Students will
1. | Distribute copies of the and , and read the model aloud with students. Briefly discuss how this research paper works to answer the question, The example helps students clearly see how a research question leads to a literature review, which in turn leads to analysis, original research, results, and conclusion. |
2. | Pass out copies of the . Explain to students that the procedures involved in writing a research paper follow in order, and each section of the scaffold builds upon the previous one. Briefly describe how each section will be completed during subsequent sessions. |
3. | Explain that in this session the students’ task is to formulate a research question and write it on the scaffold. The most important strategy in using this model is that students be allowed, within the assigned topic framework, to ask their research questions. Allowing students to choose their own questions gives them control over their own learning, so they are motivated to “solve the case,” to persevere even when the trail runs cold or the detective work seems unexciting. |
4. | Introduce the characteristics of a good research question. Explain that in a broad area such as political science, psychology, geography, or economics, a good question needs to focus on a particular controversy or perspective. Some examples include: Explain that students should take care not to formulate a research question so broad that it cannot be answered, or so narrow that it can be answered in a sentence or two. |
5. | Note that a good question always leads to more questions. Invite students to suggest additional questions resulting from the examples above and from the Example Research Paper Scaffold. |
6. | Emphasize that good research questions are open-ended. Open-ended questions can be solved in more than one way and, depending upon interpretation, often have more than one correct answer, such as the question, Closed questions have only one correct answer, such as, Open-ended questions are implicit and evaluative, while closed questions are explicit. Have students identify possible problems with these research questions |
7. | Instruct students to fill in the first section of the Research Paper Scaffold, the Research Question, before Session 2. This task can be completed in a subsequent class session or assigned as homework. Allowing a few days for students to refine and reflect upon their research question is best practice. Explain that the next section, the Hook, should be filled in at this time, as it will be completed using information from the literature search. |
You should approve students’ final research questions before Session 2. You may also wish to send home the Permission Form with students, to make parents aware of their child’s research topic and the project due dates.
Prior to this session, you may want to introduce or review Internet search techniques using the lesson Inquiry on the Internet: Evaluating Web Pages for a Class Collection . You may also wish to consult with the school librarian regarding subscription databases designed specifically for student research, which may be available through the school or public library. Using these types of resources will help to ensure that students find relevant and appropriate information. Using Internet search engines such as Google can be overwhelming to beginning researchers.
1. | Introduce this session by explaining that students will collect five articles that help to answer their research question. Once they have printed out or photocopied the articles, they will use a highlighter to mark the sections in the articles that specifically address the research question. This strategy helps students focus on the research question rather than on all the other interesting—yet irrelevant—facts that they will find in the course of their research. |
2. | Point out that the five different articles may offer similar answers and evidence with regard to the research question, or they may differ. The final paper will be more interesting if it explores different perspectives. |
3. | Demonstrate the use of any relevant subscription databases that are available to students through the school, as well as any Web directories or kid-friendly search engines (such as ) that you would like them to use. |
4. | Remind students that their research question can provide the keywords for a targeted Internet search. The question should also give focus to the research—without the research question to anchor them, students may go off track. |
5. | Explain that information found in the articles may lead students to broaden their research question. A good literature review should be a way of opening doors to new ideas, not simply a search for the data that supports a preconceived notion. |
6. | Make students aware that their online search results may include abstracts, which are brief summaries of research articles. In many cases the full text of the articles is available only through subscription to a scholarly database. Provide examples of abstracts and scholarly articles so students can recognize that abstracts do not contain all the information found in the article, and should not be cited unless the full article has been read. |
7. | Emphasize that students need to find articles from at least five different reliable sources that provide “clues” to answering their research question. Internet articles need to be printed out, and articles from print sources need to be photocopied. Each article used on the Research Paper Scaffold needs to yield several relevant facts, so students may need to collect more than five articles to have adequate sources. |
8. | Remind students to gather complete reference information for each of their sources. They may wish to photocopy the title page of books where they find information, and print out the homepage or contact page of websites. |
9. | Allow students at least a week for research. Schedule time in the school media center or the computer lab so you can supervise and assist students as they search for relevant articles. Students can also complete their research as homework. |
Students need to bring their articles to this session. For large classes, have students highlight relevant information (as described below) and submit the articles for assessment before beginning the session.
1. | Have students find the specific information in each article that helps answer their research question, and highlight the relevant passages. Check that students have correctly identified and marked relevant information before allowing them to proceed to the Literature Review section on the . |
2. | Instruct students to complete the Literature Review section of the Research Paper Scaffold, including the last name of the author and the publication date for each article (to prepare for using APA citation style). |
3. | Have students list the important facts they found in each article on the lines numbered 1–5, as shown on the . Additional facts can be listed on the back of the handout. Remind students that if they copy directly from a text they need to put the copied material in quotation marks and note the page number of the source. Students may need more research time following this session to find additional information relevant to their research question. |
4. | Explain that interesting facts that are not relevant for the literature review section can be listed in the section labeled Hook. All good writers, whether they are writing narrative, persuasive, or expository text, need to engage or “hook” the reader’s interest. Facts listed in the Hook section can be valuable for introducing the research paper. |
5. | Use the Example Research Paper Scaffold to illustrate how to fill in the first and last lines of the Literature Review entry, which represent topic and concluding sentences. These should be filled in only all the relevant facts from the source have been listed, to ensure that students are basing their research on facts that are found in the data, rather than making the facts fit a preconceived idea. |
6. | Check students’ scaffolds as they complete their first literature review entry, to make sure they are on track. Then have students complete the other four sections of the Literature Review Section in the same manner. |
Checking Literature Review entries on the same day is best practice, as it gives both you and the student time to plan and address any problems before proceeding. Note that in the finished product this literature review section will be about six paragraphs, so students need to gather enough facts to fit this format.
