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The Emerald Handbook of Entrepreneurship in Tourism, Travel and Hospitality

ISBN : 978-1-78743-530-8 , eISBN : 978-1-78743-529-2

Publication date: 11 July 2018

This chapter aims to present the key issues and main aspects of risk management (RM), as they relate to tourism entrepreneurship, with a focus on the RM plan and the various strategies used in controlling risks.

Methodology/approach

Literature review was conducted and managerial issues and aspects regarding RM in tourism entrepreneurship were highlighted. These issues were illustrated by one example and two case studies from the business world.

This chapter suggests that every probable risk must have a pre-formulated plan to deal with its possible consequences. In the field of tourism entrepreneurship, the elimination of risk by putting safety measures in place is not simply achieved by taking precautions in a haphazard manner. Rather, these tasks require a proactive approach, an intricate and logical plan.

Research limitations

This chapter is explorative in nature, based on a literature review and case study analysis. It takes more entrepreneurial/practical than academic approach.

Managerial/practical implications

This chapter provides RM process as a generic framework for entrepreneurs/managers in the identification, analysis, assessment, treatment and monitoring of risk related to their business ventures. It also suggests the appropriate steps to follow to efficiently managing risks. Every tourism enterprise should have a strategy and an emergency/contingency plan to address risks.

Originality/value

This chapter outlines, in a comprehensive and practical way, a strategic approach to risk management for the tourism enterprises. It also highlights the importance and utility of planning and implementing of a suitable strategy to effectively address business-related risks.

• Risk management
• Tourism venture

Papaioannou, E. and Shen, S. (2018), "Risk Management in Tourism Ventures", Sotiriadis, M. (Ed.) The Emerald Handbook of Entrepreneurship in Tourism, Travel and Hospitality , Emerald Publishing Limited, Leeds, pp. 223-240. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-78743-529-220181017

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Risk and Crisis Management in the Hospitality and Tourism Industry

The hospitality and tourism industry like other industries, faces the challenge of managing risk and crisis. As an industry that involves human contact and provides services, its vulnerability to risk and crisis is even higher. Since crises occur when least expected, it is important to have a risk management plan establishing the steps to be taken in the case of a crisis. Planning for a crisis can help reduce the negative consequences, and better allows businesses or stakeholders to deal with unwanted and unplanned events. There are several risks related to the hospitality and tourism industry.

Data Privacy Risks

Data privacy issues can be major a major risk within the industry. Nowadays, most businesses in the industry collect customer data such as spending patterns and financial information to better provide customized services and increase customer satisfaction. Customers who provide personal information believe their data will be safe and carefully guarded. However, large data breach incidents exposing customers’ personal information have occurred. Businesses must do all they can to lower the risk of or manage such crises. To reduce risks associated with customer data,  businesses can implement data encryption for payment and personal information. Additionally, they can provide continuous training to employees about cybersecurity issues.

Environmental Risks

Another risk in the hospitality and tourism industry are environment-related crises. Because industry provided products and services are located at a specific destination, natural disasters such as earthquakes, hurricanes, or other extreme weather disasters can occur. Also, as we have recently seen with COVID, health-related incidents such as pandemics also pose significant risk. COVID dramatically impacted the hospitality and tourism industry because of travel regulations and large numbers of people refusing to travel. To cope with the current situation, many businesses in the industry have found ways to provide a similar experience or product while adhering to COVID guidelines and restrictions. One good example of this shift is restaurants selling meal kits or focusing more on to-go orders. Hotels have also started to emphasize the cleanliness and safety of their properties to draw guests.

While risks and crises are unpredictable, we know a crisis will happen at some point. Therefore developing methods to manage such risks or crises when they occur is important in order to minimize the damage and recover as quickly as possible.

Interested in advancing your career in hospitality and tourism?

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By: Daegeun (Dan) Kim, M.S., CHIA, assistant professor, Global Hospitality and Tourism

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Crisis management research (1985–2020) in the hospitality and tourism industry: A review and research agenda

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The global tourism industry has already suffered an enormous loss due to COVID-19 (Coronavirus Disease 2019) in 2020. Crisis management, including disaster management and risk management, has been becoming a hot topic for organisations in the hospitality and tourism industry. This study aims to investigate relevant research domains in the hospitality and tourism industry context. To understand how crisis management practices have been adopted in the industry, the authors reviewed 512 articles including 79 papers on COVID-19, spanning 36 years, between 1985 and 2020. The findings showed that the research focus of crisis management, crisis impact and recovery, as well as risk management, risk perception and disaster management dominated mainstream crisis management research. Look back the past decade (2010 to present), health-related crisis (including COVID-19), social media, political disturbances and terrorism themes are the biggest trends. This paper proposed a new conceptual framework for future research agenda of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry. Besides, ten possible further research areas were also suggested in a TCM (theory-context-method) model: the theories of crisis prevention and preparedness, risk communication, crisis management education and training, risk assessment, and crisis events in the contexts of COVID-19, data privacy in hospitality and tourism, political-related crisis events, digital media, and alternative analytical methods and approaches. In addition, specific research questions in these future research areas were also presented in this paper.

1. Introduction

A crisis is defined as ‘an unpredictable event that threatens important expectancies of stakeholders related to health, safety, environmental, and economic issues, which can seriously impact an organisation's performance and generate negative comments' ( Coombs, 2019 , p. 3). Today's hospitality and tourism industry is sensitive to various external and internal challenges and crises ( Fink, 1986 ; Henderson, 2003 ; Laws et al., 2005 ; McKercher & Hui, 2004 ). According to McKercher and Hui (2004 , p.101), crises ‘disrupt the tourism and hospitality industry on a regular basis’. The reduction of tourist arrivals and expenditures due to the crises hits the industry and its related stakeholders; and creates vulnerability. Different service providers (consisting of those pertaining to accommodation, transportation, inbound and outbound tourism, and others) may have to suffer for a short or longer period of time before full recovery. Moreover, pressures from competitors also worsened the situations for certain organisations due to the change in comparative and competitive advantages ( Wut, 2019 ). Only a few studies in crisis management were conducted in the early years, and most of them related to crisis impacts on tourism industry ( Blake & Sinclair, 2003 ). Fortunately, a growing body of crisis management studies in the hospitality and tourism industry has emerged over the past decade.

The scope of crisis management includes crisis prevention, crisis preparedness, crisis response and crisis revision ( Hoise & Smith, 2004 ). Detecting any warning signs is an important task in crisis prevention. Crisis preparedness usually involves forming crisis management teams, formulating crisis preparedness plans and training spokespersons. Organisation response is usually under the spotlight. The mechanism by which we learn from a crisis is a central topic under crisis revision ( Crandall et al., 2014 ). Unfortunately, crisis management received insufficient attention in the hospitality and tourism research for decades ( Pforr & Hosie, 2008 ). This research stream started with natural disaster management, terrorism and disease management ( Laws et al., 2005 ). Recently, information technology has been heavily used in the business and tourism sectors ( Buhalis & Law, 2008 ; Navio-Marco et al., 2018 ). Social media is becoming an emerging research focus that triggers new thoughts on crisis management in the contemporary world ( Zeng & Gerritsen, 2014 ). Data security and privacy over confidential company information and customer personal information are the main concerns. Nowadays, given the global outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic and the economic downturn faced by many countries, crisis management has again attracted organisational and research attention ( Qiu et al., 2020a , b ; Gössling et al., 2020 ).

Crisis management also involves risk management, as crisis happens when risk is not managed properly and effectively. For instance, if tourism providers do not pay attention to risk management may put the lives of the tourists at risk. According to Dorfman and Cather (2013) , risk is the possibility of harm or possible loss. Risk refers to the fluctuation in neutral or negative outcomes that result from an uncertain event on the basis of probability. Risk management is a process in which an organisation identifies and manages its exposures to risk to match its strategic goals. The scope includes goals setting, risk identification, risk measurement, handling of risk and implementation techniques, and effectiveness of monitoring ( Dorfman & Cather, 2013 ).

Crises in extreme scales with catastrophic consequences can be disasters. Disasters normally refer to events that an organisation cannot control, like natural disasters. Possible disaster events include terrorism, floods, hurricanes and earthquakes. The term ‘crisis’ has a broad meaning that includes events involving technical or human mistakes as well as disasters ( Coombs, 2019 ; Faulkner, 2001 ). Thus, crisis management in this study covers both risk management and disaster management.

Several review papers on crisis management and recovery are available. Mair et al. (2016) conducted a review on post-crisis recovery with 64 articles published between 2000 and 2012. A short summary on tourism crisis and disaster was also published ( Aliperti et al., 2019 ). Ritchie and Jiang (2019) reviewed 142 papers on tourism crisis and disaster management; and identified three areas including crisis preparedness and planning; crisis response and recovery; and crisis resolution and reflection. It was found that the papers, including the framework testing, lack conceptual and theoretical foundation, which exhibited unbalanced research themes ( Ritchie & Jiang, 2019 ). A bibliometric study of citation networks was conducted by other researchers but only on the crisis and disaster management topic ( Jiang, Ritchie, & Verreynne, 2019 ). The most recent one was focused on diseases ( Chen, Law, & Zhang, 2020 ). The afore-said review articles followed the traditional classification of the three-stage crisis management model (pre-crisis, crisis event and post-crisis) ( Richardson, 1994 ). A clear research gap exists in the review literature in terms of the kind of crisis management, risk management and disaster management research that has been conducted in the hospitality and tourism fields, especially in the digital era; and such research need becomes significant due to the spread of COVID-19. This current review paper considers risk management and disaster management as part of crisis management. This review scope is much wider than those of past review papers. Furthermore, past literature review emphasised only the research published in top academic journals. Zanfardini et al. (2016) concluded that analyses of literature should not be confined to the highest impact journals because crisis management is an interdisciplinary subject; and the related articles might not necessarily appear only in the top journals. Thus, surveying also the lower impact journals would be useful, and this study would also shed light on those works.

This study aims to systematically examine and evaluate the literature of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry. As the research areas emerge, more papers were recorded in the last decade. It is expected that many research papers on topics relating to the COVID-19 crises will be produced shortly in the near future. The major themes and future research opportunities and agenda will be identified after a thematic content analysis of related peer-reviewed journal articles.

This study seeks to address the following questions:

• 1) What are the main themes of the crisis management literature in the hospitality and tourism industry?
• 2) What is the future research agenda regarding the hospitality and tourism industry and crisis management?

2. Methodology

This systematic literature review adopted steps suggested by Liberati et al. (2009) for the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA): 1) related articles were identified through databases and other sources, 2) records were obtained after the duplicates were removed, 3) the records were screened, 4) full-text papers were assessed for eligibility and 5) the studies were included in the qualitative synthesis ( Liberati et al., 2009 ).

We targeted our literature search on electronic databases for peer-reviewed journal articles that focused on crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry and from journals published since 1980. The search included numerous academic platforms consisting of the ABI/Inform, Academic Research Premier (via EBSCO host), Business Source Complete (via EBSCO host), Web of Science and Scopus databases to capture academic journal papers with the captioned topic. This approach was considered suitable for a literature review analysis centred on a subject that has undoubtedly been researched from a multi-disciplinary perspective ( Wut et al., 2021 ). Literature search was organised around eight keywords consisting of ‘tourism’, ‘hospitality’, ‘crisis’, ‘crisis management’, ‘risk’, ‘risk management’, ‘disaster’ and ‘disaster management’. Papers retained for subsequent analyses met the following criteria:

• (i) Published in peer-reviewed journals since 1980;
• (ii) Published in the English language;
• (iii) Involves the field of business, management and accounting;
• (iv) Seeks to study crisis management, including risk management and disaster management, in the tourism and hospitality industry;
• (v) Comprise studies presenting primary or secondary research data published as full length papers or short reports;
• (vi) Removal of duplicate papers from database findings (Same paper generated from different platforms).

In total, 1168 papers were generated from the literature search which involves different combinations of the aforementioned keywords. The earliest article was published in 1985. Overall, the selected articles were published between 1985 and 2020. Figures for 2020 are incomplete and given here for reference only. Authors assessed the full-text papers retrieved for inclusion in this review.

