions all concern dangerous physical conduct that might inflict bodily harm; trash talk is simply not of that kind. See 64 F. 4th, at 365-366 (Katsas, J., dissenting). Similarly improbable consequences can result from un- tethering an "otherwise” provision from the rest of a crimi- nal statute. Take Begay v. United States, 553 U. S. 137 (2008) (abrogated on other grounds by Johnson v. United States, 576 U.S. 591 (2015)). The question there was whether driving under the influence qualified as a "violent felony" under the Armed Career Criminal Act (ACCA). A “violent felony” was defined in relevant part by ACCA as a crime, punishable by more than a year's imprisonment, that "is burglary, arson, or extortion, involves use of explosives, or otherwise involves conduct that presents a serious poten- tial risk of physical injury to another."" 553 U. S., at 139– 140 (quoting 18 U. S. C. §924(e)(2)(B)(ii) (2000 ed.)). We recognized that, depending on the context, "the word 'oth- erwise' can"-though not “must”—“refer to a crime that is similar to the listed examples in some respects but different in others." 553 U. S., at 144 (emphasis deleted). And we held that while driving under the influence certainly may

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 7 Opinion of the Court present a serious risk of physical injury, such an offense was so dissimilar from the previously enumerated exam- ples that it could not be classified as a “violent felony" under the statute. Id., at 142–146. The list of crimes that pre- ceded the residual clause-burglary, arson, extortion, and the use of explosives-focused on "purposeful, violent, and aggressive conduct." Id., at 144–145 (internal quotation marks omitted). And if that focus did not extend to the re- sidual clause, ACCA's 15-year mandatory minimum sen- tence would apply to a host of offenses “not typically com- mitted by those whom one normally labels ‘armed career criminals" and that were "far removed... from the delib- erate kind of behavior associated with violent criminal use of firearms.”¹ Id., at 146–147. The "otherwise" provision of Section 1512(c)(2) is simi- larly limited by the preceding list of criminal violations. The offenses enumerated in subsection (c)(1) cover someone who "alters, destroys, mutilates, or conceals a record, docu- ment, or other object . . . with the intent to impair the ob- ject's integrity or availability for use in an official proceed- ing." Complex as subsection (c)(1) may look, it simply consists of many specific examples of prohibited actions un- dertaken with the intent to impair an object's integrity or availability for use in an official proceeding: altering a rec- ord, altering a document, concealing a record, concealing a document, and so on. That list is followed immediately by a residual clause in (c)(2). Guided by the basic logic that Congress would not go to the trouble of spelling out the list in (c)(1) if a neighboring term swallowed it up, the most sen- 1 The dissent explains that we subsequently held the ACCA residual clause void for vagueness. See post, at 8 (opinion of BARRETT, J.) (citing Johnson v. United States, 576 U. S. 591, 597 (2015)). That our answer to the narrow question presented in Begay did not resolve a broader consti- tutional defect in the statute says little about whether the reasoning of Begay is relevant here.

00 8 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court sible inference is that the scope of (c)(2) is defined by refer- ence to (c)(1). If, as the Government asserts, (c)(2) covers "all forms of obstructive conduct beyond Section 1512(c)(1)'s focus on ev- idence impairment,” Brief for United States 13, there would have been scant reason for Congress to provide any specific examples at all. The sweep of subsection (c)(2) would con- sume (c)(1), leaving that narrower provision with no work to do. Indeed, subsection (c) (1) would be an elaborate pumpfake: a list of four types of highly particularized con- duct, performed with respect to a record, document, or ob- ject and “with the intent to impair the object's integrity or availability for use in an official proceeding,” followed in the very next subsection-in the same sentence, no less—by a superseding prohibition on all means of obstructing, influ- encing, or impeding any official proceeding. Construing Section 1512 in such a way gets the “familiar” analysis we apply to these types of statutes “exactly backwards,” elimi- nating specific terms because of broad language that follows them, rather than limiting the broad language in light of narrower terms that precede it. Bissonnette, 601 U. S., at 252, 255. Tethering subsection (c)(2) to the context of (c)(1) recog- nizes the distinct purpose of each provision. See A. Scalia & B. Garner, Reading Law 208 (2012) ("evident purpose" helps define scope of catchall provision). As we have ex- plained, subsection (c)(1) refers to a defined set of offense conduct—four types of actions that, by their nature, impair the integrity or availability of records, documents, or ob- jects for use in an official proceeding. When the phrase "otherwise obstructs, influences, or impedes any official proceeding" is read as having been given more precise con- tent by that narrower list of conduct, subsection (c)(2) makes it a crime to impair the availability or integrity of records, documents, or objects used in an official proceeding in ways other than those specified in (c)(1). For example, it

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 9 Opinion of the Court is possible to violate (c)(2) by creating false evidence―ra- ther than altering incriminating evidence. See, e.g., United States v. Reich, 479 F. 3d 179, 185–187 (CA2 2007) (So- tomayor, J.) (prosecution under subsection (c)(2) for trans- mitting a forged court order). Subsection (c)(2) also ensures that liability is still imposed for impairing the availability or integrity of other things used in an official proceeding be- yond the "record[s], document[s], or other object[s]” enu- merated in (c)(1), such as witness testimony or intangible information. See, e.g., United States v. Mintmire, 507 F. 3d 1273, 1290 (CA11 2007) (prosecution under subsection (c)(2) based in part on the defendant's attempt to orches- trate a witness's grand jury testimony). The dissent supposes that because the word "otherwise" in (c)(2) can mean “in a different manner,” “by other means," or "in other respects," (c)(1) and (c) (2) are “distinct and independent prohibitions." Post, at 2, 5 (internal quo- tation marks omitted). But the word "otherwise" is not by itself "sufficient to demonstrate that the examples do not limit the scope of the clause." Begay, 553 U. S., at 144 (em- phasis deleted). “Otherwise” can link a set of examples to a general phrase and give it more definite meaning—even in statutory sentences that rival the complexity of Section 1512(c). See Finnegan v. Leu, 456 U. S. 431, 437–438 (1982); Breininger v. Sheet Metal Workers, 493 U. S. 67, 91– 92 (1989). 2 It makes sense to read subsection (c)(2) as limited by (c)(1) in light of the history of the provision. Prior to the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, Section 1512 imposed criminal liability on anyone who “knowingly uses intimida- tion or physical force, threatens, or corruptly persuades an- other person" to, among other things, shred documents. 18 U. S. C. §1512(b)(2)(B) (2000 ed.). But the Enron account- ing scandal revealed a loophole: Although Enron's "outside

10 10 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court auditor, Arthur Andersen LLP, had systematically de- stroyed potentially incriminating documents," the statute curiously failed to “impos[e] liability on a person who de- stroys records himself." Yates, 574 U. S., at 535-536 (plu- rality opinion). As a result, prosecutors had to prove that higher-ups at Enron and Arthur Andersen persuaded some- one else to shred documents rather than the more obvious theory that someone who shreds documents is liable for do- ing so. See S. Rep. No. 107–146, p. 7 (2002). The parties agree that to plug this loophole, Congress en- acted Section 1512(c)—the provision at issue here—as part of the broader Sarbanes-Oxley Act. It would be peculiar to conclude that in closing the Enron gap, Congress actually hid away in the second part of the third subsection of Sec- tion 1512 a catchall provision that reaches far beyond the document shredding and similar scenarios that prompted the legislation in the first place. The better conclusion is that subsection (c) (2) was designed by Congress to capture other forms of evidence and other means of impairing its integrity or availability beyond those Congress specified in (c)(1). B 1 The broader context of Section 1512 in the criminal code confirms that (c)(2) is limited by the scope of (c)(1). Federal obstruction law consists of numerous provisions that target specific criminal acts and settings. See 18 U. S. C. ch. 73. Much of that particularized legislation would be unneces- sary if (c)(2) criminalized essentially all obstructive con- duct, as the Government contends. Section 1503(a), for ex- ample, makes it a crime to "corruptly, or by threats or force, or by any threatening . . . communication, endeavor[] to in- fluence, intimidate, or impede” any juror or court officer. Section 1504 covers attempting to influence jurors through written communications. Section 1505 covers anyone who