1. | Explain that in this session students will compare the information they have gathered from various sources to identify themes. |
2. | Explain the process of analysis using the . Show how making a numbered list of possible themes, drawn from the different perspectives proposed in the literature, can be useful for analysis. In the Example Research Paper Scaffold, there are four possible explanations given for the effects of color on mood. Remind students that they can refer to the for a model of how the analysis will be used in the final research paper. |
3. | Have students identify common themes and possible answers to their own research question by reviewing the topic and concluding sentences in their literature review. Students may identify only one main idea in each source, or they may find several. Instruct students to list the ideas and summarize their similarities and differences in the space provided for Analysis on the scaffold. |
4. | Check students’ Analysis section entries to make sure they have included theories that are consistent with their literature review. Return the Research Paper Scaffolds to students with comments and corrections. In the finished research paper, the analysis section will be about one paragraph. |
Students should design some form of original research appropriate to their topics, but they do not necessarily have to conduct the experiments or surveys they propose. Depending on the appropriateness of the original research proposals, the time involved, and the resources available, you may prefer to omit the actual research or use it as an extension activity.
1. | During this session, students formulate one or more possible answers to the research question (based upon their analysis) for possible testing. Invite students to consider and briefly discuss the following questions: |
2. | Explain the difference between and research. Quantitative methods involve the collection of numeric data, while qualitative methods focus primarily on the collection of observable data. Quantitative studies have large numbers of participants and produce a large collection of data (such as results from 100 people taking a 10-question survey). Qualitative methods involve few participants and rely upon the researcher to serve as a “reporter” who records direct observations of a specific population. Qualitative methods involve more detailed interviews and artifact collection. |
3. | Point out that each student’s research question and analysis will determine which method is more appropriate. Show how the research question in the Example Research Paper Scaffold goes beyond what is reported in a literature review and adds new information to what is already known. |
4. | Outline criteria for acceptable research studies, and explain that you will need to approve each student’s plan before the research is done. The following criteria should be included: ). |
5. | Inform students of the schedule for submitting their research plans for approval and completing their original research. Students need to conduct their tests and collect all data prior to Session 6. Normally it takes one day to complete research plans and one to two weeks to conduct the test. |
1. | If students have conducted original research, instruct them to report the results from their experiments or surveys. Quantitative results can be reported on a chart, graph, or table. Qualitative studies may include data in the form of pictures, artifacts, notes, and interviews. Study results can be displayed in any kind of visual medium, such as a poster, PowerPoint presentation, or brochure. |
2. | Check the Results section of the scaffold and any visuals provided for consistency, accuracy, and effectiveness. |
1. | Explain that the Conclusion to the research paper is the student’s answer to the research question. This section may be one to two paragraphs. Remind students that it should include supporting facts from both the literature review and the test results (if applicable). |
2. | Encourage students to use the Conclusion section to point out discrepancies and similarities in their findings, and to propose further studies. Discuss the Conclusion section of the from the standpoint of these guidelines. |
3. | Check the Conclusion section after students have completed it, to see that it contains a logical summary and is consistent with the study results. |
1. | Show students how to create a reference list of cited material, using a model such as American Psychological Association (APA) style, on the Reference section of the scaffold. |
2. | Distribute copies of the and have students refer to the handout as they list their reference information in the Reference section of the scaffold. Check students’ entries as they are working to make sure they understand the format correctly. |
3. | Have students access the citation site you have bookmarked on their computers. Demonstrate how to use the template or follow the guidelines provided, and have students create and print out a reference list to attach to their final research paper. |
4. | Explain to students that they will now use the completed scaffold to write the final research paper using the following genre-specific strategies for expository writing: and (unless the research method was qualitative). |
5. | Distribute copies of the and go over the criteria so that students understand how their final written work will be evaluated. |
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Antonis katsiyannis.
1 Department of Education and Human Development, College of Education, Clemson University, 101 Gantt Circle, Room 407 C, Clemson, SC 29634 USA
2 Department of Education and Human Development, College of Education, Clemson University, 101 Gantt Circle, Room 409 F, Clemson, SC 29634 USA
3 Steven C. Beering Hall of Liberal Arts and Education, Purdue University, 100 N. University Street, BRNG 5154, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2098 USA
4 Department of Education and Human Development, College of Education, Clemson University, 101 Gantt Circle, Room G01A, Clemson, SC 29634 USA
Gun violence in the USA is a pressing social and public health issue. As rates of gun violence continue to rise, deaths resulting from such violence rise as well. School shootings, in particular, are at their highest recorded levels. In this study, we examined rates of intentional firearm deaths, mass shootings, and school mass shootings in the USA using data from the past 5 years, 2017–2022, to assess trends and reappraise prior examination of this issue.
Extant data regarding shooting deaths from 2017 through 2020 were obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, the web-based injury statistics query and reporting system (WISQARS), and, for school shootings in particular (2017–2022), from Everytown Research & Policy.
The number of intentional firearm deaths and the crude death rates increased from 2017 to 2020 in all age categories; crude death rates rose from 4.47 in 2017 to 5.88 in 2020. School shootings made a sharp decline in 2020—understandably so, given the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent government or locally mandated school shutdowns—but rose again sharply in 2021.
Recent data suggest continued upward trends in school shootings, school mass shootings, and related deaths over the past 5 years. Notably, gun violence disproportionately affects boys, especially Black boys, with much higher gun deaths per capita for this group than for any other group of youth. Implications for policy and practice are provided.
On May 24, 2022, an 18-year-old man killed 19 students and two teachers and wounded 17 individuals at Robb Elementary School in Uvalde, TX, using an AR-15-style rifle. Outside the school, he fired shots for about 5 min before entering the school through an unlocked side door and locked himself inside two adjoining classrooms killing 19 students and two teachers. He was in the school for over an hour (78 min) before being shot dead by the US Border Patrol Tactical Unit, though police officers were on the school premises (Sandoval, 2022 ).