The titles, abstracts and full texts of the papers were reviewed and examined ( Wut et al., 2021 ). Two coders were involved in the process to avoid subjective bias judgement from a single coder ( Neuendorf, 2002 ). Discussions between coders were arranged to resolve the discrepancy ( Krippendorff, 2013 ). After initial screening, 534 papers meeting the above criteria were selected. A subsequent step involved checking if the research questions of this study can be answered through analysing the papers in the database. A total of 22 papers were dropped as they could not answer one of the research questions. The final analysis involved 512 papers for subsequent descriptive analyses in various aspects like the number of authors, the first author's nationality and study locations. Papers involving more than one study location were classified under Global. Attention was paid to the themes of journals under the category of tourism, hospitality and others as business-related journals. Publications that covered both tourism and hospitality were classified under hospitality. We also identified the key topics of each article. These items were used for statistical analysis to identify longitudinal trends of research themes. The papers were categorised under various hospitality and tourism industry sectors, including tour operators/travel agencies, hotels, airlines, restaurants and ocean cruising industry. They were then assigned to one of the six crisis types: political events, terrorism, health issues, financial crisis, natural disasters and human errors. The research foci of the articles were subsequently ascertained and summarised. The identification process was completed by content analysis for which an inductive approach was adopted. If any doubt regarding classification emerged for a particular paper, a new category was devised for that paper to minimise ambiguity ( Eisenhardt, 1989 ). When more than one topic was discussed in a paper (for example, crisis prevention and crisis preparedness), the paper was classified under the category of crisis management (multiple topics). Thus, 10 specific research topics were obtained for a general crisis management area: crisis management (multiple topics), crisis impact, crisis recovery, crisis resilience, crisis communication, crisis response, crisis event (description), crisis preparedness, crisis prevention and crisis management (organisational) learning. Four research topics were identified for a general risk management area: risk management (multiple topics), risk perception, risk assessment and risk communication. Finally, three research topics were found for a general disaster management area: disaster management (multiple topics), disaster event (description) and disaster recovery. COVID-19 was categorised as a separate topic, as the related articles covered the areas in both crisis and risk management.

3. Findings

3.1. journals, authors and study locations.

The results indicated that 308 (60.2%) of the papers came from 10 journals; and 204 papers were come from other journals. Among these 10 journals, Tourism Management published 85 papers; Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing published 44 papers, International Journal of Hospitality Management had 34 papers and Current Issues in Tourism had 33 papers. Annuals of Tourism Research published 26 papers, and Journal of Travel Research secured 25 papers. The publications were highly ranked according to the Scimago Journal and Country Ranking (SRJ). In the last decade, all these journals except for the Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing published more papers than before ( Table 1 ). Furthermore, other high ranking journals were included in the ‘Others’ category, including the Journal of Vacation Marketing with two papers. One paper appeared in the Public Relation Review, a top Journal in the field of public relations. Another paper was from the Journal of World Business, a first quarter journal according to the SRJ. Three other papers appeared in Asia Pacific Business Review, a second quarter journal according to the SRJ. Thus, crisis management has been considered a hot research topic by the scholars and high ranking academic journals in the hospitality and tourism field.

List of tourism and hospitality journals (N = 512).

As a whole, tourism-focused journals were comparatively favoured (286 papers) to hospitality (74 papers) or other (152 papers) journals on the crisis management topic and related research objectives. Among the tourism-focused journals, Tourism Management has been the dominant outlet. The number of papers increased by three times over the last decade. Among the hospitality journals, International Journal of Hospitality Management (34 papers) has been the most popular.

Regarding authorship, two authors collaboration (157 papers, 30.7%) has been found to be the most common occurrence in these papers. Three-person authorship was also highly adopted (143 papers, 27.9%), followed by single authorship for 129 papers (25.2%). Note that a total of 60 papers had four authors (11.7%), five authors (14 papers, 2.7%), six authors (7 papers, 1.4%), seven authors (1 paper, 0.2%), and eight authors (2 papers, 0.4%). Collaborations among authors are common. The most productive first authors in this field were Joan C. Henderson (9 papers), Bingjie Liu (9 papers), Bruce Prideaux (7 papers) and Brent W. Ritchie (6 papers). The most productive second authors were Lori Pennington-Gray (13 papers), Brent W. Ritchie (9 papers), Mehmet Altinay, Susanne Becken and Hany Kim (4 papers). Henderson comes from Nanyang Technological University and had publications in the early years (from 1999 to 2004). Liu is from the University of Florida. Most of her publications were related to bed bugs and were rather recent (from 2015 to 2016).

Location was studied for the first authors of the papers. The first authors tend to be most interested in the study topics relating to crisis management and may have secured fair level of research experience in this area. Europe (157 papers, 30.7%) had the greatest number of interested scholars who appeared as the first authors. This figure was followed by Asia (132 papers, 25.8%) and Oceania (110 papers, 21.5%). In Europe, the United Kingdom (59 papers) had the most interested scholars in this area. The first authors from Asia were mainly from Mainland China (29 papers), Israel, Singapore, Japan and Taiwan. The other first authors were from Australia (101 papers) and United States (88 papers) ( Table 2 is a short version of this list. An extended version is in the Appendix).

Location of first author (N = 512).

In terms of the research context, Asia was the most studied region (152 papers, 29.7%), followed by Global (109 papers, 21.3%), and then Europe (101 papers, 19.7%). Several disasters occurred in Asia, including the Japan earthquakes in 2011, the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) outbreak in 2003 and the Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami in 2004. Many papers took a global or multiple countries approach (109 papers, 21.3%). First authors also tend to conduct research in his or her place-of-residence or nearby locations ( Table 3 ).

Study location (N = 512).

An increasing trend emerged throughout the 36 years study period, as shown in Fig. 1 . The number of articles in 2020 is listed for reference and some articles could not be presented due to availability issues. All papers, whether from tourism-focused journals, hospitality journals or journals in the other fields, generally displayed an upward trend ( Fig. 2 ). Almost all top ten English-language academic journals in the tourism and hospitality field witnessed an increasing trend, except for the Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing which experienced a downward trend ( Fig. 3 ). The three periods were identified in the X-axis and spans 36 years. The first period from 1985 to 1996 reflects the start of the discussion about crisis management. Only six papers were published for 12 years. The second period of 1997–2008 involved 115 papers. During this period, most of the papers were published in the Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing and in Tourism Management. The last period of 2009 to present involved 389 papers. Most of the papers were published in Tourism Management. At this period, as many as 63 papers were published in Tourism Management. The number of papers published in Tourism Management is almost the sum of the numbers of the first runner up, and second runner up. ( Table 1 ).

Studies related to crisis management in the tourism and hospitality literature (1985–2020).

Numbers of tourism and hospitality publications in English on crisis management.

Top Ten Journals on crisis management.

3.2. Types of crises in the hospitality and tourism industry

The 512 papers revealed that five business sectors within the hospitality and tourism industry, an outcome which mirrored the findings of Wut et al. (2021) who performed a systematic review on corporate social responsibility research in the hospitality and tourism industry. The most commonly investigated industry sectors comprised tour operators/travel agencies, hotel operators, airlines, restaurants and ocean cruising sectors. Their crises types are summarised below for illustration purposes ( Table 4 ):

Typology of crisis types in hospitality and tourism industry (Source: authors).

Crisis types were previously organised under the three categories of natural disasters, technical error accidents and human error accidents, depending on the level of organisational responsibility. Limited organisational responsibility is clearly involved for natural disasters because those events are usually beyond operational control ( Coombs, 2019 ). Only reactive strategies can be developed to minimise loss. A low level of organisational responsibility occurs on technical error accidents as the organisation can hardly do much about technical errors. However, organisations should bear the main responsibility for preventable crises as they involve human errors ( Coombs, 2019 ). Natural disasters are the most common type, and the other two are mainly related to complaints on social media.

3.3. Methodological design of previous research

Almost half of the studies adopted quantitative research methods (215 studies, 42%). Approximately 34% of the papers relied on qualitative research methods (174 studies). Only 24 studies (4.7%) integrated both qualitative and quantitative research methods. And there also appeared 99 conceptual papers. In terms of research design, exploratory design (qualitative) dominated (159 studies, 31.1%). Most researchers used in-depth interview and focus group in exploratory design. This research design is followed by adopting primary data from surveys (139 studies, 27.1%) and using secondary data and databases (74 studies, 14.5%). For the statistical and analytical methods of research, the main method was identified for each paper. Most qualitative studies relied on case studies (85 studies, 16.6%) and content analysis (81 studies, 15.8%). Descriptive analysis (54 studies, 10.5%) and regression analysis (40 studies, 7.8%) were primarily used in the quantitative studies. When appeared more than one method of analysis was utilised (for example, both descriptive and regression analysis), only the most complex method was counted (in this case, regression analysis) ( Table 5 ).

Analysis by research methodology (N = 512).

3.4. Traditional Research focus

The research themes in the literature were organised in such manner: Papers with a specific topic of crisis management, risk management or disaster management were grouped under the category carrying the name of the focal topic, such as crisis impact, crisis recovery and risk perception. Papers on crisis management in general ( Beirman, 2001 ) or focusing on crisis management in relation to other topics, for example, brand management ( Balakrishnan, 2011 ), or those on more than one topic of crisis management such as crisis preparedness and organisational learning ( Anderson, 2006 ) were all included under a category named “Crisis management/with multiple topics”. Similar logic was applied to the “Risk management/with multiple topics” category, which included papers embracing risk management in general ( Angel et al., 2018 ) or multiple topics regarding risk identification, the influential factors and related risk management practices ( Chen, 2013 ). This logic was further applied to the “Disaster management/with multiple topics” category. Another category refers to COVID-19, which has been a hot topic since last year. All the COVID-19 papers that concerned about crisis and/or crisis management were put under this separate category. Such arrangement could help summarise the focuses and trends of COVID-19 research and facilitate the researchers who may have continuing interests to explore further in future years. Lastly, the remaining papers hardly put into previous categories were put under the category of others. As a result of adopting the above rationale in papers classification, among the reviewed studies, 16% (82 papers) were related to crisis management/with multiple topics and 15.4% (79 papers) related to COVID-19. These two primary categories were found in terms of the number of papers collected ( Table 6 ). Risk management/with multiple topics is the second runner-up with 13.7% (70 papers). Risk perception was found with 44 papers (8.6%). Crisis impacts involved 32 studies (6.3%), and crisis recovery was examined in 31 studies (6.1%). Further, fairly sufficient, 21 papers focused on crisis resilience (4.1%), 18 papers investigated crisis communication (3.5%) and 15 papers examined crisis response (2.9%). Disaster management/with multiple topics was studied by 20 papers (3.9%), and disaster recovery was investigated in 16 papers (3.1%). The areas worthy of significant note have collected even less than 10 papers in the study period, inclusive of crisis preparedness and prevention, learning, risk assessment and communication ( Table 6 ).

Crisis management research focus (N = 512).

The most explored research foci in the study period included crisis management/with multiple topics, risk management/with multiple topics, and disaster management (event). Crisis impact and crisis recovery, as well as risk perception also involved more than 30 papers respectively, that can represent the traditional focus of crisis management research at the theoretical level. The COVID-19 theme has more than 70 papers published (N = 79) in 2020, which surprisingly made it as one of the top ranking research themes in the summary. Its discussion will be presented in the next section involving the emerging research themes over the last decade (2010 to present).

3.4.1. Crisis management/with multiple topics

Crisis management has attracted academic attention for the entire study period. Anticipating crises and responding to them accordingly is crucial ( Henderson, 1999a ). A crisis or disaster management framework based on the model by Fink (1986) was proposed. Six elements of responses were suggested: precursors, mobilisation, action, recovery, reconstruction and re-assessment, and review. Risk assessment and disaster contingency plans were provided ( Faulkner, 2001 ). The crisis management framework of Ritchie (2004) follows the prescriptive model Richardson (1994) applied on the tourism industry: pre-crisis; crisis event and post crisis. This ‘one size fits all’ approach might cater to all sudden events ( Speakman & Sharpley, 2012 ).