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 11 Opinion of the Court corruptly obstructs congressional inquiries or investiga- tions. Section 1507 covers picketing or parading in certain locations "with the intent of interfering with, obstructing, or impeding the administration of justice.” Section 1509 co- vers the obstruction of the exercise of rights or performance of duties under court orders. Section 1510(a) covers ob- struction of federal criminal investigations through bribery. Section 1511(a) covers certain obstruction of state or local law enforcement with the intent to facilitate illegal gam- bling. And Sections 1516, 1517, and 1518 address obstruc- tive acts in specific contexts, including federal audits, ex- aminations of financial institutions, and inquiries into healthcare-related offenses. If the Government were correct, then the "otherwise ob- structs, influences, or impedes any official proceeding" pro- vision—which is buried in subsection (c)(2) of Section 1512 would largely obviate the need for that broad array of other obstruction statutes. In light of our obligation to give meaning where possible to each word and provision in the Code, Taylor, 529 U. S., at 404, our narrower interpre- tation of subsection (c)(2) is the superior one. 2 An unbounded interpretation of subsection (c)(2) would also render superfluous the careful delineation of different types of obstructive conduct in Section 1512 itself. That section provides a reticulated list of nearly two dozen means of committing obstruction, with varying degrees of culpability and penalties ranging from three years to life in prison, or even death. Section 1512(a)(2)(B)(iv), for exam- ple, authorizes up to 30 years' imprisonment for someone who uses or attempts to use physical force against another person with the intent of causing him to be absent from an official proceeding. See §1512(a)(3)(B)(ii) (specifying pun- ishment). Section 1512(d)(1), by contrast, authorizes only

12 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court three years' imprisonment for someone who harasses an- other person and thereby dissuades him from attending an official proceeding. Reading (c)(2) to cover all forms of obstructive conduct would override Congress's careful delineation of which pen- alties were appropriate for which offenses. Most instances of those prohibited acts would instead fall under subsection (c)(2)'s sweeping reach, which provides a 20-year maximum term of imprisonment. Such a reading of subsection (c)(2) would lump together disparate types of conduct for which Congress had assigned proportionate penalties in (a)(2) and (d)(1).2 3 The Government's responses to this surplusage problem are not convincing. It first argues that because other provisions in Section 1512 would allow conviction in some circumstances on a "lesser mens rea than ‘corruptly,"" they have “a broader compass" than (c)(2). Brief for United States 34. For in- stance, the Government contends that subsection (b) can be violated by "knowing use of intimidation or threats, or mis- leading conduct." Id., at 35. But the Government concedes that "Congress did not define corruptly' for purposes of Sec- tion 1512." Id., at 44. And while the Government suggests that “corruptly” is “normally associated with wrongful, im- moral, depraved, or evil' conduct,” ibid. (quoting Arthur An- dersen LLP v. United States, 544 U. S. 696, 705 (2005)), it 292 2 The dissent maintains we have "glosse[d] over the absence of any prescribed minimum.' Post, at 14 (quoting Yates, 574 U. S., at 569 (KAGAN, J., dissenting)). Congress might have thought (c)(2) prohibited conduct of varying severity. But it does not follow that it designed (c)(2) to reach forms of conduct already covered in Chapter 73 with far lower maximum sentences. It would be improper to substitute for those fine- grained statutory distinctions the charging discretion of prosecutors and the sentencing discretion of district courts.

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 13 Opinion of the Court never persuasively explains how “knowingly us[ing] intim- idation" or "threat[s]” against someone is not "wrongful." §1512(b). The same is true for most other subparts of Sec- tion 1512 that the Government identifies as having a lesser mens rea than (c)(2). Brief for United States 34; see, e.g., §1512(a)(1)(A) (criminalizing anyone who “kills or attempts to kill another person, with intent to" prevent attendance in an official proceeding); §1512(a)(2)(B)(iv) (criminalizing anyone who "uses physical force . . . against any person" in- tending to cause them to be absent from an official proceed- ing). None of those other provisions has a mens rea the Gov- ernment may more readily establish than the "corruptly" mens rea of subsection (c)(2). The Government also contends that its interpretation creates no surplusage because Section 1512's other “provi- sions sweep more broadly than an official proceeding.” Tr. of Oral Arg. 64; Brief for United States 34. To be sure, sub- sections (a)(2)(C), (b)(3), and (d)(2) criminalize various means of preventing someone from giving a judge or law enforcement officer information relating to the commission or possible commission of a federal offense or a violation of conditions of supervised release. And subsections (d)(3) and (4) make it a crime to harass someone and thereby dissuade them from arresting or prosecuting a person alleged to have committed a federal offense. None of these crimes requires an “official proceeding.” But not much if any conduct cov- ered by those provisions would escape the Government's ex- pansive interpretation of subsection (c)(2). For a person to have violated (c)(2), “an official proceeding need not be pending or about to be instituted.” §1512(f)(1). And be- cause interference with an arrest or with communications to authorities about federal offenses could very well ob- struct the initiation of future official proceedings, the Gov- ernment's reading of (c)(2) would still often consume viola- tions of (a)(2)(C), (b)(3), and (d)(2), (3), and (4).

14 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court The dissent tries to solve this surplusage problem by ar- guing that conduct only violates (c)(2) if it has a “relation- ship in time, causation, or logic”” with an official proceed- ing. Post, at 11 (quoting United States v. Aguilar, 515 U. S. 593, 599 (1995)). Assuming there is such a requirement, it would simply mean that the defendant's actions “must have the natural and probable effect” of interfering with the pro- ceeding. Id., at 599 (internal quotation marks omitted). Such a bar on prosecutions based on “speculative” theories of obstruction, id., at 601, would hardly cabin the reach of (c)(2). The dissent points out that our reading creates some sur- plusage, too. See post, at 12–13. In a wide-ranging scheme like Chapter 73, it is true that some provisions will inevita- bly cover some of the same conduct. But “surplusage is nonetheless disfavored,” and our “construction that creates substantially less of it is better than a construction that cre- ates substantially more.” 64 F. 4th, at 374 (Katsas, J., dis- senting). III On the Government's theory, Section 1512(c) consists of a granular subsection (c)(1) focused on obstructive acts that impair evidence and an overarching subsection (c)(2) that reaches all other obstruction. Even setting surplusage aside, that novel interpretation would criminalize a broad swath of prosaic conduct, exposing activists and lobbyists alike to decades in prison. As the Solicitor General acknowledged at oral argument, under the Government's interpretation, a peaceful protester could conceivably be charged under §1512(c)(2) and face a 20-year sentence. Tr. of Oral Arg. 51-52. And the Government would likewise have no apparent obstacle to prosecuting under (c)(2) any lobbying activity that “influences” an official proceeding and is undertaken “corruptly." Those peculiar results “un-