The Robb Elementary School mass shooting, the second deadliest school mass shooting in American history, is the latest calamity in a long list of tragedies occurring on public school campuses in the USA. Regrettably, these tragedies are both a reflection and an outgrowth of the broader reality of gun violence in this country. In 2021, gun violence claimed 45,027 lives (including 20,937 suicides), with 313 children aged 0–11 killed and 750 injured, along with 1247 youth aged 12–17 killed and 3385 injured (Gun Violence Archive, 2022a ). Mass shootings in the USA have steadily increased in recent years, rising from 269 in 2013 to 611 in 2020. Mass shootings are typically defined as incidents in which four or more people are killed (Katsiyannis et al., 2018a ). However, the Gun Violence Archive considers mass shootings to be incidents in which four or more people are injured (Gun Violence Archive, 2022b ). Regardless of these distinctions in definition, in 2020, there were 19,384 gun murders, representing a 34% increase from the year before, a 49% increase over a 5-year period, and a 75% increase over a 10-year period (Pew Research Center, 2022 ). Regarding school-based shootings, to date in 2022, there have been at least 95 incidents of gunfire on school premises, resulting in 40 deaths and 76 injuries (Everytown Research & Policy, 2022b ). Over the past few decades, school shootings in the USA have become relatively commonplace: there were more in 2021 than in any year since 1999, with the median age of perpetrators being 16 (Washington Post, 2022 ; see also, Katsiyannis et al., 2018a ). Additionally, analysis of Everytown’s Gunfire on School Grounds dataset and related studies point to several key observations to be considered in addressing this challenge. For example, 58% of perpetrators had a connection to the school, 70% were White males, 73 to 80% obtained guns from home or relatives or friends, and 100% exhibited warning signs or showed behavior that was of cause for concern; also, in 77% of school shootings, at least one person knew about the shooter’s plan before the shooting events occurred (Everytown Research & Policy, 2021a ).
The USA has had 57 times as many school shootings as all other major industrialized nations combined (Rowhani-Rahbar & Moe, 2019 ). Guns are the leading cause of death for children and teens in the USA, with children ages 5–14 being 21 times and adolescents and young adults ages 15–24 being 23 times more likely to be killed with guns compared to other high-income countries. Furthermore, Black children and teens are 14 times and Latinx children and teens are three times more likely than White children to die by guns (Everytown Research & Policy, 2021b ). Children exposed to violence, crime, and abuse face a host of adverse challenges, including abuse of drugs and alcohol, depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, school failure, and involvement in criminal activity (Cabral et al., 2021 ; Everytown Research and Policy, 2022b ; Finkelhor et al., 2013 ).
Yet, despite gun violence being considered a pressing social and public health issue, federal legislation passed in 1996 has resulted in restricting funding for the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The law stated that no funding earmarked for injury prevention and control may be used to advocate or promote firearm control (Kellermann & Rivara, 2013 ). More recently, in June 2022, the US Supreme Court struck down legislation restricting gun possession and open carry rights (New York State Rifle & Pistol Assn., Inc. v. Bruen, 2021 ), broadening gun rights and increasing the risk of gun violence in public spaces. Nonetheless, according to Everytown Research & Policy ( 2022a ), states with strong gun laws experience fewer deaths per capita. In the aggregate, states with weaker gun laws (i.e., laws that are more permissive) experience 20.0 gun deaths per 100,000 residents versus 7.4 per 100,000 in states with stronger laws. The association between gun law strength and per capita death is stark (see Table Table1 1 ).
Gun law strength and gun law deaths per 100,000 residents
State | Gun law strength | Gun deaths per 100,000 residents |
---|---|---|
Top eight in gun law strength | ||
1. California | 84.5 | 8.5 |
2. Hawaii | 79.5 | 3.4 |
3. New York | 78 | 5.3 |
4. Massachusetts | 77 | 3.7 |
5. Connecticut | 75.5 | 6.0 |
6. Illinois | 74 | 14.1 |
7. Maryland | 71.5 | 13.5 |
8. New Jersey | 71 | 5.0 |
Bottom eight in gun law strength | ||
43. Arizona | 8.5 | 16.7 |
44. Oklahoma | 7.5 | 20.7 |
45. Wyoming | 6 | 25.9 |
46. South Dakota | 5.5 | 13.6 |
47. Arkansas | 5 | 22.6 |
48. Montana | 5 | 20.9 |
49. Idaho | 5 | 17.6 |
50. Mississippi | 3 | 28.6 |
Accounting for the top eight and the bottom eight states in gun law strength, gun law strength and gun deaths per 100,000 are correlated at r = − 0.85. Stronger gun laws are thus meaningfully linked with fewer deaths per capita. Data obtained from Everytown Research & Policy ( 2022a )
Notwithstanding the publicity involving gun shootings in schools, particularly mass shootings, violence in schools has been steadily declining. For example, in 2020, students aged 12–18 experienced 285,400 victimizations at school and 380,900 victimizations away from school; an annual decrease of 60% for school victimizations (from 2019 to 2020) (Irwin et al., 2022 ). Similarly, youth arrests in general in 2019 were at their lowest level since at least 1980; between 2010 and 2019, the number of juvenile arrests fell by 58%. Yet, arrests for murder increased by 10% (Puzzanchera, 2021 ).
In response to school violence in general, and school shootings in particular, schools have increasingly relied on increased security measures, school resource officers (SROs), and zero tolerance policies (including exclusionary and aversive measures) in their attempts to curb violence and enhance school safety. In 2019–2020, public schools reported controlled access (97%), the use of security cameras (91%), and badges or picture IDs (77%) to promote safety. In addition, high schools (84%), middle schools (81%), and elementary schools (55%) reported the presence of SROs (Irwin et al., 2022 ). Research, however, has indicated that the presence of SROs has not resulted in a reduction of school shooting severity, despite their increased prevalence. Rather, the type of firearm utilized in school shootings has been closely associated with the number of deaths and injuries (Lemieux, 2014 ; Livingston et al., 2019 ), suggesting implications for reconsideration of the kinds of firearms to which individuals have access.
Zero tolerance policies, though originally intended to curtail gun violence in schools, have expanded to cover a host of incidents (e.g., threats, bullying). Notwithstanding these intentions, these policies are generally ineffective in preventing school violence, including school shootings (American Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task Force, 2008 ; Losinski et al., 2014 ), and have exacerbated the prevalence of youths’ interactions with law enforcement in schools. From the 2015–2016 to the 2017–2018 school years, there was a 5% increase in school-related arrests and a 12% increase in referrals to law enforcement (U.S. Department of Education, 2021 ); in 2017–18, about 230,000 students were referred to law enforcement and over 50,000 were arrested (The Center for Public Integrity, 2021 ). Law enforcement referrals have been a persistent concern aiding the school-to-prison pipeline, often involving non-criminal offenses and disproportionally affecting students from non-White backgrounds as well as students with disabilities (Chan et al., 2021 ; The Center for Public Integrity, 2021 ).