By contrast, chaos theory assumes a random, complex and dynamic situation. That theory was used to explain the Mexican H1N1 crisis. Companies in the tourism industry operate in a relatively stable situation but are subject to unexpected attacks. The trigger case in Mexico is an outbreak of the H1N1 disease ( Coles, 2004 ; Speakman & Sharpley, 2012 ).

Co-management's characteristics ‘have been identified in the literature: (1) pluralism, (2) communication/negotiation, (3) transactive decision-making, (4) social learning, and (5) shared action/commitment’ ( Pennington-Gray et al., 2014a , 3). That management refers to combining resources from various stakeholders in the community for crisis management ( Pennington-Gray et al., 2014a ).

Researchers neglected crisis preparation and organisational learning in the tourism industry ( Clements, 1998 ; Cheung & Law, 2006 ; Anderson, 2006 ). In practice, large companies do have crisis management plans, unlike small business and tourism operators ( Cushnahan, 2004 ; Gruman et al., 2011 ).

3.4.2. Crisis impact

The Asian financial crisis and global economic crisis of 2008/09 affected the tourism industry ( Boukas & Ziakas, 2013 ; Henderson, 1999c ; Jones et al., 2011 ). In these events, people generally lost their spending power. If a host country suffers from a domestic crisis, then it usually attracts more visitors from other countries because of devaluation of the host country's currency ( Khalid et al., 2020 ). The lower demand for local tourism is counter-balanced by the arrival of more international tourists.

Usually, crisis impact could be measured by the drop of the number of inbound or outbound tourists and the spending of visitors ( Jin et al., 2019 ; Khalid et al., 2020 ; Wang, 2009 ). In turn, the impact would be reflected by economic indicators, such as the unemployment rate of the tourism industry ( Blake & Sinclair, 2003 ). People must also be convinced that everything is back to normal before they travel again.

The studies concentrated on sales loss and the drop in customers ( Jones et al., 2011 ; Liu, 2014 ). Financial ratio analysis is more objective but usually cannot capture instant impacts. Few investigations employed stock price to measure the effect of crises. Abnormal returns were a good indicator of the future earnings of a listed company ( Seo et al., 2014 ). Another dimension is the emotional aspect. Anger and outrage are emotional responses from customers. These reactions produce intangible effect on corporations ( Coombs & Holladay, 2010 ).

Aside from the economic impact, environmental and social cultural impacts must also be considered. For instance, the natural environment is vulnerable to disaster risks. Pollution problems could also affect the image of a city such as Beijing ( Tsai et al., 2016 ). From a social cultural perspective, local culture should be protected and revived.

3.4.3. Crisis recovery

The process wherein tourism operators' attempt to return to normal business and achieves good economic performance after a crisis is called crisis recovery ( Coombs, 2019 ). Various crisis recovery approaches were proposed. Restoration of confidence, media role, other stakeholder support and speed of the response are critical success factors for crisis recovery ( de Sausmarez, 2007a ). Analysis of the crisis, audience and place must be conducted before formulating a media strategy. The message source, target audience and the message itself are essential features for designing the media strategy in attempt to repair the image of the place ( Avraham & Ketter, 2017 ). In summary, image recovery is vital ( Ryu et al., 2013 ).

Other than media strategy, turnaround strategies usually entail increasing income and decreasing cost ( Campiranon & Scott, 2014 ). Price discount appears to be a common recovery strategy applied in the hospitality and tourism industry ( Kim et al., 2019 ; Okuyama, 2018 ).

A marketing program is a usual tactic in crisis recovery ( Carlsen & Hughes, 2008 ; Chacko & Marcell, 2008 ; Ladkin et al., 2008 ). Celebrity endorsement was also one of the best ways for implementing recovery marketing plans. Marketing campaigns should be continued after a crisis ( Walters & Mair, 2012 ). Some researchers expressed reservations about marketing programs. They instead prefer a demarketing approach if the place was seriously damaged and remains unsafe for visitors ( Orchiston & Higham, 2016 ).

3.4.4. Risk management/with multiple topics

Risk management is important for business operations ( Bharwani & Mathews, 2012 ). However, different companies may present different levels of risk appetite in terms of their willingness to manage risks ( Zhang, Paraskevas, & Altinay, 2019 ). The main types of business risks include operating risks, strategic risks and financial risks ( Harland et al., 2003 ). Financial risks can be categorised as systematic (common to whole economy) and unsystematic risks (firm-specific) ( Chen, 2013 ). According to Oroian and Gheres (2012) , all internal risks (e.g. organisational risks) and external risks (e.g. nature, competitiveness, economic, political and infrastructure risks) should be considered. Chang et al. (2019) found that financial risks, competing risks and supply chain risks may be classified as high priority by the travel industry.

Given the nature of the industry, hospitality and tourism companies may possibly face more particular environmental risks ( Böhm & Pfister, 2011 ; Cunliffe, 2004 ; Hillman, 2019 ), such as the weather conditions and climate change ( Ballotta et al., 2020 ; Bentley et al., 2010 ; Córdoba Azcárate, 2019 ; de Urioste-Stone, 2016 ; Hopkins & Maclean, 2014 ; Steiger et al., 2019 ; Tang & Jang, 2011 ), which will result in financial risks ( Franzoni & Pelizzari, 2019b ) and other types of business risks for companies.

Regarding risk management and practices, various risk mitigation and reduction strategies have been studied. Loehr (2020) proposed a Tourism Adaptation System for this purpose. Portfolio analysis was adopted for risk reduction and management in the industry ( Minato & Morimoto, 2011 ; Tan et al., 2017 ). The scenario planning approach was also employed by Orchiston (2012) for risk forecasting. Safety and security measures, through security checkpoints, security systems and procedures, are of vital importance in operational strategies ( Daniels et al., 2013 ; Peter et al., 2014 ). However, Rantala and Valkonen (2011) argued that safety issues in the hospitality and tourism industry are complex because of the infrastructure and technology, lack of experiences for customers and employees, and the safety culture in the industry. Vij (2019) examined the views of senior managers in the hospitality industry and highlighted the urgent safety need regarding cyberspace and data privacy. Stakeholder collaboration might be also considered for sharing the responsibility in risk management ( Gstaettner et al., 2019 ). As for the aspect of risk transfer, insurance contracts ( Dayour et al., 2020 ; Franzoni & Pelizzari, 2019a ) is a traditional focus for mitigating the negative impacts through transferring the risks to third parties. Nevertheless, that approach was not a common practice in the industry ( Waikar et al., 2016 ).

3.4.5. Risk perception

This work found that many risk perception-focused studies were conducted in the tourism context. Mass tourists are generally risk adverse in unfamiliar surroundings. The risks related to health, crime, accident, environment and disasters greatly affect the tourists' decision-making ( Carballo et al., 2017 ; George, 2010 ; Hunter-Jones, 2008 ). Some studies categorised those risks into physical, financial, psychological and health risks ( Jalilvand & Samiei, 2012 ; Sohn & Yoon, 2016 ). According to Carballo et al. (2017) , some risks for tourists can be controllable (e.g. illness and sunburn), whereas others are not.

The causes leading to the risk perceptions of tourists included demographic (e.g. age and nationality) and individual trip-related characteristics (e.g. visit purpose and frequency of travel) ( George, 2010 ; Jalilvand & Samiei, 2012 ), past experiences ( Schroeder, Pennington-Gray, Donohoe, & Kiousis, 2013 ), marketing communications ( Lepp et al., 2011 ; Liu-Lastres et al., 2020 ), media effects ( Kapuściński & Richards, 2016 ; Rashid & Robinson, 2010 ), mega-events, such as the FIFA World Cup) ( Lepp & Gibson, 2011 ) or Olympic Games ( Schroeder, Pennington-Gray, Donohoe, & Kiousis, 2013 ), as well as the destination risk management measures ( Toohey et al., 2003 ). Different directions of research or research findings were noted. Rashid and Robinson (2010) believed that the media effects exaggerated the risk perceptions. Kapuściński and Richards (2016) found that the media could either amplify or attenuate risk perceptions. George (2010) and Jalilvand and Samiei (2012) tended to compare the tourists' gender, age and trip-related characteristics for risk perception, but the latter study found more obvious difference among the groups.

Risk perceptions were also found to negatively impact various constructs. However, the dependent variables were overwhelmingly concentrated on destination image ( Chew & Jahari, 2014 ; Lepp et al., 2011 ; Liu-Lastres et al., 2020 ; Sohn & Yoon, 2016 ) and revisit intention ( Chew & Jahari, 2014 ; George, 2010 ; Zhang, Xie, et al., 2020 ). Other outcomes of risk perception, such as tourist hesitation ( Wong & Yeh, 2009 ), destination attitude ( Zhang, Hou, & Li, 2020 ), satisfaction and trust ( Wu et al., 2019 ), emotion ( Yüksel & Yüksel, 2007 ), recommendation to others ( George, 2010 ), decision-making process ( Taher et al., 2015 ) and travel behaviour modification ( Thapa et al., 2013 ), were also investigated.

Note that tourists may be motivated by risk-taking behaviours ( Cater, 2006 ; Chang, 2009 ). These tourists possibly favour novelty and adventurous tourism activities. Examples of risk-taking contexts in the hospitality and tourism industry include gaming ( Chang, 2009 ), mountain climbing ( George, 2010 ; Probstl-Haider et al., 2016 ) and other adventurous activities ( Cater, 2006 ). Pröbstl-Haider et al. (2016) indicated that the risk-taking behaviour may be attributed to the tourists' experience, participation frequency and commitment, their risk perceptions and the individual trade-off of risks.

3.4.6. Disaster management/disaster event (description)

This study consolidated disaster management and disaster event (description) into one generic category for subsequently summary and discussions. Following previous classical literature on disaster management ( Faulkner, 2001 ; Prideaux et al., 2003 ), disasters can be considered as unpredictable or unprecedented crisis situations with great complexity and gravity. Ritchie (2008) summarised the many natural disasters frequently studied in tourism literature as comprising hurricanes, flooding and tsunami, earthquake, biosecurity and diseases (e.g. foot and mouth disease and SARS). Huan et al. (2004) dubbed these incidents as ‘no-escape’ disasters.

As a result of the disasters, tourist fatalities may occur while the destination and business facilities are severely devastated ( Cohen, 2009 ). Different hospitality and tourism sectors may experience remarkably varied challenges ( Henderson, 2007 ). Previous literature also recorded a comparison across disasters for certain destinations ( Prideaux, 2003 ) or for the investigation of disasters across different destinations ( Bhati et al., 2016 ). Many studies focused on business and destination resilience ( Bhaskara et al., 2020 ; Bhati et al., 2016 ; Filimonau & De Coteau, 2020 ; Ghaderi et al., 2015 ; Lew, 2014 ). Hospitality and tourism business normally react without warning, deal with existing staff, reduce salaries over the short-term and consider rebuilding tourist confidence over the long-term ( Henderson, 2005 ). Filimonau and De Coteau (2020) emphasised that the destinations studied fail to react effectively. Ghaderi et al. (2015) found that the primate enterprises lacked knowledge and analysis of disasters to prepare for the future.

Faulkner (2001) presented a tourism disaster management framework that incorporated six stages: pre-event, prodromal, emergency, intermediate, long-term recovery and resolution. He suggested destination marketing and communications, risk assessment, disaster management teaming and disaster contingency plans as examples of management strategies. This seminal model was applied for different disaster case studies ( Faulkner & Vikulov, 2001 ; Miller & Ritchie, 2003 ). Walters and Clulow (2010) examined previous literature and indicated that disaster-recovery marketing may be ineffective for areas affected by disasters. By contrast, Biran et al. (2014) argued that even disaster attributes can possibly motivate certain future tourists.