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 15 Opinion of the Court derscore[] the implausibility of the Government's interpre- tation." Van Buren v. United States, 593 U. S. 374, 394 (2021). Our usual approach in obstruction cases has been to “re- sist reading” particular sub-provisions “to create a coverall" statute, as the Government would have us do here. Yates, 574 U. S., at 549 (plurality opinion); see also Marinello v. United States, 584 U. S. 1, 6-11 (2018); Arthur Andersen, 544 U. S., at 703-704. And there is no reason to depart from that practice today. Nothing in the text or statutory history suggests that subsection (c)(2) is designed to impose up to 20 years' imprisonment on essentially all defendants who commit obstruction of justice in any way and who might be subject to lesser penalties under more specific ob- struction statutes. See, e.g., §§1503(b)(3), 1505. If Con- gress had wanted to authorize such penalties for any con- duct that delays or influences a proceeding in any way, it would have said so. Instead, Section 1512 mentions "rec- ord," "document,” or other “object” 26 times. See 18 U. S. C. §§1512(a)(1)(B), (a)(2)(B)(i), (ii), (iii), 1512(b)(2)(A), (B), (C), 1512(c)(1), 1512(f). Rather than transforming this evidence-focused statute into a one-size-fits-all solution to obstruction of justice, we cabin our reading of subsection (c)(2) in light of the context of subsection (c)(1). Doing so affords proper respect to "the prerogatives of Congress" in carrying out the quintessen- tially legislative act of defining crimes and setting the pen- alties for them. Aguilar, 515 U. S., at 600. We have long recognized that “the power of punishment is vested in the legislative, not in the judicial department,” United States v. Wiltberger, 5 Wheat. 76, 95 (1820), and we have as a result “traditionally exercised restraint in assessing the reach of a federal criminal statute,”” Marinello, 584 U. S., at 11 (quoting Aguilar, 515 U. S., at 600). The Government's reading of Section 1512 would intrude on that deliberate arrangement of constitutional authority over federal

16 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES Opinion of the Court crimes, giving prosecutors broad discretion to seek a 20- year maximum sentence for acts Congress saw fit to punish only with far shorter terms of imprisonment—for example, three years for harassment under §1512(d)(1), or ten years for threatening a juror under §1503. For all these reasons, subsection (c)(2)'s “surrounding words" suggest that we should not give this “otherwise” pro- vision the broadest possible meaning. Yates, 574 U. S., at 536 (plurality opinion). Although the Government's all-en- compassing interpretation may be literally permissible, it defies the most plausible understanding of why (c)(1) and (c)(2) are conjoined, and it renders an unnerving amount of statutory text mere surplusage. Given that subsection (c)(2) was enacted to address the Enron disaster, not some further flung set of dangers, it is unlikely that Congress re- sponded with such an unfocused and “grossly incommensu- rate patch." 64 F. 4th, at 376 (Katsas, J., dissenting). We therefore decline to adopt the Government's interpretation, which is inconsistent with "the context from which the stat- ute arose." Bond v. United States, 572 U. S. 844, 860 (2014). * * * To prove a violation of Section 1512(c)(2), the Govern- ment must establish that the defendant impaired the avail- ability or integrity for use in an official proceeding of rec- ords, documents, objects, or as we earlier explained, other things used in the proceeding, or attempted to do so. See supra, at 9. The judgment of the D. C. Circuit is therefore vacated, and the case is remanded for further proceedings consistent with this opinion. On remand, the D. C. Circuit may assess the sufficiency of Count Three of Fischer's in- dictment in light of our interpretation of Section 1512(c)(2). It is so ordered.

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 1 JACKSON, J., concurring SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES No. 23-5572 JOSEPH W. FISCHER, PETITIONER v. UNITED STATES ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA CIRCUIT [June 28, 2024] JUSTICE JACKSON, concurring. On January 6, 2021, an angry mob stormed the United States Capitol seeking to prevent Congress from fulfilling its constitutional duty to certify the electoral votes in the 2020 Presidential election. See ante, at 1-2. The peaceful transfer of power is a fundamental democratic norm, and those who attempted to disrupt it in this way inflicted a deep wound on this Nation. But today's case is not about the immorality of those acts. Instead, the question before this Court is far narrower: What is the scope of the partic- ular crime Congress has outlined in 18 U. S. C. §1512(c)(2)? In the United States of America, “men are not subjected to criminal punishment because their conduct offends our patriotic emotions or thwarts a general purpose sought to be effected by specific commands which they have not diso- beyed. Nor are they to be held guilty of offenses which the statutes have omitted, though by inadvertence, to define and condemn." Viereck v. United States, 318 U. S. 236, 245 (1943). Our commitment to equal justice and the rule of law requires the courts to faithfully apply criminal laws as writ- ten, even in periods of national crisis, see, e.g., Cramer v. United States, 325 U. S. 1, 46-48 (1945), and even when the conduct alleged is indisputably abhorrent, cf. Michaels v. Davis, 601 U. S. (2024) (JACKSON, J., dissenting from denial of certiorari) (slip op., at 3).

2 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES JACKSON, J., concurring Notwithstanding the shocking circumstances involved in this case or the Government's determination that they war- rant prosecution, today, this Court's task is to determine what conduct is proscribed by the criminal statute that has been invoked as the basis for the obstruction charge at issue here. I join in the Court's opinion because I agree with the majority that §1512(c) (2) does not reach “all forms of ob- structive conduct”” and is, instead, “limited by the preced- ing list of criminal violations” in §1512(c)(1). Ante, at 7-8. I write separately to explain why and how that interpreta- tion of §1512(c) follows from the legislative purpose that this statute's text embodies. I Our goal in interpreting any statute should be "to give effect to the intent of Congress." United States v. American Trucking Assns., Inc., 310 U. S. 534, 542 (1940). There is no question that intent is generally expressed through the text of a statute. See American Tobacco Co. v. Patterson, 456 U. S. 63, 68 (1982). “[H]ewing closely to Congress's will" as embodied in the statute that it wrote "is especially important" when construing laws like this one, which im- plicate the possible imposition of punitive sanctions. Pugin v. Garland, 599 U. S. 600, 612 (2023) (JACKSON, J., concur- ring). Here, the majority rightly interprets the scope of §1512(c)(2) by “look[ing] for guidance from” the statutory "examples [that] come before" it those listed in §1512(c)(1). Ante, at 5. In my view, the examples that Con- gress opts to include in the text of a statute evince its inten- tions concerning what the rule covers and thereby help ex- press a particular legislative purpose. The majority's football-based example is illustrative. In a football league, says the majority, “a rule that players must not 'grab, twist, or pull a facemask, helmet, or other equipment with the intent to injure a player, or otherwise

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 3 JACKSON, J., concurring attack, assault, or harm any player,”” should not be inter- preted as being directed at hurt feelings, because the listed "prohibited actions all concern dangerous physical conduct that might inflict bodily harm; trash talk is simply not of that kind." Ante, at 6. I agree. I would add that it is like- wise clear from the listed prohibited acts that such a rule is also not addressing far more serious and unexpected con- duct than the kinds of acts that the preceding examples de- scribe, which can result in serious and foreseeable physical injuries during a rough-and-tumble football game. By con- trast, if a player were to shoot or poison another player, the rule's drafters would expect the police to be called, not a referee. Thus, we conclude that the rule is best understood to be inapposite with respect to conduct at both extremes of the universe of harmful acts in which a player might con- ceivably engage. We recognize this intuitive fact that there is a certain category of conduct the rule is designed to prohibit-be- cause we recognize, albeit implicitly, that the drafters of this rule have included these particular examples for a rea- son. We understand that, given the preceding list of exam- ples, this rule was adopted with a clear intent concerning its scope. So, though a broad conception of "harm” is “liter- ally covered by the language” of the rule, ibid., we appreci- ate that the rule's drafters did not intend for that term to take on its most expansive meaning. Instead, the examples help illuminate what the drafters actually intended the rule to cover. From the preceding list, we can confidently dis- cern that the drafters meant to proscribe only conduct that risks injuries with severity akin to facemask pulling, not trash talk or murder.1 1 The majority invokes the canons of noscitur a sociis and ejusdem gen- eris to support this inference. See ante, at 5. Those canons are useful interpretive tools, but in my view, they are ultimately only devices used in furtherance of achieving our goal of determining “the intent of Con- gress." United States v. American Trucking Assns., Inc., 310 U. S. 534,