The consequences of these policies are thus far-reaching, with not only legal ramifications, but social-emotional and academic ones as well. For example, in 2017–2018, students missed 11,205,797 school days due to out-of-school suspensions during that school year (U.S. Department of Education, 2021 ), there were 96,492 corporal punishment incidents, and 101,990 students were physically restrained, mechanically restrained, or secluded (U.S. Department of Education, Office of Civil Rights, 2020 ). Such exclusionary and punitive measures have long-lasting consequences for the involved students, including academic underachievement, dropout, delinquency, and post-traumatic stress (e.g., Cholewa et al., 2018 ). Moreover, these consequences disproportionally affect culturally and linguistically diverse students and students with disabilities (Skiba et al., 2014 ; U.S. General Accountability Office, 2018 ), often resulting in great societal costs (Rumberger & Losen, 2017 ).
In the USA, mass killings involving guns occur approximately every 2 weeks, while school shootings occur every 4 weeks (Towers et al., 2015 ). Given the apparent and continued rise in gun violence, mass shootings, and school mass shootings, we aimed in this paper to reexamine rates of intentional firearm deaths, mass shootings, and school mass shootings in the USA using data from the past 5 years, 2017–2022, reappraising our analyses given the time that had passed since our earlier examination of the issue (Katsiyannis et al., 2018a , b ).
As noted in Katsiyannis et al., ( 2018a , b ), gun violence, mass shootings, and school shootings have been a part of the American way of life for generations. Such shootings have grown exponentially in both frequency and mortality rate since the 1980s. Using the same criteria applied in our previous work (Katsiyannis et al., 2018a , b ), we evaluated the frequency of shootings, mass shootings, and school mass school shootings from January 2017 through mid-July 2022. Extant data regarding shooting deaths from 2017 through 2020 were obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, utilizing the web-based injury statistics query and reporting system (WISQARS), and for school shootings from 2017 to 2022 from Everytown Research & Policy ( https://everytownresearch.org ), an independent non-profit organization that researches and communicates with policymakers and the public about gun violence in the USA. Intentional firearm death data were classified by age, as outlined in Katsiyannis et al., ( 2018a , b ), and the crude rate was calculated by dividing the number of deaths times 100,000, by the total population for each individual category.
The number of intentional firearm deaths and the crude death rates increased from 2017 to 2020 in all age categories. In absolute terms, the number of deaths rose from 14,496 in 2017 to 19,308 in 2020. In accord with this rise in the absolute number of deaths, crude death rates rose from 4.47 in 2017 to 5.88 in 2020. Table Table2 2 provides the crude death rate in 2017, 2018, 2019, and 2020, the most current years with data available. Figure 1 provides the raw number of deaths across the same time period.
Intentional firearm deaths across the USA (2017–2020)
Rate per 100,000 people | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | ||||
Birth to age 4 | 0.28 | 0.30 | 0.29 | 0.44 | |||
Age 5 to 12 | 0.36 | 0.33 | 0.38 | 0.56 | |||
Age 13–18 | 4.89 | 4.59 | 5.19 | 7.06 | |||
Age 19–21 | 12.34 | 11.89 | 12.40 | 17.35 | |||
Age 22–40 | 9.57 | 9.02 | 9.19 | 12.49 | |||
Age 41–85 | 2.34 | 2.30 | 2.30 | 2.89 | |||
Total | 4.47 | 4.27 | 4.39 | 5.88 |
Data obtained from WISQARS (2022)
Intentional firearm deaths across the USA (2017–2020). Note. Data obtained from WISQARS (2022)
As expected, in 2020, the number of fatal firearm injuries increased sharply from age 0–11 years, roughly elementary school age, to age 12–18 years, roughly middle school and high school age. Table Table3 3 provides the crude death rates of children in 2020 who die from firearms. Males outnumbered females in every category of firearm deaths, including homicide, police violence, suicide, and accidental shootings, as well as for undetermined reasons for firearm discharge. Black males drastically surpassed all other children in the number of firearm deaths (2.91 per 100,000 0–11-year-olds; 57.10 per 100,000 12–18-year-olds). Also, notable is the high number of Black children 12–18 years killed by guns (32.37 per 100,000), followed by American Indian and Alaska Native children (18.87 per 100,000), in comparison to White children (12.40 per 100,000 children), Hispanic/Latinx children (8.16 per 100,000), and Asian and Pacific Islander children (2.95 per 100,000). A disproportionate number of gun deaths were also seen for Black girls relative to other girls (1.52 per 100,000 0–11-year-olds; 7.01 per 100,000 12–18-year-olds).