4. Discussion on emerging research themes from 2010 to present

In Fig. 1 , the Y-axis showcases the number of publications that studied crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry. The X-axis records the years. Obviously, an increasing trend occurred for the relevant publications over the past 36 years. Five distinct peaks were identified in these publication waves: the years 1999, 2008, 2013, 2017 and 2020. Publishing an academic paper usually takes two to three years from the start of an initial idea. In many cases, researchers can only observe impacts and report their findings several years after a crisis event, for example, during the Asian financial crisis in 1997 and the wars in 1990s (including the Gulf War, 1990–91; Croatian War, 1991–95; Bosnian War, 1992–95 and the Afghan War, 1990–2001). Studies published in 1999 mainly involved the financial crisis and the terrorism at that time. However, the papers recorded in 2008 included the impacts of the 9/11 terrorist attack in 2001. Papers in the year 2013 were mostly related to the financial crisis which dated back to 2007 and 2008. Papers with political topics were published in 2017/18. Many COVID-19 papers were published in 2020. Four major themes emerged in the last decade (year 2010-present), namely the health-related crisis, social media, political disturbance and terrorism crises ( Table 7 ).

Research areas for crisis management studies in last decade (Year 2010 to Present).

4.1. Health-related crisis (including COVID-19)

The 2006 Avian Flu, Year, and the 2003 SARS, the 2001 Foot and Mouth disease are notable health-related crisis events that impacted the hospitality and tourism industry ( Baxter & Bowen, 2004 ; Chien & Law, 2003 ; Page et al., 2006 ; Tew et al., 2008 ). Further, 284,00 deaths were recorded in the 2009 Swine flu. Tourism loss was US$2.8 billion ( Rassy & Smith, 2013 ). Recent case of health-related crisis event is the Ebola outbreak in 2014 and 2015. The outbreak affected the Africa tourism industry by 5% revenue reduction in year 2015 ( Novelli et al., 2018 ). Lyme disease was studied from the perspective of tourism management ( Donohoe et al., 2015 ). The impact of Zika outbreak for 2016 in Latin America and the Caribbean caused losses of US$3.5 billion in tourism industry; and no vaccine is available ( World Bank, 2016 ). In the same year, the global outbreak of Dengue fever led to even severe economic impact of US$8.9 billion ( Shepard et al., 2016 ). The recent global outbreak of COVID-19 in 2020 is undeniably a vastly emerging research focus. An overview of health-related events has been presented by Hall et al. (2020) .

Large number of papers in COVID-19 has been published within a short period of time. Most of the papers tended to study the impacts of COVID-19 in hospitality and tourism industry ( Bulin & Tenie, 2020 ; Jaipuria et al., 2020 ; Knight et al., 2020 ; Qiu et al., 2020a , b ; Seraphin, 2020 ; Uğur & Akbıyık, 2020 ), some of which focused on particularly the hotel industry ( Bajrami et al., 2020 ; Vo-Thanh et al., 2020 ). Besides, some provided directions for recovery ( Yeh, 2020 ). For instance, using a private dining room or table could be one of the solutions in restaurant industry ( Kim & Lee, 2020 ). Resilience is another topic of discussion ( Butler, 2020 ). Rittichainuwat et al. (2020) found that the Thai hospitality, bleisure (business and leisure) and international standard venues are key factors for resilience of the exhibition industry. For tourism industry, travel after pandemic is arguably associated with protection motivation and pandemic travel fear ( Zheng et al., 2021 ).. Research topics could be about perceived risk and tourist decision making ( Matiza, 2020 ). In terms of the research methodologies in this research theme, most of the papers appeared to be conceptual papers ( Baum & Hai, 2020 ; Bausch et al., 2020 ; Haywood, 2020 ; Li et al., 2020 ; Zenker & Kock, 2020 ). A few qualitative studies used in-depth interview ( Awan et al., 2020 ; Loi et al., 2020 ) while some others adopted case studies ( Breier et al., 2021 ; Neuburger & Egger, 2020 ). Quantitatively, some relied on online survey ( Karl et al., 2020 ) or telephone survey ( Pappas & Glyptou, 2021 ) due to pandemic constraints.

Without effective crisis management in this regard, the entire hospitality and tourism industry could hardly recover by rebuilding tourists and guests' confidence who suffer from health-related crises, with no exception of COVID-19. According to Coombs (2019) , there are four stages in crisis management: crisis prevention, crisis preparation, crisis response and crisis recovery. The purpose of crisis prevention is to detect warning signals and to stop any possible negative events. Certain disasters cannot be prevented even for early preparation. Crisis management plan needs to list out every step we need to follow when crisis happens. A team can be organised beforehand to carry out some rehearsals regularly. Immediate, transparent and consistency are the basics in preparing crisis response. In post crisis period, people need to learn from the past, including the mistakes made. Business continuity plan guides us to recover from crisis quickly ( Coombs, 2019 ; Fung et al., 2020 ). These should be the basics of lessons for effective crisis management derived from the different health-related crisis events in history and the COVID-19 outbreak as well. All stakeholders should consolidate their knowledge and experiences to better prepare for the future.

4.2. Social media theme

Over the past decade, companies in the hospitality and tourism industry have greater attention to the use of social media in practice. Social media can distribute news over distances within a short period of time. That media could co-ordinate with different stakeholders in crisis events ( Antony & Jacob, 2019 ; Maia & Mariam, 2018 ). Meanwhile, a wide range of stakeholders (i.e. individual customers, governmental bodies, activist groups, rescue teams, consumers' bodies, mass media and others) can take part in management through social media ( Sigala, 2012 ). Zeng and Gerritsen (2014) summarised the social media research in tourism and highlighted clearly (p.34) that ‘giving its mobility and facility for instant interaction, social media can be expected to play a more important role in tourism destination management, particularly in crisis management … ’ Sigala (2012) further revealed that social media can be utilised throughout the different stages of crisis management involving mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery. For example, Schroeder and Pennington-Gray (2015) studied the effect of social media in crisis communications. Travellers may possibly refer to feedback from social media in search of related information when a crisis occurs. Instead of discussing crisis impacts on tourism sectors in Hong Kong, researchers attempted to focus on the crisis communication through social media which affects social media users' subsequent attitude ( Luo & Zhai, 2017 ). Social media can also be used in the revision stage to develop resilience and adaptability. Moreover, social media has employed in fundraising events and in creating emotional support after crisis ( Coombs, 2019 ).

4.3. Political disturbances theme

The past decade witnessed a few examples of political disturbances or social movements ( Monterrubio, 2017 ). In Thailand, Cohen (2010) examined the sources of airport occupation. The occupation was a social movement opposed to the Thailand government. The movement changed the safety destination perception of Thailand and affected the tourism industry in the long term ( Cohen, 2010 ). In Hong Kong, the ‘yellow vest’ movement occurred on November 17, 2008. Protesters decided to continue to protest every Saturday. That situation might generate an unsafe image for incoming tourists ( Derr, 2020 ). A political event called Occupy Central in 2014 and 2015 in Hong Kong also requested for the election of a Chief executive. ‘Central’ is a place in Hong Kong that encompasses many important business and government offices. Another social movement involved Hong Kong's anti-extradition law amendment bill in 2019. These occurrences strongly impact the peaceful image of Hong Kong.

4.4. Terrorism theme

Unquestionably, the hospitality and tourism industry is vulnerable to terrorism. Tourists might possibly switch to other travel destinations because of perceived terrorist threats to their intended destination ( Sönmez et al., 1999 ; Walters et al., 2019 ). Terrorism has become a popular theme of research since 2001, when the terrorist attack of historic significance occurred on 11 September in the U.S. ( Evans & Elphick, 2005 ; O'Connor et al., 2008 ; Taylor, 2006 ; Yu et al., 2005 ). |Another example involves the targeting of Bali tourists by Al Qaeda in 2002 ( Xu & Grunewald, 2009 ).

Some terrorism-related studies from past decade focused on the hotel industry. One research indicated that terrorism affects the brand image of a local hotel if an attack from terrorists occurs on the destination. Thus, protecting the brand equity is an effective strategy ( Balakrishnan, 2011 ). Another paper compared the impacts of 9/11 on hotel room demand to those during the financial crisis of 2008 ( Kubickova et al., 2019 ). Stahura et al. (2012) emphasised that crisis management planning is essential when the industry confronts potential crisis from terrorist attacks.

5. Research opportunities

Following a systematic analysis of traditional research focuses over the 36 years and emerging research themes over the last decade, a new conceptual framework was presented in Fig. 4 to highlight the proposed future research directions of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry. Further research areas were identified using a TCM (Theory-Context-Method) model ( Paul et al., 2017 ) presented in three layers.

Conceptual framework for future research of crisis management in hospitality and tourism industry.

The outer layer related to the crisis management at the theory level. Traditional research foci at the theoretical level appear to include crisis management/with multiple topics, crisis impact, crisis recovery, risk management/with multiple topics and risk perception and disaster management. Unfortunately, little attention has been paid to crisis management education and training, a feature which was rather regarded as the most effective method of crisis management in the long run for the tourism industry ( Henderson, 1999a ). The literature review also entailed relatively less academic attention to crisis prevention and preparedness, risk assessment and risk communication. In the second inner layer, proposed contexts of crisis management research were presented. The health-related crisis events including COVID-19, data privacy, digital media, political-related crisis events as well as other less explored contexts are suggested for the future research of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry. It should be noted further that the health-related, data privacy and political-related crisis events are also related to the digital media area. This situation indicates that the transmission of crisis information is rather faster than ever before through digital media, so that management of various crises should be examined in this era of digital media. Meanwhile, the less explored industry sectors and contexts should be studied. The core and the inner layer suggest adopting new analytical research methods for designing various research and analysing related data. The following will detail the proposed future research areas and identify specific research questions for the benefit of future researchers ( Table 8 ).

100 specific future research questions in the ten future areas.

5.1. Theory development

Fink (1986) 's four stage model is influential in crisis management studies. His four-stage model was applied in diseases (1) prodromal, hints of potential crisis; (2) breakout; (3) chronic, the effect of crisis persists; (4) resolution, some clear signals the crisis is no longer a concern ( Fink, 1986 ). The other influential model is from Mitroff (1994) . His five stages model turns Fink's descriptive model to prescriptive approach. Crisis management efforts was divided into five phases: signal detection, prevention, damage containment, recovery and organisational learning ( Mitroff, 1994 ). Faulkner (2001) made a good comparison of the models. In fact, previous research have also indicated the cycling loop of crisis management ( Xu & Grunewald, 2009 ). For instance, Pursiainen (2018) explicitly explained the crisis management circle with some suggested procedural steps (prevention, preparedness, response, recovery, learning, risk assessment). This further provides the solid theoretical foundation for Fig. 4 that the proposed future research areas at theoretical level stay at different cycling stages in crisis management: from crisis prevention and preparedness to risk communication to crisis management education & training, and then to risk assessment, which has been also considered to pave the way for the next round of crisis prevention and preparedness.

5.1.1. Crisis prevention and preparedness

Papers on crisis preparedness (9 papers) and crisis prevention (7 papers) are notable fewer. In fact, preventing the crisis from happening is the best crisis management strategy. Crisis preparedness takes up most of a crisis manager's time ( Coombs, 2019 ; Pforr & Hosie, 2008 ). The recovery and experiences of crisis handling of one time can be translated into the crisis preparedness and precaution measures for the potential next time. The awareness and recognition of possible crises by managers and staff can be strategically important throughout the learning process and crisis management cycle ( Xu & Grunewald, 2009 ).

5.1.2. Risk communication

Compared to the risk management (68 papers) and risk perception (41 papers) categories, prior literature records only one paper ( Heimtun & Lovelock, 2017 ) which focused on ‘risk communications.’ Risk communication is indeed important in the hospitality and tourism industry. An uncertainty always exists because of the weather or some other uncontrollable factors. Risk communication is important when they promote tourism products to prospective customers ( Heimtun & Lovelock, 2017 ). It also relates to legal issues. For example, travel companies and tour organisers should explicitly explain to potential tourists the types of risks involved and tourists (risk bearers) could also express their concerns and fears about the risks in the process of their decision making. The outcomes of risk communication are expected to enhance customers' risk awareness and help them take personal proactive actions. The appropriate overestimation of risk can be also effective for helping consumers make decisions while avoiding possible legal risks ( Coombs & Holladay, 2010 ).