4 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES JACKSON, J., concurring The upshot is that, when interpreting the scope of a par- ticular statute or rule, our assessment of the words that the drafters used informs our understanding of what the rule was designed to do.² Discerning the rule's purpose is criti- cal when a court is called upon to interpret the provision. II Turning to the statutory provision at issue here, the pur- pose of $1512(c), reflected in its text, is clear. Subsection (c)(1) is indisputably focused on persons who engage in a particular kind of obstructive conduct: Anyone who "cor- ruptly alters, destroys, mutilates, or conceals a record, document, or other object, . . . with the intent to impair the object's integrity or availability for use in an official pro- ceeding." Subsection (c)(2), in turn, is directed at criminal conduct that “otherwise” achieves a similar result. I there- fore agree with the majority that §1512(c)(2)'s reach is nar- rower than the Government contends. As the majority holds, §1512(c)(2) “makes it a crime to impair the availabil- ity or integrity of records, documents, or objects used in an official proceeding in ways other than those specified in (c)(1)" and to “impai[r] the availability or integrity of other things used in an official proceeding beyond the 'record[s], document[s], or other object[s]' enumerated in (c)(1)." ... 542 (1940). "There is no invariable rule for the discovery of that inten- tion." Ibid. As one treatise explains, such canons are “not. rule[s] of law" but rather "one of various factors to be considered." A. Scalia & B. Garner, Reading Law: The Interpretation of Legal Texts 212 (2012); see also id., at 196–198. We apply these canons because we understand that their principles are consistent with how users of language—including legislators convey meaning. See id., at 212 ("Any lawyer or legislative drafter who writes two or more specifics followed by a general residual term without the intention that the residual term be limited may be guilty of malpractice"). As such, they are valid indicia of Congress's pur- pose. 2 Other indicia of the drafters' intent, such as the rule's context or en- actment history, can further inform our understanding of the rule. See infra, at 5-8.

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) JACKSON, J., concurring 10 5 Ante, at 8-9. This understanding of §1512(c)'s text and purpose is en- tirely consistent with the statute's enactment history. Con- gress enacted §1512(c) as part of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, which "was prompted by the exposure of Enron's massive accounting fraud and revelations that the company's out- side auditor, Arthur Andersen LLP, had systematically de- stroyed potentially incriminating documents." Yates v. United States, 574 U. S. 528, 535–536 (2015) (plurality opinion). When introducing what later became §1512(c) on the Senate floor, Senator Lott emphasized that its principal purpose was to target document destruction, which was, at the time, prohibited “only if ... a subpoena ha[d] been is- sued for the evidence that ha[d] been destroyed or altered." 148 Cong. Rec. S6545 (July 10, 2002). “[T]his section,” he explained, "would allow the Government to charge obstruc- tion against individuals who acted alone, even if the tam- pering took place prior to the issuance of a grand jury sub- poena." Ibid. Similarly, the Senate Report accompanying the proposed statute noted that “current federal obstruction of justice statutes relating to document destruction [were] riddled with loopholes and burdensome proof require- ments." S. Rep. No. 107–146, p. 6 (2002). According to the Senate Report, §1512(c) was drafted to fill these gaps: "When a person destroys evidence with the intent of ob- structing any type of investigation and the matter is within the jurisdiction of a federal agency, overly technical legal distinctions should neither hinder nor prevent prosecution and punishment.” Id., at 7. Conversely, there is no indication whatsoever that Con- gress intended to create a sweeping, all-purpose obstruction statute. As the majority notes, "[f]ederal obstruction law consists of numerous provisions that target specific crimi- nal acts and settings." Ante, at 10. Outside of the Govern- ment's proposed interpretation of §1512(c), Congress has never enacted “a one-size-fits-all solution to obstruction of

6 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES JACKSON, J., concurring justice.” Ante, at 15.³ Meanwhile, many States have done just that. See J. Decker, The Varying Parameters of Ob- struction of Justice in American Criminal Law, 65 La. L. Rev. 49, 77, and n. 236 (2004) (collecting statutes). 4 The drafters of the Model Penal Code, too, proposed such a gen- eral obstruction crime. See ALI, Model Penal Code §242.1, p. 201 (1980) ("A person commits a misdemeanor if he pur- posely obstructs, impairs or perverts the administration of law or other governmental function by force, violence, phys- ical interference or obstacle, breach of official duty, or any other unlawful act"). Given that Congress has never before passed a similarly broad obstruction law when others have long existed, it is highly unlikely that Congress intended for subsection (c)(2) to establish a first-of-its-kind general federal obstruction crime. Nothing in the enactment history of §1512(c) sug- gests that Congress believed that it was creating an all-en- compassing statute that would obviate the need for any other obstruction prohibitions. This conclusion is further reinforced by the fact that, un- like §1512(c)(2), nearly all of the broad, all-purpose obstruc- tion statutes that various States have enacted are classified as misdemeanors. See, e.g., Colo. Rev. Stat. §18–8–102(3) (2023); Ohio Rev. Code Ann. 2921.31(B) (Lexis 2024). As a 3 That is not to say, of course, that Congress could not enact such a statute if it so chose. "We have traditionally exercised restraint in as- sessing the reach of a federal criminal statute. . . out of deference to the prerogatives of Congress,” United States v. Aguilar, 515 U. S. 593, 600 (1995), not because broad criminal proscriptions are beyond the scope of Congress's power. 4 See also, e.g., Colo. Rev. Stat. §18–8–102(1) (2023) ("A person commits obstructing government operations if he intentionally obstructs, impairs, or hinders the performance of a governmental function by a public serv- ant, by using or threatening to use violence, force, or physical interfer- ence or obstacle"); Ohio Rev. Code Ann. §2921.31(A) (Lexis 2024) ("No person... shall do any act that hampers or impedes a public official in the performance of the public official's lawful duties").

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 7 JACKSON, J., concurring result, these types of obstruction crimes are generally pun- ishable by up to a year of incarceration. See 1 W. LaFave, J. Israel, N. King, & O. Kerr, Criminal Procedure §1.8(c), pp. 557-558 (4th ed. 2015). That is so for a reason: As the Model Penal Code's drafters explained, “the existence of a residual misdemeanor offense" allows for the “appropri- ately narrow definition of the serious forms of obstruction carrying felony penalties." §242.1, Comment 2, at 203. "A broad residual offense. . . provides a hedge against the in- genuity of offenders," since "[n]ot all forms of obstruction can be anticipated and precisely proscribed in specific of- fenses." Ibid. But, at the same time, that kind of broad criminal statute “must incorporate certain limitations lest it nullify policy decisions expressed elsewhere." Ibid. In other words, these broad misdemeanor obstruction statutes are “amalgam[s] of generality and constraint.” Ibid. The Government's interpretation of §1512(c)(2), by con- trast, exhibits all the generality of these catchall misde- meanor obstruction provisions while displaying none of their restraint. Section 1512(c)(2) is a felony, and it im- poses a 20-year maximum sentence-one of the more severe potential punishments in Chapter 73 of the U. S. Code. That stands in contrast with Congress's specification that other serious obstructive acts warrant “far shorter terms of imprisonment—for example, three years for harassment under §1512(d)(1), or ten years for threatening a juror un- der $1503." Ante, at 16. Finally, it is worth remembering the statutory context in which Congress chose to prohibit the obstruction-related conduct we are considering today. The statute Congress wrote addresses this matter in a 13-word phrase, enumer- ated "2," that is located within subsection (c) of a much broader §1512, which itself consists of “a reticulated list of nearly two dozen means of committing obstruction." Ante, at 11. However we might interpret Congress's drafting choices in other contexts, we should be wary of finding that

8 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES JACKSON, J., concurring a statute addresses significant criminal conduct when none of the available indicia of congressional intent, including the prohibition's placement, suggest that Congress in- tended that result. Here, it beggars belief that Congress would have inserted a breathtakingly broad, first-of-its- kind criminal obstruction statute (accompanied by a sub- stantial 20-year maximum penalty) in the midst of a signif- icantly more granular series of obstruction prohibitions without clarifying its intent to do so―not in the text of the provision itself, nor in the surrounding statutory context, nor in any statement issued during the enactment process. * * * In my view, the Court properly interprets §1512(c)(2) in the opinion it issues today. It also rightly vacates the judg- ment below and remands this case for further proceedings. Joseph Fischer was charged with violating §1512(c)(2) by corruptly obstructing “a proceeding before Congress, specif- ically, Congress's certification of the Electoral College vote." App. 183. That official proceeding plainly used certain rec- ords, documents, or objects—including, among others, those relating to the electoral votes themselves. See Tr. of Oral Arg. 65-67. And it might well be that Fischer's conduct, as alleged here, involved the impairment (or the attempted impairment) of the availability or integrity of things used during the January 6 proceeding “in ways other than those specified in (c)(1)." Ante, at 8. If so, then Fischer's prosecu- tion under $1512(c)(2) can, and should, proceed. That issue remains available for the lower courts to determine on re- mand.