Fatal firearm injuries for children age 0–18 across the USA in 2020
Rate per 100,000 people | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age 0–11 | Age 12–18 | Age 0–18 | |||||||||
Male | Female | Total | Male | Female | Total | Male | Female | Total | |||
Non-law enforcement homicide | |||||||||||
American Indian/AN | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | ||
Asian/Pacific Islander | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | ||
Black/African American | 1.82 | 1.35 | 1.59 | 47.27 | 5.74 | 26.80 | 18.75 | 2.99 | 10.99 | ||
Hispanic/Latinx | – | – | 0.23 | 10.06 | 2.09 | 6.39 | 3.26 | 0.59 | 1.95 | ||
White/Caucasian | 0.43 | 0.22 | 0.33 | 2.47 | 0.70 | 1.61 | 1.22 | 0.40 | 0.82 | ||
Total | 0.57 | 0.39 | 0.48 | 10.37 | 1.86 | 5.88 | 4.37 | 0.85 | 2.65 | ||
Law enforcement | |||||||||||
American Indian/AN | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Asian/Pacific Islander | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Black/African American | – | – | – | 0.59 | – | 0.30 | – | – | – | ||
Hispanic/Latinx | – | – | – | 0.48 | – | 0.27 | – | – | – | ||
White/Caucasian | – | – | – | 0.32 | – | 0.16 | – | – | – | ||
Total | – | – | – | 0.37 | 0.01 | 0.01 | – | – | – | ||
Suicide | |||||||||||
American Indian/AN | – | – | – | 17.18 | 1.98 | 9.65 | 6.63 | – | 4.03 | ||
Asian/Pacific Islander | – | – | – | 3.12 | 0.42 | 1.76 | 0.97 | – | 1.43 | ||
Black/African American | – | – | – | 7.74 | 0.90 | 4.25 | 1.56 | – | 0.95 | ||
Hispanic/Latinx | – | – | – | 12.26 | 2.83 | 7.46 | 1.26 | 0.24 | 0.76 | ||
White/Caucasian | – | – | – | 15.80 | 2.44 | 9.96 | 2.81 | 0.37 | 1.62 | ||
Total | – | – | 0.04 | 12.48 | 1.79 | 7.37 | 2.15 | 0.33 | 1.26 | ||
Unintentional | |||||||||||
American Indian/AN | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | |
Asian/Pacific Islander | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | |
Black/African American | 0.72 | – | 0.42 | 0.55 | – | 0.31 | 0.70 | – | 0.41 | ||
Hispanic/Latinx | – | – | – | 62.66 | 20.31 | 37.76 | – | – | – | ||
White/Caucasian | 0.21 | – | 0.13 | 0.29 | 0.04 | 0.16 | 0.27 | – | 0.16 | ||
Total | 0.25 | – | 0.14 | 0.42 | – | 0.23 | 0.31 | – | 0.18 | ||
Undetermined | |||||||||||
American Indian/AN | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | |
Asian/Pacific Islander | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | |
Black/African American | – | – | – | 0.42 | – | 0.23 | 0.44 | – | 0.24 | ||
Hispanic/Latinx | – | – | – | 1.38 | 0.59 | 0.95 | – | – | – | ||
White/Caucasian | – | – | – | 0.17 | 0.05 | 0.11 | 0.11 | – | 0.06 | ||
Total | – | – | 0.05 | 0.30 | – | 0.16 | 0.16 | – | 0.09 | ||
All causes | |||||||||||
American Indian/AN | – | – | – | 32.80 | 4.98 | 18.87 | 11.93 | – | 7.52 | ||
Asian/Pacific Islander | – | – | – | 5.00 | 0.84 | 2.95 | 1.46 | – | 0.97 | ||
Black/African American | 2.91 | 1.52 | 2.23 | 57.10 | 7.01 | 32.37 | 21.55 | 3.44 | 12.64 | ||
Hispanic/Latinx | 0.42 | – | 0.33 | 13.74 | 1.95 | 8.16 | 4.87 | 0.86 | 2.90 | ||
White/Caucasian | 0.78 | 0.28 | 0.53 | 19.73 | 3.73 | 12.40 | 4.43 | 0.83 | 2.67 | ||
Total | 0.98 | 0.45 | 0.72 | 23.72 | 3.75 | 13.73 | 7.03 | 1.24 | 4.20 |
AN Alaska Native; – indicates 20 or fewer cases
Mass shootings and mass shooting deaths increased from 2017 to 2019, decreased in 2020, and then increased again in 2021. School shootings made a sharp decline in 2020—understandably so, given the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent government or locally mandated school shutdowns—but rose again sharply in 2021. Current rates reveal a continued increase, with numbers at the beginning of 2022 already exceeding those of 2017. School mass shooting counts were relatively low between 2017 through 2022, with four total during that time frame. Figure 2 provides raw numbers for mass shootings, school shootings, and school mass shootings from 2017 through 2022. Importantly, figures from the recent Uvalde, TX, school mass shooting at Robb Elementary School had not yet been recorded in the relevant databases at the time of this writing. With those deaths accounted for, 2022 is already the deadliest year for school mass shootings in the past 5 years.
Mass shootings, school shootings, and mass school shootings across the USA (2017–2022). Note. Data obtained from Everytown Research and Policy. Overlap present between all three categories
Gun violence in the USA, particularly mass shootings on the grounds of public schools, continues to be a pressing social and public health issue. Recent data suggest continued upward trends in school shootings, school mass shootings, and related deaths over the past 5 years—patterns that disturbingly mirror general gun violence and intentional shooting deaths in the USA across the same time period. The impacts on our nation’s youth are profound. Notably, gun violence disproportionately affects boys, especially Black boys, with much higher gun deaths per capita for this group than for any other group of youth. Likewise, Black girls are disproportionately affected compared to girls from other ethnic/racial groups. Moreover, while the COVID-19 pandemic and school shutdowns tempered gun violence in schools at least somewhat during the 2020 school year—including school shootings and school mass shootings—trend data show that gun violence rates are still continuing to rise. Indeed, gun violence deaths resulting from school shootings are at their highest recorded levels ever (Irwin et al., 2022 ).
In recent years, the implementation of Multi-Tier Systems and Supports (MTSS), including Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) and Response to Intervention (RTI), has resulted in improved school climate and student engagement as well as improved academic and behavioral outcomes (Elrod et al., 2022 ; Santiago-Rosario et al., 2022 ; National Center for Learning Disabilities, n.d.). Such approaches have implications for reducing school violence as well. PBIS uses a tiered framework intended to improve student behavioral and academic outcomes; it creates positive learning environments through the implementation of evidence-based instructional and behavioral interventions, guided by data-based decision-making and allocation of students across three tiers. In Tier 1, schools provide universal supports to all students in a proactive manner; in Tier 2, supports are aimed to students who need additional academic, behavioral, or social-emotional intervention; and in Tier 3, supports are provided in an intensive and individualized manner (Lewis et al., 2010 ). The implementation of PBIS has resulted in an improved school climate, fewer office referrals, and reductions in out-of-school suspensions (Bradshaw et al., 2010 ; Elrod et al., 2010 , 2022 ; Gage et al., 2018a , 2018b ; Horner et al., 2010 ; Noltemeyer et al., 2019 ). Likewise, RTI aims to improve instructional outcomes through high-quality instruction and universal screening for students to identify learning challenges and similarly allocates students across three tiers. In Tier 1, schools implement high-quality classroom instruction, screening, and group interventions; in Tier 2, schools implement targeted interventions; and in Tier 3, schools implement intensive interventions and comprehensive evaluation (National Center for Learning Disabilities, n.d ). RTI implementation has resulted in improved academic outcomes (e.g., reading, writing) (Arrimada et al., 2022 ; Balu et al., 2015 ; Siegel, 2020 ) and enhanced school climate and student behavior.