5.1.3. Crisis management education and training

Special attention should also be given to crisis management education and training in hospitality and tourism-related programmes. In the ever-increasingly diversified and changing market, hospitality and tourism companies have an urgent need of specialists and professionals in crisis management for their sustainable and healthy business development. Graduates equipped with relevant knowledge and working experiences will be highly needed by the industry. The presence of an experienced leader and crisis team consisting of qualified staff can be strategically significant in the different stages of crisis management in the tourism industry ( Ritchie, 2004 ). Surprisingly, scare research exists in this regard.

In this study, the US, Australia and the UK were well represented in terms of the leading authors of crisis management studies in the hospitality and tourism industry. Academic platforms may favour more interested researchers in this area who originate from other places. The cross-cultural approach is also strongly recommended for systematic comparisons of the findings generated from different cultural backgrounds. Future research could be extended to more developing countries, such as China and Vietnam, to compare their crisis prevention measures.

5.1.4. Risk assessment

Less than 10 papers focused on risk assessment, a figure which could suggest a future research direction. Undeniably, hospitality and tourism companies may be interested in identifying the possible risks according to their frequency, scale and level of loss, and assess their influences for developing effective risk management strategies ( Tsai & Chen, 2010 ). Roe et al. (2014) summarised many methodological approaches that are currently adopted to assess and manage the various risks, particularly environmental ones. They exemplified with the Environmental Impact Assessment, Environmental Audit and Ecological Footprint with support of Delphi Technique. In fact, tourists can also learn from the risk assessment results to manage their holiday travel plans and decide insurance purchase ( Olya & Alipour, 2015 ). However, as each assessment methodology has its own merits as well as limitations, methodological innovations and comprehensive assessment models are expected for future research, particularly in the hospitality and tourism context owing to the lack of research output in this regard ( Tsai & Chen, 2010 ).

5.2. Context

5.2.1. covid-19 (coronavirus disease 2019).

COVID-19 has threatened the lives and health of people globally and seriously disrupts the traffic flow of people worldwide. Hotels, travel agencies, airlines and all sorts of related industries face a serious challenge in 2020 ( Gössling et al., 2020 ; Qiu et al., 2020a , b ). In fact, the world may see a co-occurrence of various health risks and diseases in future. With lessons derived from COVID-19, health-related crisis management could be a universal issue.

The COVID-19 pandemic may not be over in year 2021 although different vaccines are available. Tourism and hospitality industry will still be seriously affected. Firstly, the impacts on the industry have already been estimated for the year 2020.70% of hotel employees have been laid off and 4.6 million supporting jobs was lost in United States ( American Hospitality and Lodging Association, 2020 ). The forecasted impacts for the year 2021 are still in progress and not yet available. Secondly, there could be new models for people travelling for leisure or business after the pandemic. Thirdly, new business model may evolve for the hotel, airlines, catering, or even the sharing business ( Farmaki et al., 2020 ).

5.2.2. Data privacy in hospitality and tourism

Today, most organisations are using information technology as a main or supplementary tool for their business operations and management. Extensive organisational/customer sensitive information is stored and/or processed in digital format, particularly when using social media for communications. Loss of confidential information would be disastrous for a company. Note that any inappropriate processing of such sensitive and personal information may cause great damage to organisational reputation with the expected decline of customer trust and loyalty ( Watson & Rodrigues, 2018 ). This fact was highlighted with no exception in the hospitality and tourism industry ( Chen & Jai, 2019 ). Unfortunately, very few papers have addressed this issue. Chen and Jai (2019) explored a research agenda to examine the relationship between data breach or privacy issues and customer relationship building and loyalty. They also suggested checking the different levels of privacy concerns by customers and their impacts.

5.2.3. Political-related crisis events

Many political-related crisis events also have impacts on hospitality and tourism industry. For example, in a historical sense, the US-Iran conflict has long influences over the development of Iran's tourism industry ( Estrada et al., 2020 ; Khodadadi, 2018 ). Recently, the Hong Kong extradition bill controversy (2019–2020) also shook Hong Kong's society and the tourism industry in particular ( Lee, 2020 ). More researchers are expected to express interest on these cases to discuss different research questions. These cases are related to risk and crisis management for destination marketers and various stakeholders. However, the natures of these circumstances vary, a situation which could possibly generate dissimilar research findings and shed light in the crisis management field. Future researchers could investigate the effects of crisis types on crisis management with case studies of new crisis events ( Coombs, 2019 ).

5.2.4. Digital media theme

Digital media plays a major role in future. People may like to use social media more often to express and share their views. However, a crisis may occur for the companies that fail to adequately manage the social communications of their products and brands. For example, customers may complain on social media. How the complaint is transmitted through the Internet and the responses from the organisation are rather practical topics for researchers. Ryschka et al. (2016) is one of the few to explore how a company's response to a crisis raised on social media affects its reputation. Their results showed that the speed of response is important as well as the brand familiarity and cultural values. Unfortunately, their research context (cruise industry) has its special nature and may not be applicable to other industry sectors or businesses at large. Sigala (2012) indicated that future studies could analyse role of social media in crisis communications and its impacts on organisation image. The factors that contribute to the motivations and barriers of using social media by companies can also be studied accordingly ( Sigala, 2012 ). Luo and Zhai (2017) highlighted the need for further research about cyber nationalism and bilateral relationships concerning the tourism boycott and destination crisis.

5.2.5. Other less explored contexts

Most of the reviewed crisis management studies focused on hotels as a sector of the hospitality and tourism industry. Studies should be more diversified across other sectors of the industry. Certain hospitality and tourism industry sectors are under-explored, including airlines, travel agencies, restaurants, the conference sector, ocean cruising, theme parks and wellness spas. For instance, any destination and tourism crisis may affect tour operators and travel agencies which play an important role in tourism flows ( Cavlek, 2002 ). Emphasis on tour operators is suggested for their strategic importance towards destination recovery in the post-crisis period ( Cavlek, 2002 ). The airline industry is also very sensitive to economic downturns and global crises ( Hatty & Hollmeier, 2003 ). Accordingly, the companies involved in that industry may be unable to adjust immediately when facing declining demands in the market. Sangpikul and Kim (2009) identified different factors of barriers affecting the convention and meeting industry. For example, they revealed political unrest as the source of crisis for the MICE (Meeting, Incentive, Conventions and Exhibitions) industry. However, few studies have investigated this sector.

Previous crisis management research relied on traditional methodologies including case studies, content analysis, descriptive analysis and regression analysis ( Table 5 ). Researchers could consider analysing images and/or pictures of the crisis event. Case study in crisis research usually involves with very small sample size. Two diseases cases (SARS and H1N1) were covered in a crisis management study ( Fung et al., 2020 ). Generalization of a case study usually is a difficult task for researcher. Thus, case study sometimes was conducted by way of an exploratory study; or simply used to test a pre-established theory. Besides, case study would also be used to demonstrate a good crisis management practice and propose a relationship or association among variables ( Eisenbhardt, 1989 ). As a whole, case study is a perfect choice to explain and answer the questions on “how” and “why”.

Researchers can consider qualitative comparative analysis. In literature, less than one percentage of crisis management articles used qualitative comparative analysis (see Table 5 ). Most of the focal researches examined relationships among variables in a linear manner using regression analysis and ignored the complexities that might possibly exist across the variables. Even in the case of low level of multi-collinearity, one variable might depend on the other explanatory variable ( Woodside, 2013 ). Often, the impacts on tourism due to crisis might not work in a linear relationship. The qualitative comparative analysis can be a suitable analysis method ( Papatheodorou & Pappas, 2017 ).

5.9 percent or thirty of crisis management papers adopted structural equation modelling as their main analysis method ( Table 5 ). Partial Least Squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) has not been used extensively in particular hospitality and tourism research but rather preferred in marketing and management studies in general ( Ali et al., 2018 ). Conceptually, PLS has some advantages including smaller sample size and less restricted data normality requirement. For example, with 5% significant level, minimum R-square 10% and number of arrows pointing at a construct is five, 150 samples is sufficient ( Hair et al., 2019 ). This fits the current research situation under pandemic concerns that achieving big sample size may not be an easy task. Moreover, models in risk perception sometimes evolve more than one dependent variable and some other mediating or moderating variables, such as perceived security, perceived risk, destination image or willingness to visit ( Zenker et al., 2019 ). Complex predicting model could be handled by PLS easily.

Conjoint analysis is sometimes used in hospitality research. For example, it could explain how tourists choose a particular hotel. It depends on a lot of considerations at the same time. Costs, time, word-of-mouth, activities, past experience and so on are possible reasons ( Suess & Mody, 2017 ). Only a subset of combinations needs to be tested in the field in order to get the answer. In crisis management research, crisis response can be one of the possible topics using this method. For example, one has to take into account different factors before formally making an apology for a customer complaint. Possible factors can include seriousness of crisis, crisis history, and responsibility of company ( Coombs, 2019 ).

6.1. Specific future research questions

Based on the above analysis, ten key future areas were identified. This study took a step further to prepare a total of 100 specific research questions ( Table 8 ) that warrant greater attention in the future. Research findings in these areas were also reported (first column of Table 8 ). Future researchers of crisis management in hospitality and tourism industry can take the specific questions as a direct reference to prepare their projects. Among these specific questions, some questions were reported as unanswered in the existing literature in these areas (second column of Table 8 ), thus being worthy of future research. Other specific questions (last column of Table 8 ) were generated from analyses in this study, after a critical review of literature.

7. Conclusions

This study systematically reviewed crisis management literature in the hospitality and tourism industry from 1985 to 2020, spanning 36 years; and found that only few articles were produced during earlier period. A sharp increase of related research interests emerged thereafter. This work analysed various major academic journals and presented the trends of their collection of crisis management studies; and discussed the study locations and authorship. Moreover, a systematic summary of the crisis types and the different industry sectors within the hospitality and tourism industry can be found this study.

Under the area of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry, traditional research foci were found to comprise crisis management and risk management/with multiple topics, disaster management, crisis impacts and recovery, and risk perception. This study summarised further that the main emerging themes over the last decade have revolved around health-related crisis including COVID-19, social media crisis, political disturbance crisis and terrorism crisis. The research cases and environments covered different industry sectors.

Crisis management research will likely be conducted continually with scholarly passion in the near future. A three-layer TCM (theory-context-method) framework for further research of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism is proposed. Ten directions are suggested for future research agenda: 1) crisis prevention and preparedness, 2) risk communication, 3) crisis management education and training, 4) risk assessment, 5) COVID-19 and other health-related crisis events, 6) data privacy in hospitality and tourism, 7) political-related crisis events, 8) digital media theme, 9) other less explored research contexts, and 10) adopting newer analytical methods and approaches. A summary of important works up to date and the suggested 100 specific research questions were also presented for future research purpose.

This study has its natural limitations, the papers collected were published within a specific time period (1985–2020). Using more keywords in literature search can found more papers in this field. Exploring this topic further at different academic platforms, particularly for those in languages other than English, can for sure generated more search results. Investigation of crisis management with a regional focus is also suggested for analysing the research outputs recorded in the local and regional languages.

Author statement

Wut, T. M.: Conceptualization; Data curation; formal analysis; funding acquisition; investigation; Methodology; original draft, Xu, B.: Funding acquisition; review and editing, Wong, S.: Project Administration; resources; supervision.

Declaration of competing interest

We declare that there is no potential conflict of interest

Biographies

Wut, Tai Ming; Dr Wut is a senior lecturer in the School of Professional Education and Executive Development, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, where he teaches courses in risk management, crisis management and corporate social responsibility. His interdisciplinary research interests cover engineering management, corporate social responsibility and engineers' role in society. He has published papers in international journals such as International Journal of Consumer Studies and Young Consumers. He has also presented his papers in international academic conferences.