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 1 BARRETT, J., dissenting SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES No. 23-5572 JOSEPH W. FISCHER, PETITIONER v. UNITED STATES ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA CIRCUIT [June 28, 2024] JUSTICE BARRETT, with whom JUSTICE SOTOMAYOR and JUSTICE KAGAN join, dissenting. Joseph Fischer allegedly joined a mob of rioters that breached the Capitol on January 6, 2021. At the time, Con- gress was meeting in a joint session to certify the Electoral College results. The riot forced Congress to suspend the proceeding, delaying it for several hours. The Court does not dispute that Congress's joint session qualifies as an “official proceeding”; that rioters delayed the proceeding; or even that Fischer's alleged conduct (which includes trespassing and a physical confrontation with law enforcement) was part of a successful effort to forcibly halt the certification of the election results. Given these prem- ises, the case that Fischer can be tried for “obstructing, in- fluencing, or impeding an official proceeding” seems open and shut. So why does the Court hold otherwise? Because it simply cannot believe that Congress meant what it said. Section 1512(c)(2) is a very broad provision, and admittedly, events like January 6th were not its target. (Who could blame Congress for that failure of imagination?) But statutes often go further than the problem that in- spired them, and under the rules of statutory interpreta- tion, we stick to the text anyway. The Court, abandoning that approach, does textual backflips to find some way—

2 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES BARRETT, J., dissenting any way to narrow the reach of subsection (c)(2). I re- spectfully dissent. I The case for the Government's interpretation is straight- forward. It can be accomplished in three paragraphs, as compared to the Court's many, many more. Ante, at 4-12. Start with the verbs: To "obstruct" and to “impede” mean to "hinder" or "retard" something's "passage" or "progress." 10 Oxford English Dictionary 668 (2d ed. 1989); 7 id., at 705. We have previously explained that these words are "broad." Marinello v. United States, 584 U. S. 1, 7 (2018). To “influence” is similarly expansive, meaning “[t]o affect the condition of” or “to have an effect on” something. 7 Ox- ford English Dictionary, at 940. The object of these verbs is an "official proceeding," defined to include “a proceeding be- fore the Congress." 18 U.S. C. §1515(a)(1)(B).¹ So (c)(2) covers all sorts of actions that affect or interfere with official proceedings. "[O]therwise," which introduces 18 U. S. C. §1512(c)(2), does not narrow its scope. “Otherwise” means “in a differ- ent manner,” “by other means,” or “in other respects." 10 Oxford English Dictionary, at 984; Webster's Third New In- ternational Dictionary 1598 (2002). It is often used to in- troduce a "catchall phras[e].” Texas Dept. of Housing and Community Affairs v. Inclusive Communities Project, 576 U. S. 519, 535 (2015). Here, “otherwise” tells the reader how (c)(1) and (c) (2) fit together. Subsection (c)(1) prohibits "alter[ing], destroy[ing], mutilat[ing], or conceal[ing] a rec- ord, document, or other object” with “intent to impair [its] integrity or availability for use in an official proceeding.” In other words, (c)(1) targets document and object spoliation— 1 The D. C. Circuit held, and this Court does not dispute, that Con- gress's joint session on January 6, 2021, qualifies as an "official proceed- ing."" 64 F. 4th 329, 342 (2023).

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 3 BARRETT, J., dissenting classic means of obstruction. Subsection (c)(2) then prohib- its obstructing, influencing, or impeding an official proceed- ing by means different from those specified in (c)(1), thereby serving as a catchall. The “enumerated" crimes in (c)(1) and the "unenumerated crimes" in (c) (2) are similar “on one spe- cific dimension": "the particular similarity specified after the 'otherwise." Begay v. United States, 553 U. S. 137, 150–151 (2008) (Scalia, J., concurring in judgment). Here, that means that each crime represents one means through which to obstruct, influence, or impede an official proceed- ing. Joseph Fischer allegedly participated in a riot at the Cap- itol that forced the delay of Congress's joint session on Jan- uary 6th. Blocking an official proceeding from moving for- ward surely qualifies as obstructing or impeding the proceeding by means other than document destruction. Fischer's alleged conduct thus falls within (c)(2)'s scope. II A Opting for a narrower approach, the Court declines to take (c)(2) on its own terms. Instead, it borrows the eviden- tiary focus of (c)(1) to hold that a defendant violates (c)(2) only by "impair[ing] the availability or integrity for use in an official proceeding of records, documents, objects, or . . . other things used in the proceeding." Ante, at 16. Other means of obstructing a proceeding—say, by shutting it down are out. This interpretation might sound faithful to the statute, because the limit comes from a related provision rather than thin air. But snipping words from one subsection and grafting them onto another violates our normal interpretive principles. “[W]e ordinarily resist reading words or ele- ments into a statute that do not appear on its face."" Dean v. United States, 556 U. S. 568, 572 (2009) (quoting Bates v.

4 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES BARRETT, J., dissenting United States, 522 U. S. 23, 29 (1997)). And “[w]here Con- gress includes particular language in one section of a stat- ute but omits it in another section of the same Act,"" we generally presume that Congress did so intentionally. Rus- sello v. United States, 464 U. S. 16, 23 (1983) (quoting United States v. Wong Kim Bo, 472 F. 2d 720, 722 (CA5 1972) (per curiam)). The Court's reasons for departing from these rules are thin. 1 The Court begins with the noscitur a sociis and ejusdem generis canons. Ante, at 5. The noscitur canon counsels that "words grouped in a list should be given related mean- ings." A. Scalia & B. Garner, Reading Law §31, p. 195 (2012) (internal quotation marks omitted). It is particu- larly useful when interpreting “a word [that] is capable of many meanings."" McDonnell v. United States, 579 U. S. 550, 569 (2016) (quoting Jarecki v. G. D. Searle & Co., 367 U. S. 303, 307 (1961)). See, e.g., Gustafson v. Alloyd Co., 513 U. S. 561, 573–575 (1995) (employing the canon to in- terpret “communication” in the statutory list “prospectus, notice, circular, advertisement, letter, or communication""). The ejusdem canon applies when “a catchall phrase" follows “an enumeration of specifics, as in dogs, cats, horses, cattle, and other animals." Scalia & Garner §32, at 199. We often interpret the catchall phrase to “embrace only objects simi- lar in nature to those objects enumerated by the preceding specific words." Circuit City Stores, Inc. v. Adams, 532 U. S. 105, 115 (2001). See, e.g., Washington State Dept. of Social and Health Servs. v. Guardianship Estate of Keffeler, 537 U. S. 371, 375, 385 (2003) (employing the canon to construe the general term in the statutory list "execution, levy, at- tachment, garnishment, or other legal process""). These canons are valuable tools. But applying either to (c)(2) is like using a hammer to pound in a screw-it looks like it might work, but using it botches the job. Unlike the