In order to support students’ well-being, enhance school climate, and support reductions in behavioral issues and school violence, schools should consider the implementation of MTSS, reducing reliance on exclusionary and aversive measures such as zero tolerance policies, seclusion and restraints, corporal punishment, or school-based law enforcement referrals and arrests (see Gage et al., in press ). Such approaches and policies are less effective than the use of MTSS, exacerbate inequities and enhance disproportionality (particularly for youth of color and students with disabilities), and have not been shown to reduce violence in schools.
Students should not have to attend school and fear becoming victims of violence in general, no less gun violence in particular. Schools must ensure the physical safety of their students. Yet, as the substantial number of school shootings continues to rise in the USA, so too does concern about the adverse impacts of violence and gun violence on students’ mental health and well-being. Students are frequently exposed to unavoidable and frightening images and stories of school violence (Child Development Institute, n.d. ) and are subject to active shooter drills that may not actually be effective and, in some cases, may actually induce trauma (Jetelina, 2022 ; National Association of School Psychologists & National Association of School Resources Officers, 2021 ; Wang et al., 2020 ). In turn, students struggle to process and understand why these events happen and, more importantly, how they can be prevented (National Association of School Psychologists, 2015 ). School personnel should be prepared to support the mental health needs of students, both in light of the prevalence of school gun violence and in the aftermath of school mass shootings.
Research provides evidence that traumatic events, such as school mass shootings, can and do have mental health consequences for victims and members of affected communities, leading to an increase in post-traumatic stress syndrome, depression, and other psychological systems (Lowe & Galea, 2017 ). At the same time, high media attention to such events indirectly exposes and heightens feelings of fear, anxiety, and vulnerability in students—even if they did not attend the school where the shooting occurred (Schonfeld & Demaria, 2020 ). Students of all ages may experience adjustment difficulties and engage in avoidance behaviors (Schonfeld & Demaria, 2020 ). As a result, school personnel may underestimate a student’s distress after a shooting and overestimate their resilience. In addition, an adult’s difficulty adjusting in the wake of trauma may also threaten a student’s sense of well-being because they may believe their teachers cannot provide them with the protection they need to remain safe in school (Schonfeld & Demaria, 2020 ).
These traumatic events have resounding consequences for youth development and well-being. However, schools continue to struggle to meet the demands of student mental health needs as they lack adequate funding for resources, student support services, and staff to provide the level of support needed for many students (Katsiyannis et al., 2018a ). Despite these limiting factors, children and youth continue to look to adults for information and guidance on how to react to adverse events. An effective response can significantly decrease the likelihood of further trauma; therefore, all school personnel must be prepared to talk with students about their fears, to help them feel safe and establish a sense of normalcy and security in the wake of tragedy (National Association of School Psychologists, 2016 ). Research suggests a number of strategies can be utilized by educators, school leaders, counselors, and other mental health professionals to support the students and staff they serve.
The National Association of School Psychologists ( 2016 ) recommends the following practices for educators to follow in response to school mass shootings. Although a complex topic to address, the issue needs to be acknowledged. In particular, educators should designate time to talk with their students about the event, and should reassure students that they are safe while validating their fears, feelings, and concerns. Recognizing and stressing to students that all feelings are okay when a tragedy occurs is essential. It is important to note that some students do not wish to express their emotions verbally. Other developmentally appropriate outlets, such as drawing, writing, reading books, and imaginative play, can be utilized. Educators should also provide developmentally appropriate explanations of the issue and events throughout their conversations. At the elementary level, students need brief, simple answers that are balanced with reassurances that schools are safe and that adults are there to protect them. In the secondary grades, students may be more vocal in asking questions about whether they are truly safe and what protocols are in place to protect them at school. To address these questions, educators can provide information related to the efforts of school and community leaders to ensure school safety. Educators should also review safety procedures and help students to identify at least one adult in the building to whom they can go if they feel threatened or at risk. Limiting exposure to media and social media is also important, as developmentally inappropriate information can cause anxiety or confusion. Educators should also maintain a normal routine by keeping a regular school schedule.
Superintendents, principals, and other school administrative personnel are looked upon to provide leadership and comfort to staff, students, and parents during a tragedy. Reassurance can be provided by reiterating safety measures and student supports that are in place in their district and school (The National Association of School Psychologists, 2015 ). The NASP recommends the following practices for school leaders regarding addressing student mental health needs directly. First, school leaders should be a visible, welcoming presence by greeting students and visiting classrooms. School leaders should also communicate with the school community, including parents and students, about their efforts to maintain safe and caring schools through clear behavioral expectations, positive behavior interventions and supports, and crisis planning preparedness. This can include the development of press releases for broad dissemination within the school community. School leaders should also provide crisis training and professional development for staff, based upon assessments of needs and targeted toward identified knowledge or skill gaps. They should also ensure the implementation of violence prevention programs and curricula in school and review school safety policies and procedures to ensure that all safety issues are adequately covered in current school crisis plans and emergency response procedures.
School counselors offer critical assistance to their buildings’ populations as they experience crises or respond to emergencies (American School Counselor Association, 2019 ; Brown, 2020 ). Two models that stand out in the literature utilized by counselors in the wake of violent events are the Preparation, Action, Recovery (PAR) model and the Prevent and prepare; Reaffirm; Evaluate; provide interventions and Respond (PREPaRE) model. PREPaRE is the only comprehensive, nationally available training curriculum created by educators for educators (The National Association of School Psychologists, n.d. ). Although beneficial, neither the PAR nor PREPaRE model directly addresses school counselors’ responses to school shootings when their school is directly affected (Brown, 2020 ). This led to the development of the School Counselor’s Response to School Shootings-Framework of Recommendations (SCRSS-FR) model, which includes six stages, each of which has corresponding components for school counselors who have lived through a school mass shooting. Each of these models provides the necessary training to school-employed mental health professionals on how to best fill the roles and responsibilities generated by their membership on school crisis response teams (The National Association of School Psychologists, n.d. ).