Xu, Bill; Dr Bill Xu is a senior lecturer in the School of Professional Education and Executive Development, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University. With respect to research, he has published academic articles and book reviews in international journals like the Journal of China Tourism Research, the Asian Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, the International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Tourism Management, etc. He also presented papers in international academic conferences. His teaching and research interests include consumer behaviour and consumption experience (in tourism and hospitality management), tourism psychology and sociology, tour operations and wholesaling, China tourism and hotel businesses, hospitality management in China, and quality service management.

Wong, Helen Shun-mun; Dr Helen Wong obtained her Bachelor of Arts (First Class Hons) from The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Master of Science from the University of London, and Doctor of Business Administration from the University of South Australia. She is also a fellow member of ACCA, an associate member of HKICPA, and CGA. Dr Wong has a diversified business background and several years' accounting and finance experience in Hong Kong and Canada. Prior to joining HKCC, she had worked for various well-known organisations, such as PricewaterhouseCoopers, Hong Kong Stock Exchange, and the University of Toronto.

Appendix B Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2021.104307 .

Appendix A. 

Location of first author (N = 512) (Extended version of Table 1 )

(Source: authors)

Impact statement

Crises events and crisis management often become research topics for hospitality and tourism researchers. However, review papers in this field are lacking. An updated systematic literature review of crisis management research in hospitality and tourism industry is highly needed for the time being, to show what has progressed in recent decades and what would possibly progress in the near future. Under the outbreak of COVID-19, more hospitality and tourism researchers are expected to develop their research interests in crisis management field in the near future. Our paper fills in the research gap to summarise and discuss the traditionally dominated crisis management research themes and the emerging themes over the last decade from 2010. Meanwhile, it also sheds lights in providing clear and detailed advice to future researchers through eliciting what kind of crisis management research areas and specific research questions can be considered.

Appendix B. Supplementary data

The following is the Supplementary data to this article:

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TOURISM DESTINATION CRISIS MANAGEMENT: THE CASE STUDY OF LESVOS ISLAND, GREECE

2020, JOURNAL ON TOURISM & SUSTAINABILITY

Tourism industry, one of the most dynamic industries worldwide is also one of the most vulnerable to crisis and disaster. This is mainly due to the fact that tourism is closely related and influenced by many external factors such as exchange rates, the political and economic environment, climate, and weather conditions. Tourism success is directly linked to the ability of the destination to offer tourists a safe and enjoyable stay. In a changing globalized world where crises are affecting people's lives, we are called not only to manage crises but also to manage every communication impact, making crisis management an integral part of effective Destination Management. Lesvos an island of the North Aegean Region in Greece is the case study area of this paper. The island has been through the economic crisis of 2009 and the refugee crisis of 2015. The purpose of this paper is to examine the perceptions of the island's local community, tourism stakeholder's, and tourists visiting the island, how effectively the refugee crisis was managed at the destination. In the first part of the paper literature review is being conducted for crises management in tourism destinations, the refugee crisis in Greece and in North Aegean Region and more particular in Lesvos island. Primary research was conducted, and 262 filled questionnaires were collected. The findings and the conclusion are useful for the tourism authorities of Lesvos and for island destinations of the Mediterranean with similar characteristics and challenges.

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Since the turn of the century the global tourism industry has been impacted by an increasing and diverse range of external shocks including, terrorism, pandemics, earthquakes, civil unrest, tsunami, hurricanes, volcanic eruptions and a global financial and economic downturn. As an industry that generates hundreds of billions of dollars annually through income revenues, employment, investment and infrastructure, there has been a growing interest in trying to develop more effective management strategies to prevent and/or mitigate the adverse effects of such events, particularly at the localised region or destination level. Central to this endeavour is appreciating the direct relationship between tourism, risk, and hazards, and recognising that the tourism industry is inherently susceptible to crises and disasters. As a relatively recent area of research, existing literature on tourism crisis and disaster risk management reflects numerous definitions and academic approaches. Advocating the ideal of sustainable tourism development, discourse in development studies examines the broader historical, social, political, economic and environmental context of tourism development to better understand the dynamics of destination vulnerability and capacity. While disaster risk management is similarly premised in understanding the context, it elaborates on the functional phases of a disaster, promoting proactive hazard prevention and mitigation. Utilising this functional strategic management approach, scholars such as Faulkner (2001) and Ritchie (2004) have developed prescriptive crisis and disaster management frameworks specifically for the tourism industry. Despite the incidence of crises and disasters continuing to affect entire tourist destinations and host communities, there have been limited attempts to synthesise key measures of destination vulnerability and sustainable development within the existing tourism disaster risk management modelling. Similarly, as disasters and crisis events are frequently detailed in autonomous linear models of specific duration, occurring in an identifiable time and space, it remains difficult to realise the complex diversity of additional factors and longer term issues that influence the outcome of management and recovery efforts. The advent of the Bali Bombings (October 2002, 2005) and South Asia Tsunami (26 December 2004) within communities characteristic of tourism dependency provided an opportunity to directly assess the value of a more holistic integrated approach to understanding tourism disaster management strategies and destination recovery. Consistent with contemporary disaster management and tourism research, case studies are utilised as “a holistic empirical inquiry … to gain an in-depth understanding of a contemporary phenomenon in its real-life context, using multiple sources of evidence” (Beeton 2005:42). The longitudinal case studies in this treatise have been established in intensive fieldwork periods reviewing the full continuum of disaster management from response and recovery to prevention and preparedness. Fieldwork methods involved observation, participant observation and informal and semi-structured interviews with a diversity of individuals from key stakeholder groups. Supplementary and secondary data included photographs, official reports, print media, web material, journal articles and continued email correspondence with key informants. The significant data set collected was organised temporally to correspond and compare with the progressive linear phases or anatomy of a crisis/disaster as characterised in Faulkner’s (2001) and Ritchie’s (2004) tourism disaster management frameworks. The synthesis of case study results demonstrates that linear tourism disaster management models focused specifically on the tourism industry are unable to appreciate or address the broader context of destination vulnerability and capacity for sustainable recovery. In the absence of integrated, proactive, participatory planning, recovery management efforts supported a return to the pre-crisis “normalcy” of tourism dependency rather than sustainable transformation aimed at disaster risk reduction. While conventional tourism statistics suggest gradual industry and destination recovery, conditions for many host community stakeholders including individuals, families, small and medium enterprises (SME) and members of the informal sector, remain tenuous. Recommendations for comprehensive disaster risk management and greater sustainability for tourist destinations are premised in a more holistic, integrated approach to crisis and disaster management encompassing: all hazards, all phases, all resources and all stakeholders. Additionally, in recognising the unique and dynamic nature of each destination and potential hazard, practical disaster management needs to be continuous, flexible, adaptable, and self-appreciating. As an industry that is heavily reliant on public perceptions of safety, security and reputation, tourism will always be susceptible to crises and disaster. While impacts are experienced most significantly at the localised region or destination level, understanding the broader context of vulnerability and capacity is integral to the planning and implementation of more effective and sustainable tourism disaster risk management strategies. Although crises and disasters are inevitable, case studies of afflicted destinations facilitate industry and organisational learning to build better management capacity and mitigate adversity.

Zahed Ghaderi

Nova Science

Maximiliano E. Korstanje

From its outset, the specialized literature in tourism fields has adamantly focused on the fragility of the industry. As it is best known, service sectors are inevitably sensitive to external or internal threats. Over decades, tourism research explored different academic paradigms in quest of answers to a pungent question: what is the future of the tourism industry? From different angles, scholars have devoted considerable time and effort to implement conceptual models to protect the tourism and hospitality industries. Nevertheless, the turn of the century witnessed a new stage of uncertainty, fear and anxiety for the West. Just after the attacks on the US in 2001, policymakers, practitioners and academicians enthusiastically adopted the risk perception theory as a valid guideline for understanding how the organic image of affected destinations can be protected. From that moment onwards, it was argued that the industry was in jeopardy because of countless global risks. These risks included political violence, terrorism, crime, natural disasters, and the environmental crisis, without mentioning virus outbreaks. It is difficult to resist the impression that these global dangers plausibly altered the forms of defining tourism as well as leisure activities worldwide. With the benefits of hindsight, far from being solved, these problems have certainly aggravated in the threshold of time. The radicalization of political violence, associated with an acceleration of climate change paved the pathways for the rise of new paradigms. Ultimately, experts agreed we live in a context of constant crisis. The concept of prevention or the precautionary doctrine (which illuminated scholars` works in past years) has very well set the pace for adaptation (adaptancy) as a main conceptual corpus of applied research today. New (morbid) forms of tourism have come to stay. Having said this, the present book, which gathers well-known and global experts specialized in the tourism crisis, explores not only the different crises the sector is facing but also its future in the years to come. The main argument toys with the belief that any crisis opens the doors to new opportunities, stages or moments that lead to the mutation of the industry. This book is recommended to post-graduate students, policy-makers, practitioners, and scholars who are interested in the turbulent times the tourism industry is going through.

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Crisis, Resilience and Recovery in Tourism and Hospitality: A Synopsis

• First Online: 02 January 2023

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• Mohammed Ghanim Ahmed 5 ,
• Abdullah Mohammed Sadaa 5 ,
• Hamad Mathel Alshamry 5 ,
• Mualla Ali Alharbi 5 ,
• Alhamzah Alnoor 6 , 7 &
• Alyaa Abdulhussein Kareem 8  

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2 Citations

The crises have greatly affected the tourism and hospitality industry. Hence, COVID-19 pandemic has significantly affected the tourism and hospitality. To provide insight and highlights the effect of crisis and resilience on recovery in tourism and hospitality this chapter aims to provide deep analysis of the impact of crises on tourism and hospitality to highlight the most important challenges and issues that lead to low performance. Moreover, practitioners and academics can benefit from the comprehensive analysis of this chapter to recover from crises that disrupt the work of tourism and hospitality services.

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Ahmed, M.G., Sadaa, A.M., Alshamry, H.M., Alharbi, M.A., Alnoor, A., Kareem, A.A. (2022). Crisis, Resilience and Recovery in Tourism and Hospitality: A Synopsis. In: Hassan, A., Sharma, A., Kennell, J., Mohanty, P. (eds) Tourism and Hospitality in Asia: Crisis, Resilience and Recovery. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5763-5_1

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Case Study: Physical Climate Risk Assessment for a Major Hotel Chain

Methodology.

In this study, we assess the physical climate risk associated with properties across various brands of a leading global hospitality company, with locations in Europe, India, and China.

Using publicly available data on the hotel chain's properties across 1556 locations, we conducted a physical risk assessment. We approximated asset value based on the number of rooms, interpolated from country-specific reports from global firms like HVS, Turner and Townsend, and CEIC. The assumptions were as follows:

• Average number of rooms per hotel: 165
• Average construction cost per room for 4-star hotels in Europe: approx. 268K USD
• Average construction cost per hotel in Europe: approx. 44 million USD
• Average construction cost per hotel in India and China: approx. 14 million and 18 million USD, respectively

The assessment examined the period 2025-2030, focusing on the SSP245 climate scenario —a world reliant on fossil fuels, resulting in moderate global warming.

Using Aegis, we calculated the risk for various perils, including Cold Outbreak, Heat Wave, Earthquake, Excessive Rainfall, River Flooding, Tropical Cyclone, European Windstorms, Tsunami, and Wildfire. Aegis allows flexibility in peril selection and assessment at both individual and portfolio levels.

Analyses included probability calculations for exceeding a specific magnitude of an extreme event and the potential loss. Average Annual Loss (AAL) was also determined at each asset location, displaying risk at both individual and portfolio levels.

Output examples for an individual asset are shown below.

Summary of Average Annual Losses

Exceedance Probability and Expected Loss

Portfolio Analysis

The highest AAL was associated with Wildfires, followed closely by River Flooding in undefended zones. Wildfires are increasingly threatening, with potential for more significant future loss.

A breakdown by region and peril revealed different risks:

Wildfire Risk Score

River Flooding (Undefended) Risk Score

Tropical Cyclone Risk Score

Wildfire is the highest annual loss in most regions, except Europe, where undefended River Flooding is growing as a threat.