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 10 5 BARRETT, J., dissenting pattern to which the noscitur canon applies, §1512(c) is not a list of terms that includes an ambiguous word. So the Court does not do what it does when applying noscitur: se- lect between multiple accepted meanings of the words "ob- structs,” “influences,” and “impedes." Instead, it modifies those words by adding an adverbial phrase: obstructs, in- fluences or impedes by “impair[ing] the availability or in- tegrity for use in an official proceeding of records, docu- ments, or objects." Ante, at 16 (emphasis added). The ejusdem canon is an equally poor fit. Unlike the pattern to which ejusdem applies, (c)(2) is “not a general or collective term following a list of specific items to which a particular statutory command is applicable.” United States v. Aguilar, 515 U. S. 593, 615 (1995) (Scalia, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part). Instead, (c)(1) and (c)(2) are "distinct and independent prohibitions." Ibid. Though they share a subject and an adverb—“[w]hoever corruptly"-the two clauses contain different verbs that take different objects. §1512(c). Moreover, (c)(1) has a separate mens rea provi- sion that further disrupts the connection between the clauses. To my knowledge, we have never applied either of these canons to a statute resembling §1512(c). Rather than iden- tify such a case, the Court invents examples of a sign at the zoo and a football league rule. Ante, at 5-6. The zoo exam- ple ("do not pet, feed, yell or throw objects at the animals, or otherwise disturb them”) does not help, because it mim- ics the typical ejusdem format of specific words followed by a catchall. The list of specific verbs makes clear that the cleanup phrase (“otherwise disturb") is limited to conduct that involves direct interaction with the animals. But in the absence of a laundry list followed by a catchall, it is hard to see why the ejusdem canon fits. Ali v. Federal Bureau of Prisons, 552 U. S. 214, 225 (2008) ("The absence of a list of specific items undercuts the inference embodied in ejusdem

6 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES BARRETT, J., dissenting generis that Congress remained focused on the common at- tribute when it used the catchall phrase"). And §1512(c) does not follow the laundry-list-plus-catchall pattern. The Court's football example is only slightly better. As a refresher: "[A] football league might adopt a rule that players must not 'grab, twist, or pull a facemask, helmet, or other equipment with the intent to injure a player, or otherwise attack, assault, or harm any player.' If a linebacker shouts insults at the quarterback and hurts his feelings, has the linebacker nonetheless followed the rule? Of course he has. The examples of prohibited actions all concern dangerous physical conduct that might inflict bodily harm; trash talk is simply not of that kind." Ante, at 6. Put aside that it is hard to imagine anyone describing “trash talk” as inflicting an “injury” or “harming" a player in a football game. The league rule plainly forecloses the possibility. Consistent with the noscitur canon, “harm” takes its meaning from its companions “attack” and “as- sault." And while the Court tries to track §1512(c)'s struc- ture by adding an extra intent clause, the two clauses in its example are still tightly focused on actions directed at the player. (After all, who is wearing the facemask, helmet, or other equipment?) Given that shared theme, it is easy to understand that the first clause's focus on physical conduct limits the (only slightly) more general clause. But §1512(c)'s subsections are not so closely related―(c)(1) fo- cuses specifically on objects in a proceeding, and (c)(2) broadens the lens to the proceeding itself. Consider a rule that actually mirrors §1512(c): "Any player who: "(1) punches, chokes, or kicks an opposing player with the intent to remove him from the game; or "(2) otherwise interrupts, hinders, or interferes with

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 7 the game, BARRETT, J., dissenting "shall be suspended." While the specific verbs in the first clause involve actions directed at an opposing player, the second clause is a sepa- rate prohibition with an entirely different object. Imagine that, just before the opposing team's kicker attempts a field goal, players leave the sidelines and storm the field, some tackling referees in the process. Those players have surely “interrupt[ed], hinder[ed], or interfer[ed] with the game,” even though they have not physically injured any opponent. This hypothetical, not the Court's, is analogous to §1512(c) and it supports the Government's interpretation. 2 The Court next recruits help from Begay, which inter- prets an "otherwise" clause in the Armed Career Criminal Act. Ante, at 6; 553 U. S., at 140. The ACCA defines a "vi- olent felony" as a felony that “is burglary, arson, or extor- tion, involves use of explosives, or otherwise involves con- duct that presents a serious potential risk of physical injury.” 18 U. S. C. §924(e)(2)(B)(ii). Begay holds that the example crimes limit the catchall clause to "crimes that are roughly similar . . . to the examples themselves." 553 U. S., at 143. So too here, the Court reasons, the list of crimes in (c)(1) limits the “otherwise” clause in (c)(2). But §1512(c) is structured differently than the statute in Begay. While §1512(c) contains two distinct criminal pro- hibitions (c)(1) and (c)(2)—the statutory definition in Be- gay contained a list of examples followed immediately by a residual clause. The latter structure more readily supports interpreting the general clause in light of the specifics, much like a statute to which the ejusdem canon would ap- ply. Moreover, the residual clause at issue in Begay called out for a limiting principle—what is a “serious potential risk of physical injury?" The breadth itself was a cue that

8 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES BARRETT, J., dissenting the interpreter should read back to find some limit. See id., at 142–143. Subsection (c)(2)'s “otherwise” clause, by con- trast, stands on its own. Postscript: Seven years after Begay was decided, we held ACCA's residual clause void for vagueness. Johnson v. United States, 576 U. S. 591, 597 (2015). So the clause is not only distinguishable, but also a poor model for statutory interpretation. 3 The Court argues that "there would have been scant rea- son for Congress to provide any specific examples” in (c)(1) if (c)(2) covered all forms of obstructive conduct. Ante, at 8. Conduct like destroying and concealing records "obstructs, influences, or impedes a[n] official proceeding,” so Congress could have enacted just (c)(2) and been done with it. On the Government's interpretation, the Court asserts, the second prohibition swallows the first. If (c)(1) has any function, it must be to cast light (and impose limits) on (c)(2). What the Court does not say is that its rewrite also elim- inates the need for (c)(1)'s examples. The Court's interpre- tation assumes that Congress used a convoluted, two-step approach to enact a prohibition on “impair[ing] the integ- rity or availability of records, documents, or other objects for use in an official proceeding." So why didn't Congress just say that? And if the Court is right about what (c)(2) means, why do we need the specific examples in (c)(1)? Those acts are already covered. The problem of (c)(2) sub- suming (c)(1) is therefore not unique to my theory. It bears emphasis, though, that the broad overlap makes sense, given the statute's backstory. When the Enron scan- dal occurred, Congress (along with the general public) was taken aback to discover that seemingly criminal conduct was actually not a federal crime. As it then existed, §1512 had a loophole: It imposed liability on those who persuaded others to destroy documents, but not on the people who

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 9 BARRETT, J., dissenting themselves destroyed documents. Ante, at 9–10. Congress enacted §1512(c) to close this “Enron gap.” Subsection (c)(1) deals with the particular problem at hand-document de- struction. Subsection (c)(2) reflects Congress's desire to avoid future surprises: It is “a catchall for matters not spe- cifically contemplated-known unknowns." Republic of Iraq v. Beaty, 556 U. S. 848, 860 (2009). So contrary to the Court's suggestion, it would not be “pe- culiar" for (c)(2) to cover conduct “far beyond the document shredding and similar scenarios that prompted the legisla- tion in the first place." Ante, at 10. Enron exposed more than the need to prohibit evidence spoliation-it also ex- posed the need to close statutory gaps. And in any event, statutes often reach beyond the “principal evil” that ani- mated them. Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc., 523 U. S. 75, 79 (1998). That is not grounds for narrowing them, because “it is ultimately the provisions of our laws rather than the principal concerns of our legislators by which we are governed." Ibid. While the Court insists that (c)(1) limits (c)(2), it cannot seem to settle on the "common attribute" in the first subsec- tion that cabins the second. See Ali, 552 U. S., at 225. On one hand, the Court says that “(c)(2) makes it a crime to impair the availability or integrity of records, documents, or objects used in an official proceeding." Ante, at 8 (emphasis added). This “physical evidence” limitation tracks the Dis- trict Court's interpretation. See United States v. Miller, 589 F. Supp. 3d 60, 78 (DC 2022). On the other hand, the Court says that (c)(2) prohibits “impairing the availability or in- tegrity of other things used in an official proceeding," such as "witness testimony” or “intangible information." Ante, at 9. This broader “evidence impairment” theory resembles Judge Katsas's interpretation. 64 F. 4th 329, 363 (CADC 2023) (dissenting opinion).