Recent events at Robb Elementary School in Uvalde, TX, prompted the US Congress to pass landmark legislation intended to curb gun violence, enhancing background checks for prospective gun buyers who are under 21 years of age as well as allowing examination of juvenile records beginning at age 16, including health records related to prospective gun buyers’ mental health. Additionally, this legislation provides funding that will allow states to implement “red flag laws” and other intervention programs while also strengthening laws related to the purchase and trafficking of guns (Cochrane, 2022 ). Yet, additional legislation reducing or eliminating access to assault rifles and other guns with large capacity magazines, weapons that might easily be deemed “weapons of mass destruction,” is still needed (Interdisciplinary Group on Preventing School & Community Violence, 2022 ; see also Flannery et al., 2021 ). In 2019, the US Congress started to appropriate research funding to support research on gun violence, with $25 million in equal shares provided on an annual basis from both the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the National Institutes of Health (Roubein, 2022 ; Wan, 2019 ). Additional research is, of course, still needed.
Despite legislative progress, and while advancements in gun legislation are meaningful and have the potential to aid in the reduction of gun violence in the USA, school shootings and school mass shootings are something schools and students will contend with in the months and years ahead. This reality has serious implications for schools and for students, points that need serious consideration. Therefore, it is imperative that gun violence is framed as a pressing national public health issue deserving attention, with drastic steps needed to curb access to assault rifles and guns with high-capacity magazines, based on extensive and targeted research. As noted, Congress, after many years of inaction, has started to appropriate funds to address this issue. However, the level of funding is still minimal in light of the pressing challenge that gun violence presents. Furthermore, the messaging of conservative media, the National Rifle Association (NRA) and republican legislators framing access to all and any weapons—including assault rifles—as a constitutional right under the second amendment bears scrutiny. Indeed, the second amendment denotes that “A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.” Security of the nation is arguably the intent of the amendment, an intent that is clearly violated as evidenced in the ever-increasing death toll associated with gun violence in the USA.
Whereas federal legislation would be preferable, the possibility of banning assault weapons is remote (in light of recent Congressional action). Similarly, state action has been severely curtailed in light of the US Supreme Court’s decision regarding New York state law. However, data on gun fatalities and injuries, the correspondence of gun violence to laws regulating access across the world and states, and failed security measures such as armed guards posted in schools (e.g., Robb Elementary School) must be consistently emphasized. Additionally, the widespread sense of immunity for gun manufacturers should be tested in the same manner that tobacco manufacturers and opioid pharmaceuticals have been. The success against such tobacco and opioid manufacturers, once unthinkable, is a powerful precedent to consider for how the threat of gun violence against public health might be addressed.
AK conceived of and designed the study and led the writing of the manuscript. LJR collaborated on the study design, contributed to the writing of the study, and contributed to the editing of the final manuscript. DKW analyzed the data and wrote up the results. SNS contributed to the writing of the study.
The authors declare no competing interests.
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Why children are missing more school now.
By David Wallace-Wells
Opinion Writer
The raw data looks inarguably bad: The share of American children missing at least 10 percent of school days nearly doubled over the course of the pandemic, leaving perhaps more than six million more students “chronically absent” than had been in the 2018-19 school year.
And this spring, as we trudged into our fifth year with Covid, the absenteeism crisis succeeded pandemic learning loss and the mental health of teenagers as a new touchstone in what are now yearslong arguments about the wisdom of school closings in 2020 and 2021. Almost everything about school performance and the well-being of children and adolescents now seems to orbit the duration of remote learning in one school year, which lives on years later as the gravitational center of our retrospective universe. But before the link between those closings and absenteeism hardens into a new conventional wisdom, I want to offer a few notes of additional context, which together suggest, I think, that we are doing ourselves a disservice by fashioning every aftereffect of those years into a weapon to be used in an ideological crusade.
First, as it was with learning loss , chronic absenteeism does not appear to be a uniquely American problem arising from the specific way we handled school closings during the pandemic but something of a global phenomenon. It can be seen almost everywhere you look, in the aftermath of Covid, including a lot of places that took quite different approaches to school during the pandemic.
How can I say that? The most recent available national numbers show that 26 percent of American students missed at least 10 percent of school in 2022-23. In Sweden, reports from the National Agency for Education showed considerable increases in student absences across the first two years of the pandemic. In Britain, chronic absenteeism jumped from 11.7 percent of children before the pandemic to 23.5 percent in 2022-23. In Belgium, the problem has grown by 90 percent , and in New Zealand, more than 45 percent of children missed at least 10 percent of school days . In Japan, where schools reopened for good in June 2020, there had never been a year in the prior decade when more than 300,000 children registered “prolonged absence,” and most years in the 2010s the number hovered around 200,000. In 2021, it crossed 400,000, and in 2022, 450,000.
Second, in the United States, the relationship between how long schools remained remote and how much absenteeism they later experienced looks pretty modest — perhaps one slice of the story, but only one slice of it. In a high-profile study published in January, Stanford’s Thomas Dee found that the length of remote schooling at the state level explained only about 20 percent of the variation in increased absenteeism. In another paper published the same month by the American Enterprise Institute, Nat Malkus crunched the numbers at the district level and found a slightly smaller relationship: Chronic absenteeism in those districts with the most in-person schooling grew by 12 percentage points, while in those with the most remote schooling, rates had grown by 14 percentage points; in the districts in between, the rates had grown by 13 percentage points. The differences, in other words, were negligible, especially given the large increases observed everywhere. When The Times updated some of his analysis, Malkus summarized it like this: “The problem got worse for everybody in the same proportional way.”
Malkus believes that absenteeism is the biggest problem facing American schools today, but he’s quite firm that we shouldn’t see in those numbers a morality play about remote learning. “If I could have drawn a neat line between the two data sets — school closures and chronic absenteeism — I would have. But I can’t,” he told me. “The districts that were closed longer do have a marginally higher problem. But how much of the difference does it explain? Not very much.”