Tropical Cyclone risk is high for western India and eastern Chinese provinces.

Charts showing risk scores for Wildfire, River Flooding (Undefended), and Tropical Cyclone were calculated over the entire portfolio.

Cold Outbreak AAL (USD)

Other perils like Cold Outbreak or Heat Waves have relatively lower associated financial loss, as shown above, but are likely to lead to increased energy costs and potential lack of desire to travel to more extreme weather locations.

Implications and Next Steps

Based on the climate risk assessment, Wildfires, River Flooding, and Tropical Cyclones are likely to cause the highest average annual losses for assets in this portfolio. The assessment leads to several potential next steps:

• Compliance and Disclosure: Meeting emerging regulatory requirements such as TCFD and disclosing climate strategies.
• Business Planning: Leveraging average annual loss estimates for infrastructure planning, real estate investment, and property construction decisions.
• Insurance and Risk Management: Mitigating expected losses through insurance and integrating climate risk assessment into internal frameworks or transferring the risk to external vendors.
• Future Tourism Strategies: Understanding weather risks to inform potential locations for increasing or decreasing tourism based on climate hazards.

Physical climate risk assessment is vital for the tourism and hospitality industry. This case study showcases how a major hotel chain can use tools like Aegis to comprehend and mitigate climate risks, enabling strategic planning for asset and supply chain liabilities. As climate challenges escalate, such data-driven insights become key in shaping resilient and responsible business strategies.

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Bachelors of Arts / Tourism, Hospitality and Event Management

Discover your passion through arts disciplines that provide the skills to succeed in the global workplace, while developing your managerial talents, business acumen and professional abilities to deliver exceptional tourism experiences.

This dual degree program provides the opportunity to combine a respected arts qualification that allows you to discover your passion, while gaining the essential skills to succeed in the highly competitive tourism industry.

When you graduate, you'll be in high demand. Being an arts graduate sets you apart, and the transferable skills and knowledge you'll learn – problem-solving, critical thinking, creativity and communication – are valuable assets that will make you a desirable job candidate.

With your tourism qualification, you'll be prepared to lead, develop and grow business and tourism ventures in Australia or overseas. You'll gain core business knowledge in accounting, law, management, marketing, organisational behaviour and more to create an outstanding career.

Program highlights

• Tailor your arts studies to suit your interests, from classics and languages to world cultures and politics.
• Harness the knowledge to engage in a globalised world and contribute to solving its challenges.
• Join one of the world's top business schools and the only Australian university to offer programs accredited by the United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO).
• Fast-track your career through work placements, executive shadowing opportunities, internships with Disney World Florida, local and international study tours, and more.

1 in Queensland for arts and humanities

QS World University Rankings 2024

1 in Queensland for economics and business

U.S. News Best Global Universities 2023

Tailor your studies to suit your goals. This program offers these options:

• Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
• Ancient Greek
• Ancient History
• Ancient History/History

See all majors

How you'll learn

Your learning experiences are designed to best suit the learning outcomes of the courses you choose.

• Work placements
• Overseas study
• Research experience

What you'll study

At UQ, degrees are called 'programs' and subjects are called 'courses'.

See courses and program structure

View dual degree planner (PDF)

The 2025 dual degree planner is not yet available. The planner displayed is for a previous year and is a guide only.

Career possibilities

Our programs prepare you for your first job and beyond. Depending on which major you choose, here are some of the careers you could be on your way to:

• Cultural support liaison
• Conference and convention centre marketing coordinator
• Employment consultant
• Local history technician
• Food and beverage manager
• Government relations manager
• Arts and cultural facilitator
• Tourism and events manager
• Hotel and resort manager
• Travel consultant

Professional memberships

When you graduate, you may be eligible for memberships with the following professional organisations. Contact the organisation to find out how to become a member.

• Australian Hotels Association
• Australian and New Zealand Association of Leisure Studies
• Australian Tourism Export Council
• The Association for Tourism and Leisure Education
• The Council for Australasian Tourism and Hospitality Education
• International Council on Hotel, Restaurant and Institutional Education
• International Festivals and Events Association
• Meetings and Events Australia
• Meetings Professionals International
• Pacific Asia Travel Association
• Queensland Tourism Industry Council
• Restaurant and Catering Queensland
• Tourism and Transport Forum Australia
• United Nations World Tourism Organization

My teachers are very experienced in the hospitality industry. They are always happy to share their knowledge in class, which gives me a lot of opportunities to think about my future career from different perspectives.

I chose to study my program because it aligned with my passion for people, culture and travel. I have been extremely fortunate to have so many fantastic industry experiences at Tourism Australia, Queensland Tourism Industry Council and Discova.

18 April - 1 May

MBA Information Event

1 May - 22 May

UQ's Sustainable Energy programs, Q&A webinars

Discover Postgraduate Quantum Technology

Why study hospitality and tourism management?

6-minute read

Making tourism destinations more engaging for blind and low-vision travellers

Where can a Bachelor of Arts take you?

5-minute read

Entry requirements

Prerequisites.

• General English subject (Units 3 & 4, C)
• General Mathematics, Mathematical Methods or Specialist Mathematics (Units 3 & 4, C)

See equivalent subjects

Minimum entry score

Select where you studied and your qualification to see the minimum entry score you need to be considered for this program.

Use the minimum entry score as a guide. Your score must be at least equivalent to the required Australian Year 12 ATAR score. Entry scores are reviewed each year.

Equivalent subjects

Entry score threshold.

These are the lowest adjusted scores we made an offer to in Semester 1, 2024. Entry scores are based on the most recent Semester 1 intake and are updated in April each year. Meeting the entry score threshold doesn't guarantee admission.

Guarantee your place at UQ: If you meet our guaranteed minimum ATAR  you could secure an offer for your preferred program.

English language requirements

IELTS overall 6.5; reading 6; writing 6; speaking 6; listening 6. For other English Language Proficiency Tests and Scores approved for UQ

TOEFL iBT (including Paper Edition) - Overall 87, listening 19, reading 19, writing 21 and speaking 19.

PTE Academic - Overall Score of 64 and 60 in all sub bands.

BE - A minimum overall grade of 4 plus a minimum grade of C in all macro skills.

CES - Overall 176 and 169 in all sub bands.

OET is not accepted.

There are other ways to meet the English language requirements. For some programs, additional conditions apply.

Learn how to meet the English language requirements

Student visas

International students who are accepted into full-time study in the Bachelors of Arts / Tourism, Hospitality and Event Management are eligible to apply for an Australian student visa (subclass 500).

There are a number of requirements you must satisfy before a visa is granted, including the Genuine Student (GS) requirement.

Learn more about student visas

Entry score range

This table shows the range of entry scores for recent secondary students offered a place in the B Arts/B Tour Hosp & Event Man for Semester 1, 2024

Learn more about adjustments

Need help meeting the entry requirements?

We can help you meet the minimum entry score, subject prerequisites or English language requirements for your preferred program.

If you haven't studied the prerequisites or need to improve your entry score, we can help.

Learn about pathway options

Majors and minors

In this major, you'll develop connections with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and communities, and strengthen your skills to think creatively and critically as a citizen of the world.

Graduates typically work in a broad range of roles with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, like education, community development, public health, government and advocacy.

The language and literature of Greece continue to have a profound impact on western culture. The study of ancient language is immensely valuable for appreciating the culture and sophistication of Graeco-Roman antiquity and its lasting influence on the modern world.  

This major is ideal for students studying a dual program, as it will enhance studies in law, science or languages.

Courses span the Bronze Age to Late Antiquity, and focus on important individuals, ideas and events.

Travel to exotic destinations and explore the past at the RD Milns Antiquities Museum.

Graduates find fascinating careers that require researching, writing, and presentation skills – particularly with a wide breadth of historical knowledge and understanding of human society and cultures.

Given the lasting influence of ancient ideas and institutions, the study of ancient history helps to provide a basis for deeper understanding of modern society.

You could pursue roles in museums, publishing, media, international agencies, public and government sector in Australia and overseas.

You'll discover how cultural traditions continue and change over time, informing human beliefs and behaviour.

Gain practical experience through fieldwork and overseas opportunities, and access world-class facilities, including UQ's Anthropology Museum – home to the largest university collection of ethnographic material culture in Australia.

Graduates work in roles that require an understanding of diversity and cultural difference, with positions likely in government departments, Aboriginal Land Councils and consultancy firms.

Learn first-hand about archaeological methods and techniques. You'll develop skills in field survey and excavation, materials analysis, and interpreting archaeological collections and sites.

You’ll also have access to our Archaeology Lab and Archaeology Teaching and Research Centre (ATARC), Australia’s largest integrated teaching and research facility.

Your practical skills will prepare you for a global profession. Follow your passion to work in museums, cultural centres, agencies, law enforcement, government departments, or educational and research institutions.

In this major, you'll develop strong visual literacy and gain a broad knowledge of art traditions.

Access to the UQ Art Museum will add another dimension to your creative learning.

You'll be prepared for employment in private galleries and public art institutions, or you could become an arts writer, curator, education officer or registrar.

Build international awareness and boost your employability by studying Chinese alongside courses in business, education, tourism, engineering, information technology or politics.

There are separate majors for native speakers of Mandarin and other Chinese dialects.

You'll also learn about key issues in translation and interpreting ethics.

Gain the foundations to build a future career as an interpreter or a translator in diplomacy, law, education, business, politics, health, education and academia.

This major is designed for students who are native Chinese speakers.

Gain hands-on professional practice and deep industry engagement by studying criminology at UQ.

Learn how the criminal justice system works, and build the skills needed to develop and implement evidence-based crime policies and practices.

Graduates can pursue careers in policing, security and intelligence, corrective services, social policy and research.

Encounter the spectrum of theatre practice through time and across cultures, from antiquity to today and most stages in between.

Work with leading global practitioners to develop work in our specialised studio facilities. Learn to understand the performances you see, and those you might want to make.

Graduates typically pursue creative roles within the arts sector like performing, directing, playwriting, writing and reviewing.

Undertake this advanced major and you'll understand how economics, globalisation, development and sustainability shape the availability of resources in today's societies.

Graduates are highly employable across private and public sectors, agencies, international organisations, consultancies, companies and utilities.

English is the medium of communication, business and entertainment for millions of people around the world. From witty plays and elegant films to songs and novels, it allows people to formulate and convey their particular vision of the world and their often urgent need to celebrate or improve it.

Explore examples of English at work in different circumstances by combining courses from English literature, writing, poetry, media, film and television studies and the Internet.

You'll learn to examine familiar ideas from new perspectives, to approach unfamiliar ideas with intelligence, and to research, write and communicate your own ideas with confidence.

Graduates typically work in education as school teachers, heads of department, education advisors and student mentors.

You'll gain a specialisation in English and better understand the complex relationship between language, culture and identity.

Skilled graduates are sought after by international and multinational companies for positions in development, marketing, management and trade.

Discover the different ways that people from different times have lived, thought, argued, felt and imagined.

Career paths lead to opportunities in education, government and arts administration, arts policy, communications, festivals and marketing.

Explore the commerce and aesthetics of film and television across cultures and history.

Critically analyse film and television style, and examine new industry and artistic trends ushered in by digital media.

Graduate opportunities include careers in education, festivals and events, publicity, marketing, film culture, screen corporations and film distributors.

Courses in this major cover language skills and offer knowledge about some of the major historical, social, literary and philosophical movements in the Francophone world.

Many graduates use their language competency to enhance employability in fields such as business, education, tourism and politics.

The French major is designed for students who have no previous knowledge of French. If you have completed substantial French study, the French Advanced major is for you.

By studying French Advanced you will reach an 'Independent User' B2 level on the Common European Framework of Reference, allowing you to communicate in detail on a broad range of subjects, express opinions and debate choices.

You will also acquire detailed knowledge of French-speaking cultures.

The French Advanced major is for students who have completed substantial French study. If you have no previous knowledge of French, the French major is for you.

Roles for graduates include areas like natural resource management, wildlife conservation, ecotourism, transport and planning.