10 10 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES BARRETT, J., dissenting Both formulations are problematic—and not only because both are atextual. The first, focused solely on physical items, would leave (c)(2) with almost no work to do. Sub- section (c)(1) already prohibits “alter[ing], destroy[ing], mu- tilat [ing], or conceal[ing]" documents, records, or objects. This essentially covers the waterfront of acts that impair the integrity or availability of objects. True, (c)(2) could also encompass "cover[ing] up, falsif[ying], or mak[ing] a false entry in” a record or document. See 18 U. S. C. §1519. But it seems “unlikely" that Congress used the “expansive” lan- guage of (c)(2) “to address such narrow concerns." 64 F. 4th, at 344. The somewhat amorphous “other things” limitation has the benefit of giving (c)(2) a wider berth, but it is un- clear how the Court landed on it. The term does not appear in (c)(1) or in §1512's surrounding subsections, which refer specifically to records, documents, objects, and testimony. The "other things” formulation comes from the Court, not Congress. The Court's uncertainty about the relevant “common at- tribute" is a tell that Congress did not intend to define (c)(2) by reference to (c)(1). Indeed, “[h]ad Congress intended to limit [§1512(c)(2)]'s reach" as the Court asserts, it "easily could have written” the catchall to say “otherwise impair the integrity or availability of records, documents, objects, or other things for use in an official proceeding." Ali, 552 U. S., at 227; see ante, at 8-9.2 It did not, and we should not pretend that it did. B The Court relies on statutory context to "confir[m] that 2 Indeed, Congress could have looked to 18 U. S. C. §1505 as a model. That statute makes it a crime to "willfully withhol[d], misrepresen[t], remov[e] from any place, concea[1], cove[r] up, destro[y], mutilat[e], alte[r], or by other means falsif[y] any documentary material, answers to written interrogatories, or oral testimony" with the intent to obstruct "any civil investigative demand.” §1505 (emphasis added).

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 11 BARRETT, J., dissenting (c)(2) is limited by the scope of (c)(1)." Ante, at 10. As the Court sees it, interpreting (c) (2) according to its plain text would render other obstruction provisions, within §1512 and throughout Chapter 73, superfluous. Ante, at 10–12. The Court exaggerates. Subsection (c)(2) applies only to conduct that obstructs an “official proceeding." The Court highlights several provisions that cover obstruction of in- vestigations. See, e.g., 18 U. S. C. §§1510(a), 1511(a), 1516, 1517, 1518, 1519. The circuits have held that criminal in- vestigations do not qualify as “official proceedings." See, e.g., United States v. Ermoian, 752 F. 3d 1165, 1172 (CA9 2013); United States v. Ramos, 537 F. 3d 439, 463 (CA5 2008). Likewise, not every provision in §1512 relates to an official proceeding; instead, several target the obstruction of communications to judges and law enforcement about the commission of federal offenses. 18 U. S. C. §§1512(a)(1)(C), (a)(2)(C), (b)(3), (d)(1)(2). The Court responds by stressing that for purposes of §1512, "an official proceeding need not be pending or about to be instituted." §1512(f)(1); ante, at 13. Because obstruc- tion of investigations or communications could end up ob- structing the initiation of a future official proceeding, the Court reasons that (c)(2) may still swallow those other pro- visions. But we have previously construed federal obstruc- tion offenses similar to §1512(c) to require a tighter link be- tween the obstructive conduct and the relevant proceeding. Under the "nexus” requirement, the defendant's conduct must have a “relationship in time, causation, or logic” with the proceeding. Aguilar, 515 U. S., at 599 (adopting nexus requirement for §1503's omnibus clause). And the defend- ant must act in “contemplation” of a “particular official pro- ceeding." Arthur Andersen LLP v. United States, 544 U. S. 696, 708 (2005) (adopting nexus requirement for §1512(b)(2)). The circuits have unanimously applied this requirement to §1512(c). See United States v. Young, 916 F. 3d 368, 386 (CA4 2019) (collecting cases). This element

12 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES BARRETT, J., dissenting eliminates much of the overlap that the Court perceives be- tween (c)(2) and the provisions that do not require an “offi- cial proceeding.” Moreover, §§1512(a)(1)(A) and (d)(1) prohibit preventing the mere attendance of any person in an official proceeding. Preventing attendance will not always have the effect of ob- structing, influencing, or impeding the proceeding. And §1512(d)(1) makes it a crime to intentionally harass some- one and thereby dissuade her from testifying in an official proceeding. In contrast to (c)(2), this provision—which car- ries a significantly lower maximum penalty-does not re- quire a defendant to act “corruptly." This is not to deny that (c)(2)—if allowed its broad, ordi- nary meaning-overlaps with several offenses in Chapter 73. See ante, at 10-11. Even so, (c)(2) still leaves a healthy amount of work for other obstruction offenses. And besides, "substantial" overlap "is not uncommon in criminal stat- utes." Loughrin v. United States, 573 U. S. 351, 358, n. 4 (2014); see also Hubbard v. United States, 514 U. S. 695, 714, n. 14 (1995) (opinion of Stevens, J.). "The mere fact that two federal criminal statutes criminalize similar con- duct says little about the scope of either.” Pasquantino v. United States, 544 U. S. 349, 358, n. 4 (2005). That is espe- cially true here, because Congress enacted (c)(2) after it had already enacted other subsections of §1512, as well as ob- struction offenses like §§1503 and 1505. The redundancy argument would have more force if (c)(2) “render[ed] super- fluous an entire provision passed in proximity as part of the same Act." Yates v. United States, 574 U. S. 528, 543 (2015) (plurality opinion) (emphasis added). As it stands, the canon against surplusage does not provide any reason to ar- tificially narrow (c)(2)'s scope. In any event, the Court's formulation does not begin to cure the statutory overlap. Killing a person with the intent to prevent the production of a record in an official proceed- ing constitutes conduct that impairs the availability of a

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 13 BARRETT, J., dissenting record for an official proceeding. 18 U. S. C. §1512(a)(1)(B). Using physical force against a person to influence testi- mony in an official proceeding counts as impairing the in- tegrity of "other things" used in an official proceeding. §1512(a)(2)(A). And impairing the availability or integrity of documents for use in an official proceeding will often “in- fluenc[e], obstruc[t], or imped[e] . . . the due administration of justice." §1503(a); see also §1515(a)(1)(A) (“official pro- ceeding"" includes “a proceeding before a judge or court of the United States"). Examples abound. See, e.g., §§1505, 1512(a)(1)(A), (a)(2)(B), (b)(1), (b)(2), (d)(1). “[T]he canon against surplusage merely favors that interpretation which avoids surplusage”—and on that score, the Court's inter- pretation fares no better than mine. Freeman v. Quicken Loans, Inc., 566 U. S. 624, 635 (2012). In fact, the broader statutory context works against the Court's interpretation. Congress did not select the verbs "obstruct," "influence,” and “impede” at random. Those words were already in §1503, which prohibits “corruptly or by threats or force, or by any threatening letter or commu- nication, influenc[ing], obstruct[ing], or imped[ing] . . . the due administration of justice." We have described this "Omnibus Clause"" as a "catchall," because it follows sev- eral specific proscriptions against coercive behavior toward jurors and court officers. Aguilar, 515 U. S., at 598. Courts have routinely declined to "rea[d] the omnibus clause” as limited to "acts similar in manner to those prescribed by the statute's specific language.” United States v. Howard, 569 F. 2d 1331, 1333, 1335 (CA5 1978) (collecting cases). And Justice Scalia agreed that ejusdem generis did not apply to limit the Omnibus Clause, “one of the several distinct and independent prohibitions contained in §1503 that share only the word 'Whoever,' which begins the statute, and the penalty provision which ends it." Aguilar, 515 U. S., at 615 (opinion concurring in part and dissenting in part). Section 1512(c) follows the very same pattern.