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Gabriela Martinez, fourth-year biological sciences and Chicano/Latino studies major, is an undergrad recipient of the Justice and Equity Research Paper Award. The honor recognizes her paper, “Analyzing Health Seeking Behaviors in First-Generation Latinos,” for excellence in addressing race, racism, equity, justice, and other related topics. Below, she shares what inspires her work and her plans to become a doctor.
What made you decide to pursue your current field of study, and specifically at UCI? What interests you most about your work?
I decided to double major in biological sciences and Chicano/Latino studies because I want to use my passion for science and medicine to make an impact in my community in the future, most likely as a doctor. I currently do research focusing on antibiotic resistance at the Ulloa Lab at UCI’s School of Medicine, and I would love to someday be a doctor specializing in infectious diseases and conduct research that is specific to my community, and how they are affected by infectious diseases. I decided to pursue my degrees at UCI because it is known to be a research institution, and I wanted to be able to get research experience while completing my studies. UCI is also very close to my hometown, LA. Family is important to me, and I wanted to be able to still be connected to my family throughout my undergraduate journey.
When do you plan to finish your degree and what are your plans thereafter?
I am set to graduate this spring 2024. I am currently a UC PRIME Pre-Health Pathways (UC3P) scholar, and I was recently awarded the UC3P Fellowship to continue working as a researcher at my current lab (Ulloa Lab) for the next year. After completing my fellowship, I plan to complete a special master’s program to be better prepared to eventually apply to an M.D./Ph.D. program.
What would you consider your biggest accomplishment at UCI?
I’d say one of my biggest accomplishments at UCI is being able to meet and connect with so many amazing mentors and friends. They have truly been such an important part of my success at UCI, and have also helped me through challenges.
I have been awarded the following during my time at UCI:
What activities have you been or are you currently involved with on campus and in the community?
During my entire time at UCI, I’ve been part of a worship band at my home church. I play piano and also sing, and being part of this band is important to me. I’ve also worked with kids and teens at my home church and served as a mentor for them, especially when it comes to academics. I am also part of Delight Ministries at UCI. This student organization holds a very important place in my heart, as I’ve met so many amazing friends there.
Are you involved in undergraduate research at UCI? If so, explain what you are studying.
I am part of the Ulloa Lab at UCI’s School of Medicine. My research focuses on developing more effective treatments for Enterococcus Faecalis ( E. Faecalis ), a pathogen that is highly resistant to antibiotic treatments.
Who has played an important mentorship role in your life thus far and why? Specifically at UCI?
My PI at my current lab, Dr. Ulloa, has definitely had a significant impact in my life. She has always pushed me to do my very best, and has always listened to me and offered advice during times of uncertainty during my undergraduate career. She really cares about her students, and she wants us all to succeed.
Are there any unique circumstances/life experiences that have played a major role in where and who you are today? What challenges or hurdles have you faced in getting to where you are today?
Starting college in the middle of a pandemic was definitely challenging for me. I am the only child, and no one in my extended family had ever majored in STEM, so I had a lot of difficulty adjusting to the quarter system’s fast pace. It felt very isolating, and even when we did go back in person, it felt like I had to adjust all over again. This definitely affected my academics, and I felt very discouraged for some time that I wasn’t doing as well as I had hoped. However, I learned to accept and learn from my mistakes and challenges, and also started to find opportunities to mentor other first-generation students who also found themselves struggling during undergrad. It’s important to learn from our challenges, and also help others who may be going through the same thing.
Where can you most often be found on campus?
Definitely at the Ulloa Lab! Whenever I’m not in class, I’m usually there running an experiment or working on homework. It’s a great place to study and be productive.
What’s your best memory thus far from your undergraduate experience at UCI?
I was involved in many CAMP activities at UCI, and one of the most memorable ones was participating in the Expanding Communities and Encouraging Leadership (EXCEL) course during the Winter quarter of my first year. I met some of my closest friends in this class, and CAMP has been an amazing source of mentorship for me during my time in undergrad.
Any other interesting tidbits you would like to share?
Apart from my studies, I also love the arts, and spend a lot of time painting, drawing, writing, and doing music during my free time. Even though I want to go to medical school, I always want to keep doing art on my own time, and also find ways to incorporate it into what I do.
Would you like to get more involved with the social sciences? Email us at [email protected] to connect.
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Admissions , Full-Time MBA
13 June 2024
Essays and Deadlines Announced for 2024-25 Full-Time MBA Application
T he University of Virginia Darden School of Business is thrilled to announce the essays and deadlines for the 2024-25 Full-Time MBA application. While the full application is not yet available, we share these aspects early to give you the most time possible to prepare your submission.
Our admissions committee looks forward to reading your essays and the wonderful opportunity to learn more about you! We also look forward to interacting with you in the weeks and months ahead at one of our many virtual, on-grounds and off-grounds events. Additionally, we will be providing application tip webinars for each deadline to provide more guidance and encouraging tips as you navigate your applications. - Senior Assistant Dean of Admissions Dawna Clarke
Prospective applicants are encouraged to apply during whichever round they can deliver the strongest application.
The Admissions Team is excited to launch the 2024-25 application process with the release of our short answer questions and application deadlines. Our short answer essay questions are an opportunity for you to share various facets of your background and aspirations.
Community of Belonging
What would you want your classmates to know about you that is not on your resume? (100 words)
Inclusive Impact
Please describe a tangible example that illuminates your experience promoting an inclusive environment and what you would bring to creating a welcoming, global community at Darden. (300 words)
Careers with Purpose
At this time how would you describe your short-term, post-MBA goal in terms of industry, function, geography, company size and/or mission , and how does it align with the the long-term vision you have for your career? (200 words)
The best way to get to know Darden’s Full-Time MBA program is to visit us in Charlottesville! We have a full schedule of upcoming tours and coffee chats, where members of Darden Admissions will be happy to answer your application questions. View the event calendar here .
We cannot wait to see the Class of 2027 take shape!
The discover darden blog is the best way to receive future application news, related posts.
30 May 2024
Admissions , ExecMBA Application Tips , Executive MBA , Part-Time MBA
15 May 2024
Academics , Career , Darden Community , Full-Time MBA
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