Germany has one of the strongest economies in the world and is a leader in many areas of technology and culture. Learning the language, history and culture can improve your career outcomes in fields such as business, engineering and law.

Learn what informs people and their attitudes, motivations and prejudices through courses that are diverse and fascinating.

World-class historians will provide you with rich offerings in European, Asian and Australian history, from the medieval period right through to contemporary history.

History graduates develop important research, writing and presentation skills that are highly valued by employers, and can lead to work in museums, publishing and international agencies.

You'll learn about international hotel operations, the role of technology in hospitality, and both large-scale and small-scale business operations.

Courses will provide you with an understanding of the values of hospitality and how hospitality experiences are produced. You'll also learn skills in entrepreneurship, food and beverage management, and casino and gaming management.

Graduates typically work in management or marketing roles in hotels, resorts, casinos, restaurants, cafés, cruise liners, commercial catering and clubs.

Learn why Bahasa Indonesia, the official language of Indonesia, has been identified as one of the crucial language skills needed for future Australian growth.

As Indonesia plays a bigger role in our region, this major is beneficial for careers in business, tourism, law, mining and other fields.

International relations provides an in-depth understanding of the nature and exercise of power in world politics.

It covers the origins, constitution and development of the international system; how ideas shape order, justice and security; Australia’s role in global affairs; and the interplay between domestic, international and transnational politics.

Graduates of this major will be global citizens, intellectually open and flexible, aware of and sensitive to cultural difference, and motivated to make positive change through global engagement.

Choose from courses on foreign policy, terrorism, gender, political economy, security studies and more.

You'll study language courses from beginner to advanced levels, as well as courses (delivered mostly in Italian) that explore Italian literature, society, history, politics, cinema, popular culture and food culture.

You may choose to undertake a work-integrated learning experience in Italy – further enhancing your employability in many careers.

Graduate opportunities include careers in education, translation/interpreting, hospitality and tourism, international politics and diplomacy.

Italian is available cross-institutionally at Griffith University. Details of courses are available on the Griffith University website. To study an Italian course, visit the Brisbane Universities Languages Alliance to submit your application.

Japanese is a key world language used in cultural and economic pursuits, research and diplomacy around the world.

Many students study Japanese alongside courses like business, education and tourism to broaden their career opportunities in these fields.

The Japanese major is designed for students who have no previous knowledge of Japanese. If you have completed substantial Japanese study, then the Japanese Advanced major is for you.

Graduates with Japanese linguistic skills and cultural knowledge have been engaged in diverse sectors, including business, international relations, law, education, media, engineering and interpreting/translation.

The Japanese Advanced major is for students who have completed substantial Japanese study. If you have no previous knowledge of Japanese, the Japanese major is for you.

Courses cover the study of journalism and other forms of public communication, along with global journalism, mass communication and digital media.

Career opportunities can be found in arts, business, government and business, marketing, communications or public relations.

In this major we offer speaking and writing courses along with teaching about Korean films, TV dramas, internet culture and even pop songs.

Many students combine this major with courses in various fields like business, education or tourism, where their major in Korean can prove to be an asset for future career opportunities.

Classical Latin has traditionally held a central position in Western education, and remains important for the study not only of the Greco-Roman world, but also of the languages, ideas and literatures (including English) of societies that grew out of the classical world.

Latin language and literature lasted into the 19th and 20th centuries for treatises of fundamental importance in science, medicine, diplomacy and law.

This senior syllabus area examines the interface of law and society, providing an understanding of the legal system and its protection of individual rights in line with obligations and responsibilities.

The major includes a variety of courses dealing with legal foundations – criminal, civil and business law, international law and human rights law.

Elective courses cover topics including offender rehabilitation and crime prevention.

Courses examine the sounds of language, words, sentences and meaning, and the complex interactions between them.

Linguistics leads to careers in areas as diverse as engineering and artificial intelligence, software engineering, health sciences, education, law and publishing.

Prerequisite courses cover essential topics, with higher-level courses covering mathematical analysis, probability bioinformatics, mathematical biology and many other subjects.

Graduates go on to research positions at universities, government agencies and private companies. There are also opportunities in banking, finance, insurance and risk management.

Focus on the ubiquity of digital media technologies in our lives, the role of media in cultural life, the emergence of digital media industries and technologies, and much more.

Learn about new forms of media consumption and cultural practice, digital media industries and technologies, and the cultural formations characteristic of media-dense digital societies.

Graduates often go on to careers in the events, marketing, media and communication fields.

You'll explore the written and aural complexities of music, and approach the study of Western music in an engaging way.

This major focuses on employability through numerous partnerships with performing arts organisations, festivals and internship programs.

Graduate career options include professional musician and other roles in education, festivals and events, arts administration, publishing, media and writing.

In this major, you'll be taught by world-class academics who provide insight on conflict prevention strategies, international peacekeeping, humanitarian intervention, peace-building and conflict reconciliation processes.

You’ll also explore ethics, justice, gender, Indigenous politics and development issues.

A degree majoring in Peace and Conflict Studies can lead to a global career in diplomacy and foreign affairs, defence and intelligence, international development, and humanitarian and community services.

Explore key ideas in areas including epistemology, ethics, logic and metaphysics.

The purpose of philosophy is to learn how to evaluate theories and arguments, how to construct your own arguments, and how to communicate ideas in a clear and powerful way.

Through your studies you'll develop critical thinking, communication and complex reasoning skills, which can be used in endless careers and roles.

You'll also learn about different research methods and analysis that can be applied throughout your degree.

By studying this major you will gain the knowledge and practical skills needed to address pressing local and global issues.

Learn about various approaches to cooperation and conflict resolution, and get a better understanding of political processes.

Careers can be found in diplomacy and foreign affairs, defence and intelligence, government and policy, international development, and humanitarian and community services.

Learn to express yourself through writing and music production, and become technically equipped for changing music-making environments.

Graduates often find work in teaching, music production, broadcasting and audio engineering.

Study includes multimedia storytelling and production, media design, public relations writing, editing and publishing practices.

This major will prepare you for careers that require clear writing and creative communication in print or digital modes.

Graduates undertake careers in human resources, mental health services, youth and child support work, or fields a diverse as marketing, aged care and corrective services.

Only the extended major in Psychology is accredited by the Australian Psychology Accreditation Council. For more information on becoming a registered psychologist, visit the School of Psychology website .

Learn how we are shaped by education, socioeconomic status, religion, gender and ethnicity, and understand how to analyse social problems and issues.

Many graduates secure roles in the public and private sectors as policy analysts, researchers, policy advisers, project managers and social workers.

Courses cover Latin American thinking, European film, and how Spanish has become the official language for major international bodies like the United Nations and World Bank.

Mastering a world language like Spanish will enhance future career opportunities if you're also studying business, education, engineering and other fields.

You'll understand the role and importance of sport, and how different social factors can influence motivation and participation.

The career fields are diverse, and include journalism, management, PR and marketing, public health, education and psychology.

Understanding religion is crucial in order to understand our past and present.

This major will lead you to reflect on and understand religious traditions, questions and values. It offers a critical, multidisciplinary approach to a range of faiths and spiritual experiences.

You'll be prepared for work in areas including education and academia, health and social welfare, law and justice, or even broadcasting.

Through international case studies, simulations and industry-facing projects, you’ll learn about tourism and event systems, planning, operations, sales, marketing, policy and strategy.

In addition to learning about current practices and emerging trends in tourism and events, you’ll develop key business skills and attributes that will help you become a successful industry leader, including teamwork, leadership, creativity, critical thinking and problem-solving.

Graduates can market and manage tourist destinations, develop tourism policy, design sustainable tourism products, create innovative tourism experiences, or work as event and festival managers, consultants, or conference and convention centre managers. Graduates may also find success in various public and private tourism organisation roles.

Work with world-renowned creative practitioners to learn strategies for designing, structuring, writing and revising, and build a portfolio career in the changing publishing landscape.

Extend your networks and knowledge of the industry to become a creative or a corporate writer, or simply a better writer in general.

Writing skills are always in demand. Graduates have found work as journalists, teachers, editors, ghostwriters, publishers and playwrights.

You'll learn about the iconic images and identities, the major challenges and issues that make Australian culture and society unique.

Graduates can apply their knowledge of Australian in areas including tourism and hospitality, business and enterprise, politics, diplomacy, culture and the arts.

Graduates have the opportunity to take on roles that advance social justice and the status of women and girls, or work in politics, public policy, research or analysis.

Your study also covers social interaction, and the everyday uses and therapeutic applications of music.

Graduates can find roles in music practice, educational, therapeutic and organisational contexts.

With almost 200 million native speakers in Europe and Asia, Russian is truly an international language and a window into one of the world's great cultures.

Courses in this minor cover introductory language skills, grammatical concepts and structures as well as translating and interpreting studies. You don’t need to have any prior knowledge of Russian.

Graduates have used their Russian language skills to enhance their employability in fields such as law, economics, tourism, business, and politics.

Fees and Scholarships

Indicative annual fee.

Approximate yearly cost of tuition (16 units). Your fees will vary according to your selected courses and study load. Fees are reviewed each year and may increase.

Learn more about undergraduate fees

Approximate yearly cost of tuition (16 units). Your fees will vary according to your study load. Fees are reviewed each year and may increase.

AUD $48,720

Government assistance, financial aid.

As an international student, you might be eligible for financial aid – either from your home country, or from the Australian Government.

Learn more about financial aid

Domestic places in the Bachelors of Arts / Tourism, Hospitality and Event Management are Commonwealth Supported. This means the cost of your education is shared between you and the Australian Government.

Instead of tuition fees, Commonwealth Supported students pay what are called student contribution amounts.

HECS-HELP is an Australian Government loan scheme to assist eligible students with the cost of their student contribution amounts.

Learn more about HECS-HELP

Centrelink support

The Australian Government offers a number of income-support payments to eligible Australian university students.

Learn about Centrelink payments for students

Scholarships

You may be eligible for more than 100 scholarships, including:

How to apply

Applying online.

If your senior schooling is from outside Australia, you can submit your application to UQ. Or, if you prefer, you can use an  approved UQ agent in your country .

The program code for the Bachelors of Arts / Tourism, Hospitality and Event Management is  2474 .

Find out more about applying for undergraduate study

If your senior schooling is from Australia

Submit your application to the Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre if you're an international student who is currently studying:

• Australian Year 12 (in Australia or another country), or
• the International Baccalaureate in Australia.

The QTAC code for the Bachelors of Arts / Tourism, Hospitality and Event Management is  707701 .

Applying through QTAC

All domestic applications should be submitted to the Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre (QTAC).

The QTAC code for the Bachelors of Arts / Tourism, Hospitality and Event Management is 707701 .

Find out more about applying for undergraduate study

Important dates

If you’re studying Year 12 in Australia ,  go to the QTAC website  to check the closing date for this program. 

If you’re applying to UQ , the closing date for this program is: 

• To commence study in semester 2 - May 31 of the year of commencement.
• To commence study in semester 1 - November 30 of the previous year.

To learn more about UQ dates, including semester start dates,  view the Academic Calendar . 

To check the closing date for this program, go to the QTAC website .

To learn more about UQ dates, including semester start dates, view the Academic Calendar .

Admissions schemes

Applying to university can be both exciting and daunting, which is why we’ve tried to make the process as simple as we can.

We have several schemes in place to improve your chances of getting a place at UQ.

Learn more about admission schemes

Pathway options

A rank or score doesn’t determine your potential.

If you're not offered a place in your first-choice program – or if you don't meet the entry requirements – you still have a number of options.

Learn more about pathway options

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander applicants

For support with applying – or if you have any questions about university life – get in touch with our Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies Unit.

Contact the ATSIS Unit

Explore other programs

Bachelor of regional and town planning, bachelors of arts / education (secondary), bachelors of journalism / arts, bachelor of advanced business (honours), express yourself. and your interest..

They say choosing a degree is hard, which is why we've made it easy. Register your interest and we'll send you everything you need to know about applying to UQ.

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