14 FISCHER v. UNITED STATES BARRETT, J., dissenting C The Court concludes with an appeal to consequences: Construing (c)(2) broadly would “expos[e] activists and lob- byists alike to decades in prison." Ante, at 14. This fear is overstated. To begin with, the Court ignores that (c)(2) requires proof that a defendant acted “corruptly.” The meaning of this term is unsettled, but all of its possible definitions limit the scope of liability. On one proposed interpretation, a defend- ant acts corruptly by “us[ing] unlawful means, or act[ing] with an unlawful purpose, or both."" United States v. Rob- ertson, 103 F. 4th 1, 8 (CADC 2023) (approving jury instruc- tions for (c)(2)). On another, a defendant acts "corruptly" if he “act[s] ‘with an intent to procure an unlawful benefit ei- ther for himself or for some other person."" 64 F. 4th, at 352 (Walker, J., concurring in part and concurring in judgment) (quoting Marinello, 584 U. S., at 21; alterations omitted). Under either, the “corruptly” element should screen out in- nocent activists and lobbyists who engage in lawful activity. And if not, those defendants can bring as-applied First Amendment challenges. The Court also emphasizes (c)(2)'s 20-year maximum penalty. Ante, at 14-15. But it simultaneously "glosses over the absence of any prescribed minimum." Yates, 574 U. S., at 569 (KAGAN, J., dissenting). “Congress presuma- bly enacts laws with high maximums and no minimums when it thinks the prohibited conduct may run the gamut from major to minor." Ibid. Indeed, given the breadth of its terms, (c) (2) naturally encompasses actions that range in severity. Congress presumably trusted District Courts to impose sentences commensurate with the defendant's particular conduct. * * * There is no getting around it: Section 1512(c)(2) is an ex- pansive statute. Yet Congress, not this Court, weighs the

Cite as: 603 U. S. (2024) 15 BARRETT, J., dissenting "pros and cons of whether a statute should sweep broadly or narrowly." United States v. Rodgers, 466 U. S. 475, 484 (1984). Once Congress has set the outer bounds of liability, the Executive Branch has the discretion to select particular cases to prosecute within those boundaries. By atextually narrowing §1512(c)(2), the Court has failed to respect the prerogatives of the political branches. Cf. ante, at 15. I re- spectfully dissent.

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How to Write the Body of an Essay | Drafting & Redrafting

Published on November 5, 2014 by Shane Bryson . Revised on July 23, 2023 by Shona McCombes.

The body is the longest part of an essay . This is where you lead the reader through your ideas, elaborating arguments and evidence for your thesis . The body is always divided into paragraphs .

You can work through the body in three main stages:

• Create an  outline of what you want to say and in what order.
• Write a first draft to get your main ideas down on paper.
• Write a second draft to clarify your arguments and make sure everything fits together.

This article gives you some practical tips for how to approach each stage.

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Table of contents

Start with an outline, write the first draft, write the second draft, other interesting articles.

Before you start, make a rough outline that sketches out the main points you want to make and the order you’ll make them in. This can help you remember how each part of the essay should relate to the other parts.

However, remember that  the outline isn’t set in stone – don’t be afraid to change the organization if necessary. Work on an essay’s structure begins before you start writing, but it continues as you write, and goes on even after you’ve finished writing the first draft.

While you’re writing a certain section, if you come up with an idea for something elsewhere in the essay, take a few moments to add to your outline or make notes on your organizational plans.

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Your goals in the first draft are to turn your rough ideas into workable arguments, add detail to those arguments, and get a sense of what the final product will actually look like.

Write strong body paragraphs

Start wherever you want

Many writers do not begin writing at the introduction , or even the early body paragraphs. Start writing your essay where it seems most natural for you to do so.

Some writers might prefer to start with the easiest section to write, while others prefer to get the most difficult section out of the way first. Think about what material you need to clarify for yourself, and consider beginning there.

Tackle one idea at a time

Each paragraph should aim to focus on one central idea, giving evidence, explanation, and arguments that relate to that idea.

At the start of each paragraph, write a topic sentence that expresses the main point. Then elaborate and expand on the topic sentence in the rest of the paragraph.

When you’ve said everything you have to say about the idea, move onto a new paragraph.

Keep your argument flexible

You may realize as you write that some of your ideas don’t work as well as you thought they would. Don’t give up on them too easily, but be prepared to change or abandon sections if you realize they don’t make sense.

You’ll probably also come up with new ideas that you’d not yet thought of when writing the outline. Note these ideas down and incorporate them into the essay if there’s a logical place for them.

If you’re stuck on one section, move on to another part of the essay and come back to it later.

Don’t delete content

If you begin to dislike a certain section or even the whole essay, don’t scrap it in fit of rage!

If something really isn’t working, you can paste it into a separate document, but keep what you have, even if you don’t plan on using it. You may find that it contains or inspires new ideas that you can use later.

Note your sources

Students often make work for themselves by forgetting to keep track of sources when writing drafts.

You can save yourself a lot of time later and ensure you avoid plagiarism by noting down the name, year, and page number every time you quote or paraphrase from a source.

You can also use a citation generator to save a list of your sources and copy-and-paste citations when you need them.

Avoid perfectionism

When you’re writing a first draft, it’s important not to get slowed down by small details. Get your ideas down on paper now and perfect them later. If you’re unsatisfied with a word, sentence, or argument, flag it in the draft and revisit it later.

When you finish the first draft, you will know which sections and paragraphs work and which might need to be changed. It doesn’t make sense to spend time polishing something you might later cut out or revise.

Working on the second draft means assessing what you’ve got and rewriting it when necessary. You’ll likely end up cutting some parts of the essay and adding new ones.

Check your ideas against your thesis

Everything you write should be driven by your thesis . Looking at each piece of information or argumentation, ask yourself:

• Does the reader need to know this in order to understand or accept my thesis?
• Does this give evidence for my thesis?
• Does this explain the reasoning behind my thesis?
• Does this show something about the consequences or importance of my thesis?

If you can’t answer yes to any of these questions, reconsider whether it’s relevant enough to include.

If your essay has gone in a different direction than you originally planned, you might have to rework your thesis statement to more accurately reflect the argument you’ve made.

Watch out for weak points

Be critical of your arguments, and identify any potential weak points:

• Unjustified assumptions: Can you be confident that your reader shares or will accept your assumptions, or do they need to be spelled out?
• Lack of evidence:  Do you make claims without backing them up?
• Logical inconsistencies:  Do any of your points contradict each other?
• Uncertainty: Are there points where you’re unsure about your own claims or where you don’t sound confident in what you’re saying?

Fixing these issues might require some more research to clarify your position and give convincing evidence for it.

Check the organization

When you’re happy with all the main parts of your essay, take another look at the overall shape of it. You want to make sure that everything proceeds in a logical order without unnecessary repetition.

Try listing only the topic sentence of each paragraph and reading them in order. Are any of the topic sentences too similar? Each paragraph should discuss something different; if two paragraphs are about the same topic, they must approach it in different ways, and these differences should be made clear in the topic sentences.

Does the order of information make sense? Looking at only topic sentences lets you see at a glance the route your paper takes from start to finish, allowing you to spot organizational errors more easily.

Draw clear connections between your ideas

Finally, you should assess how your ideas fit together both within and between paragraphs. The connections might be clear to you, but you need to make sure they’ll also be clear to your reader.

Within each paragraph, does each sentence follow logically from the one before it? If not, you might need to add new sentences to make the connections clear. Try using transition words to clarify what you want to say.

Between one paragraph and the next, is it clear how your points relate to one another? If you are moving onto an entirely new topic, consider starting the paragraph with a transition sentence that moves from the previous topic and shows how it relates to the new one.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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Shane Bryson

Shane finished his master's degree in English literature in 2013 and has been working as a writing tutor and editor since 2009. He began proofreading and editing essays with Scribbr in early summer, 2014.

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